Mycoprotein As A Meat Substitute Production Functional Properties and Current

522 International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2024, 59, 522–544
Review
Mycoprotein as a meat substitute: production, functional
properties, and current challenges-a review
Rahim Khan,1 Fatema Hossain Brishti,2* Brisha Arulrajah,1 Yong Meng Goh,3 Muhamad Hafiz Abd Rahim,1
Roselina Karim, Siti Hajar-Azhari,1 Sam Kin Kit,4 Farooq Anwar1,5 & Nazamid Saari1*
2
1 Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia
2 Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia
3 Department of Veterinary Preclinical Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia
4 Ultimeat Sdn. Bhd., Lot G-LC-1, Hive 5, MRANTI Park, Bukit Jalil, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia
5 Institute of Chemistry, University of Sargodha, Sargodha 40100, Pakistan
(Received 14 July 2023; Accepted in revised form 14 October 2023)
Summary Meat has historically been an essential source of animal-based protein. However, due to population
growth, health problems linked to the consumption of red meat, and concerns over environmental chal-
lenges, there is an increased need for alternative protein sources. Various plant-based meat alternatives
have recently been explored, with ongoing advancements in industrial-scale production. Mycoprotein has
been proposed as a sustainable alternative to meat due to its distinctive functional food properties and
fibrous structure. However, some challenges still prevail related to large-scale production, texture, sustain-
ability, and acceptability of mycoprotein products. This review paper provides a comprehensive overview
of scientific research on mycoprotein, focusing on nutritional composition, functional properties, produc-
tion technology, and health benefits. This study also examines the current challenges related to product
safety, environmental impact, and prospects of this innovative food.
Keywords Environmental impact, fermentation, food safety, functional food, meat alternative, mycoprotein.
et al., 2022). Therefore, a shift toward other sustainable

Introduction
protein sources could alleviate the demand for plant-
The rise in global meat consumption over the past two based protein substitutes and conventional meat prod-
decades can be attributed to the simultaneous increase in ucts. Filamentous fungi and microalgae can be explored
the human population and the expansion of the meat as innovative protein sources to produce conventional
industry (Whitnall & Pitts, 2019). It is believed that con- meat substitutes (Santo et al., 2020; Jin et al., 2021).
suming high amounts of meat, particularly pork and beef, Mycoprotein, derived from the fungus Fusarium vene-
may increase the likelihood of developing obesity and natum (F. venenatum), is a protein source produced
heart disease (Kumar et al., 2017). Therefore, it is impera- through fermentation and is considered suitable for
tive for the food industry to implement economically via- human consumption (Derbyshire & Delange, 2021;
ble and environmentally sustainable substitutes for Zhang et al., 2021). It is currently manufactured by
animal proteins, particularly meat (De Boer & Aik- Marlow Foods under the brand name Quorn by cultur-
ing, 2022). The global trend toward adopting alternative ing F. venenatum in a specific environment and mixing it
protein sources for sustainability is growing as consumers with egg white, colouring, and flavouring compounds to
are increasingly open to diverse sources of proteins (Sid- produce a meat-like texture. The final product is rich in
dique et al., 2023). Recently, plant-based protein has been fibres, comprising 2/3 b-glucan and 1/3 chitin, with
explored as a viable source of red meat substitutes due to high-quality protein (11%) and low fats (2.9%)
animal welfare, social, and environmental concerns (Hashempour-Baltork et al., 2020a, 2020b; Gastaldello
(Apostolidis & Mcleay, 2019). The current supply of et al., 2022). Mycoprotein contains a net protein utilisa-
plant-based protein sources needs to be increased to meet tion value comparable to milk-derived proteins and is
the high demand for meat analogues (Ahmad high in essential amino acids (EAAs) (42% of the total
protein content). Mycoprotein is low in sodium and rich
*Correspondent: E-mail: nazamid@upm.edu.my and brishti_
in zinc, selenium, phosphorus, and vitamin B12
hossain@upm.edu.my
doi:10.1111/ijfs.16791
Ó 2023 Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF).
13652621, 2024, 1, Downloaded from https://ifst.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijfs.16791 by Danish Technical Knowledge, Wiley Online Library on [24/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Fermentation meat alternative functional food R. Khan et al. 523
(Whittaker et al., 2020). Its consumption is linked to Subsequently, several researchers have examined the
reduced energy intake, lower cholesterol levels, preven- potential of different strains of bacteria for protein syn-
tion of obesity and diabetes, and improved lipids profile thesis. For example, Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI)
(Coelho et al., 2021). Additionally, mycoprotein is bene- used Methylophilus methylotrophus (M. methylotrophus)
ficial for muscle protein production in youngsters (Mon- bacteria to produce Pruteen (an animal feed) from meth-
teyne et al., 2020). According to a life cycle assessment anol. Later, extensive research has been conducted on
(LCA), mycoprotein has lower greenhouse gas emis- cultivating various yeast strains, such as Candida utilis
sions during production compared to plant and animal (C. utilis) and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae).
protein, posing the least negative environmental impacts These yeasts were crucial in sustaining human nutrition
(Upcraft et al., 2021). during the global conflict (Kusmayadi et al., 2021).
Various agro-industrial wastes such as lignin, cellu- Similarly, moulds like R. oryzae and A. oryzae can
lose, date waste, pea industry by-products, and cheese produce microbial proteins for animal consumption
whey are used as fungal substrates for the production (Souza Filho et al., 2019). In 1964, a British company,
of mycoprotein (Zhang et al., 2023). Several fungi, Rank Hovis McDougall (RHM), discovered a fungal
including F. venenatum, Pleurotus albidus (P. albidus), species, F. venenatum A3/5, with promising potential
Neurospora intermedia (N. intermedia), Rhizopus oryzae as a source of protein suitable for consumers. This dis-
(R. oryzae), and Aspergillus oryzae (A. oryzae) have covery addressed the growing food demand caused by
been employed for mycoprotein production involving global population growth (Finnigan et al., 2019).
different fermentation methods (Landeta-Salgado RHM produces multiple cereals and their byproducts
et al., 2021; Salgado et al., 2021). suitable for use as a carbon source in fungal fermenta-
Understanding mycoprotein requires an examination tion. RHM aimed to develop a cost-effective, appetis-
of its historical progressions, nutritional profile, func- ing, and safe protein extracted from microbes.
tional properties, production technologies, health bene- Therefore, a team of researchers searched for a suit-
fits, current challenges, and prospects as an emerging able microbe in a plot of wheat crops owned by
biosource. This review paper offers a comprehensive RHM. The main objective was identifying and charac-
overview of scientific research on mycoprotein, specifi- terising a microorganism capable of utilising starch as
cally examining nutritional composition, functional a carbon source. Subsequently, a strain of Penicillium
properties, production technology, and health benefits. notatum (P. notatum) was identified and examined,
Additionally, a comprehensive evaluation has been revealing a protein profile resembling casein. However,
conducted on the marketing trends, product safety, the project was discontinued after 3 years due to the
and environmental impact of innovative food. insufficient growth of P. notatum on cultured media.
Afterwards, P. notatum was acknowledged for its role
in penicillin production (Whittaker et al., 2020).
Historical developments of mycoprotein
By 1967, the RHM team conducted a research pro-
Figure 1 illustrates the historical development and project analysing 3000 soil samples for various factors,
duction of mycoprotein over 73 years. A worldwide including continuous culture growth, the amino acid
scarcity of protein-rich food sources was anticipated content of proteins, and mycotoxin production
during the mid-1950s (Finnigan et al., 2019). (Fig. 1). Twenty fungal isolates have been chosen for
Figure 1 Historical development of mycoprotein: A 73-year story.
Ó 2023 Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF). International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2024
524 Fermentation meat alternative functional food R. Khan et al.
livestock feeding experiments based on predefined cri- multiplication process, the biomass undergoes a heat
teria. Several fungal strains have been identified, such treatment at 74 °C for 30 min to minimise the RNA
as Fusarium graminearum (F. graminearum), Fusarium materials by 10–2% (m/m) for safe human consump-
culmorum (F. culmorum), Fusarium solani (F. solani), tion. Fungal proteases remain inactive in such condi-
Neurospora sitophila (N. sitophila), and A. oryzae. F. tions, except for RNAse, which reduces the ribosomal
graminearum demonstrated high protein purity, low RNA into monomers. Subsequently, these substances
toxicity, and compatibility with fermenter develop- undergo diffusion from mycelium cells into the liquid
ment. The F. graminearum strain used for mycoprotein medium and are eliminated from the final product.
production was later reidentified as F. venenatum based Without this treatment, excessive purine consumption
on a comprehensive analysis of its morphology, molec- produces insoluble uric acid, resulting in conditions like
ular properties, and toxins profile (King et al., 2018). kidney stones or gout (Copur et al., 2022). This treat-
From 1970 to 1980, an evaluation strategy assessed ment also results in a loss of protein content and other
the health risks associated with F. venenatum, formerly elements, reducing the dry weight by approximately
known as F. graminearum (Finnigan et al., 2019). F. 30%. Next, the biomass is centrifuged to obtain a pulp
venenatum strains (NRRL22198) were found to pro- containing 20% (w/v) dry matter. The resulting biomass
duce various mycotoxins, including diacetoxyscirpenol, of the preceding process is a mycoprotein. Finally,
4-monoaceytoxyscirpenol, and scirpentriol (Kim et al., mycoprotein is processed through steaming, cooling,
2015). On the other hand, F. venenatum (ATCC PTA- and freezing to achieve a meat-like texture and fibrosity
2684) did not produce mycotoxins under growth con- for human nutrition (Fig. 2).
