INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Computer Definition

A computer is an electronic device capable of accepting data input, processing it in

accordance with a stored program to produce output as information for storage or display.
Data
 Refers to a representations of raw facts, ideas or figures, such as list of numbers,
names, in a formalized manner capable of being communicated or manipulated by
some process.
 Data is meaningless and needs to be processed for decision making.
Information
 It is converted/ processed (organized or classified) data into a meaningful form on
which decisions and actions are based.
 To get relevant information, data entered into the computer must be relevant, accurate
and up-to-date. If data entered into the computer is wrong (Garbage in) the results will
also be wrong (Garbage Out), and is generally referred to as Garbage-In Garbage-Out
(GIGO).
 GIGO is a rule stating that the quality of the output is a function of the quality of the
input; put garbage in and you get garbage out.

Functions of a computer
 Input – Accepting data from input devices.
 Processing – Converting data into information.
 Output – Producing or displaying information through output devices.
 Communication – Sending and receiving data to and from other computers.
 Storage – Storing of data and information before, during and after processing.

COMPUTER ARCHITECTUTE
Very early computers were fed data whilst the machines were actually running. They weren’t able to
store programs; consequently, they weren’t able to run without human intervention. In about 1945,
John von Neumann developed the idea of a stored program computer, often referred to as the VON
NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE concept.

His idea was to hold programs and data in a memory. Data would then move between the memory
unit and the processor.

The VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE consists of the following components to perform its
functions.
 Input unit
 Central Processing Unit
 Output Unit
 Registers
 System buses
There are many diagrams which show von Neumann architecture as below.

Input Unit
 Contains the input devices used to connect to the computer.
 This unit makes the link between the user and the computer.
 The input devices translate data entered into a form understandable by the computer.

Processing Unit/ Central Processing Unit(CPU)

 The CPU is contained in the microprocessor. It is the brain child of the computer.
 It interprets the instruction in the program according to the type and sequence of
processing operations that are to be performed on input data.
 It performs all the data processing operations i.e. Arithmetic and Logic operations
 It stores data, intermediate results and instructions(programs).
 It controls the operations of all parts of the computer.
 Directs or controls output to all other devices (input, output, auxiliary storage units)
telling it what to do and when to do it.
 The CPU speed is measured in Megahertz (MHz), MHz being millions of instructions that
can be executed per second.

The CPU is divided into the following:

  Control Unit (CU)
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
 Registers
 System clock
Control Unit

 The control unit controls the operation of the memory, processor and input/output
devices. it contains the Current Instruction Register (CIR) and the Program Counter (PC).
the CIR contains the current instruction during processing. the PC contains the address of
the next instruction to be executed.
 The control unit carries out the Fetch-Execute Cycle by reading an instruction from
memory (the address of the location where the instruction can be found is stored in the
Program Counter (PC)). It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It controls the transfer of data and instructions among other units of computer i.e. it
manages the input or output to and from the main memory and to and from the auxiliary
storage units and output devices.
 It communicates with Input/output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
 It controls all operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any data
processing operations or storage of data

Arithmetic Logic Unit

 It performs Arithmetic and Logic operations at a fast speed.
 It consists of registers (special storage locations to hold the data to be processed) an
accumulator (to store the intermediate results of operations).
 ALU operations on data are first loaded into the accumulator register, which stores
instructions, data being processed and results of an operation.

It consists of two sections – Arithmetic section and Logic Section.

Arithmetic Section
 Performs the arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division.
 All complex operations are done by making the repetitive use of the above operations.

Logic Section
Performs logic operations such as comparing (<, >, ≠, ≤, ≥), selecting (AND, OR etc.),
matching, increment, decrement, AND, OR, Exclusive-OR operations and merging of data.

Registers
Though accessing instructions from RAM is comparatively faster with hard drive, it
still isn’t enough for CPU. For even better processing, there are memories in CPU
called registers which can get data from RAM which are about to be executed
beforehand. After registers we have cache memory, which are faster but less fast
than registers.
Registers are high speed storage area within the computer. All data must be represented in a
register before it can be processed. For example, if two numbers are to be added, both
numbers must be stored in registers and the result of the addition must also be stored in a
register.

