1

SYMMETRIC AND ASYMMETRIC STAIRCASE PATCH

ANTENNA
A Project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Submitted by
D. Bhargav (315126512040) k. Kokila (315126512069)

A. S. Jatin Sairam Gona (315126512001) A. Priyanka (315126512009)

Under the guidance of

Mrs. P Chaya Devi
Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

ANIL NEERUKONDA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCES
(UGC AUTONOMOUS)
(Permanently Affiliated to AU, Approved by AICTE and Accredited by NBA & NAAC with ‘A’ Grade)
Sangivalasa, bheemilimandal, visakhapatnamdist.(A.P)
2018-2019

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our deep gratitude to our project guide Mrs. P Chaya
Devi Assistant professor, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
ANITS, for her guidance with unsurpassed knowledge and immense encouragement.

We are grateful to Dr. V. Rajyalakshmi, Head of the Department, Electronics

and Communication Engineering, for providing us with the required facilities for the
completion of the project work.

We are very much thankful to the Principal and Management, ANITS,

Sangivalasa, for their encouragement and cooperation to carry out this work.

We express our thanks to all teaching faculty of Department of ECE, whose

suggestions during reviews helped us in accomplishment of our project. We would like to
thank all non-teaching staff of the Department of ECE, ANITS for providing great
assistance in accomplishment of our project.

We would like to thank our parents, friends, and classmates for their
encouragement throughout our project period. At last but not the least, we thank everyone
for supporting us directly or indirectly in completing this project successfully.

PROJECT STUDENTS

D.Bhargav (315126512040),
K.Kokila (315126512069),
A.S.Jatin Sairam Gona (315126512001),
A.Priyanka (315126512009),
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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

ANIL NEERUKONDA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCES
(UGC AUTONOMOUS)
(Permanently Affiliated to AU, Approved by AICTE and Accredited by NBA & NAAC with ‘A’
Grade)
Sangivalasa, Bheemilimandal, visakhapatnamdist.(A.P)

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report entitled “SYMMETRIC AND ASYMMETRIC
STAIRCASE PATCH ANTENNA”submitted by D. Bhargav (315126512040), K.
Kokila (315126512069), A.S. Jatin Sairam Gona (315126512001), A. Priyanka
(315126512009) in partial fulfillment of the requirements forthe award of the degree of
Bachelor of Technology in Electronics & Communication Engineering ofAndhra
University, Visakhapatnam is a record of bonafide work carried out under my
guidanceand supervision.

Project Guide Head of the Department

Mrs. P Chaya Devi Dr. V.Rajyalakshmi
(M.Tech) (M.E,Ph.D,MIEE,MIE,MIETE)
Assistant professor Professor
Department of E.C.E Department of E.C.E
ANITS ANITS

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CONTENTS
ABSTRACT v
LIST OF SYMBOLS vi
LIST OF FIGURES vii
LIST OF TABLES viii
LIST OF ABBREVATIONS

CHAPTER

I INTRODUCTION 12-13
II PARAMETERS OF AN ANTENNA 14-30
2.1 Parameters of an Antenna
2.1.1 Radiation Pattern 15
2.1.2 Antenna Gain 16
2.1.3 Antenna Efficiency 17
2.1.4 Directivity 18
2.1.5 Return Loss 20
2.1.6 Antenna Polarization 21
2.1.7 Voltage Wave Standing Ratio 23
2.1.8 Bandwidth 24
2.1.9 Axial ratio 26
2.1.10 Field Regions 27
2.1.11 Radiation Intensity 27
2.2 Types of Antennas
2.2.1 Omni directional Antenna 28
2.2.2 Semi directional Antenna 29
2.2.3 Highly directional Antenna 30

III MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA 33-44

3.1 Introduction to Microstrip Patch Antenna 33
3.2 Types of Microstrip Patch Antenna 35
3.1.1 Squared Shaped 35
3.1.2 Rectangular Shaped 35
3.1.3 Dipole Shaped 35
3.1.4 Circular Shaped 35
3.1.5 Triangular Shaped 35
3.1.6 Circular Ring Shaped 35
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3.1.7 Elliptical Shaped 35

3.3 Feeding methods of a Microstrip Patch Antenna 35
3.3.1 Contacting
3.3.1.1 Micro strip line feed. 36
3.3.1.2 Captive Feeding. 36
3.3.2 Non Contacting
3.3.2.1 Aperture Coupled 37
3.3.2.2 Proximity Coupled 37
3.4 Methods of Analysis
3.4.1 Transmission line Model-The Rectangular Patch 37
3.4.1.1 Fringing Effects 41
3.5 Design formulae for a Micro strip Patch Antenna 32
3.6 Advantages of a Micro strip Patch Antenna 42
3.7 Disadvantages of a Micro strip Patch Antenna 43
3.8 Applications of Micro strip Patch Antenna 44

IV SYMMETRICAL STAIRCASE PATCH ANTENNA 52-57

4.1 Introduction 48
4.1.1 Design Procedure for Rectangular patch antenna 48
4.2 Design Procedure for symmetrical staircase patch antenna 49
4.3 Design Dimensions for symmetrical staircase patch antenna 50
4.4 Parameters Obtained for symmetrical staircase patch antenna 53
4.4.1 Using FR4 Epoxy 53
4.4.2 Using Rogers RT Duroid 57
4.5 Results and discussion for symmetrical staircase micro strip patch antenna
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V ASYMMETRIC STAIRCASE PATCH ANTENNA 58-68

4.1 Introduction 58
4.2 Design Procedure for asymmetrical staircase patch antenna 60
4.3 Design Dimensions for asymmetrical staircase patch antenna 63
4.4 Parameters Obtained for asymmetrical staircase patch antenna 64
4.4.1 Using Rogers RT Duroid 75
4.5 Results and discussion for asymmentrical staircase microstrip patch antenna 68

VI CONCLUSIONS 69
VII RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 70
REFERENCES 71

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ABSTRACT
As the technology is being updated faster than sooner, the bulky machinery used
in various applications is being replaced by compact devices which are handy in the
development of the communication systems as they would be delivering high
performance over a wide spectrum of frequencies. The advantages of using the compact
devices in communication systems are its low cost, minimal weight and low profile
antennas. This technological trend has focused much effort into the design of a Microstrip
patch antenna but designing such antenna requires high precision and accuracy for a
specific application. This ideology presents the optimized technique used to design these
antennas. The Quad staircase Microstrip patch Antenna is an optimized technique which
is used in the S, C and X band applications. The High Frequency Structure Simulator
(HFSS) would be used for the verification for the various antenna parameters to see
whether the optimized structure is worth practical implementation.
The main motto of this work is to represent the miniaturization by introducing
staircase shape at each edge of this patch antenna which operates in S band (2-4 GHz), C
band (4-8 GHz) and X band (8-12 GHz). The proposed antenna operates at 2.44 GHz,
5.53 GHz, 7.79GHz and 9.39 GHz with upto 37% size reduction compared to basic patch
antenna. The design frequency for the proposed antenna is 2.4 GHz which supports
multiband behavior. The Rogers RT/Duroid5880 with relative permittivity 2.2 and height
1.6 mm is used as a substrate material for design of the proposed antenna. Transmission
line model is applied to calculate the dimensions of the proposed antenna. Coaxial probe
feed is used to feed the proposed antenna as this type of feed provides better impedance
matching to source varying the feed position. The results of the proposed antenna are
obtained in terms of Return Loss, Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR), Gain and

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Radiation Pattern which have acceptable values of return loss less than -10dB, VSWR
less than 2 at each resonant frequencies and Gain more than 3 dB.

