1.

INTRODUCTION
Every day the media brings us the horrible news on road accidents. Once a report said that the
damaged property and other costs may equal 3% of the world's gross domestic product. The
concept of assisting driver in longitudinal vehicle control to avoid collisions has been a major
focal point of research at many automobile companies and research organizations. The idea
of driver assistance was started with the 'cruise control devices' first appeared in 1970's in
USA. When switched on, this device takes up the task of accelerating or braking to maintain
a constant speed. But it could not consider the other vehicles on the road.
An 'Adaptive Cruise Control' (ACC) system developed as the next generation assisted the
driver to keep a safe distance from the vehicle in front. Conventional cruise control was
capable only to maintain a set speed by accelerating or decelerating the vehicle. Adaptive
cruise control devices are capable of assisting the driver to keep a safe distance from the
preceding vehicle by controlling the engine throttle and brake according to the sensor data
about the vehicle. This system is now available only in some luxury cars like Mercedes S-
class, Jaguar and Volvo trucks the U.S. Department of transportation and Japan's ACAHSR
have started developing 'Intelligent Vehicles' that can communicate with each other with the
help of a system called Co-operative Adaptive Cruise Control' this paper addresses the
concept of Adaptive Cruise and its improved version.

``
Fig 1: Cruise Control

Cruise control is a technology commonly found in automobiles that allows a vehicle to

maintain a steady speed without the driver actively pressing the accelerator pedal. It is designed
to provide drivers with more comfort during long highway drives and can contribute to fuel
efficiency.

Typically, the driver activates cruise control by setting a desired speed, and the system then
takes over the task of maintaining that speed. The driver can usually increase or decrease the
set speed as needed. Cruise control systems can vary in complexity and features, but they
generally work by adjusting the throttle or fuel input to the engine.

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Some advanced cruise control systems, often referred to as adaptive cruise control (ACC), can
also automatically adjust the vehicle's speed based on the distance to the vehicle ahead. These
systems use sensors, such as radar or cameras, to detect the traffic in front of the vehicle and
can automatically slow down or accelerate to maintain a safe following distance.

Overall, cruise control is a convenience feature that can help reduce driver fatigue on long
journeys and contribute to a more relaxed driving experience. However, it's essential for drivers
to remain attentive and be ready to take control of the vehicle at any time, as cruise control
does not replace the need for active supervision and engagement with the driving task.

Cruise control is a feature that comes in handy when you drive at a constant speed. It is an
electric system that allows you to set your car to a specific speed, letting you take your foot
off the accelerator pedal. So, it can ease foot-fatigue and stress over a long drive. Another
great benefit to using cruise control is that you are going to have greater fuel efficiency. Your
vehicle will consume much less fuel if you cruise at a steady speed rather than accelerating at
each section of the open road. When you accelerate sharply, it makes your engine use more
energy, and you could be using 60% more fuel than one who uses cruise control. Ultimately,
it's not hard to save on fuel if you let your vehicle automatically maintain a steady cruising
speed.

The leading edge of cruise control today is adaptive cruise control. Almost all cars now will
be equipped with this smart system. Just as conventional cruise control, adaptive cruise
control allows you to set a desired travel speed. But the difference is that the adaptive cruise
control maintains a safe distance between the car in front of you and your car at a consistent
pace by using the forward-mounted sensors. For instance, if the car ahead of your vehicle
begins to slow, adaptive cruise control will use the engine brake to automatically slow the
pace of your vehicle and maintain the selected distance. Many say adaptive cruise control is a
step to autonomous cars in the future. But it is not quite fully autonomous driving, since you
have to keep your hands on the wheel and be fully cognizant of the road.

Fig1. 2: Cruise Control On Steering

Cruise control is a feature in many modern vehicles designed to automatically maintain a

steady speed set by the driver without the need for constant use of the accelerator pedal. The
primary goal of cruise control is to provide convenience, reduce driver fatigue on long
journeys, and potentially improve fuel efficiency. Here are the key components and functions
of cruise control:

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1.1Activation and Deactivation:
1.1.1Activation
Cruise control is usually activated by the driver at a certain speed (typically above a
minimum threshold). This is often done by pressing a dedicated button on the steering wheel
or dashboard.
1.1.2Deactivation
Cruise control can be deactivated by tapping the brake pedal, engaging the clutch (in manual
transmission vehicles), or turning off the cruise control system using the designated controls.
1.1.3Set Speed
The driver sets the desired speed at which they want the vehicle to travel. This is often done
using buttons or a lever on the steering wheel or dashboard. Once set, the vehicle will aim to
maintain this speed until the driver intervenes.
1.1.4Throttle Control
Cruise control regulates the engine's throttle (fuel and air intake) to maintain the preset speed.
When the vehicle's speed drops below the set level, the system increases throttle to
accelerate. Conversely, it reduces throttle to decelerate when the vehicle speed exceeds the
set level.
1.1.5 Brake Override
Cruise control systems are designed to disengage when the driver applies the brakes. This
ensures that the driver retains control of the vehicle, and the system does not interfere with
braking.
1.1.6 Resume Function
Most cruise control systems include a resume function. If the system has been deactivated
(e.g., by braking), the driver can press a resume button to return to the previously set speed
without having to reset it.
1.1.7 Cancel Function:
A cancel button allows the driver to immediately deactivate cruise control without resetting
the speed. This can be useful in situations where quick deceleration is necessary.
1.1.8 Speed Increment and Decrement
Many cruise control systems allow the driver to make small adjustments to the set speed,
either increasing or decreasing it by incremental amounts.
1.1.9 Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC)
Some advanced cruise control systems incorporate adaptive features. Adaptive Cruise Control
(ACC) uses sensors, such as radar or cameras, to monitor the distance to the vehicle in front.

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It can automatically adjust the vehicle's speed to maintain a safe following distance,
providing an additional layer of safety.
While cruise control is a valuable feature for highway driving, drivers should always remain
attentive, keep their hands on the steering wheel, and be ready to take control of the vehicle
in case of unexpected situations. Additionally, cruise control may not be suitable for certain
driving conditions, such as heavy traffic or winding roads.

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 2. ADAPTIVE CRUISE CONTROL (ACC)

2.1 PRINCIPLE OF ACC

ACC works by detecting the distance and speed of the vehicles ahead by using either a Lidar
system or a Radar system. The time taken by the transmission and reception is the key of the
distance measurement while the shift in frequency of the reflected beam by Doppler Effect is
measured to know the speed. According to this, the brake and throttle controls are done to
keep the vehicle the vehicle in a safe position with respect to the other. These systems are
characterized by a moderately low level of brake and throttle authority.
Adaptive cruise control devices are capable of assisting the driver to keep a safe distance
from the preceding vehicle by controlling the engine throttle and brake according to the
sensor data about the vehicle. Most of the systems use RADAR as the sensor a few uses
LIDAR also. Controller includes the digital signal processing modules and microcontroller
chips specially designed for actuating throttle and brake. These are predominantly designed
for highway applications with rather homogenous traffic behaviour. The second generation of
ACC is the Stop and Go Cruise Control (SACC) whose objective is to offer the customer
longitudinal support on cruise control at lower speeds down to zero velocity. The SACC can
help a driver in situations where all lanes are occupied by vehicles or where it is not possible
to set a constant speed or in a frequently stopped and congested traffic. There is a clear
distinction between ACC and SACC with respect to stationary targets. The ACC philosophy
is that it will be operated in well-structured roads with an orderly traffic flow with speed of
vehicles around 40km/hour. While SACC system should be able to deal with stationary
targets because within its area of operation the system will encounter such objects very
frequently

2.2 CONSTITUENTS OF AN ACC SYSTEM:

A sensor (LIDAR or RADAR) usually kept behind the grill of the vehicle to obtain the
information regarding the vehicle ahead. The relevant target data may be velocity, distance,
angular position and lateral acceleration.

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 3. SENSOR OPTIONS
Currently four means of object detection are technically feasible and applicable in a vehicle
environment. They are
RADAR
LIDAR
FUSION SENSORS

3.1 LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging)

3.1.1 Lidar is an optical remote sensing technology that measures properties of scattered
light to find range and/or other information of a distant target. The prevalent method to
determine distance to an object or surface is to use laser pulses. Like the similar radar
technology, which uses radio waves instead of light, the range to an object is determined by
measuring the time delay between transmission of a pulse and detection of the reflected
signal. LIDAR
The first ACC system introduced by Toyota used this method. By measuring the beat
frequency difference between a Frequency Modulated Continuous Light Wave (FMCW) and
its reflection. There are several major components to a lidar system:

3.1.2 Laser
600-1000 nm lasers are most common for non-scientific applications. They are inexpensive
but since they can be focused and easily absorbed by the eye the maximum power is limited
by the need to make them eye-safe. Eye-safety is often a requirement for most applications. A
common alternative 1550 nm lasers are eye-safe at much higher power levels since this
wavelength is not focussed by the eye, but the detector technology is less advanced and so
these wavelengths are generally used at longer ranges and lower accuracies. They are also
used for military applications as 1550 nm is not visible in night vision goggles unlike the
shorter 1000 nm infrared laser. Airborne topographic mapping lidars generally use 1064 nm
diode pumped YAG lasers, while bathymetric systems generally use 532 nm frequency
doubled diode pumped YAG lasers because 532 nm penetrates water with much much less
attenuation than
does 1064 nm. Laser settings include the laser repetition rate (which controls the data
collection speed). Pulse length is generally an attribute of the laser cavity length, the number
of passes required through the gain material (YAG, YLF, etc.), and Q-switch speed. Better
target

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3.1.3 Scanner and optics
How fast images can be developed is also affected by the speed at which it can be scanned
into the system. There are several options to scan the azimuth and elevation, including dual
oscillating plane mirrors, a combination with a polygon mirror, a dual axis scanner. Optic
choices affect the angular resolution and range that can be detected. A hole mirror or a beam
splitter are options to collect a return signal.

3.1.4 Receiver and receiver electronics

Receivers are made out of several materials. Two common ones are Si and InGaAs. They are
made in either PIN diode or Avalanche photodiode configurations. The sensitivity of the
receiver is another parameter that has to be balanced in a LIDAR design.

A company named Vorad Technologies has developed a system which measured up to one
hundred meters. A low powered, high frequency modulated laser diode was used to generate
the light signal.
Most of the current ACC systems are based on 77GHz RADAR sensors. The RADAR
systems have the great advantage that the relative velocity can be measured directly, and the
performance is not affected by heavy rain and fog. LIDAR system is of low cost and provides
good angular resolution although these weather conditions restrict its use within a 30 to 40
meters range.

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3.2 RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging):
RADAR is an electromagnetic system for the detection and location of reflecting objects like
air crafts, ships, space crafts or vehicles. It is operated by radiating energy into space and
detecting the echo signal reflected from an object (target) the reflected energy is not only
indicative of the presence but on comparison with the transmitted signal, other information of
the target can be obtained. The currently used 'Pulse Doppler RADAR' uses the principle of
'Doppler effect' in determining the velocity of the target.

3.2.1 PULSE DOPPLER RADAR:

The block diagram of pulse Doppler radar is as shown in figure. 2. The continuous wave
oscillator produces the signal to be transmitted and it is pulse modulated and power
amplified. The 'duplexer' is a switching device which is fast-acting to switch the single
antenna from transmitter to receiver and back. The duplexer is a gas-discharge device called
TR-switch. The high-power pulse from transmitter causes the device to breakdown and to
protect the receiver. On reception, duplexer directs the echo signal to the receiver. The
detector demodulates the received signal and the Doppler filter removes the noise and outputs
the frequency shift 'fd'.

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3.2.2 EFFECT OF DOPPLER SHIFT:
The transmitter generates a continuous sinusoidal oscillation at frequency 'ft'which is then
radiated by the antenna. On reflection by a moving object, the transmitted signal is shifted by
the Doppler Effect by 'fd'.
to the target is If the range R', total number of wavelength is '' in the two way- path is given
by,
n = 2R/λ
The phase change corresponding to each λ =2π
So total phase change, p=2n П
=2(2R/λ) π
So, if target moves, 'R' changes and hence 'q' also changes.
Now, the rate of change of phase, or the 'angular frequency' is
W=dp/dt =4 π (df/dt)/λ
Let Vr be the linear velocity, called as 'radial velocity'
WD = 4 πVr/ λ =2πfd.
Fd=2Vr/2
But = ft, the transmitted velocity.
Fd= (2c Vr)/ ft
So by measuring the shift, Vr is found. The 'plus' sign indicates that the target and the
transmitter are closing in. i.e. if the target is near, the echoed signal will have larger
frequency.