Below are the most common types of registers.

Abbreviati
Register Function/purpose of register
on
Current
Instruction CIR stores the current instruction being decoded and executed
Register
used when carrying out index addressing operations
Index Register IX
(assembly code)
Memory
stores the address of the memory location currently being
Address MAR
read from or written to
Register
Memory stores data which has just been read from memory or data
Data/Buffer MDR/MBR which is about to be written to memory (sometimes referred
Register to as MBR)
stores the address where the next instruction to be read can
Program
PC be
Counter
found
contain bits which can be set or cleared depending on the
Status Register SR
operation (for example, to indicate overflow in a calculation)

All of the registers listed in above (apart from status and index registers) are used in the fetch
execute cycle.

A status register is used when an instruction requires some form of arithmetic or logic
processing. Each bit is known as a flag.

System clock
A system clock is used to produce timing signals on the control bus to ensure this vital
synchronisation takes place – without the clock the computer would simply crash.

Memory Unit or Main Memory

Also known as internal storage unit or main memory or primary memory, consists of RAM
(Random Access Memory), the system ROM (Read Only Memory knows also as
Immediate access store (IAS) and the processor cache. However, in most cases primary /
main memory refers to the system RAM. Its size affects speed, power and capability.

It is intimately associated with the actual working of the computer. This includes memory
that holds startup routines as well as the current programs and data it is working with.

Functions of main memory

It stores
  all the data and instructions required for processing.
 intermediate results of processing.
 the final results of processing before they are released to an output device.
 All input and output are transmitted through the main memory
 It supplies information to the other units of the computer when needed.

The computer memory unit is made up of a number of partitions. Each partition consists of an
ADDRESS and its CONTENTS. Addresses indicate where the data is stored. An address is
the location of where data can be found in a computer memory. Each address in the memory
is unique.

Output Unit
 Consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from the computer.
 This unit is a link between the computer and the users.
 Output devices translate the computer’s output into a form understandable by the user.

System buses

Buses essentially move data around the computer and also send out control signals to make
sure everything is properly synchronised. Buses are used in computers as a parallel
transmission component; each wire in the bus transmits one bit of data.

There are three common buses used in the Von Neumann architecture known as address bus,
data bus and control bus.

Type of bus Description of bus Data/signal direction

carries signals relating to addresses (see later) Unidirectional (signals travel in
Address bus
between the processor and the memory one direction only)
sends data between the processor, the memory bi-directional (data can travel
Data bus
unit and the input/output devices in both directions)
carries signals relating to the control and
Unidirectional (signals travel in
Control bus coordination of all activities within the computer
one direction only)
(examples include: the read and write functions)

Address bus
The address bus carries addresses throughout the computer system.
Between the CPU and memory the address bus is unidirectional (in other words, bits can
travel in one direction only). This prevents addresses being carried back to the CPU, which
would be undesirable.

The width of a bus is important. The wider the bus, the more memory locations which can be
directly addressed at any given time.

Data bus
The data bus is bidirectional (in other words, it allows data to be sent in both directions along
the bus). This means data can be carried from CPU to memory (and vice versa) as well as to
and from input/output devices.

It is important to point out that data can be an address, an instruction or a numerical value.

As with the address bus, the width of the data bus is important: the wider the bus, the larger
the word length that can be transported. (A word is a group of bits which can be regarded as a
single unit, for example, 16-bit, 32-bit or 64-bit word lengths are the most common). Larger
word lengths can improve the computer’s overall performance.

Control bus
The control bus is also bidirectional. It carries signals from the CU to all the other computer
components. It is usually 8-bits wide since it only carries control signals.

The clock defines the clock cycle which synchronises all computer operations. As mentioned
earlier, the control bus transmits timing signals, ensuring everything is fully synchronised. By
increasing clock speed, the processing speed of the computer is also increased

HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

Hardware
Refers to the tangible, physical and mechanical components of a computer - the part of the computer
that is fixed and cannot be altered without replacement or physical modification; motherboard,
expansion cards, etc.

Hardware can be grouped into:

 Input devices - keyboard, mouse, etc.
 Output devices – printer, monitor, etc.
 Processing devices
 Secondary storage devices – external hard disk, CD, DVD, etc.