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig.1.1 Radiation from an antenna 12

Fig.2.1 Typical polar radiation plot 15
Fig.2.2 Gain of an antenna 16
Fig.3.0 Radiation pattern of omni directional antenna 29
Fig.3.1 Side view of an antenna 35
Fig.3.2 Different shapes of an antenna 36
Fig.3.3 Stripline feeding for an antenna 37
Fig.3.4 Co axial type feeding for an antenna 38
Fig.3.5 Aperture coupled feed 39
Fig.3.6 Proximity couple feeding 40
Fig.4.1 Rectangular patch 46
Fig.4.2 Returnloss for rectangular patch antenna 47
Fig.4.3 VSWR for rectangular staircase patch anenna 47
Fig.4.4 Symmentrical patch design 51
Fig.4.5 VSWR for symmentrical staircase patch antenna using Fr4-Epoxy 51
Fig.4.6Returnloss for symmenterical staircase patch antenna using Fr4-Epoxy 53
Fig.4.7 VSWR for symmenterical staircase patch antenna using Rogers-RC Duroid 54
Fig.4.8Returnloss for symmentrical staircase patch antenna using Rogers-RC Duroid 54
Fig.4.9Gain for the frequency of 2.4GHz 55
Fig.4.91Gain for the frequency of5.553GHz 55
Fig.4.92Gain for the frequency of 7.79GHz 56
Fig .4.9Gain for the frequency of 9.93GHz 56
Fig.5.1 Asymmentrical patch design 60
Fig.5.2 VSWR for asymmenterical staircase patch antenna using Rogers-RC Duroid 62

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Fig.3Returnloss for asymmentrical staircase patch antenna using Rogers-RC Duroid 63

Fig.5.4Gain for the frequency of 3.0167GHz 63
Fig.5.5Gain for the frequency of 5.3946GHz 64
Fig.5.6Gain for the frequency of 7.5017GHz 64
Fig.5.7Gain for the frequency of 9.0638GHz 65
Fig.5.8Radiation pattern using Rougers RC Duroid at 3.0167GHz 65
Fig.5.9Radiation pattern using Rougers RC Duroid at 5.3946GHz 66
Fig.5.10Radiation pattern using Rougers RC Duroid at 7.5017GHz 66
Fig.5.11Radiation pattern using Rougers RC Duroid at 9.0638GHz 67

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Comparision of different feeding techniques 47

Table 4.1 Parameters of quad staircase patch antenna 65
Table 5.1 Comparision between symmenterical and asymmenterical patch antenna 78

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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

Antennas are metallic structures designed for radiating and receiving electromagnetic
energy. An antenna acts as a transitional structure between the guiding device (e.g.
waveguide, transmission line) and the free space. The official IEEE definition of an
antenna as given by Stutzman and Thiele follows the concept: “That part of a transmitting
or receiving system that is designed to radiate or receive electromagnetic waves”.
How an Antenna radiates?

In order to know how an antenna radiates, let us first consider how radiation occurs. A
conducting wire radiates mainly because of time-varying current or an acceleration (or
deceleration) of charge. If there is no motion of charges in a wire, no radiation takes
place, since no flow of current occurs. Radiation will not occur even if charges are
moving with uniform velocity along a straight wire. However, charges moving with
uniform velocity along a curved or bent wire will produce radiation. The radiation from
an antenna can be explained with the help of Figure 1.1 which shows a voltage source
connected to a two conductor transmission line. When a sinusoidal voltage is applied
across the transmission line, an electric field is created which is sinusoidal in nature and
this results in the creation of electric lines of force which are tangential to the electric
field. The magnitude of the electric field is indicated by the bunching of the electric lines
of force. The free electrons on the conductors are forcibly displaced by the electric lines
of force and the movement of these charges causes the flow of current which in turn leads
to the creation of a magnetic field.

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Fig. 1.1 Radiation from an Antenna

Due to the time varying electric and magnetic fields, electromagnetic waves are created
and these travel between the conductors. As these waves approach open space, free space
waves are formed by connecting the open ends of the electric lines. Since the sinusoidal
source continuously creates the electric disturbance, electromagnetic waves are created
continuously and these travel through the transmission line, through the antenna and are
radiated into the free space.Inside the transmission line and the antenna, the
electromagnetic waves are sustained due to the charges, but as soon as they enter the free
space, they form closed loops and are radiated.

Chapter-II
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Parameters of an Antenna
2.1 Parameters of an Antenna

2.1.1 Radiation Pattern

In the field of antenna design the term radiation pattern (or antenna pattern or far-field
pattern) refers to the directional (angular) dependence of the strength of the radio
waves from the antenna or other source. Particularly in the fields of fiber optics, lasers,
and integrated optics, the term radiation pattern may also be used as a synonym for
the near-field pattern or Fresnel pattern. This refers to the positional dependence of
the electromagnetic field in the near-field, or Fresnel region of the source. The near-field
pattern is most commonly defined over a plane placed in front of the source, or over a
cylindrical or spherical surface enclosing it.
The far-field pattern of an antenna may be determined experimentally at an antenna
range, or alternatively, the near-field pattern may be found using a near-field scanner, and
the radiation pattern deduced from it by computation. The far-field radiation pattern can
also be calculated from the antenna shape by computer programs such as NEC. Other
software, like HFSS can also compute the near field. The far field radiation pattern may
be represented graphically as a plot of one of a number of related variables, including;
the field strength at a constant (large) radius (an amplitude pattern or field pattern), the
power per unit solid angle (power pattern) and the directive gain. Very often, only the
relative amplitude is plotted, normalized either to the amplitude on the antenna bore
sight, or to the total radiated power. The plotted quantity may be shown on a linear scale,
or in dB . The plot is typically represented as a three-dimensional graph (as at right), or as
separate graphs in the vertical plane and horizontal plane. This is often known as a polar
diagram.

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Fig. 2.1 Typical polar radiation plot

Most antennas show a pattern of "lobes" or maxima of radiation. In a directive antenna,

shown here, the largest lobe, in the desired direction of propagation, is called the "main
lobe". The other lobes are called "side lobes" and usually represent radiation in unwanted
directions.

2.1.2 Antenna Gain

An antenna's power gain or simply gain is a key performance number which combines
the antenna's directivity and electrical efficiency. In a transmitting antenna, the gain
describes how well the antenna converts input power into radio waves headed in a
specified direction. In a receiving antenna, the gain describes how well the antenna
converts radio waves arriving from a specified direction into electrical power. When no
direction is specified, "gain" is understood to refer to the peak value of the gain, the gain
in the direction of the antenna's main lobe. A plot of the gain as a function of direction is
called the radiation pattern.
Antenna gain is usually defined as the ratio of the power produced by the antenna from
a far-field source on the antenna's beam axis to the power produced by a hypothetical
lossless isotropic antenna, which is equally sensitive to signals from all directions.
Usually this ratio is expressed in decibels, and these units are referred to as "decibels-

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isotropic" (dBi). An alternative definition compares the received power to the power
received by a lossless half-wave dipole antenna, in which case the units are written
as dBd. Since a lossless dipole antenna has a gain of 2.15 dBi, the relation between these
units is Gain (dBd) = Gain (dBi)-2.15.
For a given frequency, the antenna's effective area is proportional to the power gain. An
antenna's effective length is proportional to the square root of the antenna's gain for a
particular frequency and radiation resistance. Due to reciprocity, the gain of any
reciprocal antenna when receiving is equal to its gain when transmitting.Directive
gain or directivity is a different measure which does not take an antenna's electrical
efficiency into account. This term is sometimes more relevant in the case of a receiving
antenna where one is concerned mainly with the ability of an antenna to receive signals
from one direction while rejecting interfering signals coming from a different direction

Fig. 2.2 Gain of an Antenna

2.1.3 Antenna Efficiency

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In antenna theory, antenna efficiency is most often used to mean radiation efficiency. In
the context of antennas, one often just speaks of "efficiency." It is a measure of
the electrical efficiency with which a radio antenna converts the radio-frequency power
accepted at its terminals into radiated power. Likewise, in a receiving antenna it describes
the proportion of the radio wave's power intercepted by the antenna which is actually
delivered as an electrical signal. It is not to be confused with aperture efficiency which
applies to aperture antennas such as the reflector. Radiation efficiency is defined
by IEEE STD 145-1993 "Standard Definitions of Terms for Antennas" as "The ratio of
the total power radiated by an antenna to the net power accepted by the antenna from the
connected transmitter." It is sometimes expressed as a percentage (less than 100), and is
frequency dependent. It can also be described in decibels.
For wire antennas which have a defined radiation resistance the radiation efficiency is the
ratio of the radiation resistance to the total resistance of the antenna including ground loss
(see below) and conductor resistance. In practical cases the resistive loss in any tuning
and/or matching network is often included, although network loss is strictly not a
property of the antenna. For other types of antenna the radiation efficiency is less easy to
calculate and is usually determined by measurements. The gain of an antenna is
the directivity multiplied by the radiation efficiency, as described in STD 145-1993.
If an antenna could be made to be a totally ideal electrical component, it would transform
all of the power fed to its terminals to a radiating electromagnetic energy that propagates
into the surrounding space. This is possible only in theory, and thus in real life some of
the power fed to the antenna terminals is always lost. For example, the mismatch between
the antenna element and the feeding network causes power losses. Also the actual
antenna material loses energy just by its nature and creates unintended heat. All together
these losses lead to situations where the antenna radiated efficiency in actual operation is
always below 100% (equals 0 dB). The antenna efficiency is measured in an anechoic
chamber by feeding some power to the antenna feed pads and measuring the strength of
the radiated electromagnetic field in the surrounding space. A good antenna, in general,
radiates 50 – 60 % of the energy fed to it (-3 to -2.2dB).

