UNIT I –PART A

1. What are the three criteria necessary for an effective and efficient network?
(Remember)
The most important criteria are performance, reliability and security.
Performance of the network depends on number of users, type of transmission medium, and
the capabilities of the connected h/w and the efficiency of the s/w.
Reliability is measured by frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from the
failure and the network’s robustness in a catastrophe.
Security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access and viruses.
2. Group the OSI layers by function? (Create) (APR/MAY 2021)
The seven layers of the OSI model belonging to three subgroups.
Physical, data link and network layers are the network support layers; they deal with the
physical aspects of moving data from one device to another.
Session, presentation and application layers are the user support layers; they allow
interoperability among unrelated software systems.
The transport layer ensures end-to-end reliable data transmission.
3. What are header and trailers and how do they get added and removed?
(Remember & Understand)
Each layer in the sending machine adds its own information to the message it receives from
the layer just above it and passes the whole package to the layer just below it. This
information is added in the form of headers or trailers. Headers are added to the message at
the layers 6,5,4,3, and 2. A trailer is added at layer2. At the receiving machine, the headers or
trailers attached to the data unit at the corresponding sending layers are removed, and actions
appropriate to that layer are taken.
4. What are the features provided by layering? ( MAY /JUNE 2013) (Remember)
- It decomposes the problem of building a network into more manageable components.
- It provides a more modular design.
5. Why are protocols needed? (Understand)
In networks, communication occurs between the entities in different systems. Two entities
cannot just send bit streams to each other and expect to be understood. For communication,
the entities must agree on a protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communication.
6.What are the two interfaces provided by protocols? (Analyze)
Service interface- defines the operations that local objects can perform on the protocol.
Peer interface- defines the form and meaning of messages exchanged between protocol
peers to implement the communication service.
7. What is Transmission media? Give Examples. (Remember)(NOV/DEC 2019)
- Twisted pair(the wire that phone connects to)
- Coaxial cable(the wire that TV connects to)
- Optical fiber(the medium most commonly used for high-bandwidth, long-distance
links)
- Space(radio waves, microwaves and infra red beams propagate through)
8.Define Signals? (Remember)
Signals are actually electromagnetic waves traveling at the speed of light. The speed of light
is, however, medium dependent-electromagnetic waves traveling through copper and fiber do
so at about two-thirds the speed of light in vacuum.
9. What is wave’s wavelength? (Remember)
The distance between a pair of adjacent maxima or minima of a wave, typically measured in
meters, is called wave’s wavelength.
10. Define Modulation? (Remember)
Modulation -varying the frequency, amplitude or phase of the signal to effect the
transmission of information. A simple example of modulation is to vary the power
(amplitude) of a single wavelength.
11. Explain the two types of duplex? (Understand)
- Full duplex-two bit streams can be simultaneously transmitted over the links at the
same time, one going in each direction.
- Half duplex-it supports data flowing in only one direction at a time.
12. What is CODEC? (Remember)
A device that encodes analog voice into a digital ISDN link is called a CODEC, for
coder/decoder.
13. What is a buffer? (Remember)
Each receiving device has a block of memory called a buffer, reserved for storing incoming
data until they are processed.
14. What are the major duties of Network Layer ( MAY/JUNE 2012) (Understand)
 Logical Addressing
 Routing
 Datagram Encapsulation
 Fragmentation and Reassembly
 Error Handling and Diagnostics
15. Write the parameters used to measure network performance. (MAY /JUNE 2016)
(Understand)
 Bandwidth
 Throughput
 Latency
 Jitter
 Error rate
 Interplay of factors
16. What is the use of Switch? ( MAY / JUNE 2012 ) (Remember)
It is used to forward the packets between shared media LANs such as Ethernet. Such switches
are sometimes known by the obvious name of LAN switches.
17. What is the function of Bridge? (NOV 2010) ( NOV / DEC 2011 ) ( MAY 2012)
(APRIL / MAY 2015) (MAY/JUNE 2017) (Remember)
Bridge is used to connect two LANs.Bridges simply accept LAN frames on their inputs and
forward them out on all other outputs.
18. What is Spanning tree? (Remember)
It is for the bridges to select the ports over which they will forward frames.
19. What are the three pieces of information in the configuration messages?(Remember)
1. The ID for the bridge that is sending the message.
2. The ID for what the sending bridge believes to the root bridge.
 3. The distance, measured in hops, from the sending bridge to the root bridge.
20. What is broadcast? (Remember)
Broadcast is simple – each bridge forwards a frame with a destination broadcast address out
on each active (selected) port other than the one on which the frame was received.
21. What is multicast? (NOV / DEC 2011 ) (Remember)
It can be implemented with each host deciding for itself whether or not to accept the
message.
22. What are the limitations of bridges? (NOV /DEC 2013) (Understand)
1. Scalability 2. Heterogeneity
23. Define source routing. (NOV /DEC 2013) (Remember)
In computer networking, source routing allows a sender of a packet to partially or completely
specify the route the packet takes through the network.
24. What is the difference between switch and bride?(NOV / DEC 2012) (Analyze)
• Packet forwarding in Bridges are performed using software. Packet forwarding in Switches
are performed using ASICs (Application Specific Integrated Circuits).
• Switches operate comparatively higher speeds that Bridges.
• Method of switching of a Bridge is store and forward. Method of switching of a Switch can
be store and forward, cut-through or fragment-free.
• Normally a Switch has more ports than a Bridge.
• Bridges can operate only in half duplex mode, but a Switch can operate both in half duplex
or full duplex mode.
25. What are the three criteria necessary for an effective and efficient network?
(Remember)
The most important criteria are performance, reliability and security. Performance of the
network depends on number of users, type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the
connected h/w and the efficiency of the s/w. Reliability is measured by frequency of failure,
the time it takes a link to recover from the failure and the network’s robustness in a
catastrophe. Security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access and viruses.
26. Group the OSI layers by function. (Remember)
The seven layers of the OSI model belonging to three subgroups.
Network support layers: Consisting of Physical, data link and network layers and they deal
with the physical aspects of moving data from one device to another. User support layers:
Consists of Session, presentation and application layers and they allow interoperability
among unrelated software systems. The transport layer ensures end-to-end reliable data
transmission
27. What are the features provided by layering? (Remember)
It decomposes the problem of building a network into more manageable components.Rather
than implementing a monolithic piece of software that does everything implement several
layers, each of which solves one part of the problem. It provides more modular design. To
add some new service, it is enough to modify the functionality at one layer, reusing the
functions provided at all the other layers.
28. What are the two interfaces provided by protocols? (Remember)
Service interface and Peer interface
 Service interface-defines the operations that local objects can perform on the protocol.
 Peer interface-defines the form and meaning of messages exchanged between protocol
peers to implement the communication service.
29. What is LAN? (Remember)
A LAN is a common name used to describe a group of devices that share a geographic
location. LAN is limited to single building or campus.
30. What is OSI? (Remember)
A standard that specifies a conceptual model called Open systems Interconnection network
interface model, which breaks networked communications into seven layers: Application,
Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, Data link, Physical.
31. State the major functions performed by the presentation layer of the ISO OSI
model. (Nov Dec 2006) (Remember)
Presentation layer is concerned with the format of data exchanged between peers, for
example, whether an integer is 16, 32, or 64 bits long and whether the most significant bit is
transmitted first or last, or how a video stream is formatted.
32. State the purpose of layering in networks? (May Jun 2007) (Remember)
A layer is a collection of related functions that provides services to the layer above it and
receives services from the layer below it. To execute the functions by each layer is
independent.
33. What are the two fundamental ways by which network performance is measured?
(Remember)
1. Bandwidth 2. Latency
34. Define the term medium access control mechanism . (Remember)
The protocol that determines who can transmit on a broadcast channel are called medium
access control (MAC) protocol. The MAC protocols are implemented in the Mac sub-layer
which is the lower sub-layer of the data link layer.
35. What is bridge? (Remember)
Bridge is a hardware networking device used to connect two LANs. A bridge operates at data
link layer of the OSI reference model.
36. What is a repeater? (Remember)
Repeater is a hardware device used to strengthen signals being transmitted on a network.
37. Define router(Remember)
A network layer device that connects networks with different physical media and translates
between different network architecture.
38. Outline the need for Switching. (Remember) (NOV/DEC 2019)
Switching is a networking concept which makes use of a device called switch that manages
networked connections between devices on a star networks. (Remember)
39. Define topology and mention the types of topologies. (Remember)
Topology defines the physical or logical arrangement of links in a network Types of topology
- Mesh- Star- Tree- Bus- Ring
40. Define Hub. (Remember)
In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point to point link only to a central controller
usually called a hub
41. Give an advantage for each type of network topology. (Remember)
1. Mesh topology:* Use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own
data load, thus eliminating traffic problems.* Robust and privacy / security.
2. Star topology:* Less expensive than mesh.* Needs only one link and one input and output
port to connect it any number of others.* Robustness.
3. Tree topology:* same as those of a star.
4. Bus topology:* Ease of installation.* Uses less cabling than mesh, star or tree topologies.
5. Ring topology:* A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure.* Each device is linked
only to its immediate neighbors.* Fault isolation is simplified.
42. List the layers of OSI mode(Remember)
Physical- Data Link - Network - Transport- Session- Presentation- Application.
43. Define OSI model.
The open system Interconnection model is a layered framework for the design of network
system that allows for communication across all types of computer systems.
44. Which OSI layers are the network support layers?- (Remember)
Physical- Data link - Network layers.
45. Which OSI layers are the user support layers?- (Remember)
Session- Presentation- Application.
46. What are the responsibilities of physical layer, data link layer, network layer, transport
layer,session layer, presentation layer, application layer.(Analyse) .(APR/MAY 2021)
(i) Physical layer-Responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
(ii) Data link layer – Responsible for transmitting frames from one node to the next
(iii) Network layer – Responsible for the delivery of packets from the original source to the
final destination.
(iv) Transport layer – Responsible for delivery of a message from one process to another.
(v) Session layer – To establish, manage and terminate sessions.
(vi) Presentation layer – Responsible to translate, encrypt and compress data.
(vii) Application layer – Responsible for providing services to the user. To allow access to
network resources.
47. Define the term transmission medium.
The transmission medium is the physical path between transmitter and receiver in a data
transmission system. The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined both
the nature of signal and nature of the medium.
48. What are the types of transmission media?
Transmission media are divided into two categories. They are as follows:
(i) Guided transmission media(ii) Unguided transmission media.
49. How do guided media differ from unguided media?
A guided media is contained within physical boundaries, while an unguided medium is
boundless.
50. What are the three major classes of guided media?
Categories of guided media.1. Twisted – pair cable.2.Coaxial cable.3.Fiber – optic cable.
51. What is piconet and scatternet? (NOV/DEC 2016) (Remember)
A piconet is a network of devices connected using Bluetooth technology. The network ranges
from two to eight connected devices. When a network is established, one device takes the
role of the master while all the other devices act as slaves.Piconet gets its name from the
word "pico", which means very small.
A scatternet is a type of ad hoc computer network consisting of two or more piconets. The
terms "scatternet" and "piconet" are typically applied to Bluetooth wireless technology.
52. List the metrics that influence the performance of computer networks. (Understand)
(April/May 2018)
i)Bandwidth ii)Throughput iii)Latency iv) Jitter v) Error Rate vi) Interplay of factors.
53. Which layer implements the node to node channel connection in OSI layered
Architecture? (Analyse)(April May 2018)
Data Link Layer

