Urban Vegetable Production

OFFICEOFTHEEXECUTIVEDIRECTOR
Dear Reader:
PCARRD has once again come up with a publication that is

deemed relevant to the times. Thus, we are featuring urban agriculture,
specifically vegetable crop production, in our book series.
The practice of urban agriculture, however, is not new in the
country. A look back into the early dwellers near the Pasig River would
attest to this fact. In recent times, there has been an upsurge in its
practice. It continues today, as urban vegetable production is seen as
a response to some problems urbanization brings to the people and
their surroundings.
PCARRD, through this publication, promotes urban
vegetable production to help solve the food insecurity, poverty, and
environmental problems encountered with the reality of urbanization.
This publication hopefully would help spawn renewed interest in
and adoption of the practice, especially among more urban dwellers,
as well as gain support from government and private groups.
Through the years, PCARRD had always served the
agriculture, forestry, and natural resources sectors in the countryside
through its various publication lines. This book may serve as a guide
to researchers and can be considered as our information and
technology offering to our “new” clientele—the people and their
leaders residing in the emerging urban centers.
May you find this book useful to your needs.
Very truly yours,
PATRICIO S. FAYLON
Executive Director
Book Series No. 176/2007
Urban Vegetable
Production
in the Philippines
PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY

AND NATURAL RESOURCES RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
Department of Science and Technology
Los Baños, Laguna

2007
First Edition 2007
ISBN 971-20-0535-0
Bibliographic Citation:
Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and

Natural Resources Research and Development.
Urban vegetable production in the Philippines.
Los Baños, Laguna: PCARRD-DOST, 2007.
96p. – (Book Series No. 176/2007)
ii
Foreword
U rbanization has radiated to the outskirts of our cities and

heavily populated, commercial towns. This increasing
urbanization carries with it problems of overpopulation, food
insecurity, poverty, pollution, and a decline in the quality of life.
Urban agriculture offers an alternative solution to some of
these problems. This type of agricultural system refers to crop,
livestock, and fishery production; processing and marketing
activities within cities and towns. Urban agriculture augments
income, ensures food availability, and contributes to
environmental stability.
This agricultural practice is not new in the Philippines,
especially in Metro Manila where early dwellers used to grow
crops along the banks of the Pasig River. Since then, urban
agriculture, especially vegetable crop production, has been
practiced and promoted not only in Metro Manila but also in other
urban cities, towns, and barangays. The proximity of vegetable
gardens to human settlements means that fresh and high-value
vegetables are easily available and that marketing and transport
of produce are not a problem.
It is therefore timely to review the development of urban
vegetable crop production in the country to guide future expansion
in other places. And this publication provides a synthesis of the
development of this field of agriculture. It presents the general
concepts, features, and practice of urban agriculture but focuses on
vegetable growing in urban areas, as this is deemed important in
attaining food security. More importantly, it highlights available
technologies in urban vegetable growing and identifies problems;
constraints; and research, development, and extension (RDE)
needs.
iii
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It is hoped that this publication and the recognition that
vegetable gardening plays an important role in attaining food
self-reliance would influence planners, farmers, government and
private organizations, and the R&D sector to pool resources and
efforts towards its development and spread to other urban centers
in the country.
PATRICIO S. FAYLON
Executive Director
PCARRD
iv
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Acknowledgment
T he Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural

Resources Research and Development gratefully
acknowledges the support and contributions of the following to
this publication:
• Heads of Cavite State University (CvSU), Central

Luzon State University (CLSU), and University of the
Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) for allowing their staff
to serve as members of the Technical Committee in
charge of writing and reviewing the contents;
• The Technical Committee, composed of Dr. Simeon S.

Crucido (CvSU), Dr. Renato C. Mabesa (UPLB), and
Dr. Pedrito C. Nitural (CLSU) for their time and
effort to prepare the text of this publication, and for
providing some of the pictures;
• The Director Dr. Digna O. Manzanilla and staff of the

Agricultural Resources Management Research
Division for spearheading and guiding its preparation; and
• The Director Dr. Lily Ann D. Lando and staff of the

Applied Communication Division for the editing,
layouting, and presswork.
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Table of Contents
Foreword iii
Acknowledgment v
Technical Committee x
Introduction 1
URBAN AGRICULTURE 4
Definition 4
Benefits 4
Risks 6
Local Systems of Urban Agriculture in the Philippines 7
URBAN VEGETABLE CROP PRODUCTION 10

Temperature Requirement 10
Light Requirement 12
Prevailing Wind Speed 13
Preference 14
Purpose 14
Type of Vegetables 15
Suitability of Crops to Group Planting 16
CULTURAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR URBAN

VEGETABLE GARDENS 17
Production of Seedlings/Transplants 18
Direct Seeding 23
Watering/Irrigating Vegetable Crops in the Garden 24
Fertilization 26
Trellising/Staking 28
Pest Management 30
Diseases and their Control 37
ORGANIC VEGETABLE FARMING IN URBAN AREAS 42

Pioneer Models 42
vii
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PRODUCTION OF COMPOST FROM URBAN WASTES 48
Segregate, Consolidate, and Manipulate 48
Utilization of Urban Waste 49
Constraints 49
Some Composting Procedures 53
PROTECTED AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION 56

Definition 56
Protected Cultivation 57
HYDROPONICS 60
Pioneer Models 60
CONTAINER FARMING 62
Choosing Suitable Plants for Container Growing 62
Basic Studies 63
Size and Kind of Container 68
HANDLING AND STORING VEGETABLES 71

Storing Fresh Vegetables 71
Freezing 72
Drying 72
Pickling 73
EDIBLE LANDSCAPING 74
SOCIOECONOMIC AND MARKETING 76

General Farm-related Characteristics 76
Migration Pattern 77
Household Income 77
Source of Credit 77
Marketing 77
Cost and Return 79
PROGRAMS ADDRESSING URBAN AGRICULTURE

IN THE PHILIPPINES 81
viii
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RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT GAPS AND PRIORITIES 83
R&D Gaps and Needs 83
Other Priorities 86
REFERENCES 87
LIST OF TABLES
1 Types of vegetables based on the temperature requirement 11

2 Light requirement of vegetables 13
3 Number of days to germination, emergence, and transplanting
of different vegetable crops in the urban gardens 22
4 Suggested planting distance and depth for commonly grown
vegetables in the urban gardens 23
5 Critical periods of water need by some vegetable crops 26
6 Plants that may help repel insects in urban gardening 33
7 Companion planting guide for urban gardening 33
8 Fungicides that can be used in the urban gardens to control
vegetable diseases but with slight toxicity to people 40
9 Maturity indices of vegetables that are commonly grown in
the urban gardens 41
10 Recommended varieties of vegetables for container
gardening 64
11 Vegetables that add beauty to the garden 75
12 Socioeconomic characteristics of urban farmers in Metro
Manila 76
13 Net income from one-season vegetable production in an
urban garden in Barangay Pilipino, Pasay City 79
14 Estimated costs and returns for a 1000-m2 of vegetables
commonly grown in the urban gardens 80
15 Problems and issues, R&D needs, and extension needs in
urban agriculture 84
ix
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List of Figures
1 A container garden in an urban area 7

2 Urban garden of different varieties of lettuce 12
3 Wooden stand constructed inside the greenhouse for the seedling
trays 21
4 Sprinkler irrigation in protected culture of lettuce 24
5 Trellised vegetables in old sacks 28
6 Trellised vegetables in old sinks 29
7 Rice straw as mulch in plots of onion 31
8 Yellow sticky boards used as insect traps 32
9 Seedling production in Old Kano Farm 43
10 Lettuce grown in the greenhouse of Gourmet Farm 43
11 Urban garden in Barangay Holy Spirit 46
12 Eaves-through gardening 46
13 Pechay grown in used tires 69
14 Pechay grown in short bamboo poles 70
15 Marketing channels of the products from the vegetable
farms 78
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Technical Committee
Dr. Simeon S. Crucido

Vice President for Research and Extension
CvSU
Indang, Cavite
Dr. Renato C. Mabesa

Professor
Crop Physiology Division
Crop Science Cluster
UPLB
College, Laguna
Dr. Pedrito C. Nitural

Chair
Department of Crop Science
CLSU
Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija
Dr. Bethilda E. Umali

Supervising Science Research Specialist
ARMRD-PCARRD
Los Baños, Laguna
xi
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Introduction
T here is rapid urbanization among developing countries around

the world. Recent statistics show that half of the world’s
population live in urban areas (Prain, 2006). According to the
Resource Centre on Urban Agriculture and Food Security (RUAF),
75% of all urban dwellers live in the developing countries of
Africa, Asia, and Latin America. By 2020, 40–45% of the poor
people in Africa and Asia will be city and town dwellers. The
United Nations Human Settlement Programme estimates that
4.3 billion people will need shelter, food, and employment in
urban areas by this time (Prain, 2006).
In the Philippines, urban areas are also teeming with people.
The country’s urbanization is among the fastest in developing
countries. According to the National Statistics Office, a city or a
municipality is classified urban based on a set of criteria that
include population density; street pattern; presence of
establishments, facilities, and amenities; and type of residents’
occupation. For example, a city or municipality is considered
urban if the population density is at least 1,000 persons/km2.
Of the 16 highly urbanized cities, 11 are entirely urban. The
National Capital Region (NCR) is classified as entirely urban.
In 2000, the Philippines had 46 million urban dwellers and
35 million residents in rural areas. In 11 provinces, more than
50% of the population lived in urban areas. Moreover, poor
urban dwellers comprise 50% of the total population in many
cities. By 2020, a World Bank study predicts that there would
be 600 urban centers in the country and that 65% of the total
population will be living in these areas.
Providing the basic needs, especially food, of the poor sector is
becoming a big problem in these urban areas. Poverty, insufficient
employment opportunities, increasing problems in collecting and
disposing wastes, and environmental pollution (such as poor air
Urban Vegetable Production in the Philippines 1
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quality) prevail. Traffic congestion, overcrowding, and
inadequate facilities for water distribution also characterize
urban centers. These conditions expose inhabitants to contaminants,
health hazards, and other psychosocial health problems. These
conditions can be observed in NCR, which consists of 17 cities and
municipalities.
Urban agriculture is considered a strategy to reduce food
insecurity, poverty, and environmental problems in these areas.
Very simply, it is the establishment and performance of an
agricultural practice in or near urban or citylike setting (United
States Department of Agriculture Alternative Farming System
Information Center). This practice of urban agriculture is not new
in the Philippines, especially in Metro Manila where early dwellers
used to grow crops along the banks of the Pasig River. From that
time until today, urban agriculture has been practiced, enhanced,
and promoted not only in Metro Manila but also in
other urban cities, towns, and barangays. Local government units
(LGU), government agencies (GA), and nongovernment
organizations (NGO) have recognized its importance in ensuring
food security and contributing to local economic development.
A thorough study and analysis of the existing environment or
situation is therefore needed to determine if implementing an urban
agricultural project has a comparative advantage. Such study may
help in managing and decreasing the risks while reaping the
maximum benefits. Ascertaining the status of urban vegetable
gardening in the Philippines is a positive step towards such study.
This publication is a synthesis of the development of this field of
agriculture, especially vegetable farming. It presents the general
concepts, features, and practice of urban agriculture but focuses on
vegetable growing in urban areas, as this is deemed important in
attaining food security and enhancing the nutritional intake and
wellness of the urban population. It puts together available
information and data to determine the potential, constraints, and
available production technology in urban vegetable gardening in
the Philippines. Recommendations in terms of priority research and
development (R&D) areas and other aspects shall be proposed to
develop and promote this important field of agriculture.
2 Urban Vegetable Production in the Philippines
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This is one initiative that hopes to encourage, promote, and
support vegetable production among urban dwellers in the
Philippines.
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Urban Agriculture
Definition
T here are numerous definitions of urban agriculture. It is difficult

to find an appropriate and common definition because some
are based on its use or application and origin or background of user.
Its overall nature makes the concept difficult to define. Simply,
urban agriculture is farming in the city and other highly
urbanized areas (Duldulao, 2001). It is the growing of crops and
raising of livestock in small areas within the city for home
consumption or sale in the neighborhood markets. It is an activity
that produces, processes, and markets food and other products on
land and water in urban areas by applying intensive production
methods and reusing natural resources and urban wastes
(http://www.cityfarmer.org/Dixit_Training Manual doc.pdf).
It can be any activity that helps enhance the value and quality of life
in terms of economic and sociocultural aspects by growing plants
and animals in various spaces in urban areas
(Oh and Choi, 2006 as cited by Moon, 2006). According to
Mougeot (2000), urban agriculture is an industry located within
(intra-urban) a town, a city, or a metropolis, which grows and
raises, processes, and distributes a diversity of food and nonfood
products (re)using largely human and material resources,
products, and services found in and around that urban area;
and in turn, supplying human and material resources, products,
and services.
Benefits
Urban agriculture may provide opportunities to supply the

residents with fresh food, create jobs, generate additional income,
and may enhance environmental management. It espouses growing
crops and raising small livestock in small areas in the city either for
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home consumption or for sale. Urban farming is integrated into
economic and ecological systems that exist in big towns and cities.
The most important benefit arising from venturing into urban
vegetable farming is increased food production and security in an
area known for inadequate, unreliable, and irregular food supply
and peopled by a population with low-buying capacity. During the
Fourth National Vegetable Congress in Davao City in 2006,
Agriculture Secretary Domingo F. Panganiban stated that the
Philippines’ per capita consumption of vegetables ranks lowest in
the region at just 40 kg, in contrast to the 69 kg healthy dosage
recommended by the National Nutrition Council. Thus, with
vegetable production in urban centers, there is improved access to
and intake of quality and nutritious food among the people.
Growers may produce food for home consumption or may opt to
supply markets or consumers. This way, urban farming
complements rural food production, especially now that arable
land has decreased due to its conversion to subdivisions, soil and
environmental degradation, industrial development, and
expansion of urban centers.
It has been estimated that poor people in developing countries
spend 50–70% of their income on food, while their Philippine
counterpart spends about 50%. In Metro Manila, family food
expenses reached P 55,785 in 1997 (Department of Agriculture,
1997). Therefore, growing vegetables for home consumption
shall enable them to save substantial money. Furthermore, selling
fresh and processed produce generates income. Urban vegetable
farming also stimulates the development of related businesses
such those supplying fertilizer, feed, and other inputs; composting;
and processing of food products. All these business ventures
bring in more cash to urban dwellers.
Urban agriculture can therefore be considered as an
important way to alleviate poverty in the cities. It can also
provide employment and livelihood to the disadvantaged sector
of the urban society such as the disabled people, women, orphans,
and out-of-school youth, thus giving them a sense of purpose,
importance, and fulfillment. According to the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP), about 800 million
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(M) people around the world are involved in farming in and
around the cities (Prain, 2006).
Urban farming is claimed to have an important role in the
management of the city environment. Organic wastes can be
converted into animal feed or compost that can be sold or used in
vegetable production. Wastewater can also be used; but this
should be done with proper guidance to avoid environmental
and health problems. Wastewater needs to undergo treatment
before it is reused in urban farming.
In a place where high-rise, concrete buildings, and congested
housing areas are common, a patch of green is a welcome and
refreshing sight. Windows, rooftops, and small spaces beside
houses and buildings can be transformed into edible vegetable
gardens in containers or vacant land. Thus, urban farming is one
way of greening and cleaning the city environment. Instead of
turning vacant spaces into waste dumpsites, they can be made
into productive gardens that have positive effects on urban
microclimate. Marginal and abandoned spaces become productive
through growing food crops and planting ornamental trees and
plants. Raising livestock may not be quite suited to the urban
environment because of the waste and other environment-
related problems; but it is done in some cities.
Risks
While there are numerous benefits ensuing from such