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𝒑𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝒑𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝜼= =
𝒑𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒂𝒅 + 𝒑𝒊𝒏
Where,
𝜼 = Antenna Efficiency
𝒑𝒓𝒂𝒅 = Power Radiated by the Antenna.
𝒑𝒊𝒏 = Input power given to an Antenna.

2.1.4 Directivity

Directivity is a parameter of an antenna or optical system which measures the degree to

which the radiation emitted is concentrated in a single direction. It measures the power
density the antenna radiates in the direction of its strongest emission, versus the power
density radiated by an ideal isotropic radiator (which emits uniformly in all directions)
radiating the same total power. An antenna's directivity is a component of its gain; the
other component is its (electrical) efficiency. Directivity is an important measure because
many antennas and optical systems are designed to radiate electromagnetic waves in a
single direction or over a narrow angle. Directivity is also defined for an antenna
receiving electromagnetic waves, and its directivity when receiving is equal to its
directivity when transmitting.

The directivity,D, of an antenna is the maximal value of its directive gain. Directive gain
is represented as D(θ, ϕ) and compares the radiant intensity (power per unit solid angle)
U(θ, ϕ) that an antenna creates in a particular direction against the average value over all
directions:
U(θ, ϕ)
D(θ, ϕ) =
Ptot ⁄4π

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Where, θ and ϕare the zenith angle and azimuth angle respectively in the
standard spherical coordinate angles; U(θ, ϕ) is the radiation intensity, which is the
power per unit solid angle; and Ptot is the total radiated power. The quantities U(θ, ϕ) and
Ptot satisfy the relation:

Ptot=∫ϕ=2π θ=2π
ϕ=0 ∫θ=0 USinθdθdϕ;

That is, the total radiated power Ptot is the power per unit solid angle U(θ, ϕ) integrated
over a spherical surface. Since there are 4πsteradians on the surface of a sphere, the
quantity Ptot ⁄4π represents the average power per unit solid angle. In other words,
directive gain is the radiation intensity of an antenna at a particular (θ, ϕ) coordinate
combination divided by what the radiation intensity would have been had the antenna
been an isotropic antenna radiating the same amount of total power into space.
Directivity is the maximum of the directive gain, a half wave dipole antenna has a
directivity of 1.63, a Herzian dipole antenna has a directivity of 1.5, a Quaterwave
monopole has 3.26, and an Isotropic antenna has 1 as its Directivity.

2.1.5 Return Loss

Return loss is the loss of power in the signal returned/reflected by a discontinuity in

a transmission line or optical fiber. This discontinuity can be a mismatch with the
terminating load or with a device inserted in the line. It is usually expressed as a ratio
in decibels (dB);
Pi
RL(dB) = 10log10
Pr

Where RL (dB) is the return loss in dB, Pi is the incident power and Pr is the reflected
power.
Return loss is related to both standing wave ratio (SWR) and reflection coefficient (Γ).
Increasing return loss corresponds to lower SWR. Return loss is a measure of how well
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devices or lines are matched. A match is good if the return loss is high. A high return loss
is desirable and results in a lower insertion loss. Return loss is used in modern practice in
preference to SWR because it has better resolution for small values of reflected wave.

Properly, loss quantities, when expressed in decibels, should be positive numbers.

However, return loss has historically been expressed as a negative number, and this
convention is still widely found in the literature.
The correct definition of return loss is the difference in dB between the incident power
sent towards the Device under Test (DUT) and the power reflected, resulting in a positive
sign:

Pr
RL′ (dB) = 10log10
Pi
Where RL'(dB) is the negative of RL (dB).
Return loss with a positive sign is identical to the magnitude of Γ when expressed in
decibels but of opposite sign. That is, return loss with a negative sign is more properly
called reflection coefficient. The S-parameter S11 from two-port network theory is
frequently also called return loss, but is actually equal to Γ.

Hence the RL is a parameter to indicate how well the matching between the transmitter
and antenna has taken place. For perfect matching between the transmitter and the
antenna, the reflection coefficient Γ= 0 and hence RL= ∞ which means no power would
be reflected back, whereas Γ= 1 has a RL= 0 dB, which implies that all incident power is
reflected back. For practical applications, a VSWR of 2 is acceptable, since this
corresponds to reflection coefficient
Γ= (1/3) and hence a return loss of 9.54dB or approximately 10dB is acceptable. This is
the reason that during bandwidth calculations, 10dB return loss is considered. This 10dB
figure carries dependency on frequency band such as the resonant frequency dip should

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be less than 10dB. Also we decide the bandwidth of an antenna at the two cutting point
along 10dB.

2.1.6 Antenna Polarization

The simplest way to describe polarization is the direction in which the electric field of a
radio wave oscillates while it propagates through a medium. The point of reference for
specifying a polarization is looking at it from the transmitter of the signal. This can be
visualized by imagining standing directly behind a radio antenna and looking in the
direction it is aimed. In the case of a horizontal polarization, the electric field will move
sideways in a horizontal plane. Conversely, for vertical polarization, the electric field will
oscillate up and down in a vertical plane.
Now coming to Antenna Polarization, it is an important consideration when selecting and
installing antenna. Because radiation property of an antenna depends on the antenna
polarization and if polarization is not synchronized between transmitting and receiving
antenna even resonant frequency are perfectly matched still the signals will not be
received by receiving antenna. The electric field or “E” plane determines the polarization
or orientation of the wave. An antenna is vertically linear polarized when its electric field
is perpendicular to the Earth’s surface.
Horizontally linear polarized antenna, have their electric field parallel to the Earth’s
surface. In a circularly polarized antenna, the plane of polarization rotates in a corkscrew
pattern making one complete revolution during each wavelength. A circularly polarized
wave radiates energy in the horizontal, vertical plane as well as in every plane in
between. If the rotation is clockwise looking into the direction of propagation, the sense
is called right-hand-circular (RHC) polarization. If the rotation is counter clockwise, the
sense is called left-hand-circular (LHC) polarization. Polarization is an important design
consideration. The polarization of each antenna in a system should be properly aligned.
Maximum signal strength between stations occurs when both stations are using identical
polarization.

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Most communication systems use vertical, horizontal or elliptical (RHC-right hand

circular or LHC-left hand circular) polarization, with vertical dominating commercial
VHF/UHF applications. In some instances, the selection is determined by the installation
site, with the antenna oriented to provide the best performance. If this is anticipated, your
antenna should provide mounting for either polarization. Selecting the proper polarization
for the system can enhance the overall performance by minimizing the interference from
adjoining systems. For example, by installing you system orthogonal to other systems in
the area, you can provide up to 20 dB of isolation. This will result in up to a 99% power
reduction of the interfering system! Elliptical polarization can sometimes decrease
fading.

Many systems are challenged because they must interface with handheld transmitters.
These units move around a room or warehouse, with the antenna often pointing many
degrees off-axis. To accommodate this application, the fixed antennas often use circular
or elliptical polarization with a hemispherical shaped pattern trading off high gain for
reasonable gain in all directions.