3.2.3 RADAR ANTENNA SCHEMES:

Radar systems employ a variety of sensing and processing methods to determine the position
and speed of vehicles ahead. Two such important schemes are:
1. Mechanically steered antenna
2. Electronically steered antenna
1. Mechanically steered antenna:
A parabolic reflector is used as mechanically steered antenna. The parabolic surface is
illuminated by the source of energy placed at the focus of the parabola. Rotating about its

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axis, a circular parabola is formed. A symmetrical beam can be thus obtained. The rays
originating from focus are reflected parallel to the axis of parabola. [Fig (3.2.3).]

2. Electronically steered phased array radar antenna

A phased array is a directive antenna made up of a number of individual antennas, or
radiating elements. The radiation pattern is determined by the amplitude and phase of current
at each of its elements. It has the advantage of being able to have its beam electronically
steered in angles by changing phase of current at each element. The beam of a large fixed
phased array antenna is therefore can be rapidly steered from one direction to another without
mechanical positioning
Consider the following figure with 'N elements placed (equally separated) with a distance'd'
apart. Suppose they have uniform response to signals from all directions. Element '1' is taken
as reference with zero phase.

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From simple geometry, we can get difference between path lengths of beam1 and that of
beam2 is x = d sind, where '0' is the angle of incidence of the beams. This gives phase
difference between adjacent elements as Φ= 2π (d sine)/ λ, where '' is the wave length of the
signal. But if the current through a ferro electric element is changed, the dielectric constant 'e'
is changed since electron density is changed, and for an electromagnetic radiation,
Φ = 2πχ /
=2πχf/ν,
here the velocity v = 1/(√με) = f
Hence Φ=2πχf (√με).
So if 'e' is changed '' also changes and inserting 'N' phase shifting elements to steer the beam,
we can obtain an electronically steered beam. Regardless of the scanning mechanism the
radars typically operate in the millimeter wave region at 76-77 GHz. The system should be
mounted inside the front grille of the car as shown in figure. So its size is to be small. Typical
radar produced by Delphi-Delco Electronic systems is having the size of two stacked paper
back books (14x7x10 cm).

3.3 FUSION SENSOR

The new sensor system introduced by Fujitsu Ten Ltd. and Honda through their PATH
program includes millimeter wave radar linked to a 640x480 pixel stereo camera with a 40
degree viewing angle. These two parts work together to track the car from the non-moving
objects. While RADAR target is the car's rear bumper, the stereo camera is constantly
captures all objects in its field.

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12
The image processor measures the distances to the objects through triangulation method. This
method includes an algorithm based on the detection of the vertical edges and distance.
Incorporating both the 16-degree field of view of radar and 40-degree field of view of camera
enhances the performance in tight curves.

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 4. SPACE OF MANEUVERABILITY AND STOPPING
DISTANCE

The space of maneuverability is the space required by the driver to maneuver a vehicle. An
average driver uses larger sideways acceleration while vehicle speed is low. If the curve
radius of a possible trajectory is 'r' for a given velocity 'v' and sideways acceleration 'ay',then
r= V²/ay [2].so to get the required 'r', when 'v' is low, 'ay' is also to be low correspondingly.
The stopping distance is given by, Ds = .5 u2/ax + td u, where 'u' is the initial speed 'td' is the
time taken by the system to receive and process the sensor data and 'ax' is the acceleration of
the vehicle the figure shows the detection of edges of the preceding vehicles.

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5. CONTROLLER
The controller translates the situation into appropriate actions through brake and pedal and
throttle control actions. Depending on the present traffic situation, two types of controls are
possible.
1. Speed control
2. Headway control
If there is no vehicle presently in front, then the speed is controlled about a set point just as in
conventional cruise control. But in order to keep a safe distance between the vehicle s, the
headway control is required.

5.1 ARTIFICIAL COGNITION

The conversion of raw information from sensors to control actions by the two steps: -
1. Analysing the traffic conditions
2. Deciding on a particular situation
The controller translates the desired situation into appropriate control action through brake
and throttle actuation. The controller concept is simplified in the flow-diagram.

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5.2EXAMPLE OF ADAPTIVE CRUISE CONTROLLER (MOTOROLA
ACC)
The Motorola ACC constitutes a DSP module having MGT5200 which provides a multiply-
accumulator. The sensor data such as Radar information, that from camera and an IR sensor
are processed in it, to generate the input data for the controller modules like HC12 and
MPC565.