PART – B
1. Describe about circuit switching and packet switching.
(Understand)(NOV2011/NOV2012/ MAY/JUNE 2017,NOV/DEC 2019,APR/MAY 2021)
2. What is Ethernet? Explain in detail. (NOV 2011) (Remember)
3. Discuss in detail about the layers of OSI model.(Evaluate)(MAY2011/NOV2010)
NOV/DEC 2016) (APR/MAY 2021)
4. Discuss in detail about HDLC. (Evaluate)(MAY2011)
5. Explain the different approaches of framing in detail. (MAY2011)
(Understand),(April/May 2018)
6. Draw the OSI network architecture and explain the functionalities of everylayer in detail.
(NOV/DEC 2015) (NOV/DEC 2016) (Analyze & Understand),(April/May 2018,
NOV/DEC 2019)
7. Explain the challenges faced in building a network.(MAY/JUNE 2017) (Understand)
8. Consider a bus LAN with a number of equally spaced stations with a data rate of 9 Mbps
and a bus length of 1 km. What is the mean time to send a frame of 500 bits to another
station, measured from the beginning of transmission to the end of reception? Assume a
propagation speed of 150 m/s. If two stations begin to monitor and transmit at the same time,
how long does it need to wait before an interference is noticed? (MAY/JUNE 2017) (Apply)
9. Explain the frame format for token ring and its frame format (NOV/DEC 2011)
(Understand)
10. With a neat sketch explain about IP service model, packet format, fragmentation and
reassembly.(NOV/DEC 2016). (Create)
11. Consider sending a 3500-byte datagram that has arrived at a router R1 that needs to be
sent over a link that has an MTU size of 1000 bytes to R2. Then it has to traverse a link with
an MTU of 600 bytes. Let the identification number of the original datagram be 465. How
many fragments are delivered at the destination? Show the parameters associated with each
of these fragments. ii. Explain the working of DHCP protocol with its header (MAY/JUNE
2017) (Apply)
PART – C
1. Using the example network given in Figure, give the virtual circuit tables for all the
switches after each of the following connections is established. Assume that the sequence of
connections is cumulative; that is, the first connection is still up when the second connection
is established, and so on. Also assume that the VCI assignment always picks the lowest
unused VCI on each link, starting with 0, and that a VCI is consumed for both directions of a
virtual circuit.
(a) Host A connects to host C. (b) Host D connects to host B.
(c) Host D connects to host I. (d) Host A connects to host B.
(e) Host F connects to host J. (f ) Host H connects to host A. (Apply)

2. Calculate the total time required to transfer a 100 0-KB file in the following cases,
assuming an RTT of 50 ms, a packet size of 1 KB data, and an initial 2×RTT of “
handshaking” before data is sent: We will count the transfer as completed when the last data
bit arrives at its destination. An alternative interpretation would be to count until the last
ACK arrives back at the sender, in which case the time would be half an RTT (25ms) longer.
a) The bandwidth is 1.5 Mbps, and data packets can be sent continuously.
b) The bandwidth is 1.5 Mbps, but after we finish sending each data packet
we must wait one RTT before sending the next.
c) The bandwidth is “infinite,” meaning that we take transmit time to be zero,
and up to 20 packets can be sent per RTT.
d) The bandwidth is infinite, and during the first RTT we can send one
packet (21−1), during the second RTT we can send two packets (22−1),
during the third we can send four (23−1), and so on. (Apply)
3. Consider a point-to-point link 4 km in length. At what bandwidth would propagation delay
(at a speed of 2×108m/s) equal transmit delay for 100-byte packets ? What about 512-byte
packets?
4. Suppose a 1-Gbps point-to-point link is being set up between the Earth and a new lunar
colony. The distance from the moon to the Earth is approximately 385,000 km, and data
travels over the link at the speed of light—3×10 8 m/s.
a) Calculate the minimum RTT for the link.
b) Using the RTT as the delay, calculate the delay × bandwidth product for the link.
c) What is the significance of the delay × bandwidth product computed in (b)?
d) A camera on the lunar base takes pictures of the Earth and saves them in digital format to
disk. Suppose Mission Control on Earth wishes to download the most current image,
which is 25 MB. What is the minimum amount of time that will elapse between when the
request for the data goes out and transfer is finished?
5. Suppose a 128-Kbps point to point link is set up between the Earth and a rover on Mars.
The distance from the Earth to Mars(When they are closest to each other)is approximately 55
Giga meters, and data Travels over the link at the speed of light at 3*108 m/s.
i)Calculate the ,minimum RTT for the link.
ii)Calculate the delay-bandwidth product for the link.
iii)A camera on the rover takes pictures of its surroundings and sends these to Earth? Assume
that each image is in 5Mb in size.(April May 2018)
 ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS

1. A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an average of 12,000 frames per
minute with each frame carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the throughput of this
network?(Apply)
2. What is the propagation time if the distance between the two points is 48,900? Assume the
propagation speed to be 2.4 x 108 metre/second in cable.
(Remember)
3. A device is sending out data at the rate of 2000 bps. How long does it take to send a file of
1, 00,000 characters? (Evaluate)
4. Suppose a digitized voice channel is made by digitizing 8 kHz bandwidth analog voice
signal. It is required to sample the signal at twice the highest frequency (two samples per
hertz). What is the bit rate required, if it is assumed that each sample requires 8 bits?
(Apply)
5. How many characters per second (7 bits + 1 parity) can be transmitted over a 3200 bps line
if the transfer is asynchronous? (Assuming 1 start bit and 1 stop bit)
(Evaluate)
6. In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.1% faster than the sender clock. How
many extra bits per second does the receiver receive if the data rate is 1 Mbps?
(Evaluate)