ditions similar to F. venenatum (NRRL22198). Studies In summary, considerable advancements have been
demonstrated that mycoprotein consumption did not achieved in mycoprotein production, aiming to allevi-
harm the human immune system (Finnigan et al., ate the worldwide scarcity of protein-dense food
2017). Moreover, samples of mycoprotein were resources. Numerous studies have explored the protein
observed at 6-h intervals during production to ensure production capabilities of various microbial strains.
product safety. The trial results were compiled into a Notably, F. venenatum A3/5 has emerged as a promis-
comprehensive report of approximately 2 million ing candidate due to its exceptional qualities, such as
words and presented to the British Ministry of Agri- high protein purity, fibrous texture, low toxicity, and
culture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF). compatibility with fermenter technology. The produc-
In 1985, mycoprotein was authorised for sale in the tion of mycoprotein by F. venenatum A3/5 has the
UK market by MAFF (Fig. 1). Sainsbury’s, a UK- potential to enhance both food safety and food secu-
based supermarket chain, launched savoury pie, the rity. However, it is essential to comprehend the nutri-
first mycoprotein product marketed under its trade- tional composition of mycoprotein to evaluate its
marked name, Quorn. Later, Marlow Foods Ltd. was potential health advantages and market feasibility.
established as a joint venture between ICI and RHM
to develop air fermentation technology for the food
Nutritional composition of mycoprotein
industry. Quorn products have been marketed in many
countries, including the US, UK, France, Germany, Mycoprotein is an important biosource of high-quality
Canada, Norway, Denmark, Switzerland, Australia, proteins (11.25 g), fibres (6 g), and micronutrients,
New Zealand, and Singapore (Finnigan et al., 2019). including iron (0.50 mg), zinc (9 mg), sodium (5 mg),
Until 1994, mycoprotein production primarily uti- and vitamin B12 riboflavin (3 lg) per 100 g (Table 1).
lised a pilot-sized fermenter developed by ICI. The fer- Mycoprotein contains 2.90 g of lipid, primarily con-
menter employed the M. methylotrophus bacterium to sisting of polyunsaturated fatty acids (1.60 g) and a
produce Pruteen, which is commonly used as livestock minor proportion of saturated fatty acids (0.60 g)
feed (Whittaker et al., 2020). Between 1993 and 1997, (Derbyshire & Delange, 2021). As an unprocessed
Marlow Foods introduced three additional fermenters ingredient, 100 g mycoprotein contains 11 g proteins,
(Quorn 2, 3, and 4) to enhance the production capacity rich in AAs, vital for physical development. The pro-
to 14 000 tons per year. The most common method for tein content of mycoprotein is quite comparable to
producing mycoprotein biomass is a cost-effective eggs, cereals, and wheat but less than chicken and red
constant-flow system with a high dilution rate. Fungal meat (Coelho et al., 2021). Additionally, mycoprotein
growth is optimal in a constant-flow system under con- contains nearly three times less protein than soybeans
trol conditions of 28–30 °C and pH 6.0 with limited glu- (Kudełka et al., 2021). The protein content in myco-
cose and ammonium supply. The mycoprotein biomass protein products may vary depending on their specific
content is typically achieved by measuring carbon diox- type. For example, mycoprotein-free turkey steaks typ-
ide (CO2) levels. Based on this criterium, a production ically contain 16.5 g of protein per 100 g, which may
pace of 0.17–0.20 l h1 yields 300–350 kg h1 biomass vary depending on additional ingredients like egg
for F. venenatum (Wiebe, 2002). Following the white.
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2024 Ó 2023 Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF).
Figure 2 A flow chart of the fermentation process for mycoprotein production from F. venenatum (Finnigan et al., 2019).
However, mycoprotein products have a higher pro- amino acids, making them valuable sources of tissue-
tein digestibility corrected amino acid score building substances. Mycoproteins from F. venenatum
(PDCAAS) of 1.0, indicating 100% protein absorption have a lower fat content (<3 g per 100 g of the final
(Derbyshire & Ayoob, 2019). Only egg whites, casein, product), five times less than soybean.
and poultry have a PDCAAS value of 1.0 among vari- Animal proteins are generally more readily available
ous food items. The protein content of turkey is 0.97, to the human body than plant-based proteins due to
fish (cod) is 0.96, soybean is 0.94, and beef is 0.92 their amino acid composition. However, mycoprotein
(Dunlop et al., 2017). Similarly, microbiologically pro- is considered a viable source of high-quality proteins
cessed products have lower exogenous amino acid con- due to its comprehensive profile of EAAs vital for
tent compared to their protein content. Nevertheless, optimal human body functioning. Thus, it can be con-
mycoprotein products contain all necessary exogenous ferred that mycoprotein is superior to most other
Table 1 Nutritional composition of mycoprotein in comparison with other conventional foods (/100 g)
Components Mycoprotein Milk Egg Beef Chicken Soybean Wheat References
Protein (g) 11.25 3.40 12.56 20.20 24.00 14.00 13.70 Derbyshire & Ayoob (2019)
EAAs (g)
Histidine 0.35 0.09 0.30 0.66 0.72 0.60 2.30 Finnigan et al. (2017)
Lysine 0.83 0.26 0.90 1.60 1.39 1.40 2.50 Finnigan et al. (2017)
Isoleucine 0.52 0.20 0.68 0.87 1.22 1.10 3.40 Finnigan et al. (2017)
Leucine 0.86 0.32 1.10 1.53 1.82 1.80 6.80 Finnigan et al. (2017)
Phenylalanine 0.49 0.16 0.66 0.76 1.17 1.10 4.40 Finnigan et al. (2017)
Tryptophan 0.16 0.05 0.16 0.22 0.19 0.30 1.00 Finnigan et al. (2017)
Threonine 0.55 0.15 0.60 0.84 0.71 0.80 2.80 Finnigan et al. (2017)
Methionine 0.21 0.08 0.39 0.50 0.68 0.30 1.80 Finnigan et al. (2017)
Valine 0.62 0.22 0.76 0.94 1.21 1.10 4.50 Finnigan et al. (2017)
Fibre (g)
Total fibre 6.00 In traces In traces In traces In traces 6.10 11.20 Finnigan et al. (2019)
Fat (g)
Total fat 2.90 1.70 9.51 4.30 1.10 7.30 2.50 Finnigan et al. (2019)
Saturated fatty acid 0.60 1.10 3.13 1.70 0.30 0.90 0.74 Finnigan et al. (2019)
Micronutrients
Iron (mg) 0.50 0.02 1.75 3.50 0.40 3.00 3.60 Finnigan et al. (2019)
Zinc (mg) 9.00 0.40 1.29 0.40 0.70 0.90 2.80 Akar et al. (2019)
Sodium (mg) 5.00 43.00 142.00 43.0 60.00 1.00 In traces Akar et al. (2019)
Selenium (lg) 20.00 1.00 11.00 1.00 12.00 5.00 2.00 Akar et al. (2019)
Vitamin B12 (lg) In traces 0.40 0.89 0.40 In traces In traces In traces Akar et al. (2019)
Total carbohydrate (g) 3.00 4.70 In traces 0.06 In traces 5.10 In traces Akar et al. (2019)
Sugar (g) 0.50 4.60 In traces In traces In traces 1.64 5.00 Akar et al. (2019)
Total energy (kcal) 85.00 46.00 151.00 172.00 106.00 141.00 339.00
vegetable proteins in meeting the body’s requirements. (linoleic acid). The mycoprotein fibre constitutes
The mycoprotein product has a biological value of 84, around 25% of mycoprotein’s total dry mass, equiva-
which is equivalent to that of low-fat milk. The overall lent to 6 g/100 g (Derbyshire & Delange, 2021).