The above hardware can either be:

 Internal hardware devices/ internal components (referred to as components) which refers
to devices installed in the computer like motherboards, RAM, Fan (heat sink), modem,
network card, power supply, soundcard, video card, CPU, Drive (e.g. Blu-ray, CD-ROM,
DVD, Floppy drive, hard drive, SSD) and

 External hardware (referred to as peripherals) are devices that are external (not part of the
computer) but can be connected to the computer. They are not essential for the function of the
computer but can be connected to the computer for specific reasons e.g. joystick, scanner,
microphone, printer, keyboard, mouse, printer etc.
Input devices
These are hardware devices used to enter data into the computer.

Examples of input devices:

Keyboard
 It is a device used to enter data and instructions into the computer by pressing
keystrokes.
 It is used to enter characters using sets of keys.
 The keys have a letter, number or symbol printed or engraved on it so that the user
knows which keys to press. Pressing keys can be used either for data entry or to
initiate certain commands (such as the print-screen key). Often multiple keys need to
be pressed simultaneously to achieve a desired effect. For instance pressing the Ctrl
and C keys together is often used to copy the selected content to the clipboard.

Operations of a keyboard
 Each key, when pressed, operates a switch which closes an electronic circuit. This
then sends an electrical signal to the CPU. Each key press (keystroke) sends a unique
digital signal so that the CPU knows which key was pressed.
 NB: A character is any single symbol, digit or letter that can be entered into the
computer.

The keys on the keyboard are as follows:

Optical Mouse
 A mouse is a handheld pointing device with left and right buttons used to control the
motion of an electronic pointer on the computer screen.
 The pointer is used to select objects on the screen and is usually used to control the
functions of software.

Operations of an optical mouse

 Optical mice use an LED light directed underneath the mouse to detect its motion.
 The red light from the LED hits the surface at a specific angle.
 Light detector chip measures light reflected from the surface converting the analogue
signals of the hand into digital signals of X and Y coordinates.
 The base senses the movement of the mouse and sends corresponding signals to the CPU
when the mouse buttons are pressed. It uses the clicking process which is the pressing and
releasing of the mouse button.

2D and 3D Scanners

A scanner is a device that captures images from photographic prints, posters, magazine pages.
Scanners use light to make digital copies of real world objects.

They include the following, among others:

 2D scanners (also optical scanners or image scanners)

o Flatbed scanners
 o hand-held scanner
 3D scanners
Flatbed scanners and hand held scanners are 2D scanners. 2D scanners are usually used to
make digital copies of documents or pictures, but can also be used to create a 2D image of
other objects as well.

i. Flatbed scanners

 This is an input device used to convert images from hard copy documents (pictures,
photographs) into electrical signals (digital form) for input into the computer. The
images can then be edited, printed or saved.
 In a flatbed scanner, the document is placed on a glass plate. A light is then shone on
the piece of paper and a light sensor used to detect the light which is bounced back.
 Flatbed scanners works more like a photocopy machine.

 Computers equipped with OPTICAL CHARACTER RECOGNITION (OCR) software

allow the scanned text from the document to be converted into a TEXT FILE
FORMAT.
This means the scanned image can now be edited and manipulated by importing it
 into a word processor.

 If the original document was a photograph or image, then the scanned image forms
an image file such as JPEG
i. Handheld Scanner

Wand scanners, also known as hand-held scanners work on the same principal as the flatbed
scanner except that the user will move the scanner across the document manually. They can
be used in conjunction with a printer to create copies of documents.

It is used to scan physical documents into their digital forms that can be stored, edited,
transferred and emailed digitally. This device is especially useful when space is a concern, as
flatbed scanners tend to take up a large amount of space.

Application of 2D scanners at an airport

Used at airports to read passports. They make use of OCR technology to produce digital
images which represent the passport pages. Because of the OCR technology, these digital
images can be manipulated in a number of ways.

For example, the OCR software is able to review these images, select the text part and then
automatically put the text into the correct fields of an existing database.

ii. 3D Scanners

3D scanners use reflected laser light to build up a three-dimensional model of an object. They
can be used in conjunction with 3D printers or fabricators to duplicate objects.
Bar Code Reader/scanner

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and
dark lines).