production projects, these are accompanied by risks. There is the
danger of damaging the environment and the health of the people
from the use of inappropriate agricultural practices such as heavy
use of pesticides. There is also the risk of transmitting other
contaminants to the food chain through the use of inputs such as
low-quality composts. There will be increased competition for
land, water, energy, and labor in the community. The environment
may have reduced capacity for pollution absorption.
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Local Systems of Urban Agriculture
in the Philippines
Urban gardening in the Philippines ranges from planting crops

in recyclable containers and backyard gardening to commercial
production. Vegetable crops are grown in recycled tin cans, plastic
containers, earthen pots, vats, styrofor fruit boxes, bamboo poles,
and water basins and placed in the yard, patio, doorstep, rooftops,
and windowsills (Campilan, 2000; Nitural, 2006) (Fig. 1). In
Metro Manila, container gardening is popular in densely
populated sections of Quezon City, Makati, Mandaluyong,
Parañaque, Las Piñas, Malabon, and Valenzuela (Duldulao, 2001).
Market gardens were also established in the 1970s in Brgy.
Pilipino, Pasay City by urban farmers. They improved the land,
which was formerly a swampland, by adding organic matter
(Fojas, 1982). The gardens consisted of 50–300 plots that were
planted to green onions, lettuce, mustard, spinach, and other leafy
vegetables. Unfortunately, the operation of the gardens was
stopped because of the development activities in the city such as
the construction of the Light Rail Transit system during the early
1980s (de Guzman and Banatlao, 1999).
Fig. 1. A container garden in an urban area.
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GAs and NGOs have spearheaded the putting up of
communal vegetable gardens in vacant lots in subdivisions, public
spaces, and schools. Campilan (2000) states that successful
communal gardens exist in Muntinlupa, Quezon City, and
Mandaluyong where gardeners are helped in getting access to
vacant lots and farm inputs and are provided training. The
Department of Agriculture Regional Field Unit IV-A (DA
RFU IV-A) implemented the Kabuhayan sa Gulayan Program to
provide the urban poor families with a livelihood project and
improve the nutrition of school children through vegetable gardening.
As of 1998, the program helped 5,966 poor families farm 98 ha.
Support was in terms of providing trainings, lectures, seeds, garden
tools, mulch, pots, pump, and deepwell. In January 2005, the
mango livelihood projects were also started in BASECO and
Payatas.
Commercial-scale urban gardens have been established in
unused lots of residential areas in Metro Manila. Vegetable crop
growers outnumbered livestock raisers,and this may be due to strict
city ordinance on animal production. According to Campilan
(2000), more than 70% of the undeveloped land in a 50-ha
subdivision in Quezon City has been cultivated by nearby poor
dwellers to grow vegetables. There are temporary land use
arrangements between gardeners and landowners, with the
assistance of local government representatives. The products are
marketed around Metro Manila. In 1998, residents of Brgy. Holy
Spirit put up the Gulayan at Bulaklakan Project in the 2.3-ha,
GA-, subdivision-, and private group-owned vacant lots. DA RFU
IV-A provided hybrid vegetable seeds, ornamental plants, pots,
plastic tunnel, knapsack, and other tools; and technical assistance.
This project, rooted in the Republic Act on Ecological Solid Waste
Management, is a model urban farm in Metro Manila. Today, the
Gulayan at Bulaklakan Project is an organic farm that uses
compost from its material recovery and composting facilities.
In Laguna, towns near Metro Manila have become urbanized
and prime agricultural land has been converted to industrial parks,
malls, and subdivisions. There were initiatives to establish urban
gardens in these areas.
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In Cagayan de Oro City in Northern Mindanao, vegetable
production can be on a commercial scale (average of 0.50 ha),
subsistence level in 40% of households, and in recently
established allotment gardens and in schools (Potutan et al., 2000).
The most popularly consumed vegetables in the city are
horseradish tree leaves (Moringa oleifera), eggplant, squash, string
beans, and tomato (Agbayani et al., 2001 as cited by Guanzon
and Holmer, 2003). Allotment gardens are composed of a few or
up to several hundreds of land parcels that are cultivated
individually (Holmer and Drescher, 2006). This is in contrast to
community garden types where a group cultivates the entire area
collectively.
Allotment gardens in Cagayan de Oro were first established
in 2003 through partial funding by the European Union and
increased to five in 2006 that benefited 55 urban poor families
(Holmer and Drescher, 2006). Four more are being set up and two
gardens are located in schools. Gardeners grow vegetables, herbs,
and tropical fruits. In some gardens, animals are raised and
fishponds are maintained. Each garden has a compost pit where
biodegradable wastes are converted into organic fertilizers. There
are also ecological sanitation toilets in the garden to further
contribute to the recycling, treatment, and use of human wastes
in crop production.
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Urban Vegetable
Crop Production
T he choice of plants to grow in an urban garden is an important

decision to make. The plants to be grown must be selected
carefully based on certain factors such as the temperature and light
requirements of the plant, the purpose and preference of the
gardeners, and other considerations (Mabesa et al., 2005).
Temperature Requirement
Plants thrive best when their temperature requirements are

met. Lower or higher temperatures than the optimum negatively
affect the plant’s growth and development. For example, the
heading type of cabbage does not develop a compact head at high
temperature. Plant growth is also not uniform. Therefore, the
choice of plants is limited by the climate in the area. Table 1
presents a list of cool- and warm-season crops and those that can
be grown during either the cool or warm season as long as the
variety is appropriate.
There are more available varieties that are either the warm-
or cool-season type. The varieties Maxima, Floradade, and
Mountain Pride are typical of the cool-season tomato. They are
of the salad type with big, juicy, and relatively thick pulp. This
tomato type is very difficult to grow in the lowlands. However,
other tomato types grow well in the lowlands such as the cherry
(marble-sized tomatoes), the processing type (thick-fleshed, not
juicy, and usually elongated), and all other kinds of cooking
tomatoes. The head-type lettuce grows easily in the highlands,
while the leaf- or loose-head type thrives better in the lowlands
(Fig. 2).
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Table 1. Types of vegetables based on the temperature requirement.a
Cool-Temperature Warm-Temperature Cool or Warm Season

Vegetables Vegetables Vegetables (Depending
(18°–24°C) (25°–32°C) on Variety)
Asparagus Amaranth ('kulitis') Broccoli

Beet Bitter gourd ('ampalaya') Cabbage
Brussels sprouts Bush long bean ('bush sitao') Capsicum pepper
Celery Bottle gourd ('upo') Carrot
Chick pea ('garbanzos') Cassava Cauliflower
Endive Ceylon spinach ('alugbati') Chayote
Kale Chayote Cucumber
Kohirabi Chili pepper Leek
Parsley Cowpea ('paayap') Lettuce
Potato Dish rag gourd ('patola') Mustard
Rhubarb Drumstick tree ('malunggay') Pechay
Spinach 'Gabi' Radish
Sweet pea ('chicharo') Hyacinth bean ('bataw') Snap bean ('habitsuelas')
Swiss chard Jute ('saluyot') Tomato
Turnip 'Kangkong'
Watercress Leaf lettuce
Lima bean ('patani')
Long pepper
Okra
Onion
Pechay
Pigeon pea ('kadyos')
Pole long bean ('sitaw haba')
Radish
Roselle
Snake gourd
Squash
Sweet potato
'Talinum'
Wax gourd ('kondol')
Winged bean ('sigarilyas')
Yam bean ('singkamas')
a
Bautista and Mabesa (eds.), 1986; Mabesa et al., 2005.
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Fig. 2. Urban garden of different varieties of lettuce.
Cool-season vegetables and other crops such as strawberry

can be planted in November to January in the lowlands, while
the warm season crops are planted in March to May in the
highlands.
Light Requirement
Most plants thrive best in places with full sunlight. They will
not be as productive if they receive full sunlight only during a
certain part of the day or for about four hours only. If light is
not enough, plants will become tall but thin. Leaves, flowers,
and fruits are few or small. Therefore, it is best to place the
plant in an area where it can receive more light.
Table 2 lists some vegetable crops and their light requirement.
A few plants such as ginger, chili pepper, mint, and edible fern can
grow well in either shady or sunny places. Seed sprouts do not need
light. These include mungbean sprouts ('togue'), which are
commonly sold in local markets, and so are soybean, radish, sweet
pea, and mustard sprouts that are sold in some supermarkets
and used in hotels and restaurants. 'Tapilan,' a native vegetable,
is also utilized as seed sprouts.
Most varieties of winged bean (sigarilyas), viny lima bean, and
the native pigeon pea (kadyos) flower and bear fruits only at
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Table 2. Light requirement of vegetables.a
Light Level Vegetables
High (sunny most of the time) Cucumber, bottle gourd (upo), dish rag gourd
(patola), bitter gourd (ampalaya), squash,
eggplant, beans and peas, potato, tomato, sweet
potato, yambean (singkamas), capsicum pepper
Medium (sunny at least four hours a day) Onion, garlic, Chinese chives (kutchay), asparagus,
carrot, celery, cabbage, Chinese cabbage,
cauliflower and broccoli, pechay, mustard,
lettuce, spinach, gabi
Low (shady most of the time) Ginger, chili pepper, edible fern
Total darkness Seed sprouts

a
AVRDC, 1990; Mabesa et al., 2005.
sunlight of ten hours or less, which usually occurs starting late

October. Thus, winged beans are planted in the Philippines in
September or early October to produce sufficient leaves to
manufacture enough food for flower and fruit development.
Prevailing Wind Speed
In windy places, such as the balcony or rooftop of a tall building,

only wind-tolerant plants and varieties should be planted or
windbreaks should be placed. These varieties are usually short
and hardy plants. Also, deep-rooted vegetables, such the pigeon
pea, are more resistant to strong winds. Other deep-rooted plants
are asparagus, sweet potato, tomato, and squash (>180 cm or 6 ft
root depth). Cabbage, lettuce, onion, potato, spinach, cauliflower,
leek, and garlic are shallow rooted (<90 cm or 3 ft). Roots of
beans, beets, carrots, cucumber, eggplant, squash, peas, and
gourds reach the soil depth of 90–180 cm or 3–6 ft (Yamaguchi,
1983). A windbreak could be a divider or curtain made of
bamboo slats or other materials. It will lessen wind speed but still
allow sufficient amount of sunlight through.
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Preference
It may not be possible to produce all the vegetables that the

family wants. Consider first the climatic requirements of the
vegetables, and then plant those that are regularly cooked and
consumed at home. Examples are the vegetable ingredients of
'sinigang' or 'pinakbet,' such as long beans, eggplant, tomato, long
pepper, and a leafy vegetable like pechay, mustard, or kangkong.
If fresh salad is a favorite in the family, then lettuce, cucumber,
and tomato can be planted, as well as sweet potato, amaranth, and
chayote, which are popularly cooked in most Filipino homes. An
urban garden in the backyard or in the community is an assurance
of steady supply of fresh, clean, and nutritious vegetables.
Purpose
The main objective of a garden is to have an assured supply of

food for the family or community. However, if the major purpose
is to have a beautiful and colorful garden, then the type and
varieties of vegetable must be chosen carefully. There are few
kinds of vegetables that can provide the garden with color. This
information is usually indicated at the labels of seed packets.
Among the colorful vegetables are tomatoes and capsicum
pepper, if allowed to ripen on the plant. Fruits of bell or capsicum
pepper are green when immature and turn yellow, orange, red, or
violet when ripe. The multicolored Christmas pepper is both an
ornamental and edible vegetable. Cauliflower and eggplant are
also attractive and enhance the beauty of a garden.
There are varieties of common vegetables that have unusual
colors. These are the yellow-leaf sweet potato, purple cabbage,
the purple-stemmed alugbati (with slightly purple young leaves),
purple lettuce, variegated oregano, and yellow and red amaranth.
Rhubarb and beets have violet leaf stalks but are suitable only in
cool areas. Flowers of sesban ('katuray') are white, pink, or red.
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Type of Vegetables
Vegetable plants can be classified into four groups:
• Plants grown for their leaves or leafy tops – The leafy tops
consist of the youngest leaf, the 3–4 leaves below it, and
their stem. Some plants grown for their leaves or leafy
tops are kangkong, green onion, chili pepper, Ceylon
spinach (alugbati), amaranth (kulitis), jute (saluyot),
squash, chayote, and sweet potato.
• Perennial edible crops – Perennial plants can grow for

years. If a big container is available, a perennial can be
grown in the center as a main crop; and smaller, annual
plants are planted around. Annual vegetables are short-
lived or with life duration of one year or less. Examples of
perennial vegetables are:
- Drumstick tree (malunggay)