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5.2.1 MPC565
It is a throttle controller or an engine speed controller. It consists of the following features
1. SRAM (IMB to 10 MB)
2. FLASH 1MB
3. EEPROM (4KB to 32 KB)
4. Real time clock
5. 4 x UART interfaces
6.3 X CAN interfaces
7. 64-bit floating point unit.
The MPC 565 can be programmed to generate the control signals according to the sensor data.
'The Phycore-MPC 565 developers' are available to program and develop the desired controller.
The throttle valve is actuated and the air intake is controlled so the requirement of fuel for the
right proportion with the air also increases. So more fuel is injected and engine speed is
changed.

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5.2.2 HC12
68HC12 has 2 8-bit accumulators A and B (referred to as a single 16-bit accumulator, D, when
A & B are cascaded so as to allow for operations involving 16 bits), 2 16-bit registers X and Y,
a 16-bit program counter, a 16-bit stack pointer and an 8-bit condition code register.
The 68HC12 (6812 or HC12 for short) is a 16-bit microcontroller family from free scale
semiconductor. Originally introduced in the mid-1990s, the architecture is The HC12 is a
breaking controller which receives data from the wheel speed sensors and from the DSP
module. It generates the braking control signal.

5.2.3 CAN (Control Area Network) BUS

CAN BUS is the network established between microcontrollers. It is a2-wire, half-duplex, high
speed network for high-speed applications with short messages. It can theoretically link up to
2032 devices on a network. But today the practical limit is 110 devices. It offers high speed
communication rate up to 1Mbits per second and allows real time control.
Each module in the ACC connected to the CAN is called 'a node'. All are acting as transceivers.
The CAN bus carries data to and from all nodes and provides quicker control transfer to each
module. The actuator used for throttle control is a solenoid actuator. The signal through the coil
can push or pull the plunger.

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 6. COOPERATIVE ADAPTIVE CRUISE CONTROL [CACC]

Though conventional ACC and SACC are still expensive novelties, the next generation called
Cooperative ACC is already being tested. While ACC can respond to the difference between
its own behaviour and that of the preceding vehicle, the CACC system allows the vehicles to
communicate and to work together to avoid collision.
Partners of Advanced Transit Highways (PATH) -a program of California Department of
Transportation and University of California with companies like Honda conducted an
experiment in which three test vehicles used a communication protocol in which the lead car
can broadcast information about its speed, acceleration, breaking capacity to the rest of the
groups in every 20ms.
PATH is dedicated to develop systems that allow cars to set up platoons of vehicles in which
the cars communicate with each other by exchanging signals using protocols like Bluetooth.

6.1 MAIN POSTULATIONS ABOUT CACC:

1. In CACC mode, the preceding vehicles can communicate actively with the following s
Vehicle So that their speed can be coordinated with each other.
2. Because communication is quicker, more reliable and responsive compared to autonomous
sensing as in ACC.
3. Because braking rates, breaking capacity and other important information about the vehicles
can be exchanged, safer and closer vehicle traffic is possible.

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6.2 Advantages
Cruise control offers several advantages that contribute to a more comfortable and potentially
safer driving experience. Here are some key advantages of using cruise control:
1. Reduced Driver Fatigue: One of the primary benefits of cruise control is the reduction
of driver fatigue, especially during long highway drives. By maintaining a steady speed
without continuous foot movement on the accelerator pedal, drivers can experience less
physical strain and fatigue.
2. Consistent Speeds: Cruise control helps maintain a constant speed, which can contribute
to smoother traffic flow and reduce the likelihood of speeding violations. This can be
particularly beneficial on highways with consistent speed limits.
3. Improved Fuel Efficiency: Maintaining a steady speed with cruise control can lead to
better fuel efficiency compared to frequent acceleration and deceleration. The stable
speed allows the engine to operate more efficiently and consistently.
4. Adherence to Speed Limits: Cruise control assists drivers in adhering to posted speed
limits. By setting the desired speed, drivers can avoid unintentional speeding and
potential traffic violations.
5. Focus on Steering and Observation: With the accelerator set at a constant speed, drivers
can focus more on steering, observing the road, and being attentive to their surroundings.
This can enhance overall safety.
6. Relaxation During Long Drives: Cruise control allows drivers to relax their legs during
long drives, as they don't need to maintain constant pressure on the accelerator pedal.
This can make extended journeys more comfortable.
7. Reduced Variability in Speed: Cruise control helps smooth out variations in speed
caused by driver behavior. This can lead to a more predictable driving environment,
especially in heavy traffic.
8. Reduced Risk of Speeding Tickets: By adhering to the set speed, cruise control reduces
the risk of unintentionally exceeding speed limits, helping drivers avoid speeding
tickets.
9. Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) Enhancements: Some vehicles feature adaptive cruise
control, which goes beyond traditional cruise control by automatically adjusting the
speed based on the distance to the vehicle in front. This can enhance safety and further
reduce driver workload.
10. Enhanced Driving Comfort: Overall, cruise control contributes to a more relaxed and
enjoyable driving experience, particularly on long, monotonous stretches of highway.
While cruise control provides these advantages, it's important for drivers to use it responsibly.
Drivers should remain attentive, keep their hands on the steering wheel, and be ready to take
control of the vehicle when necessary. Additionally, cruise control may not be suitable for