A barcode reader works in a very similar way to a 2D scanner. Bar Code Reader scans a bar
code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is then fed to the computer that the
bar code reader is connected to.

It uses reflected light from a laser to detect the black lines in a barcode or QR code. All
barcodes use a check-digit so that the system knows when a barcode has been scanned
correctly. Usually barcode scanners will emit a beep sound once a barcode has been scanned
and confirmed as correct by checking the check-digit.

Application of barcode scanners

They are often integrated into electronic point of sale (EPOS) systems in supermarkets and
stores, library systems, luggage handling systems at airports, warehouse stock control, etc.

Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc.

There are two main types of barcodes that can be scanned: one dimensional (1D) and two
dimensional (2D). 1D, or linear, are made up of simple black lines, 1D barcodes hold a
limited amount of information — up to 25 characters. 2D barcodes contain both horizontal
and vertical information, which allows them to hold up to 2,000 characters. Popular code for
2D barcodes include QR Codes

QR code scanner (2D barcode scanner)

A QR code scanner can interpret two-dimensional barcodes, which store data in two
dimensions, rather than in just a series of black and white bars. 2D barcodes look like
checkerboards or a series of traditional barcodes stacked atop one another.

How 2D scanners works.

Light sensors capture and convert the image into data. Because of this, 2D scanners are better
suited to reading damaged barcodes than 1D scanners.

QR codes promote interaction and engagement through the mobile phone. This type of
marketing strategy enables businesses to transfer information to the user.

Application of 2D scanners

 Linking devices
Applications like WhatsApp can allow you to view chats on your phone from a laptop using
WhatsApp web.

 Direct customers to a landing page/website

Scanning a QR code can lead to a signup page or any landing page/website. This removes the
hassle of going through the process of accessing the website and navigating your way around
the page.

 Download apps
Once you’ve scanned the QR code, it will direct you to the download page of the app and
start the download.

 View business location

If your website visitor wants to drop by your office, they can just pull out their phone and
scan the QR code on your website. Instead of manually searching for the address on online
maps, the QR code can give specific directions to your business location.

 Admission control at gates

Digital Camera
A device used to capture photographs, films, videos or a combination of both for entry into
the computer where they can be edited.

These cameras are controlled by a microprocessor which can automatically carry

out the following tasks:
 adjust the shutter speed
 focus the image automatically
 operate the flash automatically
 adjust the aperture size
 adjust the size of the image
 remove ‘red eye’ when the flash has been used

Microphone
Is an input device that converts sound into an electrical signal for data entry into the computer
that is then stored in a digital form. When a microphone picks up sound, a diaphragm vibrates
producing an electric signal. This signal goes to a sound card and is converted into digital
values and stored in the computer.
Application of microphone

VOICE RECOGNITION system

The user’s voice is detected and then converted into a digital wave pattern. Software
compares this wave pattern to wave patterns stored in memory to see if they match. If they
match, then the person has been correctly identified. This technology can be used in security
systems.

SPEECH RECOGNITION system

This time the software doesn’t try to recognise the person talking. The spoken words are
recognised and shown on a screen, input into a word processor or used in other application.

 doing a ‘voice over’ in a presentation

 part of a speech recognition system
 part of a voice recognition system (voice synthesis)
 enabling a disabled person to communicate with a computer.
 in cars to allow the driver to
say commands: ‘make warmer’, ‘switch on GPS’ or ‘open window’.

Sensors
A sensor is a device that has the capability to detect change in its surrounding environment
and provides output in the form of analog or digital signal, which is then either displayed or
can be used by a closed loop system for process control.

Sensors read or measure physical properties like temperature, pressure, force or electrical
quantity like current which is analogue in nature. However, computers cannot make any
sense of these physical quantities and the data needs to be converted into a digital format.

This is usually achieved by an ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERTER (ADC).

This device converts physical values into discrete digital values. After observing the
changes, the sensor sends the detected input to a microcontroller or microprocessor.

