CHAPTER 4: Components of Special and Inclusive Education developmental screening tools such as the Early Childhood and Development

s the Early Childhood and Development (ECCD)

Referral for evaluation and special education services begins by identifying students
who have additional needs and who may b at risk for developmental disabilities. School
guidance counselor, early childhood teachers, primary school teachers and community-
based daycare workers are often the first to notice such developmental delays in children. In
other instances, the parents themselves notice the delays and seek consultation with
pediatricians and other specialist.
Checklist that covers item expected for a child's typical development.
Pre-referral Strategies
Essential in a pre-referral intervention is the use of re-referral strategies are designed to
provide immediate instructional an behavior management support to a child. Using such
strategies lessens he number of cases referred for special education an mak efficient use of
time and financial resources for special education assessment. It will also lessen the

Pre-referral Process tendency o over-referral to special education and wasting time a children wait to b tested
rather than receive the instructional support they needed. Examples ofof pre-referral
A child having difficulties in relation to expected competencies and developmental strategies are the following:
milestones may be referred by parents and teachers for observation and assessment. A team
 Observation of the child's behavior including interactions with parents, teachers and
of professionals known as a pre-referral team is comprised of special education teachers,
peers
counselors, administrator and psychologist who collaborate to determine reasons for the  Interview of parents and teachers to gather more information about the child
observed challenges. They collaborate to fin ways to meet the needs of children with  Review of school records
developmental delays.  Analysis of the child's academic output through error analysis portfolio assessment
criterion-referenced and curriculum-based assessment.
Taylor (2009) provided an assessment model that begins with a pre-referral process. Depending on the information gathered, corresponding changes can be made to manage a
Children with noted developmental delays and difficulties are identified through child's needs such as modification of the classroom environment (setting arrangement,
observations and use of norm- and criterion-referenced tests. They are not immediately group change, and teacher proximity in class), instructional support and relevant classroom
for special education testing but are first provided with the necessary academic and an behavior management.
behavioral support needed to address note challenges. Taylor explained that the initial step
is to determined teaching areas where a learner will benefit from additional support through
Initial Identification  Recognition of potential problems
 Parent or teacher orientation
a variety of means.  Review of school records, classroom
observation.
Very young students who are at risk or suspected to have additional need may also b Determination of teaching  Small-group instruction
identified through community-based screening. Child development and social workers use areas and strategies  Direct instruction
 Implementation of teaching  Additional in-class and after-school support useful and relevant as these provides specific skills a child has mastered and those
programs  Modification of classroom environment and that need additional instruction.
behavior
 Modification of instruction to address potential Informal Assessment. Professionals use informal or non-standardized assessment which
needs
Evaluation of teaching  Determine effectiveness of programs on are considered more authentic and thus can be used primarily to describe performance and
program learning and behavior inform instruction. Such assessment can be curriculum-based or performance-based, such as
the teacher made instruments used in classroom and portfolio assessment. For example, the
Assessment use of reading inventories where a teacher listen to a child read…

Assessment is the process of collecting information about a child's strength and needs. It Authentic Assessment. The use of tests whether formal or informal is only one merged of

uses a problem-solving process that involves a systematic collection as well as assessment. One that is highly recommended by professionals is the use of authentic

interpretation of data gathered. Teachers and administrators make instructional decisions assessment methods and tools. It provide students the opportunity to apply knowledge and

based on the assessment results. There are a variety of assessment methods that regular and skill in meaningful, real world settings rather than in an artificial and contrived setting.

special education teachers can use. This covers the following: interviews, observation, Assessment tasks that are more real life are more authentic. An example is observation of

checklist or rating scales, and tests. young students. Clay identified essential information to be included in a running record:

Tests. School psychologist, educational diagnostician and other related professionals use a
variety of assessment tools to ensure that results at valid and reliable.
 Norm-referenced tests are standardized assessments that compare a child’s
performance with a representative sample of students of the same chronological age.
Examples are the intelligence tests (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Students and
Standford-Binet Intelligence Scale) and achievement tests (Wide
Achievement Tests and Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement).
 Criterion-referenced tests compare a child’s performance based on established
standards and competencies and can be used to describe students performance.
 Date and time of observation
 Names of children involves
 Location of the incident
 Verbatim recording of what the children said
 Actual events that occurred
Anecdotal records contain shorter descriptions of incidents or anecdotes that teachers and
specialists can use to analyze a students behavior and plan strategies for a specific child or
Range
group of children. Another example of authentic assessment for young children are play-
based assessment and portfolio assessment.
Assessment practices should be anchored on principles by the Division for Early Childhood

Scores are typically reported as simple numerical score, percentage of correct of the Council for Exceptional Students (DEC). Child and family centered practices, a team-

responses, letter grades or graphic score reports. Such assessment data are more based approach, application of the individualized and appropriate process and use of
genuine and meaningful communication that adheres to ethical and legal practices are 5. Self-contained special education in a general education
recommended by the DEC. 6. Special education class in special a special education
7. Residential facility
Placement 8. Home/Hospital program