2.1.7 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio

In radio engineering and telecommunications, standing wave ratio (SWR) is a measure

of impedance matching of loads to the characteristic impedance of a transmission
line or waveguide. Impedance mismatches result in standing waves along the
transmission line, and SWR is defined as the ratio of the partial standing wave's
amplitude at an antinodes (maximum) to the amplitude at a node (minimum) along the
line. The SWR is usually thought of in terms of the maximum and minimum
AC voltages along the transmission line, thus called the voltage standing wave
ratio or VSWR (sometimes pronounced "vizwar"). For example, the VSWR value 1.2:1
denotes an AC voltage due to standing waves along the transmission line reaching a peak
value 1.2 times that of the minimum AC voltage along that line. The SWR can as well be
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defined as the ratio of the maximum amplitude to minimum amplitude of the

transmission line's currents, electric field strength, or the magnetic field strength.
As electromagnetic waves travel through the different parts of the antenna system, from
the source to the feed line to the antenna and finally to free space, they may encounter
differences in impedance at each interface. Depending on the impedance match, some
fraction of the wave’s energy will reflect back to the source, forming a standing wave
pattern in the feed line. The ratio of the maximum power to the minimum power in the
wave can be measured and it is called the voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR). A VSWR
of 1:1 is ideal. A VSWR of 1.5:1 is considered to be marginally acceptable in low power
applications. Minimizing impedance differences at each interface will reduce VSWR and
maximize power transfer through each part of the system.
The voltage standing wave ratio is:

|Vmax | 1 + |Γ|
VSWR = =
|Vmin | 1 − |Γ|
Since the magnitude of Γ always falls in the range [0, 1], the SWR is always greater than
or equal to unity. Note that the phase of Vi and Vr vary along the transmission line in
opposite directions to each other. Therefore, the complex-valued reflection coefficient Γ
varies as well, but only in phase. With the SWR dependent only on the complex
magnitude of Γ, it can be seen that the SWR measured at any point along the transmission
line (neglecting transmission line losses) obtains an identical reading.The voltage
component of a standing wave in a uniform transmission line consists of the forward
wave (with complex amplitudeVf ) superimposed on the reflected wave (with complex
amplitude Vr ).A wave is partly reflected when a transmission line is terminated with
other than an impedance equal to its characteristic impedance. The reflection coefficient
Γ can be defined as:

Vr Z −Z
Γ= Or Γ = Zl +Zo
Vf l o

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Γ is a complex number that describes both the magnitude and the phase shift of the
reflection. The simplest cases with Γ measured at the load are:
Γ = -1: complete negative reflection, when the line is short-circuited.
Γ = 0: no reflection, when the line is perfectly matched.
Γ = +1: complete positive reflection, when the line is open-circuited.

2.1.8 Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the difference between the upper and lower frequencies in a continuous
band of frequencies. It is typically measured in hertz, and depending on context, may
specifically refer to pass band bandwidth or baseband bandwidth. Pass band bandwidth is
the difference between the upper and lower cutoff frequencies of, for example, a band-
pass filter, a communication channel, or a signal spectrum. Baseband bandwidth applies
to a low-pass filter or baseband signal; the bandwidth is equal to its upper cutoff
frequency. Bandwidth in hertz is a central concept in many fields, including information
theory ,electronics , radio communications, signal processing, and spectroscopy and is
one of the determinants of the capacity of a given communication channel. A key
characteristic of bandwidth is that any band of a given width can carry the same amount
of information, regardless of where that band is located in the frequency spectrum. For
example, a 3 kHz band can carry a telephone conversation whether that band is at
baseband (as in a POTS telephone line) or modulated to some higher frequency.

The bandwidth is the antenna operating frequency band within which the antenna
performs as desired. The bandwidth of a broadband antenna can be defined as the ratio of
the higher to lower frequencies of acceptable operation. In other words, the frequency
over which the antenna will perform satisfactorily i.e. it’s one or more characteristics
have acceptable values between the bandwidth limits. The absolute bandwidth (ABW) is
defined as the difference of the two edges and the fractional bandwidth (FBW) is
designated as the percentage of the frequency difference
Over the center frequency, as given in equations below:

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𝐴𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓𝐻 − 𝑓𝐿
𝑓𝐻 − 𝑓𝐿
𝐹𝐵𝑊 = 2
𝑓𝐻 + 𝑓𝐿

The bandwidth of an antenna refers to the range of frequencies over which the antenna
can operate correctly. The antenna's bandwidth is the number of Hz for which the antenna
will exhibit an SWR less than 2:1. Bandwidth is constant relative to frequency. If
bandwidth was expressed in absolute units of frequency, it would be different depending
upon the center frequency. Different types of antennas have different bandwidth
limitations.

2.1.9 Axial Ratio

Axial ratio (AR) is the most important factor in indicating the quality of the wave
propagation of circular polarization. According to IEEE standard definition the term axial
ratio is defined as the ratio of the major to minor axes of a polarization ellipse. While the
term axial ratio pattern is the graphical representation of the axial ratio of a wave radiated
by an antenna over a radiation pattern cut. For a perfect circular polarized wave the value
of axial ratio will be 1 or 0 dB. In case when the magnitude of the RHCP components is
equal to the LHCP components, then the rotated circle formed by the electric field vector
would degenerate into a line, the polarization becomes linear and the value of the axial
ratio will go to infinite.

Axial ratio, for any structure or shape with two or more axes, is the ratio of the length (or
magnitude) of those axes to each other - the longer axis divided by the shorter.
In chemistry or materials science, the axial ratio (symbol P) is used to describe rigid rod-
like molecules. It is defined as the length of the rod divided by the rod diameter.

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In physics, the axial ratio describes electromagnetic radiation with elliptical, or

circular, polarization. The axial ratio is the ratio of the magnitudes of the major and
minor axis defined by the electric field vector. The Axial Ratio (AR) is defined as the
ratio between the minor and major axis of the polarization ellipse. Recall that if the
ellipse has an equal minor and major axis it transforms into a circle, and we say that the
antenna is circularly polarized. In that case the axial ratio is equal to unity (or 0 dB). The
axial ratio of a linearly polarized antenna is infinitely big since one of the ellipse axis is
equal to zero. For a circularly polarized antenna, the closer the axial ratio is to 0 dB, the
better.

2.1.10 Field Regions

The radiations from an antenna would vary when we go apart from the antenna. The field
regions can be categorized in far field region and near field region. Far field region is the
region beyond the Fraunhofer distance called the Fraunhofer region. It is the region after
the radiation pattern does not change with the distance. The Fraunhofer distance is related
to antenna’s larger dimensions and can be calculated as:

2𝐷2
𝑅=
𝜆

Where,

R= Distance from the antenna

D= Larger dimension of antenna

𝜆 = Wavelength of free space

2.1.11 Radiation Intensity

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Radiation Intensity in a given direction is defined as “the power radiated from an antenna
per unit solid angle.” The radiation density by the square of the distance. In mathematical
form it is expressed as

𝑈 = 𝑟 2 𝑊𝑟𝑎𝑑

Where,

U= Radiation Intensity (W/ unit solid angle)

𝑊𝑟𝑎𝑑 = Radiation Density (𝑊⁄𝑚2 )

1.2 Types of Antennas

1.2.1 Omni Directional Antenna

In radio communication, an omnidirectional antenna is a class of antenna which radiates

equal radio power in all directions perpendicular to an axis(azimuthally directions), with
power varying with angle to the axis (elevation angle), declining to zero on the
axis.When graphed in three dimensions (see graph) this radiation pattern is often
described as doughnut-shaped. Note that this is different from an isotropic antenna, which
radiates equal power in all directions, having a spherical radiation pattern.
Omnidirectional antennas oriented vertically are widely used for no directional antennas
on the surface of the Earth because they radiate equally in all horizontal directions, while
the power radiated drops off with elevation angle so little radio energy is aimed into the
sky or down toward the earth and wasted. Omnidirectional antennas are widely used
for radio broadcasting antennas, and in mobile devices that use radio such as cell
phones, FM radios, walkie-talkies, wireless computer networks, cordless phones, GPS, as
well as for base stations that communicate with mobile radios, such as police and taxi
dispatchers and aircraft communications.