Light Sensor
Light sensors detect light and convert light energy to an electrical signal output. Once
converted into electrical energy, the radiant energy within the infrared to ultraviolet light
frequency spectrum source can then be measured.

A beam of light (visible or infrared) is emitted from the light emitting element. The light
sensor is used to detect the light beam reflected from the target.
Applications of light sensors
Security
Lasers are often used in security because their beam is invisible to the naked eye. You can
create a barrier of sorts when you use a laser in combination with a light sensor. They are
often used at the entry of stores and workplaces which lets owners know when someone has
entered.

Horticulture
They are connected to sprinkler systems. The light sensor detects when the sun is at its
brightest and activates the sprinkler system to ensure that plants and trees do not get
dehydrated.

Smoke detectors
Smoke Detectors uses light sensors to detect fires. The working principle is similar to that of
the laser beam and light sensor mentioned above for the security system. A smoke detector
contains infrared, visible, or ultraviolet light. An infrared, visible, or ultraviolet light shines a
beam of light inside the smoke detector toward the light sensor. When smoke disturbs the
beam an alarm is sounded.

Solar panels
Light sensors lend their helping hand by detecting where the sun rays are at their brightest
and then position the solar panels accordingly to get the most out of the sun rays.

Remote control devices

Infrared light is also known as plain-old "heat." The basic premise at work in an IR remote
control is the use of light to carry signals between a remote control and the device it's
directing. Infrared light is in the invisible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.

LCD Backlight Control in Mobile phones

Light sensor detect brightness over a wide range, from darkness to direct sunlight, and output
the data in order to adjust LCD brightness for optimum visibility and lower power
consumption.

Proximity Sensor
A proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any
physical contact. The object whose distance is to be measured is known as target. An IR light
or electromagnetic radiation is used in a proximity sensor.
A proximity sensor often emits an electromagnetic field or a beam of electromagnetic
radiation (infrared, for instance), and looks for changes in the field or return signal. The
object being sensed is often referred to as the proximity sensor's target.

Applications of proximity sensors:

Smartphones and tablets
For example, during a telephone call, proximity sensors play a role in detecting (and
skipping) accidental touchscreen taps when mobiles are held to the ear.
Proximity sensors can be used to recognise air gestures and hover-manipulations.
 Self-driving cars,
 Parking - sensors are mounted on car bumpers that sense distance to nearby cars for
parking
 Ground proximity warning system for aviation safety
 Anti-aircraft warfare
 Roller coasters
 Beverage and food can making lines
 object counting.

Infrared sensors
An infrared (IR) sensor is an electronic device that measures and detects infrared radiation in
its surrounding environment.

Active IR sensors have two parts: a light emitting diode (LED) and a receiver. When an
object comes close to the sensor, the infrared light from the LED reflects off of the object and
is detected by the receiver. Active IR sensors act as proximity sensors, and they are
commonly used in obstacle detection systems (such as in robots).

Passive infrared (PIR) sensors only detect infrared radiation and do not emit it from an LED.

Application of infrared sensors

missile guidance, remote sensing, flame monitors, moisture analyzers, night vision devices,
infrared astronomy,

Proximity Sensor
In smart phones to find distance of object. Radiation transmitted by transmitter is received by
receiver after being reflected from object. Distance is calculated based on the intensity of
radiation received.

Item Counter
Constant radiation is maintained in between transmitter and receiver. As soon as object cuts
the radiation, item is detected and count is increased. The same count is shown on display
system.

Burglar Alarm
It works similar to item counter, where transmitter and receiver are kept on both the sides of
door frame. Constant radiation is maintained between transmitter and receiver, whenever
object crosses path alarm starts off.

Human Body Detection

This method is used in intrusion detection, auto light switches, etc. Intrusion alarm system
sense temperature of human body.
If the temperature is more than threshold value, it sets on the alarms. It uses electromagnetic
system which is suitable for human body in order to protect it from unwanted harmful
radiations.

Gas Analyzers
Gas Analyzers are used to measure gas density by using absorption properties of gas in IR
region. Dispersive and Non Dispersive types of gas analyzers are available.

Temperature Sensor
An electronic device that detect thermal parameters(temperature) and provide signals to the
inputs of control and display devices. Temperature Sensors can be analog or digital.