Assessment result are used to decide a child’s appropriate education placement within a A. Accommodations
continuum from the least to the most restrictive settings. A general education is the least
Students with disabilities and additional needs who are studying in an inclusive general
restrictive environment for a child with additional needs. Access to the same learning
education classroom may need accommodations in the form of instructional support and
experiences and opportunities is provided. It is considered as “the most normalized or
other supplementary services. Others who need more intensive support are provided with
typical setting”. Other students need more intensive support that is not provided in general
curricular modifications.
education class. Another option was to place a child in a more restrictive setting such as a
self-contained special education class but still located in general education school. All Accommodations are supports provided to students to help gain full access to class content

students received individualized and group instruction with peers with disabilities and and instruction, without altering the curriculum standards and competencies expected and to

additional needs from a special education teacher. Moving up in the placement continuum, demonstrate accurately what they know. Examples at altering instruments, toys or materials,

some students who need more intensive instruction and support are educated in special changing the room during specific activities, providing time extensions or allowances for

education class in an special education school. Teams of professionals work with students test and tasks, and changing response formats in worksheets. Accommodations may be

with disabilities and additional needs in a highly specialized setting. On the other end of the provided both during assessment and instruction, depending on the learning profile and

continuum is the most restrictive or isolated setting such as a residential facility where needs of a child and may vary in terms of presentation, response, and scheduling.