nutritional quality of the mycoprotein product can be According to Bottin et al. (2016), the mycoprotein’s
further enhanced by adding small quantities of egg cellular wall mainly consists of non-soluble fibres, with
and milk protein (Gastaldello et al., 2022). Mycopro- approximately 65% b-glucan and 35% chitins, which
tein’s fat content comprises 0.40% monounsaturated forms a chitin-glucan mixture with 12% solubility and
fatty acids, 1.60% polyunsaturated fatty acids, and 88% insolubility in water. b-glucan and chitins are the
0.60% saturated fatty acids with no cholesterols (Der- most important polysaccharides in fungal cell walls,
byshire & Ayoob, 2019). The fat percentage in myco- influencing the morphology and characteristics of both
protein products is similar to that of lean chicken vegetative and pathogenic hyphae. Similarly, Harris
(Finnigan et al., 2019;Hashempour-Baltork et al., et al. (2019) found that mycoprotein fibres can pro-
2020a, 2020b; Gastaldello et al., 2022). duce fermentable short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs),
Additionally, every 100 g of dried mycoprotein com- including propionate, acetate, and butyrate, under in
prises 4.3 g of omega-6 fatty acids and 6.9 g of vitro conditions. SCFAs possess various health bene-
omega-3 fatty acids. Derbyshire & Delange (2021) fits, including anti-inflammatory, immunoregulatory,
found that beef’s PUFA to SFA ratio is approximately anti-obesity, anti-diabetes, anticancer, cardiovascular
0.1, which declines with increasing fat concentration in protective, hepatoprotective, and neuroprotective
meat. On the other hand, the PUFA to SFA ratio in properties (Xiong et al., 2022). Moreover, SCFAs are
mycoprotein is 1.44. Moreover, mycoprotein-based reported to reduce hepatic cholesterol levels via hinder-
products possess higher concentrations of UFA (2– ing rate-limiting enzymes involved in dietary choles-
3%) and lower concentrations of SFA (0.5–2%) than terol production of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl
meat-based foods. Likewise, Telle-Hansen et al. (2019) coenzyme-A and suppressing lipolysis within adipose
have found that consuming SFA can efficiently reduce tissues (Ahmadi et al., 2017).
the likelihood of developing cardiovascular diseases. Mycoprotein contains a significant amount of die-
The PUFAs in mycoprotein are mainly key fatty acids, tary fibre, similar to that found in whole-meal bread
including omega-3 (alpha-linolenic acid) and omega-6 or whole-meal flakes. The dietary fibres are typically
derived from the fungal cell wall, consisting of one- providing a wide range of food industrial applications
third chitin and two-thirds b-glucan. These fibres are and yielding high-quality and consumer-acceptable
mainly insoluble, promoting digestion and maintaining products.
gut health. Studies have shown that mycoprotein prod-
ucts promote satiety due to their high fibre content.
Functional properties, flavour, and textural
Further studies indicate that these fibres have no
characteristics
impact on the availability of calcium, magnesium,
iron, zinc, or phosphorus (Cherta-Murillo & Mycoprotein is a sustainable and economical meat
Frost, 2022). substitute that can replace animal protein (Finnigan
Regarding micronutrients, mycoprotein is rich in et al., 2019). The Quorn byproducts obtained from the
zinc, selenium, and phosphorus (Derbyshire & RNA-reduction process include nucleotides, mycelial
Delange, 2021). Zinc is a vital mineral that plays a fragments, and protein-rich biomass. The meat-like
crucial role as a cofactor for enzymes, contributes to texture of viscoelastic biomass is determined by its
the structural integrity of proteins, and controls gene functional profile, which includes emulsifying, foam-
expression in human metabolism (Castiglione et al., ing, and rheological properties, resulting in a fibrous
2018). Its deficiency is linked to weakened immune gel compound (Lonchamp et al., 2019). In addition,
function, increased inflammation and oxidative stress, the appealing taste attributes and meat-like texture of
higher susceptibility to infection, heightened likelihood mycoprotein play a crucial role in satisfying consumer
of developing heart disease, and osteoporosis. Simi- preferences.
larly, selenium enhances immune function, promotes
hair and nail health, and supports thyroid health
Emulsifying and foaming properties
(Castiglione et al., 2018). On the other hand, phospho-
rus is essential for bone mineralisation, cell mem- Mycoprotein’s emulsification and foaming
branes, nucleic acids, and cellular energy metabolites properties are ascribed to surface-active components,
within the human body (Michigami et al., 2022). the interfacial tension between oil and water, and fun-
Moreover, mycoprotein is a viable source of trace ele- gal mycelia remains (Lonchamp et al., 2020b). Recent
ments, including copper and magnesium. Table 1 research has demonstrated that mycoprotein is an
shows that mycoprotein has lower amounts of sodium effective emulsifier and foaming ingredient within the
(5.0 mg) and iron (0.5 mg) compared to beef (43.0 mg food sector (Murray, 2020). Lonchamp et al. (2019)
sodium and 3.5 mg iron). On the other hand, no sig- conducted a study wherein they extracted various frac-
nificant variation was observed in the concentration of tions of mycoprotein biomass using ultrafiltration and
iron, zinc, phosphorus, calcium, and magnesium observed that the emulsifying activity index of the
between the polysaccharide-free meals and whole-meal whole mycoprotein biomass (13.17 g m2) was signifi-
bread (Dunlop et al., 2017). cantly higher than the mycoprotein fraction (5.89 bio-
Furthermore, mycoprotein is a viable source of vita- mass g m2) attained through centrifugation.
min B2, vitamin B6, and vitamin D. Vitamin B2 facili- Moreover, the surface tension of mycoprotein induced
tates the conversion of carbohydrates into glucose for through gas sparging under pH 4.2 is 44 mN m1,
energy production (Molfetta et al., 2022), while vita- lower than whey protein fraction (50 mN m1). This
min B6 is crucial for overall health and bodily func- observation highlights the significance of wetting com-
tion. Vitamin D promotes calcium absorption, which ponents in the emulsification and foaming attributes of
is crucial for developing strong bones. It also prevents mycoprotein.
osteoporosis, a condition where bones become thin Lonchamp et al. (2020b) employed sonication to
and weak, making them more prone to fractures modify the cellular structure, emulsifying, and foaming
(Desbarats, 2020). attributes of mycoprotein’s biomass. The results indi-
Mycoprotein is a protein source that provides all cated that sonicated mycoprotein emulsions had smal-
essential amino acids necessary for human bodily func- ler oil droplets (13.57 lm) compared to sonicated
tions. The nutritional profile of this food is similar to whey protein emulsions (18.61 lm). Similarly, unpro-
low-fat milk, chicken, eggs, and cereals but lower than cessed mycoprotein emulsions exhibited tiny oil drop-
soybeans and meat, highlighting its potential signifi- lets (33.57 lm) compared to unprocessed whey protein
cance. Mycoprotein is rich in essential fatty acids emulsions (54.70 lm). Nutritional studies have investi-
(omega-3 and omega-6), dietary fibre, vitamin B2, vita- gated the effects of the size of oil droplets on sensory
min B6, and vitamin D, which are crucial for main- perceptions and satiety. Recent research examined the
taining health and physiological functions. effect of reduced oil droplet size (50–0.2 lm) on the
Understanding mycoproteins’ functional properties sensory perception of a comparable beverage, explicitly
and flavour characteristics is crucial in recognising focusing on the creamy mouthfeel. The study found
their potential as a valuable protein source, capable of that reducing the size of oil droplets significantly
improved the creamy mouthfeel. Nevertheless, the

Flavour characteristics
increased hedonic appeal and satiety sensation reduce
appetite (Lett et al., 2016). Consumer acceptability and sensory attributes are cru-
Additionally, the foaming and emulsifying properties cial factors for sustainable meat substitutes. Meat
of phospholipids, nucleotides, and their metabolites alternatives should be nutritionally equivalent to tradi-
have been extensively studied in academic literature tional meats in appearance, solubility, and conve-
(Peters & Davis, 2016). To characterise the biomass of nience. The flavour of meat substitutes is important
mycoprotein and determine their functional compo- for meeting consumer demands. The flavour character-
nents, (Lonchamp et al., 2019) used proteomic and istics of meat analogues should be evaluated according
metabolomic techniques. Several lipids, including to consumer preferences. Sensory attributes, including
phospholipids, monoglycerides, diglycerides, nucleo- taste, texture, and appearance, are important factors
sides, sterols, sterol esters, and chitin, are found in the in determining the overall acceptability of products.
cellular membranes of fungi. Phospholipids, such as Plant proteins can be used as alternatives to meat in
lysophospholipids, chitosan, and chitin, are extensively food products with lower meat content, such as sauces,
employed in food and beverage production for their soups, and pizzas. However, it is not feasible to use
melding, foaming, and emulsifying attributes (Wang them as substitutes for meat in substantial portions
et al., 2021). These substances may arise from the like steaks. These substitutes cannot maintain their
release of nucleotides caused by the degradation of cel- structure and tend to disintegrate when used in larger
lular RNA. Later, the nucleotides are reduced into dimensions (Aiking & De Boer, 2020). Meat substi-
nucleosides and nucleobases after heat-shock treat- tutes are usually used as part of a larger meal and not
ments (Finnigan et al., 2019). eaten alone. The acceptance of meat substitutes is
influenced by the meal context (Meiselman et al.,
2022). According to Danowska-Oziewicz (2014), the
Rheological properties
inclusion of soybean products such as soy paste, SPI,
The rheological properties of mycoprotein are influ- or textured soy protein can lead to a distinct “beany”
enced by mycelial remnants, fungal tissues, and viscosi- taste in meat analogues. Similarly, (Kamani et al.,
fying materials discharged by mycelial debris (Finnigan 2019) suggested that the “beany” flavour can be
et al., 2017). Lonchamp et al. (2019) compared the rhe- masked by incorporating precise quantities of herbs
ological attributes of a mycoprotein mixture with 10% and spices. Verbeke et al. (2010) emphasise the signifi-
nitrogen-containing material in deionised water to whey cance of meat substitutes having similar nutritional
protein, which served as a control. The findings indi- content, visual characteristics, solubility, and conve-
cated that the mycoprotein mixture had greater viscosi- nience to conventional meats. Elzerman et al. (2011)
ties (0.76, 0.27, 0.21, and 0.19 Pas) than the whey compared the preference for Quorn, a mycoprotein,
protein mixture (0.05, 0.03, 0.03, and 0.01 Pas). The with other meat alternatives such as tofu strips, Tivall
increased viscosity of mycoprotein solution is caused by stir-fry pieces, Goodbite chicken style, and Vivera
mycelial fragments and viscosifying substances, includ- vegan stir-fry pieces. The study revealed a significant
ing galactan, chitin, and chitosan, which inhibit the flow preference for Quorn over other meat substitutes.