- Pigeon pea (kadyos)
- Sesban (katuray)
- Asparagus – can grow well for three years continuously
without replanting under the Philippines’ hot and
moist tropical condition.
- Papaya – can be grown as a vegetable or fruit crop.
• Herbs – These plants are used as spice, flavoring,

medicine, and source of essential oil or scent. Wild tea
('tsaang gubat') is a medicinal crop that is also a beautiful
ornamental plant. Annatto ('achuete') has colorful and
attractive flowers and fruits with soft spines. The
immature fruits of most varieties are light or deep red
while those of one variety are white. Both tsaang gubat
and achuete need pruning to maintain their small
stature.
Other popular herbs such as oregano, coriander, and
tarragon are annual herbs and suited to container
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gardening. Perennial and small herbs, such as black
pepper, 'pandan,' and lemon grass, can also be raised in
containers. Black pepper is a climbing plant but it can be
kept small by cutting and using its fruiting stems for
propagation.
• Indigenous, traditional, or native vegetables – These

vegetables thrive naturally in the wild but can be
cultivated commercially. Each region in the Philippines
has particular types of native vegetable. They are easy
to grow and contain as much nutrients as those of the
cultivated types. Some vegetables have important
chemical constituents with health benefits that are not
fully known and used. Purslane or 'kolasiman' is
mostly seen as a weed, but reports indicate that it is a
rich source of omega-3 fatty acid that lowers the blood’s
lipid levels and consequently, its pressure. Seeds of purslane
can be bought from some Manila supermarkets. In
Thailand, ivy gourd ('melon-melonan') is such an
important vegetable that it commands a high price in
markets.
Suitability of Crops to Group Planting
Growing a selection of vegetables together brings good

results. Some plant combinations provide benefits of better
utilization of light and nutrients and production of compounds
that enhance growth or prevent pest infestation. Carrots grow
larger when planted with lettuce.
However, some plants slow down or inhibit the growth of
others, an occurrence called allelopathy. So only vegetables that
grow well together should be planted in one container. Otherwise,
plants will be small, yellow, and thin.
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Cultural Management Practices
for Urban
Vegetable Gardens
U rban agriculture is becoming popular nowadays with an

increasing number of urban farmers who have basic skills in
gardening because they migrated from rural communities (Ali and
Porciuncula, 2001). The benefits from urban gardening encourage
other city farmers to venture in this activity, with some being
guided by the recommended cultural management technologies.
Other growers copy the practices employed by the experienced
farmers.
Vegetable gardening technologies are demonstrated and
promoted with the establishment of urban agriculture
demonstration projects in Central Luzon State University (CLSU),
Cavite State University (CvSU), Bureau of Plant Industry (BPI)
in Manila and its Los Baños Crops Research and Development
Center (BPI-LBNCRDC), and the Urban Agriculture Projects in
Quezon City and Metro Manila.
Guanzon and Holmer (2003), Undan et al., (2002), Mabesa
et al. (2005), Crucido (2004), and Mabesa and Aquino (undated)
have described many urban agriculture technologies. The
technologies that have been documented include those for
container gardening, plot gardening, and protected or greenhouse
vegetable production. The International Potato Center (CIP)
report of 1999–2000 indicated the phenomenal increase in
number of commercial-scale urban gardens in Metro Manila
and the household communal gardens due to the adoption of the
recommended cultural management practices learned from the
trainings and their access to inputs.
The cultural management practices described in this state-
of-the-art publication are applicable under the open field and
protected/greenhouse conditions. These include technologies in
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planting, transplanting, and raising seedlings; watering or
irrigating the gardens; fertilization; pests and disease management;
and harvesting. The other management practices that should be
done for the other special crops will also be discussed. These
practices include mulching and trellising.
Production of Seedlings/Transplants
Some vegetable crops are small-seeded. They need to be

started in seed boxes, seedling trays, or in seedbeds under open or
protected conditions before they are transplanted to their
permanent growing areas. A group of vegetable crops that usually
require nursery seedling production are broccoli, cabbage,
cauliflower, pechay, mustard, eggplant, celery, lettuce, onion,
leek, tomato, and pepper.
1. Seedling/Transplant Production Under Open Conditions
Preparation of seedbeds or seed boxes for the vegetable gardens:
a. Prepare the seedbed that is 1 m wide and to a length

that can accommodate the seedling requirement of the
garden.
b. Remove weeds.
c. Pulverize the soil and mix compost/well-decomposed
manure.
d. Drench the seedbed with fungicide.
If the seedling trays or seed boxes are used for seedling

production, the following procedures should be done:
a. Prepare the seed boxes or seedling trays.

b. Fill in the seed boxes and seedling trays with a potting mix
consisting of 1:1:1 proportion by volume of sterilized
garden soil, compost, and carbonized rice hull or a 1:1
proportion by volume of carbonized rice hull and compost.
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c. Arrange the seed boxes or seedling trays in elevated
platforms prior to seed sowing.
Sowing of seeds
a. Sow the seeds thinly in rows in the seedbed and in seed

boxes. If the seedlings are started in seedling trays, plant
one seed in each compartment of the seedling tray. Seeds
may also be sprouted in moist cheesecloth, like those that
are done in Old Kano’s farm in Silang, Cavite and the
sprouts planted into the individual compartments of the
seedling tray that contains the potting mix.
b. Cover the seeds/sprouts with thin layer of soil.
c. Press the top layer of soil slightly with hand to provide
close contact between the seeds and the soil particles.
Watering of seedlings
a. Water the newly sown seeds. Repeat watering as the soil

dries up or as the need arises. Watering may also be done
by using rotary sprinklers or fogger installed above the
seedbed.
b. To maintain a higher relative humidity and warm
temperature, a tunnel-type cover that is roofed with
plastic sheet may be used to provide good growing
condition for the seedlings. This minimizes frequent
watering, saves water, and reduces labor cost for
watering.
Application of a starter solution
a. A 10% nutrient solution of urea (46-0-0) or ammonium

sulfate (21-0-0) may be applied to the seedlings five days
after germination. This is done by drenching the seedbed
of the solution or by injecting the solution into the pipes
that distribute water to the rotary sprinkler or to the
fogger at the time of watering. If the fertilizer solution is
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applied simultaneously with watering, the process is called
fertigation because water and fertilizer are applied to the
plants at the same time. The process may be repeated every
five days until the seedlings are ready for transplanting.
Control of pest and diseases
a. The seedbed, seed boxes, or seedling trays used for growing

vegetable seedlings should be kept free of weeds at all
times. Weeds are pulled out by hand or trowel as they
grow out from the soil of the growing beds or containers.
b. Monitoring of seedlings should be regularly done for the
occurrence of insect pests and diseases.
c. When the pests and/or diseases are detected, immediate
control measures should be done to prevent damage to the
transplants.
2. Indoor or Greenhouse Seedling Production
The following steps should be followed when producing

seedlings/transplants indoors or in greenhouses:
1. Construct an elevated platform inside the greenhouse to

serve as stand for seedling trays (Fig. 3).
2. Fill up the seedling trays with a mixture of vermiculite and
compost in proportion by volume or of a mixture of
1:1:1 by volume of sterilized garden soil, compost, and
carbonized rice hull.
3. Sow one seed in each of the compartments of the
seedling trays that contain the potting mix.
4. Water the seeds by using micro sprinklers or foggers
that are installed above the seedling trays:
5. Apply 10% starter solution of urea or ammonium sulfate
five days after germination by soil drench method or by
fertigation by using a highly soluble nitrogen (N) fertilizer
material.
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Wooden stand
Fig. 3. Wooden stand constructed inside the greenhouse for the

seedling trays.
6. Monitor regularly the seedlings for the occurrence of

pests and diseases;
7. Use the appropriate control method in case pests and
diseases reach the economic threshold level. It is
advisable to start protecting the plants against pests
and diseases while in the seedling stage to help produce
healthy and vigorous plants and quality produce from
the transplants.
Table 3 shows the details of seedling preparation that

include number of days to germination, seedling emergence, and
transplanting of the different vegetables crops in the urban
gardens.
Hardening of Seedlings
The seedlings that are produced outdoor or indoor need

to be hardened. Hardening is the process of slowly conditioning
the seedlings to withstand full sunlight for the whole day.
In CvSU, this is done by exposing the seedlings to sunlight
daily until such time that the young plants can withstand
eight hours of exposure to full sunlight. Hardening is usually
done for 8–10 days before transplanting.
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Table 3. Number of days to germination, emergence, and transplanting of
different vegetable crops in the urban gardens.
Number of Days Number of Days Number of Days
Crop to Germination to Seedling Emergence to Transplanting
Bean 1–2 2–3 Direct Seeded
Cucumber 2–3 3–4 Usually direct
seeded;
14–17 days if
transplanted
Eggplant 3–4 5–7 21–28
Lettuce 2–3 3–4 10–14
Onion 2–3 3–4 20–30
Pepper 3–4 5–7 21–28
Radish 1–2 2–3 Direct seeded
Squash 2–3 3–4 Usually direct
seeded;
14–17 days
if transplanted
Tomato 3–4 5–7 21–28
Planting/Transplanting
Hardened seedlings grown outdoor or indoor are ready for

transplanting when they have produced 3–4 pairs of true leaves or
have reached the age indicated in Table 3. To ensure high survival
rate, the seedlings are planted early in the morning or late in the
afternoon.
Transplanting is done by carefully pulling out the seedlings
from the seedbed, seed box, or plastic trays after watering. The
ball of potting mix is kept intact to avoid injury to the root system
of the young and delicate plants.
Garden plots and/or growing containers should have been
prepared prior to transplanting of seedlings. It is recommended to
use plastic mulch to cover the surface of the garden plot prior to
transplanting. This reduces loss of soil moisture; maintains suitable
temperature for better plant growth; and controls weed growth.
Holes are made in the garden plots using the planting
distance (Table 4) that is recommended for the vegetable crop
that the farmer chooses to grow.
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Table 4. Suggested planting distance and depth for commonly grown
vegetables in the urban gardens.a
Vegetables Distance of Planting (cm) Planting Depth (cm)
Beans 35–50 2–3

Sweet Corn 40–50 2–3
Cucumbers 30–35 2–3
Garlic 10–15 1–1.5
Eggplant 35–50 2–3
Lettuce 20–30 1–1.5
Okra 35–50 2–3
Onions 10–15 1.5–2
Pechay 15–20 1–1.5
Pepper 30–40 2–3
Radish 15–20 1–1.5
Squash 40–50 2–3
Tomato 30–40 2–3
a
Undan et al. , 2002.
In transplanting, the seedlings are set into the prepared holes

in the garden plots. The newly transplanted seedling should be
covered with fine soil. The base around the plant is slightly pressed
to establish close contact between the soil and the root system of
the transplant.
Direct Seeding
When using large-seeded vegetables or crops like bitter

gourd, squash, bottle gourd, wax gourd, melons, watermelons,
etc., the seeds may be directly sown to the prepared garden plots.
Seed planting is done in the prepared holes in the garden plot
following the recommended distance and depth of planting for
the vegetable crop (Table 4). The newly sown seeds should be
covered with fine soil. The soil surface should be lightly pressed
to establish good contact between the soil particles and the
seed surface.
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Watering/Irrigating Vegetable Crops
in the Garden
Successful vegetable production depends on a proper water

management system because most of the vegetable varieties are
sensitive to stress caused by drought or waterlogged conditions. In
Cagayan de Oro City, Guanzon and Holmer (2003) reported the
use of vegetable varieties that are suited to drier conditions in areas
where water is limited or during the dry season. In the wet season,
crops should be planted in raised beds to improve aeration and
avoid waterlogging.
The commonly used irrigation method by most of the urban
farmers in Metro Manila and Cavite is the sprinkler system (Fig. 4).
Either the overhead sprinkler that the Gourmet farm in Silang
Cavite has installed or the plastic or galvanized iron (GI) container
sprinkler system is used. The overhead sprinkler system requires
high water pressure and is more wasteful of water while the plastic
or GI container sprinkler system reduces water consumption.
Holmer and Schnitzler (1977) reported that the urban farmers in
Cagayan de Oro City use the bucket system.
Fig. 4. Sprinkler irrigation in protected culture of lettuce.
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The vegetable crops under protected or greenhouse
conditions are usually irrigated using the drip irrigation method.
This method slowly applies small amounts of water directly to
the plants’ root zone every day to maintain favorable soil
moisture conditions for plant growth. Drip irrigation is effective
in porous soils with mulch and in crops such as watermelon,
muskmelon, squash, pepper, eggplant, and tomato.
The advantages of drip irrigation are:
- Low flow rates and operating pressure that leads to low

energy and equipment cost.
- Once in place, trickle/drip irrigation requires little labor
to operate and can be automatically controlled.
- Can be managed to apply the amount of water needed
by the crop.
- Reduce operating costs.
- Disease and insect damage is reduced because leaves
are not moistened.
- Other field operations can continue even during
irrigation.
Some of the problems in using drip irrigation systems are:
- Requires high level of management.

- Limited distribution of moisture in the soil.
- Soil water available to plants is less.
- Requires careful management of the drip irrigation
facilities and equipment.
- Has a higher initial investment cost than the other
irrigation systems.
- Failure to have the system operational could result in
costly delays, poor plant survival or irregular stand, and
reduced yields.
- It is not practical to use drip irrigation in crops that are
not planted in rows.
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Garrison (2002) indicated that proper amount of water
applied with correct timing is critical for achieving optimum
benefits from irrigation. He further emphasized that plant
factors that affect crop irrigation requirement are crop species;
canopy size and shape; leaf size, shape, and orientation; plant
population; rooting depth; and stage of growth and development of
the crop. Table 5 lists the critical time of water need of some
vegetable crops.
Table 5. Critical periods of water need by some vegetable crops.
Crop Critical Period

Asparagus Spear emergence
Beans Pod development
Broccoli Curd development
Cabbage Head development
Carrots Root development
Cauliflower Head development
Corn (sweet) Pollination and kernel development
Cucumbers Pollination and fruit enlargement
Eggplant Pollination and fruit development
Lettuce
z Leaf Mid vegetative
z Head Head formation
Onion (bulb) Bulb enlargement
Pepper (bell) Pollination and fruit development
Potato
z White Tuber setting and enlargement
z Sweet Root enlargement
Fertilization
Plants grown in the urban gardens need to be well nourished

for better growth and development. The crops should be supplied
with both the macro- and microelements for better growth and
development. It is necessary to analyze the soil of the area that will
be used for vegetable production. The soil mix to be used in
container gardens should also be analyzed to determine the kind,
amount, and frequency of application of the nutrient substances
the crops need for increased production. Results of soil analysis
will serve as the basis of fertilizer recommendation.
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Nitrogen (N) helps in growing healthy plants with dark green
leaves while phosphorus (P) produces strong root system and
seeds. Potassium (K) provides overall health to the plant.
In the absence of soil test, leafy vegetables like lettuce,
mustard, etc., benefit from 10N-10P-10K fertilizer formulations
while fruit vegetables and those grown for roots and bulbs
benefit from 5N-10P-10K or 5N-10P-5K formulations.
The most common fertilizers that are available in many
agricultural stores are urea (46-0-0), ammonium sulfate (21-0-0),
complete fertilizer (14-14-14), and muriate of potash (0-0-60).
There are also many available slow-release fertilizers that may be
used in the urban gardens. Many organic and inorganic foliar
sprays or water-soluble fertilizers are commercially
available for the urban garden crops.
When applying fertilizers, any of the following methods
may be used:
a. Row or band placement method. In this method, narrow

bands of granular fertilizer are sprinkled in the soil, 3 in
from the plant on each side all along the plant row. The
fertilizer material is carefully incorporated into the top
2–3 in of soil.
b. Broadcast method. The fertilizer material (organic or
inorganic) is sprinkled lightly over the entire garden soil
before planting.
c. Foliar application. Fertilizers are available in a water-
soluble form and are applied to the foliage. This is
regarded as an expensive way to fertilize the garden
because leaves do not absorb much of the water. These
liquid fertilizers often have high percentage of N that
can delay fruit production in sensitive crops like pepper.
However, these can be used as a ready source of N and
applied to N-deficient plants.
d. Fertigation. In this method, the fertilizer material is
dissolved in water, mixed, and applied with irrigation
water. The fertilizer material should be highly soluble in
water to allow the solution to freely flow through the
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irrigation pipes and prevent clogging of the drippers or
emitters. Daily fertigation of small dose of fertilizer is
applied simultaneously with watering in commercial farms.
Trellising/Staking
All viny vegetables are generally trellised, while plants

without the ability to climb are supported with stakes (Villareal
et al., 1993). Trellising and staking facilitate irrigation, pest
control, and harvesting; and help produce better products by
preventing contact between products and damp soil. Mabesa,
Bautista, and Aquino (2005) indicated that trellises allow the
gardener to train the plant and guide them to grow to a direction
where the plant should grow. They emphasized that a trellis can be
in shape of A, I, T, Y, or tent, depending on the plant, available
resources, and the farmer’s preference. These types of trellis can
support viny or climbing vegetables grown in plot or container
gardens (Figs. 5 and 6).
Fig. 5. Trellised vegetables in old sacks.
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Fig. 6. Trellised
vegetables in old
sinks.
A-type trellis. Two poles or posts are pegged in slanting

positions at the end of both sides of the garden plot and their
tops are joined and tied together to form letter A. The same
procedure is done at the other end of the plot and along the length
of the plot. Trellises are 2 m apart in a row. Horizontal support
twines or GI wire (gauge 17) connect the support poles to one
another. Vertical twines are provided for each plant to connect the
horizontal twines. In CvSU, this type of trellis is used for cucumber,
bitter gourd (ampalaya), ridged gourd (patola), and beans. For
container-grown plants, the base of each post/pole is placed deep
in the potting medium in the pot.
I-type trellis. This type of trellis is constructed like a fence.

