A.

TOPIC CONTENT/NOTES
LECTURE 3

SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

What is a school of psychology? At the beginning of this module we

defined psychology and gave a brief account of how it developed into a

true science of human behaviour with its own methods of study. In the

history of psychology, different perspectives of explaining behaviour

evolved. This came as a result of strong differences of opinion about what

psychology should study and how it should do it. Schools of psychology

can be thought of as groups of psychologists who hold common beliefs

about both the subject matter of psychology, that is, what facets of mental

processes and behaviours should be studied, and what methods of study

should be used. Thus, a school of psychology represents a view point or

approach to the explanation of behaviour. Most schools of psychology

developed as a revolt against traditional methods and beliefs at the time.

Different schools provided ideas which influenced contemporary

approaches to psychology. In this lecture we are going to discuss various

schools of psychology and as we do this, keep your attention focused on

how some of these schools might have contributed to policing practices

and understanding of the behaviour of police officers and criminals.

3.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
• Differentiate between various schools of psychology.
• State the major emphases and assumptions of various schools of psychology.
• Explain the major contributions of each school of psychology.
• Relate the various approaches of psychology to military processes.
3.3 Major Schools of Psychology

The Major Schools of Psychology include:

i. Structuralism

Structuralism is one of the earliest schools of psychology that was founded

by Wilhelm Wundt in 1879. Remember we said that Wundt established

the first psychological laboratory in German at the University of Leipzig

and therefore he is considered as the founder of experimental psychology.

The setting up of this laboratory marked the break of psychology from

philosophy to science.

The goal of structuralists was to find the units, or elements, which make

up the mind. They thought that a first step in the study of the mind should

be a description of those basic or elementary units of sensation, image

and emotion which compose it (Morgan et al., 1986). They were mainly

concerned with determining the components of conscious thought.

Wundt and other structuralists used a technique called introspection to

study the structure of behaviour. Introspection is a method in which

subjects are asked to describe in detail their thoughts and feelings. The
assumption was that one can understand the structure of the mind

through the objective reports and reactions of the subject. For example,

a subject might be presented with a coloured light and asked to describe

it as minutely as possible.

Structuralists inaugurated psychology as a science and established the

importance of studying mental processes. However, psychologists felt

that structuralism was limited to only one area of behaviour and had few

practical applications. These psychologists who were mainly Americans

began a new school of psychology called functionalism.

ii. Functionalism

William James was the leading force in the functionalism school of

psychology. Functionalists felt that psychology should study “what the

mind and behaviour do”. They were specifically interested in the fact

that mind and behaviour are adaptive – they enable an individual to adjust

to a changing environment. Psychologists in this school of thought were

influenced by Darwin’s theory of the survival for the fittest. Instead of

limiting themselves to the description and analysis of the mind, they did

experiments on the ways in which learning, memory, problem solving and

motivation help human beings and animals to adapt to environments. In

short, as the name of the school implies, these early psychologists studied

the functions of mind and behaviour.

Functionalism had an impact on the development of psychology although

it is no longer considered a formal school (Huffman et al., 1987). It

expanded the scope of psychology to include research on emotions and

observable behaviours. Functionalists initiated the psychological testing

movement, changed the course of modern psychology and were

responsible for extending psychology’s influence on diverse areas in

industry. Other Psychologists’ dissatisfaction with these initial schools of

psychology led to the development of new perspectives of looking at

behaviour.

iii. Psychoanalytic Perspective

This approach was founded by Sigmund Freud (1956 – 1939), an Austrian

physician whose area of specialization was neurology (the study of

disorders of the nerves and brain). It developed because of his experience

with his medical patients. In his treatment of neurological patients, Freud

noted that some of his patients presented symptoms that had no physical

basis like brain damage. These symptoms were real for the patients as if

they had neurological causes.

Freud suspected that these problems were psychological in origin and as

a result developed a complex and sophisticated model of human

behaviour known as psychoanalytic theory. From this theory he

developed the treatment known as psychoanalysis.Freud believed that

behaviour is brought about by inner unconscious forces, drives or

impulses over which the person has little control. These urges and drives
are hidden from the awareness of the individual. In other words, they are

unconscious. It is the expression of these unconscious drives which

shows up in behaviour and thought. For example, psychoanalysts believe

that dreams and slips of the tongue are manifestations of what a person

is feeling within a subconscious psychic activity.