of fermenting broth. Similarly, Lonchamp et al. (2020a) Elzerman et al. (2011) found that Quorn pieces were
studied the impact of mycoprotein and mycoprotein- more acceptable than Quorn minces in individual eval-
based fractions (retentates) on the viscosity and gelling uations and when included in meal salads and rice
properties of egg white (EW) solutions with different dishes. Both meat substitutes were widely accepted in
concentrations (50/50 and 75/25 EW/retentate). The the context of soups. The acceptability of Quorn-mince
study found that the retentate and EW/retentate solu- was higher than Quorn-pieces in spaghetti dishes, but
tions exhibited higher viscosity (0.9, 0.12, and 0.08 Pas) there were no statistically significant differences
than 10% EW (0.02 Pas). However, at 40 °C, the 7.5% (P > 0.55).
EW solutions exhibited greater rigidity than others, sug- Microscopic investigations have shown that myco-
gesting a positive relationship between the EW and proteins have larger cable-like fibres compared to
retentate substances. In a previous study, Finnigan poultry muscle tissues and textured soy products.
et al. (2019) found that combining EW with mycopro- These fibres, particularly in vegetable protein textures,
tein biomass achieved the desired meat-like texture for produce undesirable rubbery textures during chewing.
QuornTM mince and pieces during production. Finnigan Poultry and mycoprotein products have a dense
et al. (2019) also found that Quorn products have a arrangement of laminations, resulting in enhanced
dense and homogeneous network of coagulated albu- fibrous and rubbery eating qualities compared to vege-
min proteins and a mycelial mass of mycoprotein, table protein products. The strength of mycoproteins
which gives a texture similar to red meat with excellent and egg systems is determined by the characteristics of
viscosity. entangled fibres and gelled proteins, which combine to
create a fibre-gel composite (Finnigan et al., 2017). and chewiness attributes (Fig. 3). Elzerman et al.
The degree of entanglement is determined by the (2011) conducted a sensory analysis to evaluate Quorn
branching level and aspect ratio of hyphae products and compare them with meat substitutes,
(Hashempour-Baltork et al., 2020a, 2020b). The ongo- including Tivall stir-fry pieces, tofu strips, and Good-
ing research focuses on the relationship between bite chicken style. The study revealed that Quorn
hyphal morphology, particularly branch and length products were preferred over other alternatives due to
frequency, and eating quality. However, it is unlikely their texture, taste, fragrance, colour, and appearance.
to achieve optimal biomass production through fer- Similarly, Xiao et al. (2016) formulated a chickpeas
mentation for hyphal geometry, including branch and bread containing 20% of mycoprotein and discovered
length frequency (Finnigan et al., 2017). that the resultant product exhibited a colour compara-
ble to those in the control group and a softer texture
compared to wheat bread.
Meat-like texture
Similarly, Finnigan et al. (2019) reported that Quorn
The texture is a crucial factor in assessing the mouth- foods exhibited a texture comparable to meat-based
feel, softness, and chewiness attributes of foods (Fu products due to similar breakdowns in the oval cavity.
et al., 2021). To satisfy customer preferences, meat On the other hand, Finnigan et al. (2019) observed
substitutes should have sensory qualities, like texture, that Quorn food items exhibited a better fibrous tex-
biting resistance, and flavour, similar to those of red ture and less rubbery consistency compared to chicken
meat products. Quorn products, like Quorn mince and and soybean products because of their highly com-
pieces, incorporate mycoprotein with gel-like sub- pacted laminations. Finnigan et al. (2017) found that
stances such as agar, alginate, and egg albumin (Finni- Quorn products need functional synergy with EW to
gan et al., 2019). The amalgam undergoes heating at achieve a meat-like texture. Moreover, Lonchamp
80–85 °C, followed by a cooling and freezing process et al. (2020a) examined the interaction between myco-
at 10 °C. The process produces a gel composite with protein retentate mixture and EW and discovered that
a fibrous texture, similar to red meat, with softness gels produced from a 25/75 and 50/50 ratio of
Figure 3 Filamentous and branched nature of mycoprotein: (a) filamentous variant; b = branched colonial variant; (c) extensional flow and
enhanced alignment of mycoprotein fibres; (d) ice crystal growth on freezing forms highly packed hyphal domains and gives rise to fibrous
structure (Finnigan et al., 2017).
retentate mixture and EW exhibited similar foaming substrates within a growth medium (Fig. 4). The pro-
properties to 10% EW but greater than 5% and 7.5% cess involves incubating and purifying microbes and
EW. The study found that gels made from a mixture biomass from an aqueous substrate using centrifuga-
of EW-retentate (75/25) exhibited a dense hyphal tion and cleansing methods (Reihani & Khosravi-
structure that encloses the filaments and other particles Darani, 2019). SmF technology is favoured over SSF
surrounding the air bubbles. The foaming ability of for enzyme synthesis due to its improved manageabil-
EW protein was enhanced, resulting in increased air ity and monitoring capabilities. Despite its benefits,
bubble production and a texture resembling meat. The SmF has several drawbacks, such as high production
results indicated a functional interaction between EW costs, reduced efficiency, and medium complexity
protein and retentate mixture in texture formation. (Manan & Webb, 2017). Recent studies have obtained
Lonchamp et al. (2019) have previously determined mycoprotein biomass using SmF techniques and vari-
that 100 kDa ultrafiltration fractions of mycoprotein ous substrates, including potato protein liquor, pulse
biomass had optimal emulsification and foaming attri- husk broth, date waste, and various fruit wastes
butes. Hyphal accumulates in retentate gel, and solu- (Oshoma & Eguakun-Owie, 2018; Reihani &
tions were linked to their higher rheological properties, Khosravi-Darani, 2019). Several recent researches have
including viscoelasticity and viscosity. The findings explored mycoprotein extraction from seaweed and
indicated that mycoprotein biomass could partially seaweed derivatives, including Ulva spp. (Landeta-
substitute EW as an emulsifying compound by reusing Salgado et al., 2021).
it in broth during production. Furthermore, the hydro- In 2021, Landeta-Salgado et al. (2021) employed
phobicity of F. venenatum cells and spores may con- SmF to culture Paradendryphiella salina, a marine fun-
tribute to stabilising mycoproteins and EW foams gus, on cornmeal seawater agar (CMSWA) for myco-
during ultrafiltration. The shape and size of bacterial protein extraction from Macrocystis pyrifera (20 g L1
and fungal hyphae contribute to potential stabilisers of dry matter). After incubating at 25 °C, the myco-
for biphasic dispersion, such as emulsifying and foam- protein biomass was filtered and centrifuged at 3300 g.
ing attributes (Lam et al., 2014). The mycoprotein biomass production was 56.4% from
Mycoprotein exhibits diverse functional characteris- seaweed, while 32% from seaweed waste. Additionally,
tics, making it an appealing substitute for animal pro- the biomass derived from seaweeds and seaweed deriv-
teins, mainly in meat analogues. Some essential atives had maximum protein concentration, EAAs,
features, such as emulsification, foaming, rheology, and fat than the unfermented seaweed biomass. More-
and texture, are vital to retain and reproduce the sen- over, Landeta-Salgado et al. (2021) used SmF to
sory attributes of conventional meat products. There- extract mycoprotein from Ulva spp. employing P.
fore, effective production technologies that successfully salina grown on CMSWA medium (25 g L1). The
improve these qualities in meat analogues through mycoprotein pellet was processed into mycoprotein
cutting-edge cultivation techniques, extraction proce- flours using centrifugation, washing, and freeze-drying
dures, and processing methodologies are essential for methods with the Micro Modulyo 230. The results
mycoprotein’s success as a meat alternative. This high- indicated that Ulva spp. yielded 561.3 g kg1 mycopro-
lights the need for advanced manufacturing techniques tein compared to 270 g kg1 in the control group. The
to optimise mycoprotein production and offer the best mycoprotein biomass had significantly higher levels of
meat substitutes to consumers. proteins, amino acids, and ash than the unfermented
Ulva, with hikes of up to 3.5, 2.4, and 2.1 times,
respectively. According to Santo et al. (2020), sub-
Mycoprotein production technologies
strate type is the critical variable affecting mycoprotein
Over the years, mycoprotein has been produced from extraction and its nutritional content.