UNIT II –

PART – A

1. What are the functions of MAC? (Remember)

MAC sub layer resolves the contention for the shared media. It contains synchronization,
flag, flow and error control specifications necessary to move information from one place to
another, as well as the physical address of the next station to receive and route a packet.
2. What are the functions of LLC? (Remember)
The IEEE project 802 models take the structure of an HDLC frame and divides it into 2 sets
of functions. One set contains the end user portion of the HDLC frame – the logical address,
control information, and data. These functions are handled by the IEEE 802.2 logical link
control (LLC) protocol.
3. What is Ethernet? (Remember)
Ethernet is a multiple-access network, meaning that a set of nodes send and receive frames
over a shared link.
4. Define the term carrier sense in CSMA/CD? (Remember)
All the nodes can distinguish between idle and a busy-link and “collision detect” means that a
node listens as it transmits and can therefore detect when a frame it is transmitting has
interfered (collided) with a frame transmitted by another node.
5. Define collision detection? (Remember)
In Ethernet, all these hosts are competing for access to the same link, and as a consequence,
they are said to be in the same collision detection.
6. Why Ethernet is said to be a I-persistent protocol? (Understand)
An adaptor with a frame to send transmits with probability ‘1 ‘whenever a busy line goes
idle.
7. What is exponential back off? (NOV/DEC 2016) (Remember)
Once an adaptor has detected a collision and stopped its transmission, it waits a certain
amount of time and tries again. Each time it tries to transmit but fails, the adaptor doubles the
amount of time it waits before trying again. This strategy of doubling the delay interval
between each transmission attempt is a general technique known as exponential back off.
8. What is token holding time (THT)? (Remember)
It defines that how much data a given node is allowed to transmit each time it possesses the
token or equivalently, how long a given node is allowed to hold the token.
9. What are the prominent wireless technologies? (Create)
- Bluetooth(802.15)
- Wi-Fi(802.11)
- WiMAX(802.16)
10. How does a given bridge learn whether it should forward a multicast frame over a
given port? (Create)
It learns exactly the same way that a bridge learns whether it should forward a unicast frame
over a particular port- by observing the source addresses that it receives over that port.
11. Define Bluetooth? ( MAY / JUNE 2016 ) Remember)
Bluetooth fills the niche of very short-range communication between mobile phones, PDAs,
notebook computers, and other personal or peripheral devices. For example, Bluetooth can be
used to connect mobile phones to a headset, or a notebook computer to a printer.
12. What are the four steps involves in scanning? (Remember)
1. The node sends a Probe frame.
2. All APs within reach reply with a Probe Response frame.
3. The node selects one of the access points, and sends that AP an Association Request
frame.
4. The AP replies with an Association Response frame.
13. Explain the term handoff? (Remember)
If the phone is involved in a call at the time , the call must be transferred to the new base
station in what is called a hand off.
14. Define satphones? (Remember)
Satphones use communication satellites as base stations, communicating on frequency bands
that have been reserved internationally for satellite use.
15. How to mediate access to a shared link? (Create)
Ethernet,token ring, and several wireless protocols. Ethernet and token ring media access
protocols have no central arbitrator of access. Media access in wireless networks is made
more complicated by the fact that some nodes may be hidden from each other due to range
limitations of radio transmission.
16. Define Aggregation points? (Remember)
It collects and processes the data they receive from neighbouring nodes, and then transmit the
processed data. By processing the data incrementally, instead of forwarding all the raw data
to the base station, the amount of traffic in the network is reduced.
17. Define Beacons? (Remember)
Beacon to determine their own absolute locations based on GPS or manual configuration. The
majority of nodes can then derive their absolute location by combining an estimate of their
position relative to the beacons with the absolute location information provided by the
beacons.
18. What is the advantage of FDDI over a basic token ring?(NOV2010) (Remember)
In the frame format of FDDI protocol, preamble is eight bytes instead of one byte in token
ring. Also token has one additional byte. FDDI can have multiple frames simultaneously,
which cannot be present in token ring. Here, the access method is timed token passing.
Multiple frames can be transmitted after capturing a token.
First, the entire token is captured and then the data frames are introduced, whereas token ring
follows token passing protocol and beginning of token is converted to the header of a frame.
In case of token ring token is released after receiving the acknowledgement (as the data frame
returns after circulating the ring). On the other hand, in case of FDDI, token is released
immediately after sending data frame, which is known as early token release.
19. Mention physical properties of Ethernet. (APRIL/MAY 2011) (Analyze)
 Is easy to understand, implement, manage, and maintain
 Allows low-cost network implementations
 Provides extensive topological flexibility for network installation
 Guarantees successful interconnection and operation of standards-compliant products,
regardless of manufacturer
20. What is the role of VCI? (APRIL / MAY 2011) NOV/DEC 2016) (Remember)
A virtual channel identifier (VCI) distinguishes virtual channels (also known as circuits)
created in a packet/cell switched network. A VCI has multiple circuits per
communication channel and is primarily used for managing the unique identification of each
created circuit. A VCI is also known as a virtual circuit identifier (VCI).
21. What is CSMA / CD? ( NOV / DEC 2011 ) (APRIL / MAY 2015) (Remember)
Short for Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection, CSMA/CD is a Media
Access Control (MAC) protocol that defines how network devices respond when two devices
attempt to use a data channel simultaneously and encounter a data collision. The CSMA/CD
rules define how long the device should wait if a collision occurs. The medium is often used
by multiple data nodes, so each data node receives transmissions from each of the other nodes
on the medium.
There are several CSMA access modes: 1-persistent, P-persistent, and O-persistent.
22. When is ICMP redirect message used? (MAY/JUNE 2017) (Evaluate)
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is used to communicate to the original source, the
errors encountered while routing the packets, and exercise control on the traffic. ICMP
redirect messages are used by routers to notify the hosts on the data link that a better route is
available for a particular destination.
Routers send ICMP redirects when all of these conditions are met:
 The interface on which the packet comes into the router is the same interface on
which the packet gets routed out.
 The subnet or network of the source IP address is on the same subnet or network of
the next-hop IP address of the routed packet.
 The datagram is not source-routed.
 The kernel is configured to send redirects.
23. List some IEEE 802 standards with its name. ( MAY / JUNE 2012) (Remember),
(April/May 2018)
IEEE 802.1 Bridging (networking) and Network Management
IEEE 802.2 Logical link control (upper part of data link layer)
IEEE 802.3 Ethernet (CSMA/CD)
IEEE 802.4 Token bus (disbanded)
24. Differentiate fast Ethernet and gigabit Ethernet. (NOV / DEC 2012) (Analyze)
 Speed of the Fast Ethernet is 100Mbps, whereas it is 1000Mbps in Gigabit Ethernet.
  Better performance and reduced bottlenecks are expected due to higher bandwidth in
Gigabit Ethernet than Fast Ethernet.
 Upgrade from Ethernet to Fast Ethernet is easy and cheaper than upgrading Fast
Ethernet to Gigabit Ethernet.
 Needs specific network devices, which can support 1000Mbps data rate, in Gigabit
Ethernet.
25. Define Sub-netting. ( NOV / DEC 2015) (Remember)
A sub network or subnet is a logical subdivision of an IP network. The practice of dividing
a network into two or more networks is called sub-netting. Computers that belong to
a subnet are addressed with a common, identical, most-significant bit-group in their IP
address.
26. What is the need of ARP? (NOV / DEC 2015) (Understand)
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a low-level network protocol for translating network
layer addresses into link layer addresses.
ARP lies between layers 2 and 3 of the OSI model, although ARP was not included in the
OSI framework and allows computers to introduce each other across a network prior to
communication.
27. Define hidden node problem (MAY /JUNE 2016) (Remember)
In wireless networking, the hidden node problem or hidden terminal problem occurs when a
node is visible from a wireless access point (AP), but not from other nodes communicating
with that AP. This leads to difficulties in media access control sub layer.
28. What is spread spectrum and explain the two types of spread spectrum?
(Remember & Understand)
Spread spectrum is to spread the signal over a wider frequency band than normal in such a
way as to minimize the impact of interference from other devices.
- Frequency Hopping
- Direct sequence
29.What are the different encoding techniques? (Analyze)
- NRZ
- NRZI
- Manchester
- 4B/5B
30. How does NRZ-L differ from NRZ-I? (Understand)
In the NRZ-L sequence, positive and negative voltages have specific meanings: positive for 0
and negative for 1. in the NRZ-I sequence, the voltages are meaningless.
Instead, the receiver looks for changes from one level to another as its basis for recognition of
1s.
31. What are the responsibilities of data link layer?(Evaluate)(NOV/DEC
2016,APR/MAY 2021)
Specific responsibilities of data link layer include the following. a) Framing b) Physical
addressing c) Flow control d) Error control e) Access control.
32. What are the ways to address the framing problem? (Analyze)
- Byte-Oriented Protocols(PPP)
- Bit-Oriented Protocols(HDLC)
- Clock-Based Framing(SONET)
33. Distinguish between peer-to-peer relationship and a primary-secondary
relationship. peer -to- peer relationship? (Analyze)
All the devices share the link equally. Primary-secondary relationship: One device controls
traffic and the others must transmit through it.
34. Mention the types of errors and define the terms? (MAY / JUNE 2012)
(Understand & Remember)
There are 2 types of errors
- Single-bit error.
- Burst-bit error.
Single bit error: The term single bit error means that only one bit of a given data unit (such as
byte character/data unit or packet) is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.
Burst error: Means that 2 or more bits in the data unit have changed from 1 to 0 from 0 to 1.
35. List out the available detection methods. (Remember)
There are 4 types of redundancy checks are used in data communication.
- Vertical redundancy checks (VRC).
- Longitudinal redundancy checks (LRC).
- Cyclic redundancy checks (CRC).
- Checksum.
36. Write short notes on VRC. (Understand)
The most common and least expensive mechanism for error detection is the vertical
redundancy check (VRC) often called a parity check. In this technique a redundant bit called
a parity bit, is appended to every data unit so, that the total number of 0’s in the unit
(including the parity bit) becomes even.
37. Write short notes on LRC. (Understand)
In longitudinal redundancy check (LRC), a block of bits is divided into rows and a redundant
row of bits is added to the whole block.
38. Outline the use of CRC. (Understand) (NOV/DEC 2019)
The third and most powerful of the redundancy checking techniques is the cyclic redundancy
checks (CRC) CRC is based on binary division. Here a sequence of redundant bits, called the
CRC remainder is appended to the end of data unit.
39. Write short notes on CRC checker. (Understand)
A CRC checker functions exactly like a generator. After receiving the data appended with the
CRC it does the same modulo-2 division. If the remainder is all 0’s the CRC is dropped and
the data accepted. Otherwise, the received stream of bits is discarded and the dates are resent.
40. Define checksum. (Remember)
The error detection method used by the higher layer protocol is called checksum. Checksum
is based on the concept of redundancy.
41. What are the steps followed in checksum generator? (Analyze)
The sender follows these steps a) the units are divided into k sections each of n bits. b) All
sections are added together using 2’s complement to get the sum. c) The sum is
complemented and become the checksum. d) The checksum is sent with the data.
42.Mention the types of error correcting methods. (Understand)
There are 2 error-correcting methods.
- Single bit error correction
- Burst error correction.
43.Write short notes on error correction? (NOV 2010) (Understand)
It is the mechanism to correct the errors and it can be handled in 2 ways.
 - When an error is discovered, the receiver can have the sender retransmit the entire
data unit.
- A receiver can use an error correcting coder, which automatically corrects certain
errors.
44.What is the purpose of hamming code? (Understand) .(APR/MAY 2021)
A hamming code can be designed to correct burst errors of certain lengths. So the simple
strategy used by the hamming code to correct single bit errors must be redesigned to be
applicable for multiple bit correction.
45. What is redundancy? (Remember)
It is the error detecting mechanism, which means a shorter group of bits or extra bits may be
appended at the destination of each unit.
46. Define flow control? ( NOV / DEC 2011 ) (APR/MAY 2015) (MAY /JUNE 2016)
(Remember)
Flow control refers to a set of procedures used to restrict the amount of data. The sender can
send before waiting for acknowledgment.
47. Mention the categories of flow control? (NOV/DEC 2016) (Create)
There are 2 methods have been developed to control flow of data across communication
links.
a) Stop and wait- Send one from at a time.
b) Sliding window- Send several frames at a time.
48. Define piggybacking. ( Nov / Dec 2019 ) (Remember)
Piggybacking is a technique where the data frame is sent along with the acknowledgement..
49. What are the functions of Application Layer? ( APRIL /MAY 2011 )
(Evaluate)
The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means both the OSI
application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer
interacts with software applications that implement a communicating component. Application-
layer functions typically include identifying communication partners, determining resource
availability, and synchronizing communication.
50. Define Bit Stuffing. ( APRIL / MAY 2011 ) (MAY/JUNE 2017) (Remember)
In data transmission and telecommunication, bit stuffing is the insertion of non information
bits into data. Bit stuffing is the insertion of one or more bits into a transmission unit as a way
to provide signaling information to a receiver. The receiver knows how to detect and remove
or disregard the stuffed bits.
51. What is the use of Two dimensional parity in error detection? (NOV/ DEC 2012)
(Apply)
A Two Dimensional parity is a multidimensional parity-check code (MDPC) is a simple type
of error correcting code that operates by arranging the message into a multidimensional grid,
and calculating a parity digit for each row and column.The two-dimensional parity-check
code, usually called the optimal rectangular code, is the most popular form of
multidimensional parity-check code.
Assume that the goal is to transmit the four-digit message "1234", using a two-dimensional
parity scheme. First the digits of the message are arranged in a rectangular pattern:
12
34
Parity digits are then calculated by summing each column and row separately:
123
 347
46
The eight-digit sequence "12334746" is the message that is actually transmitted. If any single
error occurs during transmission then this error can not only be detected but can also be
corrected as well. Let us suppose that the received message contained an error in the first
digit. The receiver rearranges the message into the grid:
923
347
46
The receiver can see that the first row and also the first column add up incorrectly. Using this
knowledge and the assumption that only one error occurred, the receiver can correct the error.
In order to handle two errors, a 4-dimensional scheme would be required, at the cost of more
parity digits.
52. What are the issues in data link layer? ( NOV / DEC 2012) (NOV/DEC 2015)
(Apply)
• Protocol & Services
• Topology
• Error Detection & Recovery
53. Give the purpose of layering? ( MAY / JUNE 2013) (Apply)
When information travels through a network, it follows certain guidelines to ensure
compatibility. At each layer, certain things happen to the data that prepare it for the next
layer.
54. What do you mean by error control? (APR/MAY 2015) (Remember)
Error control is the process of detecting and correcting both the bit level and packet level
errors.
Types of Errors
Single Bit Error
The term single bit error means that only one bit of the data unit was changed from 1 to 0 and
0 to 1.
Burst Error
In term burst error means that two or more bits in the data unit were changed. Burst error is
also called packet level error, where errors like packet loss, duplication, reordering.
55. What is flow Control? (Remember)
Flow control refers to a set of procedures used to restrict the amount of data. The sender can
send before waiting for acknowledgment.
56. Define Error detection and correction. (Remember)
Error Detection: Data can be corrupted during transmission. It is called as an error. For
reliable communication, the receiver must find out the errors occurred in the data which is
called as error detection. Error Correction: It is the mechanism to correct the errors and it can
be handled in 2 ways. a) When an error is discovered, the receiver can have the sender
retransmit the entire data unit. b) A receiver can use an error correcting coder, which
automatically corrects certain error.
57. What is the use of two dimensional parity in error detection? (Remember)
Two-dimensional parity check increases the likelihood of detecting burst errors. It is used to
detect errors occurred in more than one bits.
58. What are the issues in data link layer? (Remember)
The data link layer has a number of specific functions it can carry out. These functions
include, a) Providing a well-defined service interface to the network layer. b) Dealing with
transmission errors. c) Regulating the flow of data so that slow receivers are not swamped by
fas strategy used by the hamming code to correct single bit errors must be redesigned to be
applicable for multiple bit correction.
59. What are the responsibilities of Network Layer? (Remember)
The Network Layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of packet possibly
across multiple networks (links). a. Logical Addressing b. Routing.
60. What is DHCP? (Remember) (NOV/DEC 2019)
The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol has been derived to provide dynamic
configuration. DHCP is also needed when a host moves from network to network or is
connected and disconnected from a network.
61. Define ICMP. (Remember)
Internet Control Message Protocol is a collection of error messages that are sent back to the
source host whenever a router or host is unable to process an IP datagram successfully.
62. What is the need of internetwork? (Remember)
To exchange data between networks, they need to be connected to make an Internetwork.
63. What are the types of class full addressing? (Remember)
The types are Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E
64. What do you mean by ARP? (Remember)
ARP stands for Address resolution protocol. ARP is a dynamic mapping method that finds a
physical address for a given a logical address. i.e. mapping IP address to physical address
65. What do you mean by RARP? (Remember)
RARP stands for Reverse Address resolution protocol, maps a MAC address to an IP
address.
66. What are the functions of MAC? (Remember)
MAC sub layer resolves the contention for the shared media. It contains synchronization,
flag, flow and error control specifications necessary to move information from one place to
another, as well as the physical address of the next station to receive and route a packet.
67. What is mean by Ethernet? (Remember)
Ethernet is a networking technology developed in 1970 which is governed by the IEEE 802.3
specifications.
68. What are the Advantages of Ethernet? (Remember)
1. Inexpensive 2.Easy to install 3.Supports various writing technologies.
69. Identify the class and default subnet mask of the IP address 217.65.10.7 (Remember)
IP Address 217.65.10.7 belongs to Class C. Its subnet mask is 255.255.255.0.
70. Define Bluetooth. (Remember)
Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances (using
short-wavelength UHF radio waves in the ISM band from 2.4 to 2.485 GHz) from fixed and
mobile devices and building personal area networks (PANs).
71. What are the 3 levels of hierarchy in IP Addressing? (Remember)
1. Netid 2. Subnetid 3. Hostid
72. What are the functions of bridge? (Remember)
1. Connecting networks 2. Filtering information so that network traffic for one portion of the
network does not congest the rest of the network.
73. Define sub-netting. (Remember)
Sub-netting is a technique that allows a network administrator to divide one physical
network into smaller logical networks and thus control the flow of traffic for security or
efficiency reasons.
74. What do you mean by switching? (April/May 2018)( Remember)
A network switch (also called switching hub, bridging hub, officially MAC bridge) is a
computer networking device that connects devices on a computer network by using packet
switching to receive, process, and forward data to the destination device. Switches for
Ethernet are the most common form of network switch.
75. Suppose the following Sequence of bits arrives over a link:
1101011111010111110010111110110. Show the resulting frame after any stuffed bits
have been removed. Indicate any errors that might have been introduced in to the
frame.
The frame Flag of HDLC or PPP protocol is 01111110. Bit stuffing is used to identify the
start or the end of a frame by inserting additional 0. If there are five consecutive 1, the sender
will insert one 0 as stuffed bit. If the receiver gets seven consecutive 1, there must be an error
of the end of frame (EOF). We indicate the 0 after five 1s with red color. Received sequence:
1101011111010111110010111110110.Removing stuffed 0:
1101011111010111110010111110110 There is no seven consecutive 1 not interrupted by
stuffed 0, so the receiver does not detect any error.
76. Suppose you are designing a sliding window protocol for a 1.5 mbps point to point
link, which has one way latency of 1.5 seconds. Assuming each frame carries 10 KB of
data, What is the minimum number of bits required for the sequence number if SWS =
RWS?
One-way latency of the link is 150 ms.
(Bandwidth)× (roundtrip delay) is about 150 pps × 0.2 sec or 30 packets.
SWS should be this large.
(a) If RWS= 1 , the necessary sequence number space is 31. Therefore, 5 bits are needed.
(b) If RWS= SWS, the sequence number space must cover twice the SWS, or up to 60.
Therefore, 6 bits are needed.
PART -B
1. What is error detection? Explain with examples. (NOV 2011) / (NOV 2010)
(Understand)
2. Write the Sliding Window Algorithm and explain it in detail. (MAY2011)( Understand)
3. Explain about Stop and Wait ARQ scheme .(MAY2011,NOV 2019) (Analyze)
4. Write in detail about the flow control mechanisms.(Understand)(MAY2011,MAY 2021)
5. Explain selective-repeat ARQ flow control method. (NOV/DEC 2016) (Understand)
6. Explain about CSMA and CSMA/CD protocols. (NOV/DEC 2019) (Understand)
7. (i) Discuss the issues in the data link layer. (Evaluate) (APR/MAY 2021)
(ii) Suppose we want to transmit the message 11001001 and protect it from errors using
the CRC polynomial X3+ 1. Use polynomial long division to determine the message
that should be transmitted.(DEC2013) (Evaluate)
8. Explain the following Error Detection Mechanisms. (Understand)
(a) Cyclic Redundancy Check.
(b) Discuss briefly about Link Level flow control. (NOV/DEC 2012)
9.Write about Error correction and detection in detail.(MAY/JUNE 2012) (APR/MAY 2021)
(Understand)
10. Explain in detail about the following: (Understand)
(i) PPP (ii) HDLC (iii) SONET (APRIL/MAY 2011)
11. Discuss in detail about Internet Architecture. (APR/MAY 2015) (Evaluate)
12. What is the need for error detection? Explain with typical examples.( Understand)
13. Explain about HDLC protocols.(APR/MAY 2015, NOV/DEC 2019)(Understand)
14.Explain the various flow control mechanisms. (NOV/DEC 2015)
(Understand)
15. Explain any two error detection mechanism in detail. (MAY /JUNE 2016)
(Understand)
16. Explain in detail about: (i) HDLC (8) (ii) PPP (8) (MAY /JUNE 2016)
(Understand)
17. Discuss in detail about the network performance measures (NOV/DEC 2016) (Evaluate)
18.i) Show and Explain the Ethernet frame format.
ii)Highlight the characteristics of connectionless networks(Remember) (April May 2018)
PART – C
1. Based on what you learn develop a model for Two – Dimensional parity and Internet
Checksum Algorithm. (Create)
2. How would you illustrate your view of Cyclic Redundancy Check ?Calculate CRC using
polynomial long division method for the following data: M(x) = 10011010 and C(x) = 1101
(MAY/JUNE 2017) (Understand & Apply)
3. Four bits are used for packet sequence numbering in a sliding window protocol used in a
computer network. What is the maximum window size?
(Apply)
4. Given the dataword 1010011110 and the divisor 10111 .
a) Show the generation of the codeword at the sender site using binary division
b) Show the checking of the codeword at the receiver site assuming no error has occurred.
(Apply)
5. Analyse the various error detection techniques in Transmission of data (April/May 2018)
6.Analyse various error Detection Techniques in Transmission of Data.(April May 2018)
(Analyse)
7. (i)Suppose we want to transmit the message 1011 0010 0111 and protect it from errors
using the CRC polynomial x4+x2+1. Use polynomial long division to determine the message
that should be transmitted. Suppose the leftmost bit of the message is inverted due to noise on
the transmission link. What is the result of receiver’s CRC Calculation? How the receiver
does know that an error has occurred?
(ii)Explain the algorithm used for reliable transmission and flow control. (April May 2018)