A bamboo or wooden pole is pegged at both ends of each
row. Several poles are placed in between at a distance of 2 m.
Horizontal support twines or GI wire (gauge 17) are tied in all
of the poles. Vertical wines are provided to serve as guide to
climbing vines and stems of the crop.
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Pest Management
Weeds, insects, and diseases are the most common pests of

vegetable crops in the urban gardens.
Weeds and their Control
Weeds are undesirable plants in the garden because they

compete with crops for nutrients, space, sunlight, and water.
Weeds also serve as host for both insects and diseases.
Weed control should start at the time of planting. Plants
spaced close to each other cause surface soil shading and reduces
weed germination and weed growth. Control of weeds by crops is
more effective when the crops germinate and grow faster than
the weeds. In case weeds manage to grow in the urban gardens,
pull them out by hand or by using a trowel while the vegetable
crops are still young and small. Shallow hoeing of the topsoil may
also be done to control weeds. Drip irrigation supplies water direct
to the root zone and helps reduce weed growth in unwatered areas,
especially during drought.
Mulching is a practice that effectively controls growth of
weeds (Fig. 7). A layer of 5–8 cm thick organic mulch or a sheet
of black plastic controls most of the weeds. Black plastic mulch is
more effective in controlling weeds, especially those that produce
stolons and rhizomes.
Insect Pests and their Control
Vegetables in the urban gardens need full protection against

insect pests as they can cause significant damage to the vegetable
crops. Any form of insect damage can affect quality and
attractiveness of the produce.
The effective insect pest management, which are practiced in
most vegetable gardens, include but are not limited to the
following activities:
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Fig. 7. Rice straw as mulch in plots of onion.
1. Monitoring of insect pests in the garden

Regular inspection is done to determine the presence
of insects on vegetable crops grown in the garden. The
lower surface of leaves, fruits, stems, and plant crown
are examined.
2. Identifying the insects found in the garden

In CvSU's urban agriculture demonstration project,
yellow card stickers were installed in various parts of the
garden to trap insects (Fig. 8). The trapped insects were
collected and identified.
3. Initiating appropriate control measures

Prevention is the best control. Pest problems can often
be prevented by developing and maintaining a healthy
crop through soil fertility, proper irrigation, choosing
crops suited to the climate, and by removing small
infestations before they become a problem. After
identifying the pest problem and deciding on the control
strategies, insect control may be effectively achieved by
combining the following control methods:
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Fig. 8. Yellow sticky boards used as insect traps.
a. Cultural Control
The gardener uses the recommended variety in
the area, maintains good sanitation in the garden,
properly controls the weeds, uses trap crops or sticky
traps, properly times the planting of vegetables, and
uses barriers that can exclude insects from the crops.
Mechanical removal of insects may also be done by
hand picking or washing by directed stream of water
for large insects or eggs and for small, soft-bodied
insects and mites.
Another measure is to plant some crops that
may help repel the insects (Tables 6 and 7).
b. Biological Control
Many insects and other arthropods feed on and
destroy insect pests in the gardens. These beneficial
arthropods such as lady beetles and spiders feed on
the eggs of insects, larvae, aphids, and mites. A
healthy garden may be maintained by not spraying
unnecessary insecticides and by maintaining a
diverse planting that provides alternate sources of
prey, nectar, and pollen. Pathogens infect and cause
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Table 6. Plants that may help repel insects in urban gardening.a
Plants Affected Insects Procedure

Tomato Flea beetles Integrate one of these plants
Hot pepper Chewing insects in the planting pattern.
Garlic Cabbage butterfly
Marigold Aphids and weevils
Petunias Aphids
a
UNICEF Home Garden Handbook.
Table 7. Companion planting guide for urban gardening.

Main Crop Intercrop Benefits Information Source
Beans Marigold Discourages/repels Undan et al., 2002
bean beetle
Eggplant Gives protection against
potato beetle Sangatanan et al., 2000
Cabbage Rosemary, Thyme, Discourages/repels Undan et al., 2002
Mint, Sage cabbage fly
Carrots Onion, Leeks Discourages/repels Sangatanan et al., 2000
carrot fly
Cucumber Radish Discourages/repels Undan et al., 2002
cucumber beetle
Lettuce Chives or Garlic Discourages/repels Undan et al., 2002
aphids
diseases that kill the insect pests. Outbreak of these

diseases usually occurs during the periods of humid
and wet weather.
c. Chemical Control
If pest population reaches the economic threshold
level despite preventive measures and other types of
controls, the gardener may use chemical treatment.
The chemical spray may be in either organic or
synthetic form.
z Organic pesticide
Organic gardeners consider insecticides
extracted from plants or derived from naturally
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occurring sources as suitable for organic
production technique. Mabesa et al. (2005)
named some of the organic pesticides as neem
(Azadirachta indica) mature seeds, 'madre de cacao'
(Gliricidia sepium), 'makabuhay' (Tinospora rumphii),
'sapinit' (Lantana camara), turmeric (Curcuma longa)
rhizomes, and singkamas (Pachyrrhizus erosus)
mature seeds. The water, in which the pounded
parts of the plants have been soaked, is directly
sprayed on the plants. Undan et al. (2002)
formulated the following organic insect spray
formulations for the vegetable crops in the urban
garden.
- Tobacco extract spray. This is prepared by

soaking 200 g of scrap tobacco in 3.8 L of water
for 12 hours. The solid particles are filtered
and the liquid is sprayed to insects found in
the vegetable crops in the gardens.
- Bug terminator spray. The spray solution is

prepared by mixing 3.8 L of water, ½ tablespoon
of eucalyptus oil, 1 tablespoon of vegetable
oil, and 1 tablespoon of liquid dishwashing
soap. The mixture is then shaken to ensure
homogeneity of the solution and then sprayed
to the upper and under leaf surfaces as often
as necessary. This preparation can control
aphids, mites, and other chewing insects.
- Bug terminator spray II. This is prepared

by thoroughly blending 4 cloves of garlic and
1 bulb of medium-sized onion. The blended
garlic and onion are placed in a glass jar and
to which 2 cups of water and 2 tablespoons of
hot sauce or 2 tablespoons of minced hot
pepper are added. All the ingredients are
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stirred together and steeped for two days. The
mixture is then strained and 1 tablespoon of
mild liquid dish detergent is added. The solution
is further diluted with 5 cups of water and mist
sprayed into the plants every week. Bug
terminator spray 2 is good for aphids, mites, and
the other chewing insects.
- Onion brew and other aromatic leaves.

Onion roots, stems, leaves, and other aromatic
herbs such as garlic, horseradish, hot pepper,
mustard, and mint are collected/gathered and
washed in clean water. The different materials
are chopped or cut into small pieces, pounded,
and squeezed to extract the liquid or juice.
Then the decoction (stock solution) is filtered.
The juice is mixed with water at a ratio of 1:1
(50 parts of juice of different materials mixed
with 50 parts of water) and sprayed directly to
the plants infested with insect pests.
- Tomato stems and leaves. Tomato stems

and leaves are gathered and washed in clean
water, and chopped or cut into small pieces.
The different materials are ground using
mortar and pestle. Mix the ground tomato
stems and leaves with water (50 parts tomato
stems and leaves and 50 parts water). Boil,
cool, and filter the mixture and get the
decoction. Bottle the decoction or extract.
This stock solution can be used as botanical
pesticide against caterpillars and black or
green flies. Also, spraying of this extract to
the plants will deter future attacks of pests.
- Tobacco leaves and aromatic herbs.

Tobacco leaves, hot pepper, garlic, onion, and
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mint are collected and washed in clean water.
The different materials are chopped or cut
into small pieces, ground, and squeezed to
extract the juice. This decoction is filtered to
get the pure juice or liquid. This liquid stock
solution is the botanical pesticide. Spray the
infested garden plants by mixing the stock
solution of tobacco plus aromatic herbs with
equal amount of water.
- Makabuhay (Tinospora rumphi L.)

extract. Makabuhay roots, stems, and leaves
are collected, washed in clean water, chopped
or cut, ground, and squeezed to extract the juice
or the decoction. After filtering the decoction,
the pure juice or liquid is ready as botanical
pesticide against flies, aphids, moths, worms,
and other insects. The infested garden plants
are sprayed after mixing the stock solution of
makabuhay extract with equal amount of
water.
- Atis (Anona squamosa L.) seed extract.

Atis seeds are collected, pulverized, and mixed
with water. The mixture is filtered to get the
pure juice or extract. The liquid solution is
ready as botanical pesticide against ants, aphids,
and other insect pests. Spray the decoction
directly over the plants infested with insect
pests.
- Organic insect spray mixture. Four

cloves of garlic, 1 medium size onion, and
about 15 pieces of hot pepper are chopped
finely and ground using mortar and pestle. The
mixture is put in a small jar or any plastic
container to which 2 cups of water are added.
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The mixture is stirred, fermented for two days,
and strained to get the decoction. The decoction
(stock solution) is diluted with 5 cups of
water after adding 1 tablespoon of mild liquid
dish detergent. Mist spray the liquid on
infested plants once a week to control aphids,
mites, and other chewing insects.
z Synthetic pesticides
These materials have been synthesized from
raw products of industrial technology. The examples
of synthetic insecticides that are labeled for general
use include Malathion, Carbaryl, Chlorpyriphos,
and Diazinon. Mabesa et al. (2005) has prepared
a list of registered insecticides for vegetable
insect pest control. To ensure the best control
using pesticides, the gardener has to direct the
spray to the plant surface or parts where the
insects are living or feeding. When using chemical
pesticides, always consider the recommendation
by the manufacturer that is usually found in its
label.
Diseases and their Control
Disease control in the home garden should start long before

seeds and seedlings are planted in the soil. There should be a long-
range plan and records about the plants grown in the garden. This
can guide the gardener in designing effective crop rotation that
helps minimize diseases caused by soil-borne pathogens. Like
insect control, effective disease control uses a combination of
practices that can avoid disease damage. These practices are:
1. Use of disease-resistant varieties

As much as possible choose a variety that is resistant
to diseases.
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2. Use of disease-free transplants or seeds
Since many disease-causing organisms are seed-borne,
refrain from using seeds from infected plants. Old seeds
may have reduced viability and vigor. In buying seeds,
choose seeds packaged in the current year. When buying
transplants or seedlings, exclude those with curled leaves,
aphids, or spider mites (found in the lower leaf surface).
Do not buy moldy bulbs, sets, and propagative materials.
3. Crop rotation
Each year, change the location of various crops in the
garden. Many disease-causing organisms do not survive
long in the soil if a different crop is planted. When rotating
vegetables in the garden, plant those from different
families. Members of the same family may be susceptible
to the same diseases. For example, tomato, eggplant, and
pepper are all members of the solanaceous family and
have many same diseases. Cucumbers, melons, and squash
belong to the cucurbit family. Cole crops include cabbage,
broccoli, brussels sprouts, cauliflower, , turnip, radish, and
mustard.
4. Insect control
Some insects transmit diseases. For example, aphid
transmits several viruses including cucumber mosaic
virus. The cucumber beetle transmits the bacterial wilt
organism and squash mosaic virus. Control of these and
certain other insects is essential to disease management.
5. Weed control
Weeds harbor disease organisms that can spread to
nearby gardens. Most of these disease organisms are
insect-transmitted viruses. Destroy weeds in and around
the garden and along the fences to eliminate the source of
disease-causing organisms.
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6. Destroy diseased plants or plant parts
Promptly remove diseased plant parts to prevent the
spread of diseases. Examples where removal is effective,
especially if used in combination with fungicides, include
tomato leaf spots and fruit rot, cucurbit fruit rot, and
powdery mildew of various urban garden crops.
7. Clean up
Disease-causing organisms may live in diseased plant
parts or debris. Infected waste materials such as tomato
and potato vines, cucumber and melon vines, and infected
leaves of other vegetables in the garden give diseases an
early start so they must be removed and destroyed.
8. Plant companion crops

Two unrelated crops planted in the same area are
called companion crops. Some combinations have
reportedly great success in reducing disease incidence
and in increasing efficiency of nutrient use. Potato has
been successfully planted with beans, corn, and marigold;
squash with corn; and tomato with chives, onion, and
parsley. Leeks, carrots, onions, and celery can be
interplanted with mutual benefits.
9. Use of fungicides
This control method should only be used when
needed. Products available to home gardeners include
foliar spray and powders. Some products are effective
against many disease organisms and are called broad-
spectrum products, while others control only a number
of organisms. Seed companies treat seeds with fungicides
to prevent or reduce fungal infection that can cause
the seeds to rot. Foliar sprays or dusts are applied to
leaves or branches of plants. Apply fungicides according
to the directions given at the manufacturer’s label.
Certain diseases require a preventive application
program that may need repeated spraying every 7–14 days
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when the infection is likely to occur. Table 8 shows the
fungicides recommended for home gardens and the
vegetable diseases they are able to control.
The aforementioned practices may result in diseases

remaining at nondestructive levels. Other practices that help
avoid disease damage include proper watering and wider row
spacing.
Harvesting
Vegetables in urban gardens are harvested when they

are mature and at the stage when full flavor has developed.
Villareal et al. (1993) recommend harvesting of vegetables
when good quality, desired size, and long-term storability have
Table 8. Fungicides that can be used in the urban gardens to control

vegetable diseases but with slight toxicity to people.
Active Ingredient Disease Crop
Maneb Cercospora leaf spot, Onion, cucumber,