agro-industrial waste through fermentation using In another study, Ahlborn et al. (2019) investigated
macroorganisms (Sadh et al., 2018). Mycoprotein bio- the growth rates of P. sapidus, Wolflporia cocos, and
masses have been produced from various agro- L. edodes on apple pomace, beetroot molasses,
industrial wastes, including peas, pineapple peels, and and leaf spinach using malt extract agar (MEA). The
cellulose-based waste products (Table 2). For effective study indicated that P. sapidus yielded more mycopro-
production, submerged and solid-state fermentation tein biomass on apple pomace (250 g kg1) than on
techniques have been used (Landeta-Salgado et al., other substrates. Furthermore, the biomass obtained
2021). included 74% carbohydrates, 21% protein, 4% lipids,
2% ash, and traces of amino acids. In another study,
Mondal et al. (2012) employed cucumber and orange
Submerged fermentation
peel as substrates for yeast (S. cerevisiae) to produce
Submerged fermentation (SmF) is a method of extract- mycoprotein biomass and found that cucumber peel
ing mycoprotein by growing microbes on moist had higher crude protein content (53.4%) compared to
Table 2 Comparison of the fermentation process for mycoprotein production using agro-industrial wastes
Mycoprotein
Culture types Substrates Microbial strains Basic parameters yield Composition References
SmF Seaweeds and P. salina Inoculum preparation on CMSWA 564 (g kg1) Protein: 31% Fat: Landeta-Salgado
seaweed Substrate volume: 20 g L1 1.2% et al. (2021)
byproducts Incubation: 121 °C for 10–20 min Carbohydrates: 30%
Centrifugation: 3300 g Energy: 253 kcal/
100 g
SmF Ulva lactuca P. salina Inoculum preparation on 561.3 (g kg1) Protein: 48% Landeta-Salgado
CMSWA Fibre: 3% et al. (2021)
Substrate volume: 25 g L1 Incubation: Carbohydrate: 20%
25 °C along with agitation at 200 rpm Energy: 332

Centrifugation: 3300 g kcal/100 g
SmF Apples, P. sapidus, A. Inoculum preparation on MEA 250 (g kg1) (P. Protein: 21% Ahlborn
pomegranates, aegerita, Incubation: 24 °C along with agitation at sapidus on Fat: 4% et al. (2019)
boronias, and S. rugosoannulata, 150 rpm apple) Carbohydrates:
beetroots molasses P. sajorcaju, and P. Centrifugation: 3300 g 74%
salmoneo- Ash: 2%
stramineus
SmF Peels of oranges, A. niger Inoculum preparation on PDA Incubation: 325 (g kg1) for Protein: 1.49% Oshoma &
pineapples, 28 °C for 8–10 days A. niger Fat: 1.92% Eguakun-
bananas, Filtration: after washing and oven-drying Carbohydrate: Owie (2018)
and watermelons 3.25%
Crude fibre: 6.88%
SmF (Airlift Potato protein liquor R. oryzae Inoculum preparation on PDA and PPL 72.63 (g L1) Nitrogen: 70 g kg1 Souza Filho
bioreactor) Incubation: 35 °C for 2 days Harvesting et al. (2017)
and sterilisation at 120 °C
SSF Stale bread and R. oryzae and Inoculums preparation on PDA 260.33 (g L1) Protein: 46.7% Gmoser
brewer-spent grains N. intermedia Substrates volume: 15 g Incubation: 25 °C for N. Fat: 4.4% et al. (2019)
for 6 days intermedia Carbohydrate: 42%
Filtration: after centrifugation at 3220 g for Energy: 326 kcal/
15–20 min 100 g
SSF Brewer-spent grains P. albidus, A. blazei, Inoculation on PDA 125 (g kg1) for Protein: 22.6% Total Stoffel
and grapes bagasse and A. Substrate volume: 15 g Incubation: 28 °C P. albidus amino acids: et al. (2019)
fuscosuccinea for 20 days Colony drying at 4 °C for 7.85%
1 days Fibre: 34.35%
Filtration: after centrifugation at 3220 g
Surface-culture method Byproducts of the F. venenatum, A. Inoculum preparation on PDA Cultivation: 260 (g kg1) for Protein: 18% Fat: Souza Filho
(airlift fermenter) pea-processing oryzae, 3 mL L1 spore suspension on PpB R. oryzae 2% Carbohydrates: et al. (2018)
industry R. oryzae, and Incubation: 35 °C with agitation of 56.3%
M. purpureus 150 rpm
Extraction: after washing, and oven-drying
at 70 °C
Fermentation meat alternative functional food R. Khan et al.
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2024

531
532
Table 2 (Continued)
Mycoprotein
Culture types Substrates Microbial strains Basic parameters yield Composition References
1
Surface-culture method Date juice F. venenatum Inoculum preparation on Vogel slants 5.46 (g L ) Hosseini &
using Plackett-burman (ATCC 20334) Substrate: date juice (5%) Khosravi-
design Incubation: 30 °C for 3 days Darani (2011)
Filtration: after rinsing and oven-drying at
50 °C
SmF Date wastes F. venenatum Inoculum preparation on Vogel slants 5.5 (g L1) Fibre: 6% Reihani &
(IR372C) Substrate: date waste (5%) Incubation: at Khosravi-
26 °C with agitation of 200 rpm for Darani (2019)
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2024

3 days Filtration: after rinsing and oven-
Fermentation meat alternative functional food R. Khan et al.
drying at 60 °C
SmF Sugarcane extracts A. bisporus Inoculum preparation on PDA Substrate: 15.0 (g L1) Kim et al. (2011)
sugarcane extracts Incubation: 28 °C for
4 days with agitation of 200 rpm
Harvesting: after rinsing at 120 °C for 15–
20 min
SmF and SSF Thin stillage and N. intermedia 1st phase: SmF 537 (g kg1) Protein: 16.75% Gmoser
hybrid method wastes Inoculum preparation on PDA Fat: 13% et al. (2019)
Substrate: stillage Carbohydrate:
Incubation: 30 °C for 6 days 4.63%
Filtration: after centrifugation
at 3220 g at 4 °C for 15 min
2nd Phase: SSF
Inoculum preparation: thin stillage
solution (5 g L1 fungal biomass)
Substrate: 15 g of breadcrumbs
Incubation: 30 °C for 6 days
Harvesting: after drying at 50 °C
Plackett-Burman design Date syrup F. venenatum Inoculum preparation on Vogel slants 47.34 (g kg1) Protein: 880% Hosseini
(ATCC 20334) Substrate: Date juice et al. (2009)
Incubation: 28 °C for 3 days Filtration:
after rinsing and oven-drying at 60 °C

Figure 4 Submerged fermentation process for mycoprotein production.
the orange peel (30.5%). In 2018, Oshoma and products, including tempeh, miso, soy sauce, koji, and
Eguakun-Owie cultured Aspergillus niger on various red fermented rice (Fig. 5; Lizardi-Jimenez & Hern a-
fruit and vegetable wastes utilising potato dextrose ndez-Martınez, 2017). SSF and SmF differ in their
agar (PDA) to mitigate detrimental environmental moisture levels. SSF requires minimal moisture levels
effects. The results indicated that banana waste yielded between 34% and 75%, whereas SmF relies on a
higher biomass of A. niger (3.25%) and crude protein liquid-based medium to support microbial develop-
(1.49%) than other fruit wastes (Table 2). ment (Cerda et al., 2019). Similarly, SSF medium typi-
The composition of the medium can also affect cally utilises solid substrates like maize, rice, wheat,
mycoprotein production (Hashempour-Baltork et al., and barley to support the growth of microorganisms
2020a, 2020b). Reihani & Khosravi-Darani (2019) (Sadh et al., 2018). SSF has become increasingly popu-
examined the impact of growth media on mycoprotein lar in the past few decades due to its higher productiv-
production. They cultured F. venenatum on Vogel ity, reduced production costs, lowered power demand,
growth media supplemented with date sugar (carbon and minimal risk of contamination by microorganisms
source) and glucose (nitrogen source). The study (Vassilev & De Oliveira Mendes, 2018). Studies have
revealed that the stirred tank bioreactor fermentation utilised substrates like watermelon seeds, peanut press
process yielded a higher protein content (76%) com- cake, and rice waste to produce high-valued commodi-
pared to flask fermentation (65.3%). In another study, ties via SSF (Sadh et al., 2018; Vassilev & De Oliveira
Akalya et al. (2017) discovered that the combination Mendes, 2018). Recently, SSF has been commonly
of fruit hydrolysed medium and yeast extract potato used for mycoprotein extraction from agricultural and
dextrose agar (YPDA) significantly reduced the bio- industrial byproducts (Landeta-Salgado et al., 2021).
mass production of S. cerevisiae on musambi, musk- Stoffel et al. (2019) obtained consumable mycopro-
melon, watermelon, pineapple, and papaya. However, tein from brewery-spent grain with grape bagasse
adding glucose to the fruit hydrolysate media caused using yeasts, including P. albidus, A. blazei, and Auri-
the crude protein level to rise significantly, reaching cularia fuscosuccinea in SSF on a PDA medium sup-
60.31% (Table 2). On the other hand, Kim plemented with a nutrient salt solution (KH2PO4,
et al. (2011) developed a cost-effective process using a MgSO4. 7H2O, FeCl2, and Cacl2:2H2O). The mixture
culture medium containing yeast, NaNO3, sugarcane was then incubated at 28 °C for 20 days, allowing the
extract, and Agaricus bisporus. After 4 days of cultiva- substrate to be fully colonised. They found that P.
tion, the optimum production of mycoprotein biomass albidus exhibited the highest mycelial biomass yield
(15 g L1) was achieved. It was found that (125 g kg1) among the tested species, surpassing A.
mushroom-based meat analogues had better texture, blazei (106 g kg1) and A. fuscosuccinea (28 g kg1).
chewiness, hardness, and umami characteristics than Additionally, P. albidus had higher amounts of pro-
soy-based protein analogues. teins (22.6 g), EAAs (7.8 g), and fibres (34.35 g) than
the other strains. In another study, Gmoser
et al. (2019) employed edible moulds, including N.