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
1. A 4480-byte datagram is to be transmitted through an Ethernet with a maximum data size
of 1500 bytes frames. Show the values of total length, M flag, Identification and fragment
offset filed in each of the fragments created out of the datagram. (Remember)
2. In a packet switching network, if the message size is 48 bytes and each packet contains a
header of 3 bytes. If 24 packets are required to transmit the message, what is the packet size?
(Apply)
3. Suppose the length of an ethernet cable is 2500 metres. If the speed of propagation in a
thick coaxial cable is 200,000,000 m/s how long does it take for a bit to travel from the
beginning to the end of the network? Assume that there is a 10 micro second delay in the
equipment. (Apply)
4. The data rate of an Ethernet is 10Mbps. How long does it take to create the smallest frame?
Assume the smallest frame size is 64 bytes. (Apply)
5.Explain what might happen if two stations are accidentally assigned the same hardware
address. (Understand)
6.If sharing reduces cost, why are shared networks used only for local communication?.
(Understand)
7. Why wireless LAN cannot use the same CSMA/CD mechanism that Ethernet uses?
(Understand)
 UNIT III
PART – A

1. Define packet switching? (Understand)

A packet switch is a device with several inputs and outputs leading to and from the hosts that
the switch interconnects.
2. What is a virtual circuit? (Remember)
A logical circuit made between the sending and receiving computers. The connection is
made after both computers do handshaking. After the connection, all packets follow the same
route and arrive in sequence.
3. What are data grams? (Remember)
In datagram approach, each packet is treated independently from all others. Even when one
packet represents just a place of a multi packet transmission, the network treats it although it
existed alone. Packets in this technology are referred to as datagram.
4. What is meant by switched virtual circuit? Remember)
Switched virtual circuit format is comparable conceptually to dial-up line in circuit switching.
In this method, a virtual circuit is created whenever it is needed and exits only for the
duration of specific exchange.
5. What is meant by Permanent virtual circuit? (Remember)
Permanent virtual circuits are comparable to leased lines in circuit switching. In this method,
the same virtual circuit is provided between two uses on a continuous basis. The circuit is
dedicated to the specific uses.
6. What are the properties in star topology? (Remember)
Even though a switch has a fixed number of inputs and outputs, which limits the number of
hosts that can be connected to a single switch , large networks can be built by
interconnecting a number of switches. We can connect switches to each other and to hosts
using point-to point links, which typically means that we can build networks of large
geographic scope.
7. What is VCI? (APRIL / MAY 2011) (NOV/DEC 2016) (Remember)
A Virtual Circuit Identifier that uniquely identifies the connection at this switch, and which
will be carried inside the header of the packets that belongs to this connection.
8. What is hop-by-hop flow control? (Remember)
Each node is ensured of having the buffers it needs to queue the packets that arrive on that
circuit. This basic strategy is usually called hop-by-hop flow control.
9. Explain the term best-effort? (Understand)
If something goes wrong and the packet gets lost, corrupted, undelivered, or in any way fails
to reach its intended destination, the network does nothing.
10. What is maximum transmission unit? (Remember)
MTU- which is the largest IP datagram that it can carry in a frame.
11. Define Routing? (Understand)
It is the process of building up the tables that allow the collect output for a packet to be
determined.
12. Define ICMP and Write their functions? (MAY /JUNE 2016) (Remember)
Internet Control Message Protocol(ICMP) is a collection of error messages that are sent back
to the source host whenever a router or host is unable to process an IP datagram successfully.
It is used by network devices , like routers to send error messages indicating that the
requested service is not available or the host / router could not be reached.
13. Write the keys for understanding the distance vector routing? (Understand)
The three keys for understanding the algorithm are,
 - Knowledge about the whole networks
- Routing only to neighbors
- Information sharing at regular intervals
14. Write the keys for understanding the link state routing? (Understand)
The three keys for understanding the algorithm are,
- Knowledge about the neighborhood.
- Routing to all neighbors.
- Information sharing when there is a range.
15. How the packet cost referred in distance vector and link state routing?
(Create)
In distance vector routing, cost refer to hop count while in case of link state routing, cost is a
weighted value based on a variety of factors such as security levels, traffic or the state of the
link.
16. Define Reliable flooding? (Understand)
It is the process of making sure that all the nodes participating in the routing protocol get a
copy of the link state information from all the other nodes.
17. What are the features in OSPF? (Remember)
- Authentication of routing messages.
- Additional hierarchy.
- Load balancing.
18. Define Subnetting? (NOV/DEC 2013) ( NOV / DEC 2011 ) (Understand)
Subnetting provides an elegantly simple way to reduce the total number of network numbers
that are assigned. The idea is to take a single IP network number and allocate the IP address
with that network to several physical networks, which are now referred to as subnets.
19. What are the different types of AS? (Create)
- Stub AS
- Multi homed AS
- Transit AS
20. What is an Area? (Remember)
An Area is a set of routers that are administratively configured to exchange link-state
information with each other. There is one special area- the backbone area, also known as area
0.
21. What is Source Specific Multicast?(Remember)
SSM , a receiving host specifies both a multicast group and a specific host .the receiving host
would then receive multicast addressed to the specified group, but only if they are from the
special sender.
22. What is meant by congestion? (NOV 2011) (Remember)
Congestion in a network occurs if user sends data into the network at a rate greater than that
allowed by network resources.
23. Why the congestion occurs in network? (Evaluate)
Congestion occurs because the switches in a network have a limited buffer size to store
arrived packets.
24. What are the rules of non boundary-level masking? (Create)
- The bytes in the IP address that corresponds to 255 in the mask will be repeated in
the sub network address
 - The bytes in the IP address that corresponds to 0 in the mask will change to 0 in the
sub network address
- For other bytes, use the bit-wise AND operator.
25. What is LSP? (Remember)
LSP stands for Link State Routing. In LSP, a small packet containing routing information is
sent by a router to all other router by a packet called link state packet.
26. What is the need for ARP? (NOV 2013) (Evaluate)
Address Resolution Protocol is used to convert the physical address into logical address.
27. What is meant by circuit switching? (NOV 2010) (Remember)
Circuit-switched is a type of network in which a physical path is obtained for and dedicated
to a single connection between two end-points in the network for the duration of the
connection. Ordinary voice phone service is circuit-switched. The telephone company
reserves a specific physical path to the number you are calling for the duration of your call.
During that time, no one else can use the physical lines involved.
28. What is multicasting? (NOV 2010, NOV/DEC 2011)(Remember)
In computer networking, multicast (one-to-many distribution) is the addressing of a message
or information to a group of destination computers simultaneously.
29. List the difference between circuit switching and Packet switching. (APRIL / MAY
2011) (MAY/JUNE 2017) (Analyze)
In circuit-switching, this path is decided upon before the data transmission starts. The system
decides on which route to follow, based on a resource-optimizing algorithm, and transmission
goes according to the path. For the whole length of the communication session between the
two communicating bodies, the route is dedicated and exclusive, and released only when the
session terminates.
In packet-switching, the packets are sent towards the destination irrespective of each other.
Each packet has to find its own route to the destination. There is no predetermined path; the
decision as to which node to hop to in the next step is taken only when a node is reached.
Each packet finds its way using the information it carries, such as the source and destination
IP addresses.s fixed bdth circuits/channels between nodes
30. What is the difference between point-to-point link and broadcast link.?( NOV / DEC
2019 ) (Remember)
Point-to-point link is used to connect only two devices, One will be the sender and the other
is the receiver.
Broadcast link is used to connect all devices. One sender can communicate to all other
devices..
31. Expand and define MTU. ( APRIL / MAY 2012) (Understand)
In computer networking, the maximum transmission unit (MTU) of a communications
protocol of a layer is the size (in bytes) of the largest protocol data unit that the layer can pass
onwards. MTU parameters usually appear in association with a communications interface
(NIC, serial port, etc.). Standards (Ethernet, for example) can fix the size of an MTU; or
systems (such as point-to-point serial links) may decide MTU at connect time.
32. What is DHCP? ( NOV / DEC 2012 ) (Remember)
DHCP allows a computer to join an IP-based network without having a pre-configured IP
address. DHCP is a protocol that assigns unique IP addresses to devices, then releases and
renews these addresses as devices leave and re-join the network.
33. What are the salient features of IPV6? Why is IPv4 to IPv6 transition required?
(NOV / DEC 2012 ) (MAY/JUNE 2017) (APR/MAY 2021) (Create)
New header format , Large address space
 Efficient and hierarchical addressing and routing infrastructure
  Stateless and stateful address configuration, Built-in security
 Better support for quality of service (QoS)
 New protocol for neighboring node interaction