students live and receive their educational support 24/7. While children with multiple Presentation Accommodations: Children with disabilities may need specialized
disabilities, often of the severe kind are provided with home- or hospital-based programs presentation formats especially those with sensory impairments so they can learn the same
to manage their medical condition and learn as much as they could. Inclusive education content alongside typically developing peers.
espouses that all students, to the maximum extent possible, is provided to general education
Learning Needs Examples
classroom with the provision of support to remove barriers to enable success.
Visual Support Minimize visual distraction
1. General education class with modifications Visual cues (use color-coded text, highlighting)
2. General education class with related services Use of larger print materials (font size, illustrations)
Use of sign language
3. General education class (inclusion or co-taught with a special education teacher)
Videos with closed captioning
4. General education class with resource center instruction
 Auditory and Read a loud by a peer Special paper- graphing papers for computation
Audio books
Comprehension Support
Digital text that reads aloud or gives definition of words
Text-to-speech software Setting Accommodations: Changes in the location or conditions of the educational setting
Advance organizer or story guide
Highlighting or color coding or environment may be necessary for students who need support in terms of behavior,
Listening and Focusing Advance organizer attention, and organization of space and materials. Accommodation in setting may allow a
Explicit verbal or visual cues (physical prompts)
Repeat/Clarify directions and important information child who gets easily distracted in a setting may allow child who gets easily distracted to
Copy of directions work in a quiet corner of the classroom in his own study carrel so that he will not be
sidetracked by environmental stimuli. Or a child who is unable to read fluently may be
Response Accommodations: It allows students with disabilities and additional needs a allowed to take a silent reading comprehension test in another room with a supervising adult
variety of ways to complete assignments, written tests, performance tasks, and other just so she could hear herself read aloud which helps her better understand the theory
activities.
Scheduling Accommodations: Changing time allotment, schedule of tasks and
Learning Needs Examples assessments, and managements of time are some type of scheduling accommodations. f
Written difficulty (errorsDifferent size or diameter of pencil scheduling accommodations. Students with slower ability in processing information and
Scribe to record dictated response
in spacing, visual- directions well as with focusing issues may need these types of accommodation. Some
Handwriting template/guide on the student's desk
perceptual or spatial Visual cues on paper examples of accommodation that can modify scheduling are: (1) extending time for
Different types and sizes of paper
orientation, illegible assignments and assessments; (2) providing breaks in between tasks; (3) providing a visual
handwriting) schedule or a checklist of individual responsibilities; (4) providing predictable routines and
Auditory and Electronic dictionary with spell check procedures; and (5) providing an electronic device with alarms and cues.
Online dictionary
Comprehension Support
Word processor with spelling and grammar check B. Modifications
Writing bye charts
List of sight words Curriculum modifications are provided for students with significant or severe disabilities
Writing templates, outlines, and graphic organizers
Listening and Focusing Calculator where content expectations are altered, and the performance outcomes are changed in
Concrete models and manipulatives relation to what are expected of typically developing students of the same age (DEC 2007).
Visual presentation
Problem-solving guides When instruction and assessment are modified, a student with disability is still given the
Graphic organizers right to access the same learning opportunities as other students in the general education
class, but the tasks are more respectful and appropriate to the student’s abilities and needs.
Curricular modifications include changes in instructional level, content and performance
criteria, as well as the breadth and depth of content being learned by students. Students with
disabilities or additional needs may be given more, less, or different content and resource
materials altogether. They may also be assessed using different standards that are more
appropriate to the student’s needs and abilities, such as being provided with fewer
objectives, shorter lessons, or a smaller number of vocabulary words to learn. Educational
teams responsible for instructional planning may indicate curricular modifications in the
student’s Individual Educational Plan (IEP). Such modifications are needed so that student’s
also have access to the general education curriculum.
Parent Involvement
Another component of an inclusive and special education is parent involvement. It has long
been established that parent involvement in education, and management of children with
disabilities and additional needs essential as they are the primary caregivers and have direct
influence their children. This is anchored on Bronfenbrenner's Human Ecological theory,
which states that there are five environmental systems that comprise child's social context.
For the purposes of this book, focus is given on the microsystem, where the child and
his/her family belong, along with peers, school, and the immediate community (i.e.,
neighborhood). Within these systems, a child has direct interactions with parents, teachers,
peers, and others; while the mesosystem refers to the linkages or relationships between
microsystems such as the connections between family experiences and school experiences
and between family and peers (Santrock 2011)
The Division of early Childhood of the Council of Exceptional Children (DEC) espoused
the use of family-centered practices in the assessment and instruction of young children.
Turnbull and Turnbull provided the principles of a family-centered model: (1) honors the
family choice by changing the power relationship between professional and families, (2)
abandons a pathology orientation and adopts a strengths orientation, and(3) where the entire
family becomes the unit of support and not just the child with a disability and the child
’smother. I this way, the whole family is provided support, capitalizing on the child and
family members ‘strengths and resources, not on their deficits and needs. Teachers and
administrators may also be guided by these principles when communicating and
collaborating with parents and families of students with disabilities.
Parent involvement has been found to be directly related to academic achievement and
improvements in the school performance of children. Educational support and collaboration
with teachers have been found to promote child success in school. Moreover, programs for
children with disabilities become more effective and successful when children and families
are involved.
Home-School Communication: Having established the critical role of and parents’
achievement, in a student's developmental and academic progress and achievement, it is
essential that there is a close home and school collaboration and communication. To
establish partnerships, problem-solving, two. way communication, and shared decision
making are some of the practices needed. communicating with parents may be done in
several ways.
Parent-Teacher Conferences: Parent-teacher conferences are face-to-face meetings held
between parents and teachers. Conducting such meetings is necessary so parents of students
with disabilities and additional needs will be able to share about their child's background.
strengths and abilities, history of difficulties, and practices they have been implementing at
home as well as interventions done with other specialists. Together with teachers, they can disability that are framed as positive statements and targets for improvements. The use of a
coordinate their efforts and services to support their child both in school and at home daily report card has been found to be beneficial in helping a child with Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder in school in promoting daily collaboration between teachers and
Written Communication: Home-school communication may also be conducted through
parents. This will be further discussed in the next topics.
written messages, such as the use of a home-school communication notebook, were teachers
and parents write homework assignments, the students behavior in the classroom, as well as Other Ways to Involve Parents
progress on program goals. A written communication may be time consuming, but some
Parents also have strengths, abilities, intuitive knowledge, and the commitment to help their
parents prefer this form of collaboration as the messages are documented and they can
own child. They become advocates of their own children. To maximize their involvement,
provide a copy to a developmental specialist when needed.
schools provide other opportunities such as parent education training, workshops, and
Digital Communication: With the influx of mobile devices, many parents and families are parents support groups.
more able to communicate through electronic and digital means such as email, text
Parent Education may take the form of providing seminars and workshops to parents to
messages, ad social network messaging systems. A study found that parents and teachers
equip them with a better understanding of their child’s disability and accompanying
perceive technology as an effective tool to promote parent involvement and thus values its
strengths, uniqueness, as well as specific techniques and strategies that they can practice at
use for communication. Because it is instant and real-time, parents and teachers are
home. Such training sessions can be for a few hours done on a quarterly basis or for regular
immediately able to receive messages and updates about the student. However, drawback
period, such as every Saturday, depending on the needs of the parents and the training
scan also occur such as when both parties re not mindful of the parameters in
capacity of the school. In this way, parents become educated in evidence-based approaches
communication; hence, it is necessary that parties agree on certain boundaries in order to be
so that there will be continuity in the practices implemented between the home and the
respectful of everyone’s time and personal space.
school.
Home-School Contracts: A home-school contract contains an agreement between teachers
Parent support groups are helpful as parents are able to ask the other parents about tips
and parents regarding behavioral and/ or academic goals for a student with disability. Just
and techniques to work with their children. Parents should be empowered so that they can
like any formal contract, this is a written agreement between teachers, parents, and students
participate in planning and organizing parent support groups. Through such groups, parents
(when appropriate) on specific objectives and corresponding reinforcements or rewards
can draw support from one another during meetings as they share techniques and strategies,
when they are met. One example of a home-school contract is a Daily Report Card, an
even frustration and success about their children.
individualized intervention used in schools that is anchored on the behavioral principles of
operant conditioning. The card indicates specific behaviors targeted for a child with