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Omnidirectional radiation patterns are produced by the simplest practical

antennas, monopole and dipole antennas, consisting of one or two straight rod conductors
on a common axis. Antenna gain (G) is defined as antenna efficiency (e) multiplied by
antenna directivity (D) which is expressed mathematically as: G = eD A useful
relationship between omnidirectional radiation pattern directivity (D) in decibels and
sin(bθ)
half-power beam width (HPBW) based on the assumption of a pattern shape is:
bθ

101.5
D ≈ 10log10 ( ) dB
HPBW − 0.00272HPBW 2

Fig. 3 Radiation pattern of an Omni Directional Antenna

The radiation pattern of a simple omnidirectional antenna, a vertical half-wave dipole

antenna. In this graph the antenna is at the center of the "donut," or torus. Radial distance
from the center represents the power radiated in that direction. The power radiated is
maximum in horizontal directions, dropping to zero directly above and below the
antenna.

1.2.2 Semi Directional Antenn

Semi directional antennas are designed to provide specific, directed signal coverage over
large areas. An example of a semi directional antenna is a Yagi antenna,semi directional
antenna radiates rf in a similar way a street lamp lights down on a street or a parting
lot,providing a directional light across a large area.semi directional antennas are designed

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to direct a signal in a specific direction.semi directional antennas are used for short-to-
medium-distance communications it is common to use semi directional antennas to
provide a network bridge between two semi directional antennas are used for short-t0
medium distance communication it building in a campus environment or down the street
from each other it can be used for outdoor point to point communication upto about a
mile.

It is more commonly used as a central device to provide unidirectional coverage from the
access point to the clients in an indoor environment. Can be used effectively in libraries,
warehouses, and retail stores with long aisles of shelves.
It can provide coverage for long hallways with offices on each side or hospital corridors
with patient rooms on each side. Antenna can be placed at the end of the hall and aimed
down the corridor. The most common use case for deploying a MIMO patch antenna
indoors is a high-density environment.
MIMO patch and panel antennas are often mounted from the ceiling downward to
provide tight “sectors” of coverage. The most common use of indoor MIMO patch
antennas is for high-density environments. Semi directional antennas can be installed
high on a wall and tilted downward toward the area to be covered.
There are different types of semi directional category:
Yagi antennas: Yagi-Uda antennas are typically used for short- to medium-distance
point-to-point communications of up to about 2 miles, although high-gain Yagi antennas
can be used for longer distances.
Patch antennas: Patch refers to a particular way of designing the radiating elements
inside the antenna.

1.1.3 Highly Directional Antenna

Highly directional antennas are used for point-to-point links; for example, between two
buildings. They radiate a very narrow beam over a long distance, and are often used for
dedicated links. A directional antenna or beam antenna is an antenna which radiates or
receives greater power in specific directions allowing increased performance and

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reduced interference from unwanted sources. Directional antennas provide increased

performance over dipole antennas—or omnidirectional antennas in general—when
greater concentration of radiation in a certain direction is desired.

A high-gain antenna (HGA) is a directional antenna with a focused, narrow radio wave
beam width. This narrow beam width allows more precise targeting of the radio signals.
Most commonly referred to during space missions, these antennas are also in use all
over Earth, most successfully in flat, open areas where no mountains lie to disrupt radio
waves. By contrast, a low-gain antenna (LGA) is an omnidirectional antenna with a broad
radio wave beam width that allows the signal to propagate reasonably well even in
mountainous regions and is thus more reliable regardless of terrain. Low-gain antennas
are often used in spacecraft as a backup to the high-gain antenna, which transmits a much
narrower beam and is therefore susceptible to loss of signal. [1]

All practical antennas are at least somewhat directional, although usually only the
direction in the plane parallel to the earth is considered, and practical antennas can easily
be omnidirectional in one plane. The most common types are the Yagi antenna, the log-
periodic antenna, and the corner reflector antenna, which are frequently combined and
commercially sold as residential TV antennas. Cellular repeaters often make use of
external directional antennas to give a far greater signal than can be obtained on a
standard cell phone. Satellite Television receivers usually use parabolic antennas. For
long and medium wavelength frequencies, tower arrays are used in most cases
as directional antennas.

When transmitting, a high-gain antenna allows more of the transmitted power to be sent
in the direction of the receiver, increasing the received signal strength. When receiving, a
high gain antenna captures more of the signal, again increasing signal strength. Due
to reciprocity, these two effects are equal—an antenna that makes a transmitted signal
100 times stronger (compared to an isotropic radiator) will also capture 100 times as
much energy as the isotropic antenna when used as a receiving antenna. As a
consequence of their directivity, directional antennas also send less (and receive less)

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signal from directions other than the main beam. This property may be used to reduce
interference.

There are many ways to make a high-gain antenna; the most common are parabolic
antennas, helical antennas, Yagi antennas, and phased arrays of smaller antennas of any
kind. Horn antennas can also be constructed with high gain, but are less commonly seen.
Still other configurations are possible—the Arecibo Observatory uses a combination of
a line feed with an enormous spherical reflector (as opposed to a more usual parabolic
reflector), to achieve extremely high gains at specific frequencies.

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Chapter III
Microstrip Patch Antenna

3.1 Introduction to Microstrip Patch Antenna:

In telecommunication, a Microstrip antenna (also known as a printed antenna) usually

means an antenna fabricated using Microstriptechniques on a printed circuit
board (PCB). It is a kind of Internal Antenna. They are mostly used
at microwave frequencies. An individual Microstrip antenna consists of a patch of metal
foil of various shapes (a patch antenna) on the surface of a PCB (printed circuit board),
with a metal foil ground plane on the other side of the board. Most Microstrip antennas
consist of multiple patches in a two-dimensional array. The antenna is usually connected
to the transmitter or receiver through foil Microstrip transmission lines. The radio
frequency current is applied (or in receiving antennas the received signal is produced)
between the antenna and ground plane. Microstrip antennas have become very popular in
recent decades due to their thin planar profile which can be incorporated into the surfaces
of consumer products, aircraft and missiles; their ease of fabrication using printed
circuit techniques; the ease of integrating the antenna on the same board with the rest of
the circuit, and the possibility of adding active devices such as microwave integrated
circuits to the antenna itself to make active antennas.
The most common type of Microstrip antenna is the patch antenna. Antennas using
patches as constitutive elements in an array are also possible. A patch antenna is a
narrowband, wide-beam antenna fabricated by etching the antenna element pattern in
metal trace bonded to an insulating dielectric substrate, such as a printed circuit board,
with a continuous metal layer bonded to the opposite side of the substrate which forms
a ground plane. Common Microstrip antenna shapes are square, rectangular, circular and
elliptical, but any continuous shape is possible. Some patch antennas do not use a
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dielectric substrate and instead are made of a metal patch mounted above a ground plane
using dielectric spacers; the resulting structure is less rugged but has a wider bandwidth.
Because such antennas have a very low profile, are mechanically rugged and can be
shaped to conform to the curving skin of a vehicle, they are often mounted on the exterior
of aircraft and spacecraft, or are incorporated into mobile radio communications devices.
It is used in telecommunications.
In Microstrip antenna, it is the fringing fields that are responsible for the radiation. The
fringing fields around the antenna can help explain why the Microstrip antenna radiates.
Consider the side view of a patch antenna, shown in the Figure below. The current at the
end of the patch is zero and the current is maximum at the center of the half-wave patch.
Since the patch antenna can be viewed as an open circuited transmission line, the voltage
reflection coefficient will be 1. When this occurs, the voltage and current are out of
phase. Hence, at the end of the patch the voltage is at a maximum (say +V volts). At the
start of the patch antenna (a half-wavelength away), the voltage must be at minimum (-V
Volts). Hence, the fields underneath the patch will resemble, which roughly displays the
fringing of the fields around the edges.