34. Differentiate between connection less operation and connection oriented operation.
(APRIL / MAY 2013) (Analyze)

 Connectionless communication is a data transmission method used in packet

switching networks by which each data unit is individually addressed and routed
based on information carried in each unit, rather than in the setup information of a
prearranged, fixed data channel as in connection-oriented communication.
35. How does a router differ from a bridge? (APR/MAY 2015) (Create)

 Routers are more intelligent than bridges.

 Routers allow hosts that aren’t practically on the same logical network to be able to
communicate with each other, while bridges can only connect networks that are
logically the same.
 Routers operate at the layer 3 (network layer) of the OSI model, while bridges are
only at the layer 2 (Data link layer).
 Routers understand and consider IP and IPX addresses, while bridges do not, and
instead they recognize MAC addresses.
 Routing is more efficient, and has better call management, than bridging.

36. Identify the class of the following IP Address: ( NOV / DEC 2015 ) (Analyze)
(a) 110.34.56.45 - Class A
(b) 212.208.63.23 -Class

Class 1st Octet Decimal Range

A 1 – 126*
B 128 – 191
C 192 – 223
D 224 – 239

37. Define routing . ( NOV / DEC 2015) (Understand)

Routing is the process of moving packets across a network from one host to another. It is
usually performed by dedicated devices called routers. Packets are the fundamental
unit of information transport in all modern computer networks, and increasingly in other
communications networks as well.
38. Write the types of connecting devices in internetworking. (MAY/JUNE 2016)
(Create)
The individual LAN's are connected to the Backbone Network by using some types of
devices such as Hubs, Repeaters, Switches, Bridges, Routers and Gateways.

39. What are the metrics used by routing protocols? (APR/MAY 2015) (Create)

Bandwidth – Throughput speed in bits per second

Cost – An arbitrary value assigned by an administrator for the intersecting of networks
Delay – Network latency caused by such factors as distance or congestion
Hop Count – The number of routers (hops) a packets passes through to its
destination
 Load – Measurement of traffic that flows through a router
MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit) – The largest unit size allowed to be
transmitted on all routes from source to destination
Reliability – Represents the amount of network downtime, that is, how reliable a network
path is)
Ticks – Measurement of delay, where is tick is 1/18 of a second. A tick is used as part of
the routing protocol IPX RIP.
40. What is multicast Routing? (April / May 2018)
Multicast routing is a network-layer function that constructs paths along which data
packets from a source are distributed to reach many, but not all, destinations in a
communication network.
41. What details are provided by DHCP other than IP address?(Remember) (April/
May 2018)
The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a network management
protocol used on UDP/IP networks whereby a DHCP server dynamically assigns an IP
address and other network configuration parameters to each device on a network so they can
communicate with other IP networks.
42.Check whether the following IPV6 address notations are correct? (Nov/ Dec 2018)
(Understand)
(a)::0F53:6382:AB00:67DB:BB27:7332 - Correct
(b) 7803::42F2:::88EC:D4BA:B75D:11CD - Incorrect (::: is not defined as
abbreviating notation)
43. Suppose TCP operates over 10 Gbps link. Assuming TCP could utilize the full bandwidth
continuously, how long would it take the sequence number space adequate? (Nov/ Dec 2018)
(Understand)

PART – B
1. Explain the two approaches of packet switching techniques.(NOV2011) (Understand)
2. Explain IP addressing method. (Understand)
3. Define routing & explain distance vector routing and link state routing
(Understand)(APR/MAY 2021)
4. Define bridge and explain the type of bridges. (NOV2011)(Remember & Understand)
5. Explain sub netting .(DEC 2012) (Understand)
6. Write short notes about repeaters, routers and gateways.(MAY 2012) (Remember)
7. Explain about ARP Protocol.(NOV/DEC 2012,NOV/DEC 2019) (Understand)
8. Explain about Error Reporting Protocol-ICMP (DEC 2012) (Understand)
9. Write Short notes on Interdomain Routing. (DEC2012) (Remember)
10. Suppose hosts A and B have been assigned the same IP address on the same
Ethernet, on which ARP is used. B starts up after A. What will happened to A’s
existing connections? Explain how ‘self-ARP’ might help with this problem.
(NOV/DEC2013) (Apply)
11. Write notes on the following: (i) Internet protocol. (ii) Routers. (NOV 2010)(Remember)
12. Discuss in detail the various aspects of IPV6.(NOV 2010, NOV/DEC 2019)
(Evaluate)
13. Describe with example how CIDR addresses the two scaling concerns in the internet.
(NOV/DEC 2013) (Remember)
14. Describe the Distance Vector Routing Protocol with examples. Mention the limitations of
the same. (NOV/DEC 2013) (APR/MAY2015) (Remember)
15. Explain the shortest path algorithm with suitable illustrations. (APR/MAY 2015)
(Understand)
16. Explain the various fields of the TCP header and the working of the TCP protocol.
(APR/MAY 2015) (Understand)
17. Describe distance vector routing. (NOV/DEC 2015, NOV/DEC 2019)(Remember)
18. Explain multicast routing in detail. (NOV/DEC 2015) (NOV/DEC 2016)(Understand)
19. With a neat diagram explain Distance vector routing protocol. (MAY /JUNE 2016)
(Analyze)
20. Explain about IPV4 classful and classless addressing. and IPV6.(MAY /JUNE
2016,April/May 2018,NOV/DEC 2019) (Understand)
21. Explain in detail the operation of OSPF protocol by considering a suitable network.
( NOV/DEC 2016)(MAY /JUNE 2017) (Understand)
22.Explain the working of Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM) in detail.(MAY /JUNE
2017) (Understand)
23.Explain the Routing Information protocol(April May 2018)
24. Explain the operation of protocol Independent Multicast(PIM)(April/May 2018)
25.Outline the need of Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol(DVMRP)
26. (i)Explain the media access control algorithm, CSMA/CD used in Ethernet. Why the
same algorithm cannot be used in wireless LAN?
(ii)Consider sending a 2400-byte datagram into a link that has an MTU of 700 bytes. Suppose
the original datagram is stamped with the identification number 422. How many fragments
are generated? What are the values in various fields in the IP datagrams generated related to
Fragmentation? (Analyse)(April May 2018)
27.(i) Explain the error reporting using ICMP protocol. How does Trace Route program make
use of the routers between source and destination?(Understand) (Nov/Dec 2018)
(ii) Suppose all the interfaces in each of three subnets are required to have the prefix
223.1.17/24. Also suppose that subnet 1 is required to support atleast 60 interfaces. Subnet 2
is to support atleast 90 interfaces, Subnet3 is to support atleast 12 interfaces. Provide three
network addresses that satisfy these constraints(Apply)April May 2018)
28. How error correction is handled at different layers in an IP network? (Understand(
(Nov/Dec 2018)

PART – C
1. What examples can you find to demonstrate compute delay for the packet?
(Evaluate)
2. Can you substitute an alternative protocol for PIM? Justify your answer.
(Create)
3. For the network given in Figure, give the datagram forwarding table for each node.
The links are labeled with relative costs; your tables should forward each packet via
the lowest-cost path to its destination (Apply)
 4. Explain the link –state algorithm in detail.(Understand) (April May 2018)
5. Consider the network shown in Fig. Compute the shortest path from C to all nodes
using link – state algorithm. Also Update the forwarding table of node

6. Assume you are given a network ID 165.121.0.0.You are responsible for creating
subnets on the network ,and each subnet must provide at least 900 host IDs.What
subnet mask meets the requirement for the minimum number of host IDs and
provides the greatest number of subnets? (NOV/DEC 2019) (Analyze)

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
1. For the following network, develop the datagram forwarding table for all the nodes. The
links are labeled with relative costs. The tables should forward each packet via the least cost
path to destination. (Create)

2.Consider the following segment of the Internet that consists of 7 nodes and 11 links and
answer the questions below:

Determine the shortest route tree based on the home node “1”, and connecting to all other
nodes, using the Dijkstra algorithm. (Apply)

3.A network on the Internet has a subnet mask of 255.255.240.0. What is the maximum
number of hosts it can handle? (Remember)

4. What is the purpose of a subnet mask?Is the subnet mask 255.255.0.255 valid for a Class A
address? (Understand)
5. Consider the following internet address: 136.27.32.104 (Apply)
a) Convert this address into Binary format.
b) Convert this address into Hex format.
c) What class does this internet address represent?
d) If we apply a subnet mask of FFFFFE00, obtain the relevant network, subnet and
host addresses for the given internet address

6. Consider a router that interconnects three subnets: Subnet 1, Subnet 2 and Subnet 3.
Suppose all of the interfaces in each of these three subnets are required to have the prefix
223.1.17/24. Also suppose that Subnet 1 is required to support at least 60 interfaces, Subnet 2
is to support at least 90 interfaces, and Subnet 3 is to support at least 12 interfaces. Provide
three network addresses (of the form A.B.C.D/X) that satisfy these constraints. (Understand)