Temperature sensors are used to measure the thermal characteristics of gases, liquids, and
solids in many process industries and are configured for both general- and special-purpose
uses and also in computers, mobile phones, automobiles, air conditioning systems, industries
etc.

Application of temperature sensors

Motors– in cars, motors require temperature measurement to ensure the motor itself does not
overheat.

Home appliances – kettles, toasters, washing machines, dishwashers and coffee machines will
all contain temperature sensors.

Computers– within computers there are temperature sensors to ensure the system does not
overheat

Industrial equipment

Exhaust Gas Monitoring on Motorsport Vehicles – Motorsport temperature sensors need to

be highly reliable and durable to ensure performance is not compromised in this harsh
environment.

Alcohol breathalyser – thermistors are used within alcohol breathalysers to measure the
temperature of the subject's breath.

Acoustic/ Sound sensor

A sound sensor is a module that detects sound waves through its intensity and converting it to
electrical signals.

Sound detection sensor works similarly to our Ears, having diaphragm which converts
vibration into signals. However, what’s different as that a sound sensor consists of an in-built
capacitive microphone, peak detector and an amplifier that’s highly sensitive to sound.

Sound waves propagate through air molecules. Such sound waves cause the diaphragm in the
microphone to vibrate, resulting in capacitance change
Applications of sound sensors

 Consumer electronics such as phones, computers, music systems

 Security and Monitoring systems such as burglar alarms, door alarm, etc.
 Home automation such as lighting your house by detecting whistle/clap instead of
physically turning the light switch
 Ambient sound recognition and sound level recognition

Pressure Sensors
Are used to measure the force exerted on a body or in an environment in gases or liquids due
to solid, liquid or gaseous object. Pressure = Mass/Unit area.

Pressure sensor typically uses a diaphragm and strain gage bridge to detect and measure the
force exerted against a unit area.

Humidity Sensors
Humidity Sensors are electronic devices that measure the amount of water in the air and
convert these measurements into signals that can be used as inputs to control or display
devices.

A humidity sensor (or hygrometer) senses, measures and reports both moisture and air
temperature. The ratio of moisture in the air to the highest amount of moisture at a particular
air temperature is called relative humidity.

Moisture sensor
Soil moisture sensors measure or estimate the amount of water in the soil. These sensors
can be stationary or portables such as handheld probes. Stationary sensors are placed at
the predetermined locations and depths in the field, whereas portable soil moisture
probes can measure soil moisture at several locations.

A flow sensor
A flow sensor (more commonly referred to as a “flow meter”) is an electronic device that
measures or regulates the flow rate of liquids and gasses within pipes and tubes.

Flow sensors are generally connected to gauges to render their measurements, but they can
also be connected to computers and digital interfaces.

They are commonly used in medical devices, chemical factories, and septic systems. Flow
sensors are able to detect leaks, blockages, pipe bursts, and changes in liquid concentration
due to contamination or pollution.

Gas sensor
Gas sensors (also known as gas detectors) are electronic devices that detect and identify
different types of gasses. They are commonly used to detect toxic or explosive gasses and
measure gas concentration. Gas sensors are employed in factories and manufacturing
facilities to identify gas leaks, and to detect smoke and carbon monoxide in homes.
Accelerometer sensor
An accelerometer sensor is a tool that measures the acceleration of any body or object.
Accelerometer sensors measure acceleration, which is the change in speed (velocity) per unit
time.

Level sensor
A level sensor is a device that is designed to monitor, maintain, and measure liquid (and
sometimes solid) levels. Once the liquid level is detected, the sensor converts the perceived
data into an electric signal. Level sensors are used in the manufacturing and automotive
industries, but they can be found in many household appliances as well, such as ice makers in
refrigerators.

The substance to be measured can be inside a container or can be in its natural form (e.g., a
river or a lake).