Freud also emphasized the importance of early childhood experiences on

later personality development. He coined the phrase, “the child is the

father of the man”, to emphasize his belief that our childhood

experiences are stored in our unconscious state of mind and influence our
personality and behaviour when we are adults. For example, if you were

neglected and abused as a child, chances are high that you will lack

affection and trust in other people. If you are such a person, you may be

cold and abusive in adulthood experience (Sindabi&Omulema, 1999).

Learning Activity:

What factors cause criminal behavior from a psychoanalytic view?

Freud’s perspective was criticized because of his research methodology in

which he exclusively applied the individual case study technique without

comparing his data to normal people as a control. Thus, critics contend

that this theory applies to abnormal behaviour, if it is applicable at all.

Despite the criticism, his school of thought has had an impact on

psychotherapy (the application of psychological principles and techniques

to the treatment of psychological disorders) and psychiatry (the diagnosis

and treatment of mental disorders especially with drugs).

iv. Gestalt Psychology

This school of psychology was founded in Germany around 1912 by Max

Wertheimer and his colleagues Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler.

Gestaltists felt that structuralists were wrong in portraying the mind as

being made up of elements. They maintained that the mind is not made

up of a combination of simple elements.

The German word gestalt means “form”, or “configuration, or organized

whole”. The gestalt psychologists maintained that the mind should be

thought of as resulting from the whole sensory activity and the

relationships and organization within this pattern. They felt that no single

aspect of behaviour could be understood by itself, but only as part of a

“whole” pattern of behaviour. Thus, to them the whole is greater and more

meaningful than the individual elements alone (the whole is greater than

the sum of its parts). They also emphasized the importance of the context

or background in creating meaning for a specific event. For example, if a

child is involved in delinquency, the context and background (e.g., home

or school environment) are important in understanding the behaviour

fully. This school of psychology has made significant contributions in the

understanding of personality and perception.

v. Behaviourism

What was the major emphasis of the behavioural perspective?

Behaviourists felt that observable behaviour should be the focus of study

rather than mental processes and unconscious experiences. The

proponents of this school of thought include, J. B. Watson, B. F. Skinner

and F. L. Thorndike. Behaviourists felt that the scientific method in

psychology should be limited to the study of behaviours that can be

directly observed and verified. Watson believed that by controlling a

person’s environment any desired behaviour could be obtained

irrespective of his/her talents, abilities, heredity and other factors.

Behaviourists believed that all behaviour can be viewed as a response to

a stimulus (an object or event that causes an organism to respond in the

environment). For example, a baby who cries upon seeing a nurse

whenever he/she is taken to the dispensary is demonstrating stimulus-

response behaviour. The nurse is the stimulus and the crying is the

response. According to this school of thought, nearly all behaviour can be

accounted for by learning. Behaviour that has been rewarded in the past

will likely be repeated again whereas behaviour that is not reinforced is

likely to become extinct.

 Learning Activity:

What factors cause criminal behavior from a behaviouristic point of

view?

Watson and Skinner used animals (such as, rats, pigeons and cats) to study

how behaviours are acquired through learning and how behaviour can be

changed. This perspective was criticized for overemphasizing visible

behaviour and environmental influences on behaviour to the extend of

ignoring thought and subjective experiences. This approach had

significant influence on:

• How we learn new behaviours.

• How behaviour can be modified.

• The proper use of punishment and rewards.

vi. Humanistic Psychology

Carl Rogers (1902 – 1987) and Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970) are some

of the most influential psychologists associated with the humanistic

approach. This school of psychology developed as a reaction against the

idea that behaviour is determined by forces beyond our control or by

environmental forces. It emphasizes on free-will, that is, the human

ability to make choices and decisions about one’s life. According to

Huffman et al., (1987:34), humanistic psychologists emphasized the

importance of inner, subjective self, consciousness and feelings.