UNIT IV –
PART – A

1. Explain the main idea of UDP? (Understand)

The basic idea is for a source process to send a message to a port and for the
destination process to receive the message from a port.
2. What are the different fields in pseudo header? (Remember)
- Protocol number
- Source IP address
- Destination IP addresses.
3. Define TCP? (NOV / DEC 2011 ) (Remember)
TCP guarantees the reliable, in order delivery of a stream of bytes. It is a full-duplex
protocol, meaning that each TCP connection supports a pair of byte streams, one flowing in
each direction.
4. Define Congestion Control? (NOV/DEC2011),(April/May2018)(Apr/May 2021)
(Remember)
It involves preventing too much data from being injected into the network, thereby
causing switches or links to become overloaded. Thus flow control is an end to an end issue,
while congestion control is concerned with how hosts and networks interact.
5. State the two kinds of events trigger a state transition? (Remember)
- A segment arrives from the peer.
- The local application process invokes an operation on TCP.
6. What is meant by segment? (Remember)
At the sending and receiving end of the transmission, TCP divides long transmissions
into smaller data units and packages each into a frame called a segment.
7. What is meant by fragmentation and reassembling? (NOV/DEC 2016)
(Remember)
When the size of the data unit received from the upper layer is too long for the
network layer datagram or data link layer frame to handle, the transport protocol divides it
into smaller usable blocks. The dividing process is called fragmentation. The process of
combining all the fragments at the receiving side is called reassembling.
8. What is meant by Concatenation? (Remember)
 The size of the data unit belonging to single sessions are so small that several can fit
together into a single datagram or frame, the transport protocol combines them into a single
data unit. The combining process is called concatenation.
9. What is rate based design? (Remember)
Rate- based design, in which the receiver tells the sender the rate-expressed in either
bytes or packets per second – at which it is willing to accept incoming data.
10. Define Gateway. (Remember)
A device used to connect two separate networks that use different communication protocols.
11. What is meant by quality of service? ( MAY / JUNE 2012 ) (Remember)
The quality of service(QoS) defines a set of attributes related to the performance of the
connection. For each connection, the user can request a particular attribute each service class
is associated with a set of attributes.
12. What are the two categories of QoS attributes? ( APRIL / MAY 2011 )
(Remember)
QoS stands for Quality of Service which is related to the performance of the connection.
The two main categories are
- User Oriented
- Network Oriented
13. List out the user related attributes? (Remember)
User related attributes are SCR – Sustainable Cell Rate PCR – Peak Cell Rate MCR-
Minimum Cell Rate CVDT – Cell Variation Delay Tolerance.
14. What are the networks related attributes? (Remember)
The network related attributes are, Cell loss ratio (CLR) Cell transfer delay (CTD) Cell delay
variation (CDV) Cell error ratio (CER).
15. What is RED? (Remember)
Random Early Detection in each router is programmed to monitor its own queue length and
when it detects that congestion is imminent, to notify the source to adjust its congestion
window.
16. What are the three events involved in the connection? (Remember)
For security, the transport layer may create a connection between the two end ports. A
connection is a single logical path between the source and destination that is associated with
all packets in a message. Creating a connection involves three steps:
 Connection establishment
 Data transfer
 Connection release
17. What is the function of a router? ( NOV 2010) (Remember)
A router is a device that forwards data packets between computer networks. The Primary
function of a router is to connect networks together and keep certain kinds of broadcast traffic
under control. The main function of a router is to enable the movement of data by a device
from one network to another. A router is actually a specialized computer connected to one or
more networks.
18. What are the advantages of using UDP (connectionless) over TCP(connection
oriented)?(NOV2010,MAY/JUNE2017,NOV/DEC2019) (Remember)
(1) TCP gives guarantee that a packet will reach on the destination without any duplication
and the order of data will be same. On the other hand UDP does not give guarantee that data
will reach on destination.
(2) TCP is a reliable protocol but UDP is unreliable protocol.
(3) Data transmission is more dependable on TCP than UDP.
(4) As TCP is connection oriented protocol, it means that connection must be open between
two ends before sending data. So both ends know all the things between a session as when the
connection is closed and when it is opened. But in UDP when you send the data from one end
then we cannot know whether data is reaching on the other end or not. As we just hope that it
will reach on destination.
19. Differentiate flow control and congestion control. (NOV 2013) (APRIL 2011)
(Analyze)
Flow control is used to balance the rate at which bits are produced by the sender with the rate
at which bits are consumed by the receiver. This matches the speed of a sender with the
capabilities of a receiver.
Congestion control is used to regulate the rate at which senders generate traffic in order to
avoid the over-utilization of the resources available within network. This prevents network
congestion which if pronounced, could lead to a network collapse.
20. Differentiate between delay and jitter. (NOV 2013) (Analyze)
Jitter is the undesired deviation from true periodicity of an assumed periodic signal in
electronics and telecommunications, often in relation to a reference clock source. Jitter may
be observed in characteristics such as the frequency of successive pulses, the signal
amplitude, or phase of periodic signals
21. Draw TCP header format. ( MAY / JUNE 2012,NOV/DEC 2019) (Remember)

22. What is meant by PORT or MAILBOX related with UDP? (NOV / DEC 2012)
(Remember)
A software Port (usually just called a ‘port’) is a virtual data connection that can be used by
programs to exchange data directly, instead of going through a file or other temporary storage
location. The most common of these are TCP and UDP port which are used to exchange data
between computers on the Internet. Port 505/udp uses the mailbox protocol for service.

23. Differentiate between TCP and UDP. (NOV/DEC 2016, NOV/DEC 2019) (Analyze)

TCP is connection oriented – once a connection is established, data can be sent bidirectional.
UDP is a simpler, connectionless Internet protocol. Multiple messages are sent as packets in
chunks using UDP.

24. List some of the Quality of Service parameters of transport layer.(APR/MAY 2015)
(Remember)

 Connection establishment delay

 Connection establishment failure probability
 Throughput
  Transit delay
 Residual error ratio
 Protection
 Priority
25. How does transport layer perform duplication control? (APR/MAY 2015)
(Understand)
It is possible for packets to be duplicated in packet switched network; therefore TCP keeps
track of bytes received in order to discard duplicate copies of data that has already been
received.

26. What is the difference between congestion control and flow control? (NOV/DEC
2015) (Understand)

Flow control and congestion control are two network traffic control mechanisms used in
computer networks, they have their key differences.

Flow control Congestion control

Flow control is an end to end mechanism
that controls the traffic between a sender and
a receiver, when a fast sender is transmitting
data to a slow receiver.
Congestion control prevents loss of packets
and delay caused due to congestion in the
network. Congestion control can be seen as a
mechanism that makes sure that an entire
network can handle the traffic that is coming
to the network.
On the other hand, congestion control is a
mechanism that is used by a network to
control congestion in the network.
But, flow control refers to mechanisms
used to handle the transmission between a
particular sender and a receiver.

27. What do you mean by QOS? ( NOV / DEC 2015) (Remember)

Quality of service (QoS) refers to a network's ability to achieve maximum bandwidth and
deal with other network performance elements like latency, error rate and uptime. QoS is
exclusively applied to network traffic generated for video on demand, IPTV, VoIP, streaming
media, videoconferencing and online gaming.

28. What do you mean by slow start in TCP congestion? (MAY/JUNE 2016)
(Remember)
TCP slow start is an algorithm which balances the speed of a network connection. Slow
start gradually increases the amount of data transmitted until it finds the network’s
maximum carrying capacity.
29. List the different phases used in TCP connection. (MAY/JUNE 2016)
(Remember)
The three Phases of TCP connection includes
->Connection Establishment
->Data Transfer
->Connection Termination
TCP “Three-Way Handshake” Connection Establishment Procedure(Apr/May 2021)

30. Give the comparison of unicast, multicast and broadcast routing (NOV/DEC 2016)
(MAY/JUNE 2017, NOV/DEC 2019) (Analyze)

Data is transported over a network by three simple methods i.e. Unicast, Broadcast, and
Multicast.
 Unicast: from one source to one destination i.e. One-to-One
 Broadcast: from one source to all possible destinations i.e. One-to-All
 Multicast: from one source to multiple destinations stating an interest in receiving the
traffic i.e. One-to-Many

31. How do fast retransmit mechanism of TCP works? (MAY/JUNE 2017)

(Understand)
In TCP/IP, fast retransmit and recovery (FRR) is a congestion control algorithm that makes
it possible to quickly recover lost data packets. Without FRR, the TCP uses a timer that
requires a retransmission timeout if a packet is lost.
32. Define SCTP ? (Remember)
SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol) is a protocol for transmitting multiple streams
of data at the same time between two end points that have established a connection in a
network.
33. What is the use of "next generation TCP" or TCPng, ? (Remember)
SCTP can be called as "next generation TCP" or TCPng, is designed to make it easier to
support a telephone connection over the Internet (and specifically to support the telephone
system's Signaling System 7 - SS7 - on an Internet connection). A telephone connection
requires that signaling information (which controls the connection) be sent along with voice
and other data at the same time. SCTP also is intended to make it easier to manage
connections over a wireless network and to manage the transmission of multimedia data.
SCTP is a standard protocol (RFC 2960) developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF).
34. What the Advantages of SCTP(Remember)
SCTP manages "reliable transport" (ensuring the complete arrival of data units that are sent
over the network) over the Internet's basically connectionless Internet Protocol (IP), the
protocol responsible for moving the data but not for managing whether all the data arrives.
SCTP ensures the complete concurrent transmission of several streams of data (in units
called messages) between connected end points. SCTP also supports multihoming, which
means that a connected end point can have alternate IP addresses associated with it in order to
route around network failure or changing conditions.
35. Difference between TCP and SCTP? (Remember)
TCP transmits data in a single stream (sometimes called a bytestream) and guarantees that
data will be delivered in sequence to the application or user at the end point. If there is data
loss, or a sequencing error, delivery must be delayed until lost data is retransmitted or an out-
of-sequence message is received. SCTP's multi-streaming allows data to be delivered in
multiple, independent streams, so that if there is data loss in one stream, delivery will not be
affected for the other streams. For some transmissions, such as a file or record, sequence
preservation is essential. However, for some applications, it is not absolutely necessary to
preserve the precise sequence of data. For example, in signaling transmissions, sequence
preservation is only necessary for messages that affect the same resource (such as the
same channel or call). Because multi-streaming allows data in error-free streams to continue
delivery when one stream has an error, the entire transmission is not delayed
36. What are the services provided by Transport layer protocol?(Remember)
(April/May 2018)
Transport Layer is the second layer of TCP/IP model. It is an end-to-end layer used to deliver
messages to a host. It is termed as end-to-end layer because it provides a point-to-point
connection rather than hop-to- hop, between the source host and destination host to deliver
the services reliably. The unit of data encapsulation in Transport Layer is a segment.
The standard protocols used by Transport Layer to enhance it’s functionalities are :
TCP(Transmission Control Protocol), UDP( User Datagram Protocol), DCCP( Datagram
Congestion Control Protocol) etc.