Solid-state fermentation
intermedia and R. oryzae, to improve the nutritional
Solid-state fermentation (SSF) is frequently used in the properties of brewer’s spent grain and stale bread for
production and processing of various high-value food producing novel protein-enriched food products
Figure 5 Solid-state fermentation for mycoprotein production.
through SSF. After 6 days of fermentation, N. inter- (Souza Filho et al., 2019). However, the large-scale
media enhanced the protein, fibres, vitamins, and min- surface culture methodology is more labour-intensive
eral contents of stale bread compared to untreated and space-consuming than SmF and SSF techniques.
bread. Integrating the brewer’s spent grain (6.5– This method has been extensively used for over
11.8%) into stale bread yielded a product with a simi- 50 years to grow microorganisms (Breig & Luti, 2021).
lar texture and higher crude protein concentration Currently, Souza Filho et al. (2018) produced myco-
(57%) compared to commercially available soybean protein from different fungi, including F. venenatum,
burgers. R. oryzae, N. intermedia, A. oryzae, and M. purpureus,
Furthermore, Gmoser et al. (2019) employed a using pea processing byproducts (PpB) and the
hybrid strategy combining SmF and SSF hybrid strate- surface-culture methods (Fig. 6). The moulds were cul-
gies to extract fungal-based biomass from thin stillage tured in PDA slants containing agar (15 g), glucose
and stale bread using N. intermedia. They discovered (20 g), and potato extracts (4 g) per litre and incu-
that the fungus degraded the thin stillage and pro- bated at 35 °C. The results indicated that F. venenatum
duced 65 Kg of fungal biomass and 81 Kg of ethanol and N. intermedia grown on PpB had higher protein
per ton of SmF. The SSF process resulted in a 161% content (55%, 54%) than other fungal strains. More-
increase in protein concentration in stale bread com- over, A. oryzae cultured in a 4.5 L airlift bioreactor
pared to the control group. The preceding process also enhanced PpB protein production by 26 g/100 g. Simi-
yielded 1.2 kg of waste bread under optimal conditions larly, Prakash et al. (2015) studied various factors
(40% moisture content, 35 °C temperatures, and 95% affecting the growth of F. venenatum, including the
relative humidity). inoculum quantity, date extraction, KH2PO4,
KH2HPO4, and length of incubation. The optimal pro-
duction of mycoprotein biomass (4.9 g L1) has been
Surface-culture methods
achieved using specific quantities of date extract
Several researches have demonstrated that mycopro- (8 mL), KH2PO4 (100 mg), KH2HPO4 (500 mg), and
tein can be extracted using surface-culture methods 5% inoculum.
Figure 6 Surface-culture fermentation for mycoprotein production.
Moreover, Hosseini & Khosravi-Darani (2011) physiological benefits (Hashempour-Baltork et al.,

investigated the impact of different variables on myco- 2020a, 2020b). Incorporating mycoprotein-based prod-
proteins production by Fusarium venenatum, including ucts into meals can regulate insulin levels in the blood
carbon source, nitrogen concentrations, seed quantity, and modulate gastrointestinal processes, including
and temperature. The optimal conditions for achieving delayed stomach voidance and gastrointestinal mobil-
a maximum biomass production of 5.46 g L1 were ity (Sharma et al., 2021; Cherta-Murillo & Frost, 2022).
noted to be carbon content of 20 g L1, (NH4) H2PO4 Research indicates that consuming mycoprotein can
content of 3.5 g L1, KH2PO4 content of 1.6 g L1, lower blood cholesterol levels, promote muscle growth,
seed volume of 10% V/V, an ambient temperature of and reduce energy intake in people (Bottin et al., 2016;
30 °C with an incubation period of 72 h. Coelho et al., 2020, 2021). The dietary intake of
Mycoprotein production involves substrate selection, mycoprotein-based products is linked to various health
microbial strains, fermentation conditions, and post- benefits, as listed below.
processing techniques. The use of advanced production
technologies improves mycoprotein’s health benefits,
Energy intake and appetite regulation
leading to sustainable products with significant health
advantages. It is important to align the functional Mycoprotein is a nutrient-dense, fibre-rich food gain-
food value of mycoprotein with the preferences of ing popularity worldwide (Finnigan et al., 2017;
health-conscious individuals seeking sustainable diets, Cherta-Murillo & Frost, 2022). Mycoprotein consump-
as research reveals more benefits. tion can regulate appetite and affect energy intake
through metabolic hormones, including glucagon-like
peptide-1 (GLP-1), peptide tyrosine-tyrosine (PYY),
Health benefits of mycoprotein
ghrelin, and leptin as illustrated in Fig. 7 (Cherta-
The global consumption of mycoprotein is experienc- Murillo et al., 2020). Bottin et al. (2011) studied the
ing a significant increase because of its nutritional and impact of different isocaloric meals of mycoprotein
Figure 7 Effect of mycoprotein consumption on satiety, glycaemic response, intestinal lipogenesis, and appetite regulation (Ahmad
et al., 2020).
(21, 27, 32 g) and chicken on energy intake in physi- on insulinaemia. It is attributed to the mycoprotein’s
cally fit and obese participants. The study showed a intrinsic properties, such as its protein content, fibres,
substantial reduction in energy intake (616 kcal) com- and hyphal structure, which may inhibit stomach emp-
pared to the matched chicken diet group (676 kcal). tying by transforming chitin into chitosan. In another
Similarly, Bottin et al. (2016) performed a randomised study, Coelho et al. (2020) examined the effect of
study comparing the implications of isoenergetic myco- mycoprotein meals (8.83%) on blood sugar levels, uric
protein or chicken diets (44, 88, or 132 g) on appetite acid, and insulin resistance in participants under low-
control and physiological processes linked to energy and high-nucleotide conditions (L-NC, H-CN). The
consumption and substrate combustion in obese and L-NC and H-NC mycoprotein diets increased blood
overweight individuals. A 10% decline (67 kcal) in sugar and insulin levels after 30 min, with no signifi-
energy intake was observed after consuming 132 g of cant changes observed at baseline. However, consum-
mycoprotein compared to a matched chicken diet. ing the H-NC mycoprotein diet resulted in a notable
However, no significant variations in appetite- elevation of uric acid levels within 210 min, which per-
controlling hormones (GLP-1 and PYY) were sisted for 12 h before returning to baseline within
observed after consuming large amounts of mycopro- 24 h. Similarly, Monteyne et al. (2020) found that
tein and equivalent chicken-based meals. Additionally, intake of mycoprotein products led to a gradual and
Williamson et al. (2006) observed that healthy women, prolonged increase in serum insulin levels within
with a body mass index of 25–29.9, who ate a lunch 30 min, in contrast to milk proteins.
containing 44.3 g of mycoprotein consumed less
energy (282 kcal) than the group consumed matched
Lipid profile biomarkers
chicken diets (322 kcal). Similarly, Harris et al. (2019)
discovered that mycoprotein biomass and its fibre con- A high mycoprotein diet has been found to enhance
tent increased the quantity of propionate (24.9 mM) lipid biomarkers among overweight or obese people
more than laminarin (6.95 mM) and oligofructose (Bottin et al., 2016; Dunlop et al., 2017). In a recent
(2.57 mM). Propionate has been found to enhance the study, Coelho et al. (2021) analysed blood cholesterol
production of GLP-1 and PYY, leading to prolonged levels in healthy adults following a one-week diet change
satiety and reduced energy intake in overweight or with controlled fish- or meat-based protein and myco-
obese individuals (Duncan et al., 2021). GLP-1 and protein diets. Following the diet change, the group that
PYY stimulate serotonin secretion from the colonic consumed mycoprotein exhibited a substantial reduc-
mucosa, which regulates appetite suppression (Cham- tion in blood cholesterol levels, such as low-density lipo-
bers et al., 2015). protein (LDL) (19.33%), intermediate-density
lipoprotein (14.47%), and very low-density lipoprotein
(VLDL) (8.36%) in comparison to the control group.