Downy mildew, and tomato
Anthracnose, Blue mold,
Purple black blight
Metalaxyl Phytopthora Tomato
Metalaxyl + Mancozeb Blight Tomato
Propineb + Iprovalicarb Late blight Potato
Sulfur Downy mildew, Beans, tomato
Powdery mildew
Thiophanate methyl Anthracnose, Powdery Beans, cabbage,
mildew, Cercospora cucumber, tomato
leaf spot, Septoria
leaf spot, Botrytis,
Fusarium
Tridemorph Rust, Powdery mildew, Bean, cucumber
Downey mildew,
Anthracnose,
Cercospora leaf spot,
Septoria leaf spot
Triforine Anthracnose Beans
a
Mabesa et al., 2005.
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been achieved. Some gardeners harvest only part of their crops
for family consumption, while others harvest all the plants and
bring the excess products to the market or sell to the neighbors.
Undan et al. (2003) discourages gardeners to allow leafy
vegetables to flower before harvesting them except when the
purpose is to collect the seeds for future planting. However,
cabbage, cauliflower, and broccoli should be harvested when
their heads are already compact. Pepper and tomato may be
harvested when their fruits have started to ripen.
The maturity indices described by Bautista and Mabesa
(1986) for some vegetables are presented in Table 9.
Table 9. Maturity indices of vegetables that are commonly grown

in the urban gardens.
Crop Description
White potato, onion, and garlic Tops begin to dry out and topple down
Cowpea, sitao, snap bean, batao, Well-filled pods that readily snap
sweet pea, and sigarillas
Lima beans and pigeon pea Well-filled pods that are starting to
lose their greenness
Okra Full-sized fruits with tips that can be
snapped readily
Upo and patola Immature (over mature if thumb nail can
not penetrate readily)
Sweet corn Exudes milky sap when thumbnail
penetrates the kernel
Tomato Seeds slip when fruit is cut, or green
color turning pink
Sweet pepper Deep green color turning dull
Muskmelon Color of lower part turns creamy yellow,
produces dull hollow sound when
thumped
Cauliflower Curd compact (over mature if flower
cluster elongates and begins to loosen)
Broccoli Bud cluster compact (over mature if
loose)
Cabbage Head compact (over mature if head
cracks)
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Organic Vegetable Farming
in Urban Areas
O rganic farming as a key to sustainable agriculture has captured

the attention of many countries worldwide. Consumer’s
concern with food quality and safety, as well as the conservation
and protection of the environment, have stimulated demand for
organic products and intensified research, development, and
extension efforts on organic agriculture globally (Hsieh, 2005).
According to Sarian (1999), organic crop production or
organic farming means sustainable agriculture. Many of the
techniques used in organic farming such as intercropping,
mulching, and integration of crops and livestock are practiced
under various agricultural systems. He further stated that organic
farmers are motivated by more than economic objectives. Their
aim is to optimize land, animal, and plant interactions; pressure
natural nutrient and energy flows; and enhance biodiversity;
all of which contribute to sustainable agriculture.
Pioneer Models
z The Old Kano Farm
This is a 1.5-ha farm located in Brgy. Lalaan II, Silang, Cavite

(Fig. 9). The farm is a showcase of a simple low-cost technology
on organic vegetable production that could be done in urban and
peri-urban areas (FFTC-PCARRD, 2006).
z Gourmet Farm
This 8-ha farm is located also in Brgy. Lalaan II, Silang, Cavite
(Fig. 10). Lettuce, herbs, and spices are organically grown in both
the greenhouse and in the open field (FFTC-PCARRD, 2006).
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Fig. 9. Seedling production in Old Kano Farm.
Fig. 10. Lettuce grown in the greenhouse of Gourmet Farm.
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z Flowerside Farm
This farm is a model of organic farming in an urban setting

where members/owners of the Tagaytay Highlands can produce
organic products for healthy living. This promotes farming for
leisure among urban dwellers who want to enjoy their weekends,
holidays, and vacation at the Tagaytay Highlands (FFTC-
PCARRD, 2006).
z FAITH Gardens
Food Always in The Home (FAITH), which was promoted

by the International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IIRR),
is a technology that is widely adapted both in rural and urban/
peri-urban areas using pure organic fertilizer in growing
vegetables, herbs, and spices. The technology is widely
practiced in Laguna and in Metro Manila (Crucido et al., 2006).
z Leisure Farm
This is a private farm located in Cabuyao, Laguna showcasing

urban agriculture technologies that include growing of
vegetables, herbs, and spices using purely organic fertilizer
(Crucido et al., 2006).
z Gratia Plena Social Action Center
This Diocesan Center for Rural Development is located

in Pantok, Bakal II, Talavera, Nueva Ecija. The center has several
farms located throughout Nueva Ecija producing organically
grown vegetables, as well as organic rice and organic native
chicken and eggs (Carandang, 2000).
z Gulayan at Bulaklakan
This model of urban and peri-urban gardening is one of

DA-Region IV’s programs. During the initial implementation of
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the program, Brgy Holy Spirit in Quezon City (Fig. 11) was
identified as the pilot area, representing a city in Metro Manila; and
Barangay Sto. Toribio, which is along the railroad tracks in Lipa
City, Batangas, representing an urban area in the province. These
two projects succeeded in demonstrating the feasibility
of producing organically grown vegetables and ornamental crops
in urban and peri-urban areas (Duldulao, 2001).
z Sanayan sa Kakayahang Agrikultura (SAKA)
SAKA is an innovative agricultural skills training and

scholarship program of Pilipinas Shell Foundation, Inc. (PSFI).
It is designed to improve farm productivity and management.
It is open to out-of-school youth from farming families with
small land holdings or with lack of security of land tenure. The goal
is to bring the youth back to farming by giving them training on
appropriate farming technologies and strong marketing orientation.
The young scholars are taught new farming methods and
technologies aimed at molding them into well-rounded
farmers. By practicing newly acquired techniques in their
farms, SAKA scholars hope to influence other neighboring
farmers to adopt the methods that will improve farm productivity
(http://www.malampaya.com/admin/H).
z CLSU’s Receptacle Farming
In July 1999, Receptacle Farming in Urban Agriculture was

established in a 300-m2 area in CLSU in the Science City of
Muñoz, Nueva Ecija. The project was established to showcase
some production models of receptacle farming that could be
replicated by any individual interested to put up his own model,
possibly at least cost (Fig. 12).
The different production models mainly used organic compost
or organic commercial fertilizer as one of the components of the
growing medium, which is a mixture of one part each of ordinary
garden soil and partially decomposed rice hull, and two parts
compost/organic fertilizer (Undan et al., 2002).
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Fig. 11. Urban garden in Barangay Holy Spirit.
Fig. 12. Eaves-through gardening, a CLSU model.
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z Backyard/Allotment Gardening in Cagayan de Oro
Backyard gardening is a common practice in Cagayan de Oro.

In 1997, the City Agriculture Office (CAO) estimated that about
40% of the total households (94,672) maintained backyard
gardens. They mainly produce organically grown leafy
vegetables, fruits, and ornamental plants. This practice is
common in both urban and peri-urban areas that signify
economic importance as families can save on food items, which
they would otherwise have to buy (Holmer, 2001).
Five allotment gardens have been established in 2003 in
Cagayan de Oro City. The legal access of urban poor families to
land was facilitated, paving the way for conversion of idle
private lots into organic vegetable production.
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Production of Compost
from Urban Wastes
A n initial and indispensable step to improve solid waste

management system is waste segregation at the source or
where garbage is generated such as: at households, in public
markets, commercial and industrial centers, among many other
places. The objective is to provide clean and uncontaminated
raw materials for possible users at the lowest cost.
Solid waste management system has to be initiated by the
community through organizing educational and promotional
campaigns involving different stakeholder groups such as LGUs,
homeowner associations, market vendors, environmental officers
of the private industry, garbage pickers, educational and research
institutions, and farmers. Information systems, linkages, and
responsibilities among the different stakeholders have to be
established.
Segregate, Consolidate, and Manipulate
Segregation of trash is the first step toward waste

management. Sorting out and separating the wet from the dry,
biodegradable, and nonbiodegradable; and putting these in
coded receptacles or bags for pick-up on certain appropriate
schedules immediately solve half of the problem of garbage
being scattered by enterprising scavengers. Consolidating all of
these garbage as to type or kind in a processing site will enable
and facilitate a critical mass ready for manipulation either for
reuse, recycling, and as raw materials for organic fertilizer
manufacturing (Tan, 2001).
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Utilization of Urban Waste
The disposal of municipal wastes in the Philippines has become

a difficult problem. About 50% of urban trashes are biodegradable
organic materials that can be degraded and processed as bioorganic
fertilizers. In Metro Manila, 50,000 t of organic garbage, which may
pose health and environmental hazards if not properly disposed,
are generated daily (PCARRD, 2006).
According to De Guzman and Banatlao (2000), there are
significant health hazards associated with the use of urban waste.
They cited the case of a cholera outbreak that occurred in Chile and
Peru in 1991 because of the use of improperly treated waste in
farming. They further stated that the increasing toxicity of urban
refuse would entail more care in the use of organic solid wastes.
Several international research institutions have attested to the
safety of using waste for farming provided that treatment
procedures are consistent and well monitored. Locally, the
mechanisms for such are not yet in place and this shows that there
are still a lot of barriers to hurdle.
Constraints
According to Fleury and Moustier as cited by de Bon (2001),

peri-urban and urban agriculture have managed and recycled the
urban waste products for many centuries. These practices cause
some risks to the health of the consumer and to the state of the
environment: pollution of soils with heavy metals from sewage
sludge and pollution of water with nitrates due to huge quantities
of organic manure. Mamaril (2002) stated that organic materials
like animal manures, crop residues, green manures, as well as
organic commercial fertilizers have relatively low-nutrient
contents but contain most, if not all, the essential plant nutrients
including heavy metals, which could be harmful.
In the context of increasing consumer awareness, it is
worthwhile to pay attention to major elements that define the
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quality of the vegetables: nitrates, biological pathogens, heavy
metals, and pesticide residues.
1. Nitrates
Nitrates can cause health problems to very young babies and

pregnant women. They are also an indicator of good or bad
agricultural practices. Nitrates also cause eutrophication of water
in combination with P. In urban and peri-urban systems, nitrates
come from fertilizers and irrigation water (de Bon, 2001).
2. Biological Contaminants
Biological contaminants are introduced through organic

fertilizers, irrigation water, and handling and storing of products.
Tap water and wastewater are used for irrigating crops and for
cleaning vegetables. Studies conducted in Ghana showed that the
common microorganisms isolated from vegetable samples include
Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas spp., and Salmonella arizonae on white
radish, green pepper, lettuce, and carrot. Helminthes and protozoans
have also been identified on vegetables collected from the fields
and markets. On the other hand, studies conducted in Vietnam
showed that 39 samples of Brassica spp. collected from the fields
have not shown any presence of Salmonella, E. coli, and Shigella,
but revealed the presence of ascaris eggs in four cases. These
ascaris eggs probably originate from top dressing applications of
liquid organic fertilizer using pig urine (Sonou, 2001).
3. Heavy Metals Residues
Industrial activities, wastewater, and traffic increase the

levels of heavy metals in the air (lead from the vehicle), soil, and
water (cadium and zinc from chemical and industrial activities).
The presence of heavy metals in the environment reaches the
plant through air (roadside dust on the leaves), underground and
surface water, and soil (deposit of dust and supply by organic and
organic chemicals). The consequence is an increase of heavy
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metal content in vegetables for human consumption (Midmore,
1998).
z Lead
Although banned since 1986, the burning of leaded
gasoline for more than 60 years has left a legacy of lead
embedded in soils in urban areas, especially near roads with
heavy and congested traffic. Fine lead particles from exhaust
systems are deposited directly into the soil and on buildings
and other structures and plants where rain then washes
them into the soil. Lead-based paints are another source of
lead in urban soils. Although mostly banned since 1978,
lead-based paints still remain on walls and other fixtures of
old houses, buildings, and equipment. Also some specialty
paints may still contain lead. Unsafe removal of lead-
based paint, such as scraping, sanding, and especially
sandblasting, can easily release lead particles and dust that
are deposited in nearby soils or other surfaces. Old wood
protected with lead-based paint that is used or deposited in
the garden also adds lead to the soil when the paint chips
and wears off. Its long natural life and history of use has
ensured that lead is and will remain a common contaminant
in urban areas for the years to come. Illegally or improperly
discarded or dumped batteries of automobiles, trucks,
boats, and motorcycles can also be sources of lead in the
soil.
z Cadmium
Cadmium is a contaminant of many manufactured
products containing zinc. Any zinc plating or galvanizing
operations and galvanized metal containers sometimes
used in horticulture and gardening operations are
potential sources of cadmium. Zinc is also used in the
vulcanization process in tire manufacturing. As tires
wear, they give off minute, dust-like rubber particles
containing cadmium that easily disperse and accumulate
in soils and on plants.
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z Arsenic
Like lead and cadmium, arsenic occurs naturally in
soils but there are no identifiable sources to account for
its higher concentrations in urban settings. Fortunately, it
is not too prevalent and problematic although it is
highly toxic. Arsenic has proven to be a problem in
suburban areas where subdivisions have crept out
of former agricultural lands, especially those that were
used for fruit tree production where pesticides
containing lead arsenate were applied. Other possible
sources include manufactured wood products, like
particleboard and treated lumber, where arsenic-containing
compounds were used to prevent rot and provide
weather resistance.
There are other potentially hazardous trace
elements and compounds in urban soils. Sources of these
include lumber treated with compounds to prevent rot
and increase longevity, such as penta-chloro-phenols, and
by-products of combustion processes like poly-aromatic
hydrocarbons. Even fertilizers can be a source of
potentially hazardous trace elements. Prior to the more
recent development of cleaner manufacturing processes,
the inert materials used as blenders or fillers in
phosphate fertilizers often contained elevated levels of
contaminants. Organic fertilizers may also have drugs
that are administered to chickens for disease management.
Similarly, pig manure usually has high levels of copper.
Fertilizers or soil amendments containing sewage sludge
or bio-solids were once potential sources of potentially
hazardous trace elements, including lead, cadmium, and
zinc.
Knowing the history of the urban garden site can
provide much information about the likelihood of having
soils contaminated with trace elements. Because most
urban garden sites are on vacant lots near roads with
frequent automobile traffic or where illegal dumping
often occurred or building once stood, they are unusually
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predisposed to having soils contaminated with trace
elements. Soil may be contaminated if any of the following
activities occurred at the site:
z Metal industries;
z Automobile repair shops or salvage yards;
z Recycling business;
z Unauthorized local dumping where motor oil, batteries,
tires, old painted wood, and other refuse and waste could
have been illegally deposited;
z Buildings with old, painted surfaces; and
z Heavy or congested vehicle traffic.
4. Pesticide Residues
Awareness of risks due to excessive use of chemical pesticides

exists at all levels, ranging from farmers, consumers, and public
authorities to agro-chemical companies. The urban and peri-urban
horticulture sector is more sensitive to this problem due to the
proximity of consumer and farmer.
Pesticide residues above the maximum residue limit (MRL)
have been observed several times in markets. In the Philippines,
several vegetables analyzed for pesticide residues contained
levels above the MRL set by Food and Agriculture Organization/
World Health Organization (Tejada, 1997). The main reason
could be the practice of farmers to apply pesticides before
harvest. So, the excessive use of pesticides affect not only the
consumers but also the environment. Quick-test kits to
measure residues were developed by Tejada in a UPLB-
PCARRD Project.
Some Composting Procedures
Composting is a biological decomposition and primarily a

microbiological process of organic substances, which results in a
product that is stable, pathogen-free, and contains more readily
available nutrients when applied to the soil (PCARRD, 2006).
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The compost must be completely decomposed when applied to the
soil because it generates heat during the resumption of composition
that maybe harmful to the plants. Some composting methods are:
z Conventional/traditional method (Cosico, 1985)