Fig.3.1 Side View of a Patch

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3.2 Types of Microstrip Patch Antennas:

The patch is a very thin radiating metal strip located on one side of a non-conducting
substrate the ground plane is the same metal located on the other side of the substrate.
The metallic patch is normally made of thin copper foil plated with a corrosion resistive
metal such as gold, tin or nickel. There are a large number of shapes of Microstrip patch
antenna; they have been designed to match specific characteristics. Some of the common
types are shown in figure, for millimeter wave frequencies the most common types are
rectangular, square and circular patches. Choose of substrate is also important, we have to
consider the temperature, humanity and other environmental ranges of operating.
Thickness of the substrate has a big effect on the resonant frequency Fr and bandwidth
BW of the antenna. Bandwidth of the Microstrip antenna will increase with increasing of
substrate thickness h but with limits, otherwise the antenna will stop resonating.

Fig.3.2 Different shapes of patch antenna

3.3 Feeding Techniques:

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Antenna feeding technique can generally divide into two categories which are contacting
and non-contacting. The four most popular free techniques used in patch antenna are
microstrip line, coaxial probe (both contacting schemes), aperture coupling and proximity
coupling (both non contacting schemes).

3.3.1 Contacting:

3.3.1.1: Microstrip line Feed:

Microstrip line feed is a feeding method where a conducting strip is connected to the
patch directly from the edge. The Microstrip line is etched on the same substrate surface
which gives advantage of having planar structure. The method is easy to fabricate
because it only needs a single layer substrate and no hole. Another point is to note that
Microstrip line feed needs an inset cut in the patch. The purpose of the inset cut in the
patch is to match the impedance of the feed line to the patch without the need for any
additional matching element. This is achieved by properly controlling the inset position.
Hence this is an easy feeding scheme, since it provides ease of fabrication and simplicity
in modeling as well as Impedance matching.

Fig.3.3 Strip line feeding for a Patch

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3.3.1.2: Coaxial probe feed:

The coaxial feed is a very common technique used for feeding microstrip patch antennas.
As shown in the figure, the inner conductor of the coaxial connector extends through the
dielectric and is soldered to the radiating patch while the outer conductor is connected to
the ground plane. The benefit of this feeding method is that the connector can be put in
any location within the patch to match the impedance. Moreover, this speed method is
easy to fabricate and has low spurious radiation. However there is some disadvantage.
When dealing with thicker substrate the inductance increase could effect to the matching
problem.

Fig.3.4 Co axial type feeding for a patch

3.3.2: Non-Contacting

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3.3.2.1: Aperture coupled Feed:

The coupling aperture is usually centered under the patch, leading to lower cross
polarization due to symmetry of the configuration. The amount of coupling from the field
line to the patch is determined by the shape, size and location of the aperture. Since the
ground plane separates the patch and the field line, spurious radiation is minimized.
Generally, a high dielectric material is used for bottom substrate and a thick, low
dielectric constant material is used for the top substrate to optimize radiation from the
patch. The major design disadvantage of this feeding technique is that it is difficult to
fabricate due to multiple layers, which also increases the antenna thickness. This feeding
scheme also provides narrow bandwidth.

Fig.3.5 Aperture couple feeding

3.3.2.2: Proximity coupled Feed:

This type of feet technique is more less the same as aperture coupled feed except that the
Microstrip line is optimized to get the best matching. The main advantage of this feet
technique is that it eliminates spurious feed radiation and provides high bandwidth.
Matching can be achieved by controlling the length of the feed line and width-to-line

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ratio of the patch. The main disadvantage of this method is using double layer substrate
needs proper alignment which is tedious in fabrication process.

Fig.3.6 Proximity couple feeding

Comparison of Different feed techniques:

Characteristics Microsoft Line Coaxial Feed Aperture Proximity

Feed coupled Feed coupled Feed

Spurious feed More More Less Minimum

radiation

Reliability Better Poor due to Good Good

soldiering

Ease of Easy Soldering and Alignment Alignment

fabrication drilling needed required required

Impedance Easy Easy Easy Easy

Matching

Bandwidth(achie 2-5% 2-5% 2-5% 13%

ved with
impedance
matching)

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Table: 3.1 Comparison of different feeding techniques

3.4: Methods of Analysis:

There are many methods of analysis for Microstrip antennas. The most popular models
are:
• Transmission-line model Cavity model
• Method of moments
• FDTD method
• Finite Element method

The transmission-line model is the easiest of all, it gives good physical insight, but is less
accurate and itis more difficult to model coupling. Compared to the transmission-line
model, the cavity model is moreaccurate but at the same time more complex. However,
it also gives good physical insight and is ratherdifficult to model coupling, although it has
been used successfully. In general when applied properly, thefull-wave models (which
include primarily integral equations/Moment Method) are very accurate, veryversatile,
and can treat single elements, finite and infinite arrays, stacked elements, arbitrary
shapedelements, and coupling. However, they are the most complex models and usually
give less physicalinsight.
3.4.1: Transmission line Model – The Rectangular Patch:

The TL model is the simplest of all, representing the rectangular patch as two slots,
separated by low impedance (Zc) transmission line of length L. The TL model is the
simplest of all, representing the rectangular patch as two slots, separated by a low
impedance (Zc) transmission line of length L.

3.4.1.1: Fringing Effects

The dimensions of the patch are finite along the length and width, so the fields at the
edges of the patch undergo fringing. This is illustrated along the length in Figures 5.9 for
the two radiating slots of the microstrip antenna. The amount of fringing is a function of
the dimensions of the patch and the height of the substrate. For the principal E-plane (xy-
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plane) fringing is a function of the ratio of the length of the patch L to the height h of the
substrate (L/h) and the dielectric constant εr of the substrate. Since for microstrip antennas
L/h >> 1, fringing is reduced. However, it must be taken into account because it
influences the resonant frequency of the antenna. Due to the fringing effect some of the
waves travel in the substrate and some in air, an effective dielectric constant ε reff is
introduced to account for this effect.

The effective dielectric constant is defined as the dielectric constant of the uniform
dielectric material so that the electric field lines has identical electrical characteristics,
particularly propagation constant, as the actual field line.

For low frequencies the effective dielectric constant is essentially constant. At

intermediate frequencies its values begin to increase monotonically and eventually
approach the values of the dielectric constant of the substrate. The initial values (at low
frequencies) of the effective dielectric constant are referred to as the static values, and
they are given by

3.4.1.2: Effective Length and Resonant Frequency

In the transmission line model, the antenna is represented by two radiating slots (W h)
separated by a low impedance transmission line (Zc) of length L. The slots represent very
high-impedance terminations from both sides of the transmission line (almost an open
circuit). Thus, we expect this structure to have highly resonant characteristics depending
crucially on its length L. The resonant length of the patch, however, is not exactly equal
to the physical length due to the fringing effect. The fringing effect makes the effective
electrical length of the patch longer than its physical length. The dimensions of the patch
along its length have been extended on each end by a distance ∆L, which is a function of
the effective dielectric constant εreff and the width-to-height ratio (W/h).

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3.5: Design Equations:

W = C0 /2Fr [(Er+1)/2]-1/2 (3.1)

Leff = C0/ [2FR√Eeff] (3.2)
Eeff = (Er+1)/2 + (Er-1)/2[1+12h/w]-1/2 (3.3)
L = Leff -0.824h [(Ereff+0.3) (w/h+0.264)]/ [(Ereff-0.258) (w/h+0.8)] (3.4)

3.6: Advantages of Microstrip Patch Antenna:

1. They operate at microwave frequencies where traditional antennas are not feasible to
be designed.
2. This antenna type has smaller size and hence will provide small size end devices.
3. The Microstrip based antennas are easily at should on any PCB and will also provide
easy access for troubleshooting during design and development this is due to the fact that
Microstrip pattern is visible and accessible from top. Hence they are easy to fabricate and
comfortable on curved parts of the device.
Hence it is easy to integrate them with MICs or MMICs.
4. As the patch antennas are fed along centerline to symmetry, it minimizes exhortation
our father undesired mods.
5. The Microstrip patches of various shapes like rectangular, square, triangular etc. are
easily etched.
6. They have low fabrication cost and hence, they can be mass manufactured.
7. Mechanically robust when mounted on rigid surfaces.
8. Supports both linear as well as circular polarization.
9. Capable of dual and triple frequency operations.
10. They are light in weight.