PART – B

1. Explain the duties of transport layer.(NOV 2011) (Understand)

2. Explain socket in detail. (Understand)
3. Explain UDP & TCP. (Understand)
4. Explain about congestion control.(DEC/MAY 2012) (APR/MAY 2021)(Understand)
5. Explain leaky bucket and token bucket algorithm. (Understand)
6. How is congestion controlled? Explain in detail about congestion control techniques in
transport layer. (DEC 2012) (NOV/DEC2016)(Understand)
7. Explain various fields of the TCP header and the working of the TCP protocol. (DEC
2012) (NOV/DEC2016) (Understand)
8. Describe how reliable and ordered delivery is achieved through TCP.(NOV/DEC 2013)
(Evaluate)
9. With neat architecture, explain TCP in detail. (NOV 2010) (Understand)
10.Explain adaptive flow control in detail and its uses. (NOV 2010) (MAY/JUNE 2017)
(Understand)
11.Why does TCP uses an adaptive retransmission and describe it’s mechanism. (NOV/DEC
2013), (MAY/JUNE 2017) (Understand)
12. Describe with examples the three mechanism by which congestion control is achieved in
TCP.(NOV/DEC 2013) (Evaluate)
13. Explain the various fields of the TCP header and the working of the TCP protocol.
(MAY/JUNE 2015) (Understand)
14. Explain the three way handshake protocol to establish the transport level connection.
(MAY/JUNE 2015) (Understand)
15. List the various congestion control mechanisms. Explain anyone in detail. (MAY/JUNE
2015) (Remember)
16. With neat architecture , explain TCP in detail. (NOV/DEC 2015) (Understand)
17. Explain TCP Congestion control methods. (NOV/DEC 2015)
(Understand)
18. Define UDP. Discuss the operations of UDP. Explain UDP checksum with one example.
(MAY/JUNE 2016) (Remember)
19. Explain in detail the various TCP congestion control mechanisms.
(MAY/JUNE 2016,April/ May 2018,NOV/DEC 2019) (Understand)
20, With TCPs slow start and AIMD for congestion control, show how the window size will
vary for a transmission where every 5th packet is lost. Assume an advertised window size of
50 MSS. (MAY/JUNE 2017) (Understand)
22. (i). Explain congestion avoidance using random early detection in transport layer with
an example (Understand)(April May2018)
(ii). Explain the differentiated services operation of QoS in detail (MAY/JUNE
2017) (Understand)(April May 2018)
23.i) Explain how TCP manages a Byte stream.)(Understand)
ii) Identify and explain the states involved in TCP.(Remember)(April May 2018)
24.(i) Explain three ways of connection termination in TCP using state transition diagram.
(Understand) (Nov/Dec 2018)
(ii) Suppose you are hired to design a reliable byte-stream protocol that uses a sliding
window (like TCP).This protocol will run over a 50-Mbps network.The RTT of the network
is 80 ms and the maximum segment lifetime is 60 seconds. How many bits would you
include in the AdvertisedWindow and SequenceNum fields of your protocol header?
25.(i) Explain the original Karn/Partidge and Jacobson/Karel’s algorithms of adaptive
retransmission in TCP? (Understand) (Nov/Dec 2018)
(ii) Consider a RED gateway with MaxP=0.02, and with an average queue length halfway the
two thresholds. Find the drop probability Pcount for count = 1 and count = 50. Also calculate
the probability that none of the first 75 packets is dropped.(Apply) (Nov/Dec 2018)
26. If IP provides connectionless service,How TCP supports conncetion-oriented service?
27.Explain about SCTP in detail. (Understand) (APR/MAY 2021)
 PART – C
1. What ideas can you point out to state that TCP is a reliable byte stream protocol?
(Understand)
2. Consider a simple congestion control algorithm that uses linear increase and
multiplicative decrease (no slow start). Assume the congestion window size is in units of
packets rather than bytes, and it is one packet initially. (Evaluate)
(a) Give a detailed description of this algorithm.
(b) Assume that for every group of packets sent, only one cumulative ACK is
returned. Plot the congestion window size as a function of time (units of RTT) when
the following packets are lost: 9, 25, 30, 38, and 50. For simplicity assume the timeout
is equal to 1 RTT.
(c) What is the effective throughput achieved for this connection if each packet is
1KB and the RTT is 100ms?
3. (i). Draw the format of TCP packet header and explain each of its field.
(ii). Specify the justification for having variable field lengths for the fields in the TCP
header (MAY/JUNE 2017) (Understand)
4. Elaborate TCP Congestion Control Mechanism. Differentiate these Mechanism.
(NOV/DEC 2019)(Understand)

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
1. Hosts A and B are communicating over a TCP connection, and Host B has already
received from A all bytes up through byte 126. Suppose Host A then sends two
segments to Host B back-to-back. The first and second segments contain 80 and 40
bytes of data respectively. In the first segment, the sequence number is 127, the
source port number is 302, and the destination port number is 80. Host B sends an
acknowledgment whenever it receives a segment from Host A. a - In the second
segment sent from Host A to B, what are the sequence number, source port number,
and destination port number? (Apply)
2. Suppose that the five measured SampleRTT values are 106ms, 120ms, 140ms, 90ms,
and 115ms. Compute the EstimatedRTT after each of these SampleRTT values is
obtained, using a value of alpha = 0.125 and assuming that the value of
EstimatedRTT was 100ms just before the first of these 5 samples were obtained.
Compute also the DevRTT after each sample is obtained, assuming a value of beta =
0.25 and assuming the value of DevRTT was 5ms just before the first of these five
samples was obtained. Last, Compute the TCP TimeoutInterval after each of these
samples is obtained. (Apply)
3. Consider sending a large file from a host to another over a TCP connection that has no
loss. a - Suppose TCP uses AIMD for its congestion control w/o slow start. Assuming
cwnd increases by 1MSS every time a batch of ACKs is received and assuming
approximately constant roundtrip times, how long does it take for cwnd increase from
6MSS to 12MSS (Assuming no loss events)? b - What is the average throughout (in
terms of MSS and RTT) for this connection up through time = 6 RTT ? (Apply)
 UNIT V
PART – A

1. What is the function of SMTP?

(NOV 2010) (NOV / DEC 2012)(APR/MAY 2015) (Remember)
The TCP/IP protocol supports electronic mail on the Internet is called Simple Mail Transfer
(SMTP). It is a system for sending messages to other computer users based on e-mail
addresses. SMTP provides mail exchange between users on the same or different computers.
2. What is the difference between a user agent (UA) and a mail transfer agent (MTA)?
(Analyze)
The UA prepares the message, creates the envelope, and puts the message in the envelope.
The MTA transfers the mail across the Internet.
3. How does MIME enhance SMTP? (Understand)
MIME is a supplementary protocol that allows non-ASCII data to be sent through SMTP.
MIME transforms non-ASCII data at the sender site to NVT ASCII data and deliverers it to
the client SMTP to be sent through the Internet. The server SMTP at the receiving side
receives the NVT ASCII data and delivers it to MIME to be transformed back to the original
data.
4. What is HTTP? (NOV/DEC 2019) (Understand)
HTTP stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol. It is used to transmit hypermedia documents.
It is designed to communicate between the web browsers and web servers.
5. Give the format of HTTP request and response message. (Remember)
HTTP Request

HTTP Response

6. What is the purpose of Domain Name System? Present the information contained in a
DNS resource record. (MAY/JUNE 2017) (Remember)
Domain Name System can map a name to an address and conversely an address to name.
DNS Resource Records define data types in the Domain Name System (DNS).DNS Resource
Records (RRs) describe the characteristics of a zone or domain and have a binary format,
which is used in queries and responses, and a text format used in zone files. It contains details
such as
1. Zone File Format
2. Zone File Directives
3. DNS Generic Record Formats
4. Resource Record (RR) Types

7. Discuss the three main division of the domain name space. (Remember)
Domain name space is divided into three different sections: generic domains, country
domains & inverse domain.
Generic domain: Define registered hosts according to their generic behavior, uses generic
suffixes.
Country domain: Uses two characters to identify a country as the last suffix.
Inverse domain: Finds the domain name given the IP address.
8. Discuss the TCP connections needed in FTP. (Remember)
FTP establishes two connections between the hosts. One connection is used for data transfer,
the other for control information. The control connection uses very simple rules of
communication. The data connection needs more complex rules due to the variety of data
types transferred.
9. Discuss the basic model of FTP. (Remember)
The client has three components: the user interface, the client control process, and the client
data transfer process. The server has two components: the server control process and the
server data transfer process. The control connection is made between the control processes.
The data connection is made between the data transfer processes.
10. Name four factors needed for a secure network? (Remember)
Privacy: The sender and the receiver expect confidentiality.
Authentication: The receiver is sure of the sender’s identity and that an imposter has not sent
the message.
Integrity: The data must arrive at the receiver exactly as it was sent.
Non-Reputation: The receiver must able to prove that a received message came from a
specific sender.
11. How is a secret key different from public key? (Analyze)
In secret key, the same key is used by both parties. The sender uses this key and an
encryption algorithm to encrypt data; the receiver uses the same key and the corresponding
decryption algorithm to decrypt the data. In public key, there are two keys: a private key and
a public key. The private key is kept by the receiver. The public key is announced to the
public.
12. What is a digital signature? (Remember)
Digital signature is a method to authenticate the sender of a message. It is similar to that of
signing transactions documents when you do business with a bank. In network transactions,
you can create an equivalent of an electronic or digital signature by the way you send data.
13. What are the advantages & disadvantages of public key encryption?
(Understand)
Advantages: a) Remove the restriction of a shared secret key between two entities. Here
each entity can create a pair of keys, keep the private one, and publicly distribute the other
one. b) The no. of keys needed is reduced tremendously. For one million users to
communicate, only two million keys are needed.
Disadvantage: If you use large numbers the method to be effective. Calculating the cipher
text using the long keys takes a lot of time. So it is not recommended for large amounts of
text.
14. What are the advantages & disadvantages of secret key encryption? (Understand)
Advantage:
Secret Key algorithms are efficient: it takes less time to encrypt a message. The reason is that
the key is usually smaller. So it is used to encrypt or decrypt long messages.
Disadvantages:
a) Each pair of users must have a secret key. If N people in world want to use this method,
there needs to be N(N-1)/2 secret keys. For one million people to communicate, a half-billion
secret keys are needed.
b) The distribution of the keys between two parties can be difficult.
15. Define permutation. (Remember)
Permutation is transposition in bit level.
Straight permutation: The no. of bits in the input and output are preserved.
Compressed permutation: The no. of bits is reduced (some of the bits are dropped).
Expanded permutation: The no. of bits is increased (some bits are repeated).
16. Define substitution & transposition encryption? (Remember)
Substitution: A character level encryption in which each character is replaced by another
character in the set.
Transposition: A Character level encryption in which the characters retain their plaintext but
the position of the character changes.
17. Define CGI.(Remember)
CGI stands for COMMON GATEWAY INTERFACE, which is used for communication
between HTTP servers and executable programs. It is used in crating dynamic documents.
18. What are the requests messages support SNMP and explain it? (Remember)
1. GET request 2. SET request
The former is used to retrieve a piece of state from some node and the latter is used to store a
new piece of state in some node.
19. Define PGP? (NOV 2010 ) (MAY 2012) (Remember)
Pretty Good Privacy is used to provide security for electronic mail. It provides authentication,
confidentiality, data integrity, and non repudiation.
20. Define SSH. (NOV/DEC 2019)(Remember)
Secure Shell is used to provide a remote login, and used to remotely execute commands and
transfer files and also provide strong client/server authentication / message integrity.
21. Expand POP3 and IMAP4. (NOV/DEC 2016) (APR/MAY 2021) (Analyze)
POP3 and IMAP are two different protocols (methods) used to access email from a remote
server.
POP3 stands for Post Office Protocol. POP3 downloads email from a server to a single
computer, then deletes it from the server. Because your messages get downloaded to a single
computer or device and then deleted from the server, it can appear that mail is missing or
disappearing from your Inbox if you try to check your mail from a different computer.
IMAP4 stands for Internet Messaged Access Protocol. IMAP allows users to store their
email on remote servers. This two-way protocol also allows the user to synchronize their
email among multiple devices, which is extremely important today, when most people have
at least two devices - their laptop and smartphone.
22. What DNS cache issue are involved in changing the IP address of a web server host
name? (NOV/DEC 2013),(April/May 2018) (Understand)
Whenever a DNS server does not have the answer to a query within its cache, the DNS server
can pass the query onto another DNS server on behalf of the client. If the server passes the
query onto another DNS server that has incorrect information, whether placed there
intentionally or unintentionally, then cache poising can occur
23. Differentiate application programs and application protocols.(NOV 2013) (Analyze)
Communicating systems use well-defined formats for exchanging messages. Each message
has an exact meaning intended to provoke a particular response of the receiver. Thus, a
protocol must define the syntax, semantics, and synchronization of communication; the
specified behavior is typically independent of how it is to be implemented. A protocol can
therefore be implemented as hardware, software, or both. Communications protocols have to
be agreed upon by the parties involved.[1] To reach agreement a protocol may be developed
into a technical standard. A programming language describes the same for computations, so
there is a close analogy between protocols and programming languages: protocols are to
communications as programming languages are to computations
24. List the function of POP. (APRIL/MAY 2011) (Remember)
POP stands for Post Office Protocol. POP is an application-layer Internet
standard protocol used by local e-mail clients to retrieve e-mail from a remote server over
a TCP/IP connection
25. What is Telnet? ( NOV /DEC 2011) (Remember)
Telnet is a network protocol used on the Internet or local area networks to provide a
bidirectional interactive text-oriented communication facility using a virtual terminal
connection. Telnet is a terminal emulation program for TCP/IP networks such as the Internet.
The Telnet program runs on our computer and connects our PC to a server on the network.
We can then enter commands through the Telnet program and they will be executed as if we
were entering them directly on the server console. This enables us to control the server and
communicate with other servers on the network
26. State the purpose of SNMP. (NOV / DEC 2011) (MAY / JUNE 2012)
(Understand)
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an "Internet-standard protocol for
managing devices on IP networks". Devices that typically support SNMP include routers,
switches, servers, workstations, printers, modem racks and more. It is used mostly in network
management systems to monitor network-attached devices for conditions that warrant
administrative attention. SNMP is a component of the Internet Protocol Suite as defined by
the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). It consists of a set of standards for network
management, including an application layer protocol, a database schema, and a set of data
objects.
27. Why name services are some time called as middleware? (NOV /DEC 2012)
(Understand)
The white pages in a telephone book provides a mapping from a person’s name to their
contact details (address and telephone number) Likewise a Naming Service provides a
mapping from a human readable name to a server’s IP address. A unique name is typically
assigned to each host in a network. It is then map the user friendly names in to router friendly
addresses. Name services are sometimes called as a middleware because they fill a gap
between application and the underlying network.