The raw materials used in this method are rice straw or
other vegetative materials and animal manure. These are
converted into organic fertilizer and soil conditioners by
chopping plant materials; piling them 15 cm on the ground;
spreading a layer of manure and soil; and sprinkling a little
lime or ash. This sequence of layering is repeated until a
heap of 1.5 m is attained. Perforated bamboo poles are
inserted in the pile. The pile is watered and turned over.
Compost can be harvested after three months or when
decomposition is complete. Some modifications to this
method have been done.
z The IBS Rapid Composting Method

The raw materials used in this method are rice straw,
weeds, grasses, market waste, chicken manure, and a
microbial inoculant, Trichoderma harzianum. The inoculant
is a cellulase-secreting fungus that helps in breaking down
cellulose in straw. It is packaged in sawdust mixed with
ipil-ipil leaves into a compost fungus activator or CFA
(PCARRD, 2006). The composting procedure has been
developed by Dr. Virginia C. Cuevas of the Institute of
Biological Sciences (IBS), UPLB. This is a windrow type
of composting using static piles and takes 4–6 weeks
before compost can be harvested.
z The BIOTECH Rapid Composting Method

This BIOTECH technology uses inoculants of
nitrogen-fixing bacteria and cellulose-degrading molds to
improve the effectiveness of the compost (PCARRD,
2006). Trichoderma sp. SS33 is the composting inoculum
for hastening decomposition of rice straw-chicken
manure mixture and Azotobacter sp. HIBFA 4b is the
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enrichment inocula for enhancing the N content of the
fertilizer materials and for promoting biological N2
fixation in the soil. Farm wastes are decomposed after
24–26 days in this method.
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Protected Agricultural
Production
Definition
P rotected cultivation is a technique that involves the use of

special structures to shield plants from too much rain. It could
complement the use of drainage systems in solving the problem of
excess rainfall (Bautista and Espino, 1994). The common
structures for protected cultivation are plastic house or tunnels
and greenhouse. Plastic tunnels are tunnel-like structures erected
right in the field over the rows with plastic roofing supported by
bamboo or wire frames. The roofing can be rolled down during
periods of continuous rainy days. On the other hand, a
greenhouse is a building having glass walls and roof for the
protection or propagation of plants. Greenhouse can be single-
span or multi-span. The latter consists of several greenhouses
attached to each other.
Roofing for greenhouse should be transparent or translucent
and waterproof. The roofing materials used locally are glass,
plastics, or fiberglass. Glass makes a very good roofing material,
being the most transparent. However, it is heavy and easily broken
and above all very expensive. It also needs a very strong
supporting structure that adds to the expense.
Plastic roofing materials are either rigid or nonrigid. The
nonrigid ones are in the form of films. Polyethylene is the
cheapest and is light in weight. Sheets can be stretched over a
support structure and held in place with strips.
On the other hand, fiberglass reinforced plastic, which is a
combination of glass fiber and plastic mesh, comes as corrugated
panels (0.61 mm mesh). It is as expensive as glass but it is lighter
and virtually unbreakable. It reduces light intensity more than
glass, especially after several years of use. The outside surface
becomes yellow and slightly weathered, allowing dirt to
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accumulate. Weathered surfaces may be cleaned to allow light
to enter.
Farmers who grow vegetables in the open usually spray
pesticides to ensure quality vegetable without considering the
health hazard it gives to consumers and the environment. This is
the reason why the Central Luzon Agriculture and Resources
Research and Development Consortium (CLARRDEC) member-
agencies, the Nueva Ecija Provincial Government through
the Office of the Provincial Agriculturist, and the LGUs
spearheaded the implementation of the greenhouse technology
in order to increase farmers’ income and contribute to the
government's self-sufficiency programs (Ringor, 2004).
At the BPI-LBNCRDC, two greenhouses were constructed
following Israel’s model Ashlad 5. The tunnel type occupies
500 m2, while the other covers 1,000 m2. Among the crops grown
were tomato, eggplant, chili, sweet pepper, cucumber, melon, and
lettuce. The project was established to determine the economic
viability of crop production in greenhouse culture under local
condition (Domingo, 2000).
Protected Cultivation
Growing vegetables under protected cultivation or inside the

greenhouse can increase yield and profits during the rainy season.
This was already proven based on several studies. Sarian (2002)
reported that in the study conducted by researchers from CLSU,
Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, and
Technological University of Munich and funded by the
Bureau of Agricultural Research, grafting and provision of rain
shelter for off-season production of tomato increased yield and
sustained crop productivity during hot, wet months. Likewise,
grafted tomato plants grown in rain shelter yielded an average of
8.1 t/ha that is 161% higher than the 3.1 t/ha yield of grafted
plants grown in the open field. Also, grafting increased resistance
of tomato plants to flooding and bacterial wilt, while rain shelter
reduced the impact of heavy rains on the fruit set.
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Recent study conducted by Papares and Nitural (2005)
showed that tomato plants grown under UV-treated plastic rain
shelter were taller and produced more fruit clusters per plant and
more developed fruits per cluster. These plants also produced
higher number of marketable fruits both per plant and per
container than those plants grown in the open (no shelter).
Under greenhouse condition, De Jesus and Manlapaz (2006)
noted that grafted tomato (cv. CHT 501) applied with pure
processed chicken manure at 1.5 t/ha significantly produced
higher yield of 924.75 g/plant (36.95 t/ha). Also, this treatment
registered the higher net income of P503,834/ha per cropping
compared with the control and those plants fertilized with
varying levels of processed chicken manure and the control
check (recommended rate of NPK fertilizer).
Manipon and Nicolas (2006) conducted a study on selected
cruciferous crops under greenhouse condition. Results revealed
significantly higher yield of 1.05 t for lettuce, 1.45 t for pechay,
1.09 t for broccoli, 0.91 t for cauliflower, and 1.31 t for Chinese
cabbage per 726 m2 production area. Likewise, broccoli gave
the highest return of P41,412, followed by lettuce with net
return of P30,020. The cost of producing a kilo was P20.13 for
broccoli and P11.48 for lettuce. The lowest return was realized
in Chinese cabbage with only P10,648 and the cost of production
was P11.82/kg. On the other hand, the highest cost of production
was recorded in cauliflower with P24.16/kg but the net return
amounted to P14,372.
Also, in the study conducted by Banciles and Vizmonte
(2006) on the greenhouse production of leaf lettuce, the tallest
plants (17.11 cm) at harvest, highest number of leaves (8.05)
per plant, longest leaves (14.55 cm), widest leaves (13.45 cm),
heaviest fresh biomass (64.17 grams), and highest average
survival rate of 99.44% at harvest were recorded when seedlings
were transplanted at 21 days after sowing. Similarly, leaf lettuce
grown inside the greenhouse and applied with 145 t/ha of chicken
manure significantly produced an average fresh weight of
56.79 g/plant, which is almost twice the weight of the control
plants (Granados and Vizmonte, 2006).
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Similar studies conducted at the Pampanga Agricultural
College in Magalang, Pampanga revealed that lettuce (Grand
Rapids variety), pechay (Black Behi variety), and mustard
(Monteverde variety) grown in the greenhouse and fertilized
with 30 bags of processed chicken manure per hectare had
average yields of 15.51 kg, 20.89 kg, and 22.34 kg,
respectively, per 5 m2 area (Baltazar, 2006).
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Hydroponics
H ydroponics, the cultivation of plants in nutrient solution

instead of soil, is very popular because it gives a reliable and
dependable supply of fresh, high quality organic produce (Monroy,
2004).
For year-round production, crops may be cultivated on the
same fields or different fields throughout the year. If horticultural
crops are grown continually on the same fields, the length of the
period between crops has to be very short. This favors the
permanent presence of pests in the soils and the decrease of soil
fertility. One good solution to this problem is hydroponics
(de Bon, 2001).
Soil-less gardening offers many advantages to the home
gardener. Since a sterile medium is used, there are no weeds to
remove and soil-borne pests and diseases are minimized, if not
eliminated completely. Plants properly grown in hydroponics are
also healthier and more vigorous because all of the necessary
growth elements are readily available. The plants mature faster,
yielding an earlier harvest of vegetable and flower crops (Sorenson
and Relf, 1999). They further emphasized that the hydroponic
gardens use less space since the roots do not have to spread out in
search of food and water. The small space requirement makes
hydroponics ideal for home gardeners, and it makes better use of
greenhouse space.
Pioneer Models
The Simple Nutrient Application (SNAP), also known as

Household Level Hydroponics, was developed by the Institute
of Plant Breeding of UPLB. It is a simple, reliable, and low-
cost system that relies on passive aeration. It makes use of
varieties that are heat tolerant and uses cheaper sources of
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nutrient solutions such as calcium nitrate, potassium nitrate,
and complete fertilizer with calcium and micronutrients
(Domingo, 2000).
The SNAP hydroponics system is appropriate in urban areas
where soil or space for growing crops is not adequate. It may be
done in apartments or townhouses where small terraces can be used
in growing crops for home consumption. The small space is easy
to protect against rain and strong sunlight. The system requires
covered containers or pots that can hold about 2 L of water,
SNAP fertilizer, and seeds of chosen heat-tolerant vegetables.
Vegetables like lettuce, sweet pepper, cucumber, and celery
were successfully grown using the SNAP hydroponics system.
The use of this system can improve household income and
increase the per capita vegetable consumption.
In the trials conducted on lettuce during cold months, the
vegetable performed better in SNAP culture than in the field.
Economic analysis of adopting SNAP hydroponics for
commercial lettuce production in a 200-m2 area showed that it
requires an initial investment of P66,925 and an annual
production cost of P65,555.83 ($1=P56). Assuming
10 croppings/year, at the average lettuce price of P50/k, the
return on investment will be 51%. The investment cost can be
recovered in less than two years.
The College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology
of UPLB designed another model of hydroponics system. It is
a relatively economical hydroponics system that was established
in Batangas using low-cost greenhouses and other facilities. A
group of engineering students formulated their own nutrient
solutions using locally available ingredients and found very
good results in growing crops such as tomato, lettuce, bell pepper,
cucumber, and chrysanthemums.
CvSU has put up a technology demonstration farm for
hydroponics. Also in Cavite, the Clear Water Produce Farm in
Silang, the Amigonan Fathers Farm in General Trias, the Dalisay
Farms in Dasmariñas and the Terra Farms Philippines, Inc. in
Tagaytay City have been adopting hydroponics.
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Container Farming
C ontainer farming is one of the easiest ways to deal with

gardening in urban spaces. One can find appropriate plants
and containers for any space and can use virtually anything to
make containers (Hodel and Chang, 2000).
Undan et al. (2002) mentioned that container farming has
many plus factors aside from saving money for the person
growing the vegetables. It can help “green” the city by reducing
air pollution. It can prevent the haphazard disposal of discarded
containers and reduce the volume of garbage by reusing these as
recycled planting containers.
Vegetable growing is possible even in areas where
production is limited by space or by unsuitable growing conditions,
through container gardening. This kind of gardening also
successfully produces nutritious and fresh vegetables like those
grown in commercial farms and typical backyard gardens
(Crucido, 2004).
On the other hand, one of the keys to “container farming”
success is the planting medium. Container farming requires a
specific soil mixture to be used. The ideal growing medium is a
mixture of 1 part each of loam soil, compost (or composted
manure), and rice hull or coconut coir dust. However, if the soil is
clayey, a combination of 1 part clay soil, 2 parts compost (or
composted manure), and 1 part partially decomposed rice hull or
coconut coir dust should be used (Undan et. al, 2002).
Choosing Suitable Plants

for Container Growing
There are many vegetables and other edible plants that can be
grown in containers but a selection is eventually chosen based on
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some guidelines. Mabesa et al. (2005) do not recommend the
following for container growing:
z Large fruit trees – The biggest container usually available that

will not look out of place in a garden is the 260-L capacity
drum cut into half. However, this is good only for growing
small fruit crops such calamansi.
z Plants that yield too low/ unit space per unit time – Watermelon
and muskmelon occupy too much space. They are not
suitable for container growing because their
fruits are too heavy to grow on a trellis. Moreover, it takes
3–4 months to harvest 1–2 fruits per plant.
z Plants that require controlled growing conditions like mushrooms –

The technology for growing mushroom is complicated even
for types that do not need a structure where temperature
and relative humidity are controlled. There are training
programs specifically for growing mushrooms.
z Plants that are not attractive to look at in a container such as

sweet corn.
Table 10 presents a variety of plants suited to growing
in containers and even in small plots.
Basic Studies
Basic studies on container gardening were limited on selected

crucifers, solanaceous crops, and root crops. In CLSU, studies on
cruciferous crop like pechay (Brassica napus L.) grown in
containers and applied with 20 ml fish amino acid (FAA) (organic
foliar fertilizer) produced the highest number of leaves (11) per
plant and the highest yield (548.80 g) per container (Ignacio and
Nitural, 2002). Also, using soil mixture composed of one part
each of garden soil, organic fertilizer, and styrofoam granules
significantly produced the highest yield per container of
mustard (83.02 g), pechay (77.24 g), and lettuce (71.80 g)
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Table 10. Recommended varieties of vegetables for container gardening. a
Kind Variety Interesting Part
Leafy Vegetables
Bunching or Benizome Red-color stem
Green Onion Aqua Green Large barbecue-stick-shape leaves
Fuyuyo Large barbecue-stick-shape leaves
Natsuyo Large barbecue-stick-shape leaves
Tokyo Long White
Celery Tall Utah Large lobed leaves

Tendercrisp Large lobed leaves
CeylonSpinach Red Variety Red-color leaves
(Alugbati)
Endive Fullhearted Variegated color and coral-shape leaf
formation
Leaf lettuce Lollo Rosa Red-color leaves and rose-like leaf formation
Wonder of 4 seasons Red-color leaves and rose-like leaf formation
Red Salad Bowl Red-color leaves and rose-like leaf formation
Denies Red Red-color leaves and rose-like leaf formation
Red Sails Red-color leaves and rose-like leaf formation
Romaine Red-color leaves and rose-like leaf formation
Head lettuce Batavia Green Cabbage-like heads
Great Lakes Cabbage-like heads
White Boston Cabbage-like heads
President Cabbage-like heads
Iceberg Cabbage-like heads
Getto Cabbage-like heads
Emperor Cabbage-like heads
Green Lakes Cabbage-like heads
Ontario Cabbage-like heads
Cabbage Family
Broccoli Turbo Blue-green-color and coral-shape curd
Jubilee Blue-green-color and coral-shape curd
Calabrese Blue-green-color and coral-shape curd
Grandeur Blue-green-color and coral-shape curd
Top Green (for high
temperature areas)
Legacy
Cabbage Red Dynasty Red-color head