Humanists emphasize that human nature is naturally positive, creative and

growth seeking unless blocked by experience. We can freely choose to

live more creative, meaningful and satisfying lives. Thus, we are free to

make choices and to decide how to behave. Each one of us is seen as a

unique individual with both the need and ability to fulfill our unique and

optimum potential according to Abraham Maslow. This school of thought

has made major contributions in counselling which is the process of

assisting another person to find a solution to his/her problems through

discussion with a counsellor.

Learning Activity:
From a humanistic point of view, what is likely to be the cause of criminal

behaviour?

vii. Cognitive Psychology

The psychologist who is closely associated with this school of thought is

Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980) who was a Swiss psychologist. This view was

a reaction against radical behaviourists like Skinner, who regarded

cognition (thought) as outside the realm of psychology. The new view

came to be known as cognitive psychology and focused on reasoning and

the mental processing of information. Cognitive psychology is concerned

with the acquisition, storage, retrieval and use of knowledge. Cognitive

psychology studies how we gather, encode and store information from

our environment using mental processes such as, perception, memory,

imagery, concept formation, problem solving, reasoning, decision making

and language (Huffman et al., 1995).

Cognitive psychologists take an information processing approach based

on the idea that humans are like computers in that both take in

information, process it and produce a response/behaviour. Thus, we do

not just respond to environmental stimuli, we mentally process the

sensory input, appraise the situation and respond accordingly. For

example, if the same ridicule is directed to three students, their reactions

may be different. One may cry, another one may take it as a warning not

to continue misbehaving and the third one may not react at all. Their

reactions can be explained in terms of how they process and interpret the

information.

Learning Activities:
i. Briefly explain the cognitive approach?

ii. Summarize its key assumptions

Piaget and other cognitive psychologists believed that behaviour has a

cognitive element. We understand and actively interpret information.

Piaget believed that the ability to process information undergoes dramatic

transformation as children grow from one stage of development to

another. According to Piaget, children understand the world in an entirely

different way from adults. Thus, the difference in behaviour in children

and adults reflects the difference in their ability to know, understand and

reason about things and events around them which develops

systematically. As children, we need to see and feel things to know and

understand them, but as adults, we can know and understand things and

events through abstract reasoning and conceptual analysis.

Learning Activity:

Can criminal behavioural tendencies be inherited? Discuss with your

fellow learners.

viii. Psychobiology

This school of thought explains behaviour in terms of the biological

functioning of the body. It emphasizes that genetic, physiological and

neurological factors and processes determine behaviour. The influence of

the nervous system, particularly the brain is very crucial. A normal human

being depends on a properly functioning nervous system. Psychological

development is based on changes in brain growth, which are genetically

determined, that is, maturation. Normal behaviour or psychological or

mental health are functions of a normally functioning healthy nervous

system. A problem or disease affecting the nervous system, which

includes the brain, will affect human behaviour, causing problems in

learning and normal living (Sindabi&Omulema, 2000).

ix. The Eclectic View

The various schools of psychology discussed are important in the historical

development of psychology. At any one time or another each was the

dominant perspective. They influenced thought and guided research in

psychology. Most of the knowledge and content we have in psychology

today developed from these schools of thought.

Learning Activity:

Can one perspective in psychology exhaustively explain behavior?

Most contemporary psychologists recognize that these perspectives are

not mutually exclusive from each other and hence the eclectic

view/perspective which allows blending of ideas from different

perspectives. The eclectic approach adopts principles and practices from

several orientations or schools of thought. This approach holds that

human behaviour cannot be understood fully by taking one perspective.

Each perspective focuses on a different aspect of human behaviour and as

such may be seen as complementary rather than competing. In many

cases, they provide explanations of behaviour at different levels. All the

explanations may be right since they address the task of understanding

human behaviour at different levels and perspectives.Rather than speak of

schools of psychology, most modern psychologist prefer to talk about the

five basic perspectives or approaches that influence the topics studied in

psychology. These are the psychoanalytic, behaviouristic, humanistic,

cognitive, and biological approaches. These are the major perspectives

that are widely evident in modern psychology. Therefore, when faced by

a particular situation, you should select the ideas which are helpful to the

particular situation.