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certain road conditions, such as heavy traffic or winding roads, where more active and
engaged driving is required.

6.3 Disadvantages
1. A cheap version is not yet realized.
2. A high market penetration is required if a society of intelligent vehicles is to be formed.
3. Encourages the driver to become careless. It can lead to severe accidents if the system is
malfunctioning.
4. The ACC systems yet evolved enable vehicles to cooperate with the other vehicles and hence
do not respond directly to the traffic signals.
5. A highly responsive traffic system that adjusts itself to avoid accidents can be develop.

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 7. CONCLUSION

The accidents caused by automobiles are injuring lakhs of people every year. The safety
measures starting from air bags and seat belts have now reached to ACC, SACC and CACC
systems. The researchers of Intelligent Vehicles Initiative in USA and the Ertico program of
Europe are working on technologies that may ultimately lead to vehicles that are wrapped in a
cocoon of sensors with a 360-degree view of their surroundings. It will probably take decades,
but car accidents may eventually become as rare as plane accidents are now, even though the
road laws will have to be changed, upto an extent since the non-human part of the vehicle
controlling will become predominant.
In conclusion, the cruise control device stands out as a valuable technology that significantly
enhances the driving experience by offering convenience, reducing fatigue, and potentially
improving safety and fuel efficiency. As discussed in this seminar report, cruise control
provides drivers with the ability to maintain a steady speed without constant interaction with
the accelerator pedal. This feature proves particularly advantageous during long highway
journeys, contributing to a more comfortable and relaxed driving experience.

The device's ability to adhere to speed limits, reduce the risk of unintentional speeding, and
enhance fuel efficiency makes it a practical tool for a wide range of driving scenarios.
Moreover, the incorporation of advanced technologies, such as Adaptive Cruise Control
(ACC), further elevates the capabilities of cruise control by automatically adjusting speed
based on the distance to the vehicle in front, promoting an additional layer of safety.

While acknowledging the numerous benefits of cruise control, it is essential to highlight the
importance of responsible usage. Drivers must remain attentive, keep their hands on the
steering wheel, and be prepared to take control of the vehicle when necessary. Additionally,
cruise control may not be suitable for certain driving conditions, such as heavy traffic or
winding roads, where active engagement is crucial.

As automotive technology continues to evolve, cruise control represents a notable step towards
more advanced driver assistance systems and the eventual realization of autonomous driving.
Its integration into modern vehicles showcases the industry's commitment to improving safety,
comfort, and efficiency for drivers on the road. In conclusion, the cruise control device serves
as a valuable tool in the contemporary automotive landscape, contributing to a positive driving
experience and paving the way for future advancements in vehicle automation.

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 8. REFERENCES

1. Willie D. Jones, "Keeping cars from crashing.", IEEE Spectrum September 2001.
2. P.Venhovens, K. Naab and B. Adiprasto, "Stop And Go Cruise Control", International
Journal of Automotive Technology, Vol. 1, No.2, 2000.
3. Martin D. Adams, "Co axial range Measurement-Current trends for Mobile robotic
Applications", IEEE Sensors journal, Vol.2, no.1 Feb.2002.
4. http:// path.Berkeley.edu
5. Merril I.Skolnik, "Introduction to RADAR Systems."Tata Mc Grawhill edition 2001.

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