Red Mast Red-color head
Red Amager Red-color head
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Table 10. (Continued).
Red Charm
Red Drumhead
Cauliflower Kirin Purple-color and coral-shape curd
Alba Rich 45 Purple-color and coral-shape curd
Graffiti Purple-color and coral-shape curd
White Coral Purple-color and coral-shape curd
Snowball Purple-color and coral-shape curd
White Summer
White Baron
Gourd Family
Bitter gourd Maldita Wart-like fruit shape
(Ampalaya) Sta. Isabelle Wart-like fruit shape
Galaxy Wart-like fruit shape
Sta. Rita Wart-like fruit shape
Mayon Wart-like fruit shape
Green Comet Wart-like fruit shape
Sta. Fe Wart-like fruit shape
Bottle gourd Tambuli Mini-baseball-bat fruit shape
(Upo) Tambuli Supreme Mini-baseball-bat fruit shape
Cucumber Batangas White White fruit color
Squash Shiroguri Lobed leaves, white fruit color
Giant Melon Lobed leaves, white fruit color
Rizalina Lobed leaves, yellow fruit color
(one-cooking-type)
Igorota
Zucchini Zucchini Grey Mini-bat-shape fruits arranged in cluster
Pod-bearing Vegetables
Okra Smooth Green Finger-like pod
Pole longBean Scarlet Max Red pod color
(Sitaw)
Snap bean Dwarf Yellow Yellow pod color
Winged bean Native Serrated pods
(Sigarilyas)
Tomato Family
Eggplant Black Jack Dark-violet fruit color and lobed leaves
Black Ninja Dark-violet fruit color and lobed leaves
Fiesta Dark-violet fruit color and lobed leaves
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Casino Dark-violet fruit color and lobed leaves

Jackpot Dark-violet fruit color and lobed leaves
Long Purple Dark-violet fruit color and lobed leaves
Domino Egg-size fruit
Long pepper Django Red-color and finger-like-shape fruit

Cayenne Red-color and finger-like-shape fruit
Long Thin Cayenne
Capsicum Majestry Red-color and bell-shape fruit

pepper Trinity Red-color and bell-shape fruit
Celica Red-color and bell-shape fruit
Lamuyo Red-color and bell-shape fruit
California Wonder Red-color and bell-shape fruit
Yolo Wonder Red-color and bell-shape fruit
Sweet Spanish Red-color and bell-shape fruit
Enterprise Red-color
Marengo Yellow-color
Tomato Paruche Orange fruit color

Marimar Dark-red-color and big size fruit
Maxima Dark-red-color and big size fruit
Rocky Dark-red-color and big size fruit
Mountain Pride Dark-red-color and big size fruit
Money Maker Dark-red-color and big size fruit
Enrico Dark-red-color and big size fruit
Apollo
F 4-7
Root Crops
Carrot Argo Kuroda Fern-like leaves
KS Kuroda Fern-like leaves
Kuroda Fern-like leaves
Improved Kuroda Fern-like leaves
a
Mabesa et al., 2005.
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compared with the control treatments (Salmos and Gay-ya,
2005).
Moreover, Salas and Nitural (2003) observed that tomato
grown in receptacle attained optimum height due to the
application of high organic matter (fully decomposed hog manure)
to the growth medium even without N fertilizer application.
Similarly, tomato planted in receptacle and fertilized with either
10,000 kg/ha of pure organic fertilizer or 50% organic + 50%
inorganic (14-14-14) fertilizer produced higher number of fruits
harvested per plant compared to the unfertilized experimental
plants (Leche and Nitural, 2005). Another solanaceous crop that
can be grown in container is hot pepper. In the study conducted
by Martin and Nitural (2004), growing hot pepper in black
plastic polyethylene plastic bag and fertilized with Sagana 100
bio-organic fertilizer at the rate of 2.0 t/ha significantly
produced the highest yield at 396.11 g/plant compared with the
control and those plants applied with Sagana 100 at the rate of
1 and 1.5 t/ha, respectively.
Lastly, carrot (Daucus carota L.) grown in receptacles, containing
one part each of garden soil, fine sand, and organic fertilizer,
significantly produced the longest root of 18.34 cm, highest yield
of 53.33 g/container and total soluble solids of 9.85% (Castro
and Nitural, 2001). Moreover, radish grown in receptacles
applied with 4 ml of FAA significantly produced the longest
marketable root (19.56 cm), widest marketable root diameter
(4.17 cm), and highest yield of 938 g/container (Cordon and
Nitural, 2003).
The containers for growing the plants must be big enough to
support them when they are fully grown; can hold sufficient
volume of medium; have adequate drainage (Nitural, 2001);
and free of materials that are toxic to plants and people (Mabesa
et al., 2005).
According to Undan et al. (2002), if one’s goal is to recycle
and find long-term use for objects that are thrown in the garbage,
then old tires, sacks, old tin cans, used plastic containers for
mineral water, cooking oil, milk, soy sauce, catsup, mayonnaise,
and many others can be used. Even old pots and pans, old
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colanders, used metal or plastic drums, broken plastic trashcans,
foamed polystyrene fruit cases, or wooden crates can become
planters. On the other hand, in selecting containers, consider
not only aesthetics, but also suitability to the crop and durability
or the length of its useful life. Also, someone looking for unusual
containers can use old bags, hats, boots, pitchers, wheelbarrow,
wading pools, old sinks, rocks or tree stumps with hollowed
insides, discarded boats, and carts. However, whatever type of
container is chosen, it must have drain holes (Mabesa et al., 2005).
Size and Kind of Container
The appropriate container is selected for a specific plant.

Generally, the bigger the container, the wider is the choice of
crops or varieties to plant in it. Small containers are suitable for
shallow-rooted crops, while big and deep containers are for deep-
rooted crops. Most small plants are shallow rooted. Viny plants
can either be planted in hanging pots or grown in containers
where a trellis can be placed.
The following are the common growing containers or
receptacles in container gardening as described by Mabesa
et al. (2005).
1. Clay pots - Clay pots or urns (pots with a footed base or

pedestal) are relatively heavy. In clay pots, water
evaporates through the sides and this cools the root zone.
Thus, these are very good containers in areas where
temperature is high.
2. Plastic pots – Plastic pots are durable, easy to stack, easy

to clean, light, and available in all sizes and shapes. Some
are made of rigid plastic and some are of flexible
materials. Old plastic buckets make good containers.
3. Black polyethylene plastic bags - Black plastic bags

commonly used in plant nurseries are cheap and very
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light but not durable. In cold areas, black or dark-colored
plastic pots are good containers because black absorbs
heat that affects plant growth.
4. Foamed plastic box - These are the white, lightweight

containers used for shipping apples, pears, and other
imported fruits. They are made of a special kind of plastic
called foamed polystyrene. Several plants can be grown
together in the box.
5. Metal - Metal buckets, made of tin and its alloy or

galvanized iron can also be used as growing containers.
However, cans and metal buckets are prone to corrosion.
Hence, painting the inner sides of the cans is
recommended.
6. Rubber pots and old tires - Rubber pots are cheap as they
are made of recycled tires but they are a bit heavy.
Containers other than the pot-shaped can be fashioned
from old tires by putting one tire on top of another to
increase space for soil or any potting medium (Fig. 13).
Fig. 13. Pechay grown in used tires.
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Organic containers. Bamboo poles, bamboo baskets,
coconut husks, and bags made of palm leaves ('bayong') can also
be used as organic-growing containers since they decompose
naturally (Fig. 14). However, constant watering and exposure
to heavy rains easily destroy bamboo baskets and bayong.
Fig. 14. Pechay grown in short bamboo poles.
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Handling and Storing
Vegetables
N ot all the harvested vegetables will be used or consumed at

one time or at once. In this case, the excess vegetables can be
stored in the refrigerator or preserved by methods such as
freezing, drying, and pickling as in pickled papaya or 'achara'
(Mabesa et al., 2005).
Storing Fresh Vegetables
Proper and careful handling is necessary to prolong shelf or

storage life of the produce. Vegetables should not be dropped or
thrown during harvest and transport because any damage may
hasten their deterioration. Undamaged, fresh vegetables should
be stored in the refrigerator immediately to keep their freshness
while those with imperfect quality can be consumed right away.
Before storage, air-dry or wipe moisture from the surface of
vegetables as wet vegetables tend to rot faster. Microorganisms
causing rotting grow rapidly in moist conditions.
Some tips in storing vegetables:
1. Pack vegetables in thin plastic bags or thick plastic bags

(with 2 holes per bag) before storage. Heat and gases
from vegetables can pass through the holes to prolong
freshness.
2. Warm-season vegetables such as okra and eggplant keep
best at 12oC and are sensitive to temperatures lower
than 12oC, which results in chilling injury. Browning,
development of sunken areas on the peel of fruit
vegetables, and fast rotting ensue.
3. Low-temperature storage (as low as 0oC) is suited to
cool-season crops.
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4. Green or root vegetables should not be put in a plastic
bag or in the vegetable crisper (without bags) with ripe
or ripening fruit such as tomato. The latter emits ethylene,
a natural gas that hastens yellowing of green vegetables,
sprouting of root vegetables, and development of a
bitter taste in carrot.
5. Store asparagus upright because it still grows after
harvest. If it’s laid horizontally, the tip grows upright
and crooked later.
6. Root and bulb vegetables, except for the more
perishable carrot, should not be stored in the
refrigerator for two weeks. The dampness inside the
refrigerator promotes the sprouting of these vegetables.
It is better to keep them in a cool, dry place.
Freezing
Freezing stops the deterioration of the vegetables and should

be done immediately after harvest. Vegetables can be peeled, cut,
or washed before freezing. Blanch or lightly boil vegetables
for 1–5 minutes, depending on the thickness of the vegetables to
stop the enzymes from converting green color to a grayish green
and sweetness to bland.
Drying
Drying preserves vegetables by lowering their water content

below levels where microorganisms grow. Prepare and dry
vegetables soon after harvest in a clean place. Before cooking,
soak first the dried vegetables in hot water. The following
vegetables can be dried:
z Bitter gourd (ampalaya) z Cauliflower

z Okra z Broccoli
z Herbs z Cabbage
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z Carrot z Drumstick tree (malunggay)
z Pechay z Onion
z Mustard z Garlic
z Tomato z Squash
z Pole long bean (sitaw) z Sweet potato roots
z Snap bean z Potato
z Kangkong z Sweet pepper
z Celery z Chili pepper
Pickling
Many vegetables can be pickled in a pickling solution.

These are:
Bitter gourd (ampalaya) Garlic

Capsicum pepper Mustard
Carrot Pechay
Chayote Pole long bean (sitaw)
Chili pepper Radish
Chinese cabbage Small onions or shallots
Cucumber Winged bean (sigarilyas)
Yam bean (singkamas) Young ginger, harvested at
that has been stored 4 months can be pickled
for quite some time. and eaten as an appetizer.
Newly harvested
singkamas has high
moisture content and
does not absorb the
pickling solution well.
An additional step, natural fermentation, can be done before

pickling to get more flavorful vegetables that can keep longer.
Vegetables are kept in salt solution for several days to produce
lactic acid, a preservative. Cabbage, Chinese cabbage, radish,
pechay, or mustard can be processed in this way. Kimchi is a
fermented Korean vegetable.
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Edible Landscaping
L andscaping is the art and science of designing and managing a

particular space to create an environment that is highly
suitable to the biological and physiological well being of man
(Naranja, 2004). Edible landscaping is not different from the
traditional landscaping except that plants used are vegetable,
herbs, and some fruit trees. It provides both aesthetic benefits and
food for improved nutrition. Dr. Leonido R. Naranja, Professor,
Crop Science Cluster, College of Agriculture, UPLB is the
proponent of edible landscaping.
Edible landscaping follows the basic elements of landscape
design such as form, line, texture, color, light, volume, proportion,
unity, harmony, balance, contrast, and emphasis (Mabesa et al.,
2005). However, plants used are vegetable, herbs, and small
fruit trees planted in containers or directly on the ground. For
example, to attain a curvilinear form, an arch or trellis using
viny vegetables like ampalaya or patola can be put up. Vertically
placed PVC pipes with side holes may be utilized to simulate a
spiral line. Sweet or bell peppers can be planted for color as well
as red cabbage and lettuce. Green alugbati (Ceylon spinach) with
its large, succulent, and luscious vegetative growth will fill up large
space. Table 11 lists some vegetables that add beauty to the
garden.
Container growing is an important part of edible landscaping.
Furthermore, the container size should be proportionate to the
size of the plant and should blend with the existing surroundings.
Terra cotta pots are appropriate in condominium gardens
instead of rusting tin cans. To create balance, pre-existing structures
must be considered in the choosing of edible plants. Achieve
contrast by combining various edible plants with different growth
habit, leaf structure, color, and shape. Planting tall crops like
tomato surrounded by vegetable or herbs with rosette growth
gives emphasis (Mabesa et al., 2005).
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Table 11. Vegetables that add beauty to the garden.
Plant Colorful Vegetables with

Part Vegetables Attractive Shapes
Leaves/Stems Endive; Lettuce; Ceylon Endive; Lettuce (leaf/head);

spinach (Alugbati); Cabbage; Chinese cabbage;
Cabbage; Beet; Brussels sprout; Carrot;
Amaranth; Sweet Celery; Green onion;
potato Rhubarb; Kohirabi
Flowers/Curds Cauliflower; Broccoli; Cauliflower; Broccoli
Talinum; Sesban
(Katuray)
Fruits/Pods Squash; Zucchini; Bitter Squash; Zucchini; Bitter gourd;
grourd; Hyacinth bean Capsicum pepper; Ornamental
(Bataw); Pole long bean; hot pepper; Tomato; Eggplant;
Capsicum pepper; Long Snap bean; Pole long bean
pepper; Chilli pepper;
Tomato; Eggplant; Snap
beans
In edible landscaping, all the required cultural management

practices must be applied to be a successful component of
urban agriculture.
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Socioeconomic and Marketing
General Farm-related Characteristics
U rban agriculture farms in Metro Manila were reported having

1,966 m2 in 1999 (Ali and Porciuncula, 2001). Three percent
of the farmers own the land they till, while the rest encroached on
other people’s land. In Muntinlupa and Taguig, urban farms are
located along Laguna Lake and are prone to flooding during the
rainy season. In Fairview, urban farms are found in the residential
areas and the farmers keep the place green and productive. In all
locations, urban farmers have a farming experience that ranges
from 5 years to 21 years.
Table 12 shows that 63% of the urban farmers have reached or
completed primary education, while 32% of them reached or
completed high school. The remaining 5% have college education.
The average farm household size and farm family size of the
urban farmers is 4.23 and 4.74, respectively. There is only one
available adult labor per family but membership to associations
and organizations is high with 74%.
There is an advantage in joining the farmers association in
Taguig and Muntinlupa because of the support provided by BPI
Table 12. Socioeconomic characteristics of urban farmers in Metro Manila.a