Sensor Application
• control a central heating system
temperature • control/monitor a chemical process
• control/monitor the temperature in a greenhouse
• control/monitor the moisture levels in soil in a
greenhouse
• control/monitor the humidity levels in the air in a
moisture/humidity greenhouse
• monitor dampness levels in an industrial application
(e.g., monitor moisture in a paint spray booth in a car
factory)

• switch street lighting on at night and off during the day

• monitor/control light levels in a greenhouse
light • automatically switch on a car’s headlights when it gets
dark
allow for auto-screen brightness adjustments
• turn on the windscreen wipers on a car automatically
infra-red/motion • detect intruders in a burglar alarm system
• count people entering/leaving a building
• detect intruders in a burglar alarm system
• weigh things (e.g. check the weight of a vehicle)
pressure
• monitor/control a process where gas pressure is
important
• pick up noise levels (e.g. footsteps) in a burglar alarm
acoustic/sound system
• detect the noise of liquids dripping in a pipe
• monitor pollution levels in a river or in the air
gas (e.g. O2 or
• measure O2 and CO2 levels in a greenhouse
CO2)
• check for CO2 leaks in a power station
pH • monitor/control acidity/alkalinity levels in the soil in a
 greenhouse
• pollution/environmental monitoring in rivers
• any application where detection of changes in a
magnetic field is required (e.g. in cell phones, CD
magnetic field
players, etc.)
• used in anti-lock braking systems in motor vehicles

Sensors are used in both monitoring and control applications. There is a subtle difference
between how these two methods work:

Monitoring applications of sensors

 monitoring a patient in a hospital for vital signs such as heart rate, temperature, etc.
 monitoring of intruders in a burglar alarm system
 checking the temperature levels in a car engine
 monitoring pollution levels in a river.
Burglar alarm system

A burglar alarm monitoring system will carry out the following actions:
 The system is activated by keying in a password on a keypad.
 The infra-red sensor picks up the movement of an intruder in the building.
 The acoustic sensor picks up sounds such as footsteps or breaking glass.
 The pressure sensor picks up the weight of an intruder coming through a door or
through a window.
 The sensor data is passed through an ADC if it is in an analogue form to produce
digital data.
 The computer/microprocessor will sample the digital data coming from these
sensors at a given frequency (e.g. every five seconds); the data is compared with
the stored values by the computer/microprocessor.
 If any of the incoming data values are outside the acceptable range, then the
computer sends a signal to:
- a siren to sound the alarm, or
- a light to start flashing.
- A DAC is used if the devices need analogue values to operate them.
- The alarm continues to sound/lights continue to flash until the system is reset with
a
password.

Monitoring of patients in a hospital

 A number of sensors are attached to the patient; these measure vital signs such as:
temperature, heart rate, breathing rate, etc.
 These sensors are all attached to a computer system.
 The sensors constantly send data back to the computer system.
 The computer samples the data at frequent intervals.
 The range of acceptable values for each parameter is keyed in to the computer.
 The computer compares the values from the sensors with those values keyed in.
 If anything is out of the acceptable range, a signal is sent by the computer to sound
an alarm.
 If data from the sensors is within range, the values are shown in either graphical
form on a screen and/or a digital read out.
 Monitoring continues until the sensors are disconnected from the patient.

Control applications of sensors

 turning street lights on at night and turning them off again during daylight
 regulating the temperature in a central heating/air conditioning system
 changing the traffic lights at a road junction
 operating anti-lock brakes on a car when necessary
 regulating the environment in a greenhouse.

Control of street lighting

The lamp is fitted with a light sensor which constantly sends data to the microprocessor. The
data value from the sensor changes according to whether it is sunny, cloudy, raining or it is
night time etc.
 The light sensor sends data to the ADC interface.
 This digitises the data and sends it to the microprocessor.
 The microprocessor samples the data every minute (or at some other frequency rate).
 If the data from the sensor < value stored in memory:
 a signal is sent from the microprocessor to the street lamp and the lamp is switched
on.
 The lamp stays switched on for 30 minutes before the sensor readings are sampled
again (this prevents the lamp flickering off and on during brief heavy cloud cover, for
example).
 If the data from the sensor >= value stored in memory: a signal is sent from the
microprocessor to the street lamp and the lamp is switched off.
 The lamp stays switched off for 30 minutes before sensor readings are sampled again
(this prevents the lamp flickering off and on during heavy cloud cover, for example).