3.7: Disadvantages of Microstrip Patch Antennas:

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1. The spurious radiation exists in various Microstrip based Antennas such as Microstrip
patch antenna Microstrip slot antenna and printed dipole antenna.
2. It offers slow efficiency due to dielectric losses and conductor losses.
3. It offers lower gain.
4. It has higher level of cross polarization radiation.
5. It has lower power handling capability.
6. It has inherently lower impedance bandwidth.
7. The Microstrip antenna structure radiates from feeds and other junction points.
8. Narrow bandwidth associated with tolerance problem.
9. Large ohmic losses in feed structure of arrays.
10. Excitation of surface waves.

3.8: Applications of Microstrip Patch Antennas:

The Microstrip patch antennas are well known for their performance and their robust
design, fabrication and their extent usage. The advantages of this Microstrip patch
antenna are to overcome their demerits such as easy to design, light weight etc., the
applications are in the various fields such as in the medical applications, satellites and of
course even in the military systems just like in the rockets, aircrafts missiles etc. The
usage of the Microstrip antennas is spreading widely in all the fields and areas and now
they are booming in the commercial aspects due to their low cost of the substrate material
and the fabrication. It is also expected that due to the increasing usage of the patch
antennas in the wide range this could take over the usage of the conventional antennas for
the maximum applications. Microstrip patch antenna has several applications. Some of
these applications are discussed as below:

1. Used in mobile satellite communication system.

2. Direct Broadcast television (DBS).
3. Wireless LAN'S.
4. Feed elements in coaxial system.
5. GPS System
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6. Missiles and telemetry.

7. UHF patch antennas for space.

Chapter IV
Symmetric Staircase patch Antenna

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4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Design ofRectangular Patch Antenna
Design of basic rectangular patch with Length= 59.05 mm and Width= 59.01 mm has
been designed at the results have been obtained i.e., the Return loss and voltage wave
standing ratio (VSWR). Later the results thus obtained would be compared with that of
the Symmetric Quad stair case patch antenna

Fig 4.1 Rectangular patch

Results Obtained from the rectangular patch

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Fig 4.2 S-Parameter plot for rectangular patch Antenna

Fig 4.3 VSWR plot for rectangular patch Antenna

In this paper, a Micro strip patch antenna with symmetrical staircase type patch is
designed. For a symmetrical staircase patch, the designed antenna has sufficient
bandwidth, and is found suitable for Bluetooth applications, weather, ship radars and
communication satellites. Bluetooth is short range wireless communication technology
and it uses very low power. Devices like cell phones, laptops, headphones can be
connected to each other wirelessly by Bluetooth technology for data transfer. The
frequencies obtained compute to be present in S-band which ranges in 2-4 GHz and is

43
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also used for earth to space communication, NASA uses this band to communicate with
international space station.

Design Procedure for symmetrical staircase patch antenna:

Fig. 4.4 Symmetrical patch design

4.2 Design procedure for Symmetrical staircase microstrip patch

antenna using Fr4 material

Initially after opening the HFSS software we have to construct a rectangular ground with
length L= 47.64mm and width W= 39.753 mm and name it as ‘Ground’. Now create a
substrate with same dimensions of ground but with a height of Z-axis= 1.6mm with Fr-4
Epoxy material, name it as ‘substrate’. Now construct a rectangular patch with X-Axis=
38.04mm and Y-Axis= 30.153 mm, using the polyline technique cut the obtained
rectangular patch into symmetrical patch, name it as ‘patch’. In this we are using co-axial
feeding for this we need to create three cylinders with the required dimensions. Assign

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the lumped port to the symmetrical patch, assign Perfect E for both patch and ground,
construct an Air box around the complete structure with required dimensions and radiate
it. Simulate and then obtain the results for VSWR, Return Loss, and Antenna Gain.

4.2 Design Dimensions for symmetrical staircase patch antenna of

Fr4 Epoxy material:
Initial dimensions of the patch were chosen according to the design formulae presented in
the previous chapters. Then using rectangular patch a large number of simulations were
done by varying the dimensions and the step counts, finally with the desired frequencies
and sufficient Gain the patch has been designed the dimensions of the final patch are as
follows:
Ground Dimensions
X-Size= 47.64mm
Y-Size= 39.753mm
Position= (-19.876,-23.82, 0)
Substrate Dimensions
X-Size= 47.64mm
Y-Size= 39.753mm
Z-Size= 1.6 mm
Position= (-19.876,-23.82, 0)
Patch Dimensions
X-Size= 38.04mm
Y-Size= 30.153mm
Position= (-15.076,-19.02, 1.6)
Inner conductor1 dimensions:
Height=1.6
Radius=2
Position= (0, 0, 0)

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Inner conductor2 dimensions:

Height=-5
Radius=2
Position= (0, 0, 0)
Outer conductor dimensions:
Height=4
Radius=-5
Position= (0, 0, 0)
Air Box Dimensions
X-Size= 47.64 mm
Y-Size= 39.753mm
Z-Size= 100mm
Position= (-19.876,-23.82, 0)

4.2.2 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

The Voltage Wave Standing Ratio (VSWR) is an indication of the amount of mismatch
between an antenna and the feed line connecting it. The figure below represents the
variation of VSWR with varying in frequencies for the symmetrical patch which is
designed with fr4 epoxy material.

Fig. 4.5 VSWR(Fr4-Epoxy)

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4.2.3 Return Loss

Return loss (𝑆11 ) is a measure of how much power is reflected back at the antenna port
due to is match from the transmission line. The antenna is now designed with the
parameters which have been chosen. The figure below represents the variations in return
loss w.r.t frequency for the symmetrical patch which is designed with fr4 epoxy material.

Fig. 4.6 RETURN LOSS (Fr4-Epoxy)

4.3 Design Dimensions for symmetrical staircase patch antenna for

Rogers RT Duroid
Initial dimensions of the patch were chosen according to the design formulae presented in
the previous chapters. Then using rectangular patch a large number of simulations were
done by varying the dimensions and the step counts, finally with the desired frequencies
and sufficient Gain the patch has been designed the dimensions of the final patch are as
follows:
Ground Dimensions

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X-Size= -59.01 mm
Y-Size= -59.05 mm
Position= (-6, 10, 0)
Substrate Dimensions
X-Size= -59.01 mm
Y-Size= -59.05 mm
Z-Size= 1.6 mm
Position= (-6, 10, 0)
Patch Dimensions
X-Size= -49.41mm
Y-Size= -41.34mm
Position= (0, 0, 1.6)
Inner conductor1 dimensions:
Height=-7
Radius=1.6
Position= (18.705, 20.67, 0)
Inner conductor2 dimensions:
Height=2
Radius=1.6
Position= (18.705, 20.67, 0)
Outer conductor dimensions:
Height=-7
Radius=5
Position= (18.705, 20.67, 0)
Air Box Dimensions
X-Size= 59.01 mm
Y-Size= -59.05mm
Z-Size= 100mm
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Position= (-6, 10, 0)

4.3.1 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

The Voltage Wave Standing Ratio (VSWR) is an indication of the amount of mismatch
between an antenna and the feed line connecting it. The figure below represents the
variation ot VSWR with varying in frequencies for the symmetrical patch which is
designed with fr4 epoxy material.
.

Fig. 4.7 VSWR (Rogers-RC duroid)

4.3.2Return Loss

Return loss (𝑆11 ) is a measure of how much power is reflected back at the antenna port
due to is match from the transmission line. The antenna is now designed with the
parameters which have been chosen. The figure below represents the variations in return
loss w.r.t frequency for the symmetrical patch which is designed with fr4 epoxy material.

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Fig. 4.8 RETURN LOSS (Rogers-RC duroid)

4.3.3 Antenna Gain

These are the gain values obtained for the designed symmetric patch antenna with Rogers
RC –duroid.