Socioeconomic Characteristic Urban Farmer
1. Educational Attainment (%)
a. Primary Education 63
b. Secondary Education 32
c. College Education 5
2. Average size of farm household (No.) 4.23
3. Average size of the family (No.) 4.74
4. Adult labor per family (No.) 1.17
5. Membership to organization (%) 74
a
Ali and Porciuncula, 2001.
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of DA and DA-RFU IV-A in the form of seeds and other
production inputs.
The local government of Quezon City was reported providing
support for the Bulaklakan at Gulayan Project in Brgy. Holy
Spirit in the form of production inputs (Garcia, 2005). Garcia
added that the other sectors of society and the barangay associations
help in promoting the project as the model urban farm in the city.
Migration Pattern
Sixty-one percent of the urban farmers are migrants from the

provinces while the others are residents of the place where the
farm is located (Ali and Porciuncula, 2001).
Household Income
Ali and Porciuncula (2001) indicated that the average monthly

household income of the urban farmers in Metro Manila from
all sources is P10,421.70. The computed monthly per capita
income of the urban farmers of P2,371.00 was higher than the
1977 per capita poverty threshold of P2,017.00.
Source of Credit
There is a financier who provides inputs to the urban farmers

in Fairview, Quezon in a 50-50% sharing arrangement. Inputs
provided are seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides. In Muntinlupa and
Taguig, the male farm-household head makes the decision in
borrowing money from village lenders, relatives, parents, and
friends.
Marketing
In general, small urban farmers and those who grow their crops
in containers harvest their crops for home consumption. The
harvest that exceeds family requirement and the produce from
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larger urban farms pass through the hands of different agents
until they finally reach the consumers.
Ali and Porciuncula (2001) described the flow of the produce
from the urban gardens. The farmers sell the produce to the
assemblers or traders at their agreed price. Usually the trader who
offers a higher price gets the products. In some other cases, the
trader or assembler provides an advance payment to be sure that
they will get the products. The assemblers or traders distribute the
products to the wholesaler. The wholesaler then distributes the
products to the retailers and finally to the consumers. There are
variations in this flow as the farmers also sell their products direct
to the retailers and/or consumers in the same way as the traders
and assemblers distribute the products to the retailers and
consumers. The marketing channels are illustrated in Figure 15.
C
R
O
E
N
T
Assembler S
A
Wholesaler
U
Urban Farm I
(Farmer) Trader M
L
E
E
R
R
Fig. 15. Marketing channels of the products from the vegetable

farms.
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Cost and Return
The urban vegetable production system in the Philippines may

be claimed as earning enterprises. Fojas as cited by de Guzman
and Banatlao (1999) reported that an urban farmer from Brgy.
Nayong Pilipino, Pasay City declared a net income of P52,509.30
in one cropping season from a 1,749-m2 urban farm (Table 13).
Table 13. Net income from one-season vegetable production in an

urban garden in Barangay Pilipino, Pasay City.
Total Area Net Income Total Net
Crop (m2) (P/ m-2) Income (P)
Green Onion 826 51.60 42,626.00
Celery 224 19.25 4,313.50
Lettuce 182 9.79 1,782.30
Wansuy 147 10.18 1,497.00
Spinach 167 00.20 829.00
Leek 63 14.06 855.95
Pechay 56 5.67 312.00
Kangkong 84 3.13 263.55
TOTAL 1,749 52,479.30
Apparently, vegetable production in the urban farms is a

profitable enterprise. In fact, the report of Garcia (2005) on the
urban vegetable production in Brgy. Holy Spirit indicated that a
household earned a net income of P18,000 from a 2,000 m2-area
used for ampalaya production. She added that in okra, a farmer
earned a net income (labor cost not indicated) of P12,705 from a
502-meter land area. The costs and returns for a 1,000-m2
urban farm was computed from a one hectare of vegetables
(PCARRD Information Bulletin No. 150, 154, 157, 158, 159, 160,
161, 162, 163) commonly grown in the urban gardens (Table 14).
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Table 14. Estimated costs and returns for a 1,000-m2 of vegetables commonly
grown in the urban gardens.
Variable Cost (P) Income (P)

Crop
Material Labor Fixed Total Gross Net
Tomato 6268 2320 1406 9994 10500– 557–

16500 6506
Lettuce 2541 2415 1806 6762 12000– 5238–
15000 8238
Pechay 2003 1666 542 4211 5000– 794–
7500 3288
Ampalaya 6917 4610 2086 13613 15000– 1416–
22000 8916
Squash 2135 1180 1966 5281 10000 4719
Hot Pepper 3428 3810 2346 9584 20000– 10416–
25000 15416
Pole Sitao 2430 1600 2006 6036 9400– 3363–
18800 12763
Kangkong 7000 6375 2246 15621 25000– 9339–
35000 19339
Back to TOC
Programs Addressing Urban
Agriculture in the Philippines
U rban agriculture complements conventional agriculture and

must not be construed as the sole answer to the food supply
problem in the cities or population centers. As indicated in most
literatures, urban agriculture is geared towards alleviating the food
requirement of the urban poor. However in a strict sense, urban
agriculture is simply the practice of growing crops in congested
areas or places wherein there is no land space for crop production
hence not just necessarily only for the urban poor.
In the Philippines, DA launched an urban agriculture program
in Metro Manila aimed at alleviating poverty, assisting in the
government’s waste reduction program, and improving the health
and nutrition of the urban poor. Initially, the program on urban
agriculture was implemented only in Metro Manila but later
expanded to other cities in the Visayas and Mindanao. The
program provided additional source of income for senior citizens
or retirees and out-of-school youth in the barangays involved.
In the implementation of the program, DA tapped the
assistance of the LGUs and civic organizations with similar
objectives in the metropolis. Production areas for urban agriculture
were elementary school gardens, vacant lots of both private and
public sectors, and individual home backyards or frontage.
To promote the urban agriculture program, DA conducted
trainings and extension works in cooperation with other GAs such
as the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) and state
colleges and universities. Technologies developed like container
growing, composting, biogas generation, good processing,
packaging, and marketing strategies were emphasized in the
various training courses and workshops.
Besides DA, other GAs conducting viable urban agriculture
programs include the LGUs both in the provincial and municipal
levels. For example in Laguna, the provincial government
Back to TOC
maintains a FAITH garden. In the said garden, various forms of
crop production for the urban areas are continuously maintained,
like home gardening, edible landscaping, container growing, and
protective cultivation. Such displays are also duplicated in the
different municipalities and GAs to promote the concept of urban
agriculture.
Another government agency active in the promotion of
urban agriculture is DOST, through PCARRD. Just recently,
PCARRD sponsored the “International Workshop Urban/Peri
Urban Agriculture in the Asian and Pacific Region,” in
cooperation with the Food and Fertilizer Technology Center,
based in the Republic of China. The international workshop was
participated by more than 50 participants coming from nine
different countries.
From the academe, the CvSU, CLSU, and UPLB are the lead
academic institutions promoting urban agriculture. In these
universities, a techno demo on various aspects of urban
agriculture is being showcased and maintained the whole year
round. Several published literatures on urban agriculture are also
available from these schools. Furthermore, formal courses on
urban agriculture are being offered as a major subject in crop
science.
In the Philippines, both the public and the private sectors are
cooperating to promote urban agriculture. The Society for
Advancement of Vegetable Industry and the Philippine Seed
Industry Association, both private associations, are sponsoring
the annual veggie fest, which highlights not only technical
advancement in urban agriculture but also promotes container
gardening, edible landscaping, vegetable arts, and recipe making.
Back to TOC
Research and Development
Gaps and Priorities
R&D Gaps and Needs
U rban agriculture has the capability to address government

thrusts on food security, poverty alleviation and people
empowerment; production and income; and sustainable
agricultural development. There are records on production
presented in some reports (Crucido, 2003; Undan et al., 2001;
Mabesa et al., 2005; De Guzman and Banatlao, 1999; and
Garcia, 2005) and on income from the survey of Ali and
Porciuncula (2001). But these are basically records on specific
areas. What is of prime need is the documentation and validation
covering the programs and activities nationwide to determine
the extent of the implementation of vegetable gardening and
agriculture in urban areas. Then, all these data and information
would be assembled and maintained in a database. To this end, the
Core Planning Team for Urban Agriculture (2001) has included in
its priority projects the establishment of a national databank
system for urban agriculture and the evaluation of the existing
urban agriculture gardens in the Philippines.
R&D undertakings are still needed to close in the discrepancy
between the available technology and information and those that
still need to be done. Efforts have been made to identify the R&D
gaps that were used in drafting the Urban Agriculture RDE
(research, development, and extension) Agenda/Program (Core
Planning Team for Urban Agriculture, 2001).
The Core Planning Team for Urban Agriculture 2001
determined the R&D gaps by identifying problems and
constraints in establishing urban agriculture projects, as well
as the research and extension needs. These are presented in
Table 15.
Back to TOC
Table 15. Problems and issues, R&D needs, and extension needs in urban
agriculture.
Problems and Issues R&D Needs Extension Needs
1. Production/Productivity
a. Limited space for Development of appropriate Conduct of training on

production technologies for receptacle receptacle gardening
gardening
Development of technologies Packaging of available
for market gardening and technologies and
vertical agriculture information dissemination
b. Lack of planting Conduct of knowledge- Training of trainers, farmers,

materials for city based studies in urban extension workers and
farming agriculture researchers on urban
Sustainability assessment agriculture
of demonstration projects Packaging, publication and
on urban agriculture dissemination of developed
technologies
Establishment of
demonstration projects
Promotion of urban agriculture
to enhance technology
adoption
c. Limited number of Improvement and selection Propagation and distribution of

crop varieties, of crop varieties, animal crop varieties, animal and
animals and fish and fish species adapted fish species suited for urban
species suitable for to urban environment agriculture production
urban agriculture
d. Lack of equipment Design and fabrication of Production of fabricated

and machines that space-saving platform and equipment, machines/tools
fit urban agricultural cost-efficient machines/ for urban agriculture
production tools for urban agriculture
2. Marketing
a. Lack of appropriate Development of marketing Establishment of market

marketing strategies strategies for urban information center for the
for urban agriculture agriculture urban agriculture products
products
Back to TOC
Problems and Issues R&D Needs Extension Needs
b. Lack of national socio- Conduct of socioeconomic

economic and and marketing studies on
marketing data on urban agriculture
urban agriculture and
urban agriculture
farmers.
c. Weak production- Development of production- Market surveillance and

marketing continuum market matching on urban production monitoring on
for urban agriculture agriculture and enhance- urban agriculture
ment of city farmer's
capability in marketing
urban agriculture products
d. Undocumented Establishment of database

existing urban system for urban
agriculture projects agriculture projects
3. Environmental Protection
a. Urban wastes are not Development of technologies Information dissemination and

properly disposed and on waste utilization for training on solid waste
utilized urban agriculture use conversion into compost
Determine level of pollutants and waste water treatment
in tissues of vegetables
grown in the urban gardens
Development of test kits that
can detect level of toxic
substances and pollutants
in plant tissues
Conduct studies on protected
cultivation
Composting of urban solid
waste for urban agriculture
use
Household waste water and
sewage water treatment
for urban agriculture use
Back to TOC
Other Priorities
In order for urban agriculture to help in addressing the

national thrusts, it has to concentrate on the listed problems and
gaps. Priority should be given to more important activities.
Guanzon and Holmer (2003) indicated other priority areas
where information is needed:
z Improved vegetable varieties with adaptation to tropical

lowlands, resistant to pests and diseases and pathogens,
with higher nutritional values and longer shelf life;
z Technologies for composting biodegradable urban
waste;
z Integrated crop management;
z Efficient and economic irrigation system; and
z Safe use of wastewater for irrigation.
Other areas considered are:
z Development of odorless compost-making procedure to

recycle urban waste products into organic fertilizer;
z Development of alternative technologies and strategies
to pesticide use, such as biological control, resistant
cultivars, and crop management for urban and peri-urban
agriculture; and
z Development of techniques to reduce levels of nitrate,
pesticides, and heavy metals in urban and peri-urban
agriculture.
Back to TOC
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Urban Vegetable Production

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OFFICEOFTHEEXECUTIVEDIRECTOR

PCARRD has once again come up with a publication that is

Very truly yours,

PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY

Los Baños, Laguna

Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and

U rbanization has radiated to the outskirts of our cities and

T he Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural

• Heads of Cavite State University (CvSU), Central

• The Technical Committee, composed of Dr. Simeon S.

• The Director Dr. Digna O. Manzanilla and staff of the

• The Director Dr. Lily Ann D. Lando and staff of the

URBAN VEGETABLE CROP PRODUCTION 10

CULTURAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR URBAN

ORGANIC VEGETABLE FARMING IN URBAN AREAS 42

PROTECTED AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION 56

HANDLING AND STORING VEGETABLES 71

SOCIOECONOMIC AND MARKETING 76

PROGRAMS ADDRESSING URBAN AGRICULTURE

1 Types of vegetables based on the temperature requirement 11

1 A container garden in an urban area 7

Dr. Simeon S. Crucido

Dr. Renato C. Mabesa

Dr. Pedrito C. Nitural

Dr. Bethilda E. Umali

T here is rapid urbanization among developing countries around

Urban Vegetable Production in the Philippines 1

2 Urban Vegetable Production in the Philippines

Urban Vegetable Production in the Philippines 3

T here are numerous definitions of urban agriculture. It is difficult

Urban agriculture may provide opportunities to supply the

Urban Vegetable Production in the Philippines 5

While there are numerous benefits ensuing from such

6 Urban Vegetable Production in the Philippines

Urban gardening in the Philippines ranges from planting crops

Fig. 1. A container garden in an urban area.

Urban Vegetable Production in the Philippines 7

8 Urban Vegetable Production in the Philippines

Urban Vegetable Production in the Philippines 9

T he choice of plants to grow in an urban garden is an important

Plants thrive best when their temperature requirements are

10 Urban Vegetable Production in the Philippines

Cool-Temperature Warm-Temperature Cool or Warm Season

Asparagus Amaranth ('kulitis') Broccoli

Urban Vegetable Production in the Philippines 11

Cool-season vegetables and other crops such as strawberry

Light Level Vegetables

Total darkness Seed sprouts

sunlight of ten hours or less, which usually occurs starting late

Prevailing Wind Speed

In windy places, such as the balcony or rooftop of a tall building,

Urban Vegetable Production in the Philippines 13

It may not be possible to produce all the vegetables that the

The main objective of a garden is to have an assured supply of

14 Urban Vegetable Production in the Philippines

Vegetable plants can be classified into four groups:

• Perennial edible crops – Perennial plants can grow for

- Drumstick tree (malunggay)

• Herbs – These plants are used as spice, flavoring,

Urban Vegetable Production in the Philippines 15

• Indigenous, traditional, or native vegetables – These

Suitability of Crops to Group Planting

Growing a selection of vegetables together brings good

16 Urban Vegetable Production in the Philippines