28. What are the groups of HTIP header? (APR/MAY2015) (Remember)

HTTP header fields, which include General-Header, Request-Header, Response-Header, and
Entity-Header follow the same generic format. Each header field consists of a name followed
immediately by a colon (":"), a single space (SP) character, and the field value. Field names
are case-insensitive. Header fields can be extended over multiple lines by preceding each
extra line with at least one SP or HT, though this is not recommended.
28. Mention the types of HTTP messages. (NOV /DEC 2015 ) (Remember)
There are four types of HTTP message headers:
 General-header: These header fields have general applicability for both request and
response messages.
 Request-header: These header fields have applicability only for request messages.
 Response-header: These header fields have applicability only for response
messages.
 Entity-header: These header fields define meta information about the entity-body or,
if no body is present, about the resource identified by the request.
29. What is persistent HTTP? (NOV /DEC 2016) (Remember)
Persistent HTTP connection, also called HTTP keep-alive, or HTTP connection reuse, is
the idea of using a single TCP connection to send and receive multiple HTTP
requests/responses, as opposed to opening a new connection for every single request/response
pair. The newer HTTP protocol uses the same idea and takes it further to allow multiple
concurrent requests/responses to be multiplexed over a single connection.

30. What is SMTP? ( NOV /DEC 2015 ) (Remember)

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, a protocol for sending e-mail messages between servers. Most
e-mail systems that send mail over the Internet use SMTP to send messages from one server
to another; the messages can then be retrieved with an e-mail client using either POP or
IMAP.
31. Define URL (MAY /JUNE 2016) (Remember)
URL is the abbreviation of Uniform Resource Locator. It is the global address of documents
and other resources on the World Wide Web. A URL is one type of Uniform Resource
Identifier (URI).
32. Mention the different levels in domain name space.
(MAY /JUNE 2016) (Understand)
In the Domain Name System, there is a hierarchy of names. The root of system is unnamed.
There are a set of what are called "top-level domain names" (TLDs). These are the generic
TLDs (EDU, COM, NET, ORG, GOV, MIL, and INT), and the two letter country codes from
ISO-3166. It is extremely unlikely that any other TLDs will be created.
33. State the usage of conditional get in HTTP. (MAY/JUNE 2017) (Understand)
A conditional GET is an HTTP GET request that may return an HTTP 304 response (instead
of HTTP 200). An HTTP 304 response indicates that the resource has not been modified
since the previous GET, and so the resource is not returned to the client in such a response.
34. What Is The Port Number Of FTP (data) And FTP?(Understand)
FTP port number 20 (Data); 21 for Control
35. What do you mean by File transfer protocol? (Remember) (APR/MAY 2021)
It is a standard mechanism provided by the internet for copying a file from one host to
another.
36. What are the two types of connections in FTP? (Remember)
The two types of connections in FTP are Control connection Open connection
37 .What are the duties of FTP protocol?(Remember)
FTP is a widely used network protocol for transferring files between computers over a TCP/IP-
based network, such as the Internet. FTP lets people and applications exchange and share data
within their offices and across the Internet. FTP was one of the first technologies developed to
solve this common need, and it remains, with several generations of enhancements, the second
most popular protocol used today (after HTTP or the "World Wide Web").
38. What are the Applications of FTP(Remember)
FTP finds application in many day-to-day business operations that span business-to-business
and peer-to-peer data transfer use cases, including:
Organizations use FTP to allow employees to share files across different locations and branch
offices.
Employees use FTP to securely share files with coworkers and external business partners.
IT teams use FTP to transfer data back to DR (disaster recovery) sites.
Webmaster teams use FTP to transfer Web pages, Web application files, and images to their
Web server.
39. How File Transfer Happens with FTP(Understand)
FTP works in a client-server model where an FTP server and FTP client perform the file
transfer operation. An FTP server is configured in the network, and a specific file storage
location (folder/system) is identified to become the shared storage, which will host the files
you want to share. The end-users will access this file server via FTP to start copying the files
to their local folder/system.
FTP requires a TCP/IP network to function, and relies on the use of one or more FTP clients.
The FTP client acts as the communication agent to interact with the server to download or
upload files. In other words, the FTP client sends out connections to the FTP server. Upon
listening to the request from the client to either upload or download a file, the FTP server
performs the file transfer operation.
40. Discuss the TCP connections needed in FTP.(Understand)
FTP establishes two connections between the hosts. One connection is used for data transfer,
the other for control information. The control connection uses very simple rules of
communication. The data connection needs more complex rules due to the variety of data
types transferred.
41. Discuss the basic model of FTP.(Understand)
The client has three components: the user interface, the client control process, and the client
data transfer process. The server has two components: the server control process and the
server data transfer process. The control connection is made between the control processes.
The data connection is made between the data transfer processes.
42. What do you mean by TELNET?MAY /JUNE 2012,NOV/DEC 2014 (Remember)
Telnet is a remote terminal protocol of the internet architecture. Telnet allows to connect
remote computers (called hosts) over a TCP/IP network (such as the Internet). If telnet
client software is available in a computer, it can make a connection to a telnet server (i.e., the
remote host).
43. What Is The Port No of DNS And Telnet?(Remember)
DNS = 53, Telnet = 23
44. Explain the various methodologies by which you can retrieve data from Internet.
(Understand)
Internet Search Engine Protocols used to retrieve the Data
i)FTP –Concepts Commands &Semantics Anonymous FTP
ii)TELNET Network Virtual Terminal Commands
45. What is SSH?(Remember) (NOV/DEC 2019)
Secure Shell protocol is abbreviated as SSH. It is a secure and most commonly using protocol
to access remote servers. This protocol uses encryption while transferring data between two
hosts.
46. What is the use of SSH?(Remember)
The SSH protocol (also referred to as Secure Shell) is a method for secure remote login from
one computer to another. It provides several alternative options for strong authentication, and
it protects the communications security and integrity with strong encryption. It is a secure
alternative to the non-protected login protocols (such as telnet, rlogin) and insecure file
transfer methods (such as FTP).
47. How does the SSH protocol work? (Understand)
The protocol works in the client-server model, which means that the connection is established
by the SSH client connecting to the SSH server. The SSH client drives the connection setup
process and uses public key cryptography to verify the identity of the SSH server. After the
setup phase the SSH protocol uses strong symmetric encryption and hashing algorithms to
ensure the privacy and integrity of the data that is exchanged between the client and server.
48. What is the default port number for SSH?(Remember)
#port 22
49. Compare telnet and SSH?(Analyse)
SSH and Telnet commonly serves the same purpose
SSH is more secure compared to Telnet
SSH encrypts the data while Telnet sends data in plain text
SSH uses a public key for authentication while Telnet does not use any authentication
SSH adds a bit more overhead to the bandwidth compared to Telnet
Telnet has been all but replaced by SSH in almost all uses
50. Write the Uses of HTTP? (Remember)(April/May 2018)
Short for Hypertext Transfer Protocol, HTTP is a set of standards that allow users of the
World Wide Web to exchange information found on web pages. When accessing any web
page entering http:// in front of the address tells the browser to communicate over HTTP. For
example, the URL for Computer Hope is https://www.computerhope.com.
Today's browsers no longer require HTTP in front of the URL since it is the default method
of communication. However, it is kept in browsers because of the need to
separate protocols such as FTP. Below are a few of the major facts on HTTP.
51. Consider an HTTP client that wants to retrieve a Web document at a given URL. The IP
address of the HTTP server is initially unknown. What transport and Application – layer
protocols are needed in this scenario?
UDP for DNS and TCP for HTTP
 PART – B
1. Explain the functions of SMTP. (NOV 2011, NOV/DEC 2019) (Understand)
2. Write short notes on FTP. (Create)
3. Explain about E –mail & HTTP (DEC 2012)(APR/MAY 2021) (Understand)
4. Explain the WWW in detail. (Understand)
5. Explain the type of encryption/decryption method. (Understand)
6. Explain about RSA algorithm. (Understand)
7. Explain about secret key encryption algorithm. (Understand)
8. Explain about telnet (DEC 2012) (Understand)
9. Explain the SMTP and HTTP. Give their uses, state strengths and weaknesses.
(NOV 2010) (Understand)
10. Explain the role of a DNS on a computer network and give a detailed note on DNS.
(NOV/DEC2010,NOV/DEC2016,MAY/JUNE2017,NOV/DEC2019)(Understand)
11. Describe the message format and the message transfer and the underlying protocol
involved in the working of the electronic mail.(NOV/DEC 2013),(April May 2018)
(NOV/DEC 2018)(Evaluate)
12. Explain with example: HTTP and FTP(NOV/DEC 2013) (Understand)
13. Explain the message transfer using Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
(APR/MAY 2015) (Understand)
14. Explain the role and final delivery of email to the end user using POP3.
(APR/MAY 2015) (NOV/DEC 2016) (Understand)
15. Write short notes on :
(i) Web services (ii) SNMP (MAY 2015,NOV/DEC 2016) (Understand)
16. Explain in detail of about domain name system.(NOV/DEC 2015, NOV/DEC 2018)
(Understand)
17. Explain about SSL in detail.(Understand) (APR/MAY 2021)
18. (i) Describe how SMTP protocol is used in E-mail applications. (Evaluate)
(MAY /JUNE 2016)
(ii) Explain HTTP with an example. (Understand)
19. Explain about Web service architecture. (MAY /JUNE 2016) (Understand)
20. (i). Describe how SMTP transfers message from one host to another with suitable
illustration. (NOV/DEC 2019) (Evaluate)
(ii). Explain IMAP with state transition diagram. (MAY/JUNE 2017) (Understand),
(April May 2018)
21. List the elements of network management and explain the operation of SNMP
protocol in detail. (MAY/JUNE2017, NOV/DEC2019) (Remember)
22. Discuss the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) with suitable diagrams.(NOV/DEC2019)
(Remember)
PART-C
1. What information would you use to generalize the view of an application-layer protocol?
(Understand)
2. What elements would you use to demonstrate the MIME type? Explain in detail.
(Understand)
3. Can you interpret what is happening in the state transition of IMAP? Can you substitute
an alternative protocol for IMAP? Justify your answer. (Analyze)
4. Explain the relationship between Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) and Uniform
Resource Identifiers (URIs). Give an example of URI that is not a URL. (Analyze)
5. Illustrate the sequence of events and the respective protocols involved while accessing a
web page from a machine when it is connected with internet for first time. (Analyze)
6. A student attaches a laptop to campus network and requests/receive a web page from
www.google.com.Explain the sequence of operations carried out with the help of
different protocols used in application, transport,network and lonk layers. (Analyze)
(NOV/DEC 2018)

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
1. Suppose you are sending an email from your Gmail account to your friend, who reads
the e-mail from a mail server using IMAP. Briefly describe how the email travels
from the host to your friend’s host. Also, what are the application layer protocols
involved? (Remember)
2. Suppose you needed to use HTTP to download a web page with three embedded
images. Draw diagrams, similar to those from class, depicting the main interactions
between the client and server when using non-persistent HTTP, persistent HTTP.
(Understand)
3. Why do you think DNS uses UDP, instead of TCP, for its query and response
messages? (Remember)