Glucose and insulin resistance responses
Moreover, a noticeable reduction was observed in the
Several medical studies evaluated the effect of myco- levels of docosahexaenoic acid (17.53%) and x-3 fatty
protein consumption on postprandial glycaemia and acids (17.26%) compared to the control diets. The study
insulin response in healthy, obese, and overweight also found no significant impact on fasting blood sugar
adults (Dunlop et al., 2017). The influence of three dis- levels, blood plasma interleukin-6, and uric acid concen-
tinct mycoprotein diet dosages (44, 88, and 132 g) tration in urine after consuming mycoprotein, fish, and
compared to matching chicken meal dosages on post- meat diets.
prandial glycaemia and insulin response in obese and In another research, Thomas et al. (2017) investi-
overweight people was examined by Bottin gated the putative lipid-lowering and antimicrobial
et al. (2016). The results showed that mycoprotein properties of mycoprotein in a rat model of Triton’s
meal considerably reduced blood insulin area under X-100-induced hyperlipidaemia. The results indicated
the curve (AUC) in 1 h compared to matched chicken that consuming mycoprotein decreased the total cho-
meals, indicating its potential to lower the insulino- lesterol levels (TCL) by 44%, LDL by 33%, and
genic index and improve peripheral insulin sensitivity. VLDL by 24% compared to the control group. Alter-
Nonetheless, mycoprotein or matched chicken meat natively, Ruxton & Mcmillan (2010) investigated the
consumption did not significantly affect blood sugar effects of an 88 g mycoprotein meal on TCL in healthy
levels. individuals aged 17–58. The results revealed a signifi-
On the other hand, Dunlop et al. (2017) studied the cant decrease in TCL (5.28–3.24 mM) after 6 weeks of
glycaemic index of beverages with mycoprotein at dietary changes, compared to the control group (4.70–
varying doses of 20, 40, and 60 g compared to milk 4.38 mM). The mycoprotein group exhibited a signifi-
drinks. The results indicated that the mycoprotein cant decline in TCL (14–19%) compared to the con-
drink (40 g) and milk protein drink (20 g) had similar trol (3–1%), particularly for individuals with elevated
insulin responses (iAUC 0–240 min) and implications baseline levels. This indicates that integrating
mycoprotein into the daily diet may help regulate bolus consumption. Similarly, plasma leucine concen-
blood cholesterol levels in overweight or obese people tration increased at different time intervals after con-
with diabetic complications and alcohol-free hepatic suming boluses of 20, 40, 60, and 80 g of
steatosis. Nevertheless, additional investigations must mycoprotein, reaching 173, 118, 150, and 201 lM,
be conducted to verify the cholesterol-lowering effect respectively. Studies have indicated that plant-based
of mycoprotein. proteins like soybeans and wheat had lower levels of
EAAs and BCAAs than milk proteins (Gorissen et al.,
2016). Monteyne et al. (2020) found that milk protein
Muscle protein synthesis
ingestion increased plasma BCAA concentration
The consumption of animal-based proteins is linked to (791 lM) compared to mycoprotein (646 lM). After a
greater muscle protein synthesis compared to plant- resistance-type workout, participants were adminis-
derived proteins. Recent research has emphasised the tered either 31 g of milk protein or 70 g of mycopro-
anabolic capacity of plant-derived protein sources like tein. The study found that milk protein exhibited a
soybean and wheat proteins, which have lower levels rapid and higher peak of plasma leucine levels at
of EAAs and leucine (Gorissen et al., 2016). Mycopro- 15–30 min compared to mycoproteins. However, no
tein is a fungal-based protein that contains around 6% significant variations were noted in the concentrations
leucine. Additionally, it contains a high amount of of valine and isoleucine under different conditions.
EAAs, comprising 45% of the total proteins, and has Monteyne et al. (2020) investigated the effect of a
a high PDCAAS content (Finnigan et al., 2017). The mycoprotein drink enriched with smaller quantities of
current research revealed that consuming mycoprotein BCAAs (18.7 g protein) versus a larger mycoprotein
enhances the availability of branched-chain amino bolus (31 g protein) on muscle protein production in
acids (BCAAs) and promotes muscle protein synthesis resistance-trained young individuals following resis-
in young males, as illustrated in Fig. 8. Dunlop tance workouts. The results showed that lower doses
et al. (2017) examined the blood circulatory BCAAs of mycoprotein resulted in reduced muscle protein syn-
levels in a group of youngsters after consuming thesis (0.031–0.041% post-resting and 0.027–0.052%
boluses containing varying quantities of mycoprotein post-exercise) than the higher doses of mycoprotein
and milk proteins (20, 40, 60, and 80 g). The study (0.025–0.057% post-resting and from 0.024–0.072%
found that postprandial plasma BCAA concentrations post-exercise). A higher intake of mycoprotein led to
varied based on mycoprotein consumption (40, 60, elevated levels of phenylalanine and tyrosine in the
and 80 g) and a 20 g milk bolus. An 80 g mycoprotein plasma compared to a lower intake. Furthermore, con-
bolus also increased BCAA levels more significantly suming less mycoprotein resulted in a rapid and more
than the 20 g milk-based bolus. noticeable increase in the availability of leucine, isoleu-
Moreover, the blood leucine content was amplified cine, and valine in the blood after a meal, compared
to 201 lmol per litre after 30 min upon 20 g milk to consuming a larger amount of mycoproteins.
Figure 8 Effect of mycoprotein ingestion on the mechanisms of muscle protein synthesis and antioxidant activity (Ahmad et al., 2020).
including P. species, can produce ergothioneine, a sec-

Appetite and satiety
ondary metabolite known for its antioxidant proper-
According to Munkvold et al. (2021), mycoproteins ties. Furthermore, Salgado et al. (2021) reported that
have a higher satiety effect compared to chickens. mycoprotein produced through the fermentation of
Mycoprotein products are suitable substitutes for M. pyrifera and seaweed wastes using P. salina after
school meals, as they effectively induce satiety and sus- eight days exhibited high antioxidant activity in the
tained energy levels among children. Multiple studies range of 46.3 to 49.7%. The produced mycoprotein
have demonstrated that mycoprotein is a viable substi- had high total phenolic contents ranging from 99.2 to
tute for individuals seeking to achieve weight loss. It 100.3 mg EAG g1. Research indicated that consum-
extends the feeling of satiety, reducing the probability ing foods rich in flavonoids and phenolics may help
of superfluous snacking between main meals. The prevent cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes
empirical research conducted by Munkvold (Gorissen et al., 2016).
et al. (2021) has provided evidence supporting the It can be revealed that mycoprotein serves as an
notion that the inclusion of mycoproteins into dietary intrinsic source of antioxidant compounds. Addition-
patterns benefits the regulation of satiety. The hypoth- ally, it may confer benefits in managing high choles-
esis under consideration has been validated by recent terol levels and various cardiovascular diseases. Hence,
studies (Bottin et al., 2016). Likewise, Williamson consuming mycoprotein may have various positive
et al. (2006) examined the impacts of pre-meal con- health impacts, including appetite regulation, glucose
sumption of mycoprotein, chicken, and tofu on feel- metabolism, lipid profile, muscle growth, and antioxi-
ings of satiety. The results indicated that mycoproteins dant activity. However, it is important to understand
exhibit a significantly reduced satiety compared to the potential variability in individual responses to
chicken meats. The synthesis of short-chain fatty acids mycoprotein intake. This highlights the need for fur-
(SCFAs) via the gastrointestinal breakdown of myco- ther research on its long-term effects and underlying
protein fibres has been linked to the modulation of mechanisms of biological effects. Furthermore, ensur-
appetite, as it triggers satiation messages from the ing strict food safety protocols in mycoprotein produc-
colon to the brain (Ahmad et al., 2020). However, it is tion and distribution is crucial for consumer safety,
important to note that a conclusive causal mechanism particularly as the exploration of this alternative pro-
has yet to be established, and further research is cur- tein source progresses.
rently being conducted to explore this particular facet
(Bottin et al., 2016).
Safety of mycoprotein
To evaluate the suitability of mycoproteins as next-
Antioxidant activity
generation foods, it is crucial to assess their potential
Mycoprotein production through microbes produces for causing allergies. All foods require allergen label-
various bioactive metabolites, including flavonoids, ling. In 2001, Marlow Foods International sought
hexadecanes, and phenolic compounds, which are GRAS (generally recognised as safe) status from the
widely recognised for their antioxidant and free-radical FDA for its mycoprotein products. The FDA has
removing properties (Chhikara et al., 2021; Ventho- recently confirmed the safety of dietary supplements
dika et al., 2021). Thomas et al. (2017) conducted a containing mycoproteins. The literature indicates
combined layout to assess the antioxidant and antihy- potential adverse effects of consuming mycoproteins
perlipidemic properties of mycoprotein in rats with (Hashempour-Baltork et al., 2020a, 2020b; Hadi &
hyperlipidaemia caused by an extended high-calorie Brightwell, 2021; Furey et al., 2022). Common reac-
diet. The study revealed that the mycoprotein metabo- tions to mycoprotein include vomiting, diarrhoea, skin
lites, specifically methanolic and acetonitrile extracts, rashes, and fainting. The prevalence of these symptoms
exhibited higher antioxidant activities (51.9% and in the UK is 1 in 370 000 people (Jacobson & Depor-
59.7%) than ascorbic acid. Meanwhile, Stoffel ter, 2018), and so far, it is unclear whether the
et al. (2019) found that mycoprotein extracted from A. described symptoms indicate the condition. Despite
fuscosuccinea exhibited higher antioxidant activity these reports, the FDA affirmed the safety of myco-
(106.2%) compared to P. albidus and A. blazei. The protein products, noting that some individuals may be
antioxidant activity of mycoprotein-based diets might intolerant to QuornTM foods, while others may have
be linked to the synthesis of antioxidant bioactives difficulty digesting certain types of protein. The FDA
such as ergothioneine during the production of myco- found no evidence of severe health risks from consum-
protein. Ahmad et al. (2022) stated that ergothioneine ing foods containing mycoproteins after contacting
is the primary metabolite in mycoprotein flour derived individuals who experienced adverse effects (Banach
from P. albidus brewer’s spent grain. Gorissen et al., 2020). However, in certain foods, mycoprotein
et al. (2016) found that specific edible macrofungi, can trigger severe allergic reactions in individuals with
mould allergies. F. venenatum, a non-pathogenic strain used in frozen food products and has been consumed
of filamentous fungi, has been found to produce myco- in nearly 5 billion meals worldwide since its introduc-
toxins such as trichothecene, coulmorin, fusrin, and tion (Finnigan et al., 2017). According to the market
eniatin in A3/5-derived strains (King et al., 2018; analysis, the mycoprotein industry in the US is pro-
Munkvold et al., 2021). jected to reach US$ 523.4 million by the end of 2030.