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Fig 4.9 Gain at a frequency of 2.4GHzFig 4.91Gain at a frequency of 5.53GHz

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Fig 4.92Gain at a frequency of 7.79GHz Fig4.9 Gain at a frequency of 9.93GHz

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REQUIRED OBTAINED

RETURN
LOSS
(dB)
VSWR

BANDWI
DTH
(MHz)
GAIN (dB)

Table 4.1 Parameters of Quad staircase patch Antenna

Conclusion:

When compared to rectangular microstrip patch antenna, symmetrical staircase micro

strip patch antenna is showing much better results.Here this antenna is designed at
frequency 2.4 GHz and fed by the coaxial probe feed. The results show that the feed
position is accurate because there is good impedance matching between the feed and the
antenna. The proposed antenna operates in triple band S, C and X band of frequencies.
Patch size reduction of 37% is achieved without affecting the performance of the antenna.
The proposed antennas have achieved good impedance matching, stable radiation
patterns and high gain.

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Chapter V
Asymmetric Staircase patch Antenna

5.1 Introduction

In this paper, a Microstrip patch antenna with asymmetrical staircase type patch is
designed. For an asymmetrical staircase patch, the designed antenna has sufficient
bandwidth, and is found suitable for Bluetooth applications, weather, ship radars and
communication satellites. Bluetooth is short range wireless communication technology
and it uses very low power. Devices like cell phones, laptops, headphones can be
connected to each other wirelessly by Bluetooth technology for data transfer. The
frequencies obtained compute to be present in S-band which ranges in 2-4 GHz and is
also used for earth to space communication, NASA uses this band to communicate with
international space station.

5.2 Design Procedure for asymmetrical staircase patch antenna

Initially after opening the HFSS software we have to construct a rectangular dielectric
substrate with length L1= 59.05 mm and width W1= 59.01 mm with Rogers RT Duroid
(Lossy) material, then using the polylines cut it into staircase form L2= 16.4665 mm and
W2= 12.35875 mm name it as ‘substrate’. Then construct a partial rectangular ground

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using the dimensions of L3=20.0638 mm and width same as that of the dielectric
substrate and apply PEC boundary, name it as ‘Ground’.
Now construct a rectangular patch with X-Axis= 30.02 mm and Y-Axis= 29.44 mm,
using the polyline technique cut the obtained rectangular patch into asymmetrical patch
with PEC material, name it as ‘patch’.
Assign the wave port to the asymmetrical patch and radiate it, construct an Air box
around the complete structure with required dimensions. Simulate and then obtain the
results for VSWR, Return Loss, and Antenna Gain.

Fig. 5.1 Asymmetrical patch

5.3 Design Dimensions for asymmetrical staircase patch antenna

Initial dimensions of the patch were chosen according to the design formulae presented in
the previous chapters. Then using symmetric staircase patch a large number of
simulations were done by varying the dimensions and the step counts, finally with the
desired frequencies and sufficient Gain the patch has been designed the dimensions of the
final patch are as follows:
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Ground Dimensions
X-Size= 59.01 mm
Y-Size= -20 mm
Position= (-6, 10, 0)
Substrate Dimensions
X-Size= 59.01 mm
Y-Size= -20 mm
Z-Size= 1.6 mm
Position= (-6, 10, 0)
Patch Dimensions
X-Size= 2.495 mm
Y-Size= -10 mm
Position= (23.505, 0, 1.6)
Air Box Dimensions
X-Size= 59.01 mm
Y-Size= -20 mm
Z-Size= 10 mm
Position= (-6, 10, 0)

5.4 Parameters Obtained for asymmetrical staircase patch antenna

5.4.1 Using Rogers RT Duroid
5.4.1.1 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)
The Voltage Wave Standing Ratio (VSWR) is an indication of the amount of mismatch
between an antenna and the feed line connecting it. The figure below represents the
variation ot VSWR with varying in frequencies. The antenna is having good match
because the design has VSWR values of 1.199, 1.2760, 1.326, 1.5878 and 1.4659in
different frequencies respectively.

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Fig. 5.2 VSWR waveform using Rogers RT duroid

5.4.1.2 Return Loss

Return loss (𝑆11 ) is a measure of how much power is reflected back at the
antenna port due to is match from the transmission line. The antenna is now
designed with the parameters which have been chosen. The figure below
represents the variations in return loss w.r.t frequency.

Fig. 5.3 Return Loss waveform using Rogers RT duroid

5.4.1.3 Antenna Gain

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At Frequency 2.7278

5.4.1.4. Radiation Pattern

At 2.9 GHz

Fig. 5.10 Radiation Pattern using Rogers RT duroid at 2.9GHz

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Table 5.1 Comparison between Symmetrical and asymmetrical Patch Antenna

Conclusion:
When compaired to symmentrical patch antenna the designed
asymmentrical antenna is showing much better results .The proposed asymmetrical
antenna is designed which is fed by the strip line feed and a partial ground. The
results show that the feed position is accurate because there is good impedance
matching between the feed and the antenna. It operates in triple band S,C and X band
of frequencies. This antenna has achieved good impedance matching, stable radiation

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patterns, VSWR, Return loss when compared with that of the Symmetrical Quad
staircase patch antenna.

Chapter VI
Conclusions

Reducing the size of the antenna is very challenging since the performance of the antenna
is bounded by the physical size of the antenna. In the literature, several investigators have
adopted various methods to reduce the antenna which has their own pros and cons.
The main motto of this work is to represent the miniaturization by introducing
staircase shape at each edge of this patch antenna which operates in S band (2-4 GHz), C
band (4-8 GHz) and X band (8-12 GHz). The proposed antenna operates at 2.44 GHz,
5.53 GHz, 7.79GHz and 9.39 GHz with up to 37% size reduction compared to basic
patch antenna. The design frequency for the proposed antenna is 2.4 GHz which supports
multiband behavior.
The Rogers RT/Duroid5880 with relative permittivity 2.2 and height 1.6 mm is
used as a substrate material for design of the proposed antenna. Transmission line model
is applied to calculate the dimensions of the proposed antenna. Coaxial probe feed is used
to feed the proposed antenna as this type of feed provides better impedance matching to
source varying the feed position. The results of the proposed antenna are obtained in
terms of Return Loss, Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR), Gain and Radiation
Pattern which have acceptable values of return loss less than -10dB, VSWR less than 2 at
each resonant frequencies and Gain more than 3 dB
As an extension, to better the results obtained an asymmetrical staircase patch has
been designed which has better VSWR, Return Loss and Bandwidth when compared with
that of the Symmetrical patch antenna.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:

Firstly design of a rectangular microstrip patch antenna was done and then we have
designed symmentrical quad staircase microstrip patch antenna ,In a rectangular patch it
is resonating only at single frequency,where as in symmentrical quad staircase microstrip
patch antenna it is resonating at three different bands of frequencies,later on we have
designed asymmentrical microstrip patch antenna it is also resonating in three bands but
with a increase in the bandwidth when compaired with symmentrical microstrip patch
antenna and improved vswr and return loss.Therefore the final asymmentrical patch
antenna can be used for wider band applications.

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REFERENCES:

1. Dwivedi S, Yadav SG and Singh AK. Annular ring embedded L-slot rectangular
micro strip patch antenna. Students' Technology Symposium (TechSym), IEEE;
2014. p. 372-375.
2. Rajshree A, Sivasundarapandian S. and Suriyakala CD. A modified sierpinski
gasket triangular multiband fractal antenna for cognitive radio. International
Conference on Information Communication and Embedded Systems (ICICES);
2014. p. 1-6.
3. Ratnaratorn C, Wongsin N, Mahatthanajatuphat C and Akkaraekthalin P. A
multiband wide slotted antenna with Hilbert fractal slot on rectangular patch. 10th
International Conference on Electrical Engineering/Electronics, Computer,
Telecommunications and Information Technology (ECTI-CON); 2013. p. 1-4.
4. Sran SS and Silvia JS. Rectangular Micro strip Patch Antenna with Triangular
Slot. International Conference on Advancements in Engineering and Technology
(ICEAT); 2015. p. 27-29.
5. Soh PJ, Rahim MKA, Asrokin A and Aziz MZAA. Comparative radiation
performance of different feeding
techniques for a microstrip patch antenna. Asia-Pacific Conference on Applied
Electromagnetics, (APACE);
2005. p. 35-39.

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