Cross-reactions between F. venenatum and other China is expected to attain an overall market potential
pathogenic fungi, such as A. fumigatus, Cladosporium of around US$238.6 million by 2030 (Derbyshire &
herbarum, and Alternaria alternata, can cause hyper- Delange, 2021). Furthermore, this figure is projected
sensitivity reactions due to their similarities. This reac- to surpass $1.1 billion by 2030. Despite its numerous
tion is limited to a small percentage of individuals health benefits, the adoption and scalability of myco-
with mould allergies who respond to mycoprotein anti- protein should be carefully managed to ensure sustain-
gens as harmful foreign antigens (Whittaker et al., able production methods and avoid creating new
2020; Awasthi et al., 2022). Xing et al. (2022) per- ecological issues.
formed a radioallergosorbent test to detect mycotoxins
during mycoprotein production. Two workers had IgE
Environmental impact
antibodies ≥2%, but none exhibited related symptoms.
Mycoproteins are generally well-tolerated foods with The food system is globally accountable for a quarter
minimal properties of intolerance (Monteyne et al., (25%) of greenhouse gas emissions; thus, a carbon tax
2020; Muthukumar et al., 2020; Kurek et al., 2022). is proposed to reduce meat consumption (Ritchie
Recent studies showed that fungal cell development et al., 2018). However, a carbon tax may reduce the
during mycoprotein production results in elevated nutritional value of an omnivorous diet. Therefore,
RNA levels. This leads to the breakdown of RNA into reducing the cost of plant-based meat substitutes
purine and pyrimidines upon consumption, increasing would be more appealing due to their lower environ-
the risk of gout and diabetes in susceptible individuals. mental impacts (Smetana et al., 2023). This could
However, reducing RNA during mycoprotein produc- reduce greenhouse gas emissions by a maximum of
tion effectively addressed concerns about increased 583 Mt CO2e annually (Ritchie et al., 2018). In 2015,
purines and pyrimidines. Smetana et al. (2015) conducted a complete life cycle
The passage discusses the challenges of integrating analysis to evaluate the greenhouse gas emissions from
mycoproteins into new dietary trends. Some studies mycoprotein-based meats. Notably, poultry and pork
reported adverse reactions and allergenic properties of production emit greenhouse gases equivalent to myco-
mycoproteins, while others presented contrasting evi- proteins (5.7–6.1 and 5.6 kgCO2e, respectively).
dence of their beneficial effects. The contrasting find- Similarly, Finnigan et al. (2019) discovered that
ings highlight the need for regulatory authorities, such mycoprotein production released 6.8 tons of CO2,
as the FDA, to thoroughly consider these insights whereas Van Peteghem et al. (2022) estimated the
when evaluating mycoprotein products’ safety and emission to be around 2.7 tons. Both studies con-
labelling regulations. The relationship between safety cluded that most greenhouse gases are emitted during
concerns and research findings is relevant to the converting mycoprotein to QuornTM. Finnigan
changing market strategies and other challenges faced et al. (2019) asserted that eggs and glucose primary
by mycoprotein products. factors responsible for greenhouse gas emissions and
global warming in mycoprotein production. However,
mycoprotein production results in reduced levels of
Current marketing trends and ecological
greenhouse gas emissions in comparison to animal-
challenges
based protein sources (one ton of beef emits 14.3 tons
of CO2) (Finnigan et al., 2017; Smetana et al., 2023).
Mycoprotein marketing trends
Mycoproteins have been commercially available for
Land use
human consumption in the UK market since 1985
(Rogers, 2003). In 2002, the FDA conferred GRAS Extensive research has explored land use for mycopro-
designation to mycoprotein. After receiving this desig- tein production and evaluated its environmental
nation, seven mycoprotein products were introduced impact. Expanding land use for food production
into the US food supply chain, including steaks, sau- adversely affects the planet’s sustainable development
sages, mince, chicken, nuggets, strips, and fishless fin- capacity (Allan et al., 2015). Mycoprotein is a poten-
gers. Mycoprotein is currently available in Europe tial alternative to animal products for reducing land
(UK, Norway, Denmark, France, Germany, and Swit- use (Sturtewagen et al., 2016). Population growth may
zerland), Asia (Hong Kong, Singapore, and Thailand), require expanding land resources to meet the increas-
and America (US and Canada). Mycoprotein is widely ing demand for food production. Mycoprotein is a
land-efficient alternative for food production. Different using macroorganisms, SmF can be preferred over
studies have yielded varying results on the annual land SSF due to its ease of operation and affordability.
area needed for mycoprotein production, likely due to At the same time, SSF is a cost-effective technique
methodological differences (Temme et al., 2013). as it offers high-quality mycoprotein products with
Temme et al. (2013) found that mycoprotein produc- minimal risk of microbial contamination. However,
tion requires only a quarter of the land area compared the potential exists for improvement in the fermenta-
to animal-based foods. Thus, replacing animals with tion process for high-quality mycoprotein produc-
mycoprotein is a practical alternative due to lower tion. Alternative fungal strains and/or other
land requirements and reduced load on sustainable microorganisms may be investigated together with
thresholds. According to recent studies, reduced land fermentation process intensification to increase the
use for food production contributes to environmental efficiency and security of mycoprotein production.
degradation. However, further consensus is needed Mycoprotein-rich food has the potential to regulate
among scientists regarding land requirements for appetite and insulin levels, modulate gastrointestinal
mycoprotein production. Blonk et al. (2008) estimated mobility, lower blood cholesterol levels, and improve
1, 1500 square meters of land per ton of mycoprotein, muscle and cardiovascular conditions. The potential
while Temme et al. (2013) reported 4200 square meters health advantages of mycoprotein must be investi-
for the same quantity. The animal protein sources gated further, specifically its effects on satiety, mus-
yielded diverse outcomes. Blonk et al. (2008) found cle protein synthesis, and blood lipid profile (TCL).
that 5000 square meters of land are required to pro- Due to the briefness of these effects’ duration and
duce one ton of chicken, whereas Temme et al. (2013) the small size of the sample employed, published
reported up to 8000 square meters for the same research has only offered a limited evaluation of
quantity. these effects. It is possible to do additional studies
Mycoprotein offers environmental advantages over to determine the ideal daily mycoprotein consump-
traditional meat sources in terms of greenhouse gas tion and its potential impact on blood cholesterol
emissions and land use. Mycoprotein production emits levels and glycaemic index among people with diabe-
fewer greenhouse gases and requires less land than tes and obesity.
beef production or traditional animal farming. Mycotoxins and mutagenic qualities of mycopro-
Although there are measurement discrepancies, the teins are examined during food safety testing, yet some
overall trend indicates that mycoprotein is a sustain- foods may still cause severe allergic reactions in people
able food source. As global food demand increases, sensitive to mould. According to recent studies, myco-
integrating sustainable sources like mycoprotein is protein has a promising future, replacing traditional
essential for a more environmentally conscious food meat products and plant-based proteins. However,
system. more investigation is needed to determine whether veg-
etarians and other ethnic groups will embrace food
products containing mycoprotein. Furthermore, exper-
Conclusions and prospects
iments conducted in vitro, in vivo, and in silico are
Over the past few decades, significant development has required to clarify the processes behind the biological
been made in mycoprotein production to address the activities of mycoprotein.
global scarcity of protein-rich food sources. Currently,
mycoprotein production is an emerging food industry
Acknowledgments
with a growing market. Among the potential microbial
strains, F. venenatum A3/5 is considered the most The authors acknowledged that the manuscript had
promising candidate for mycoprotein production due undergone a thorough review and received unanimous
to its high protein purity, fibrous texture, low toxicity, approval, thereby consenting to its submission to the
and compatibility with fermenter development. How- journal.
ever, research indicates that culturing Paradendry-
phiella salina on seaweed and seaweed waste improves
Author contributions
nutrient content and yield, surpassing the commer-
cially produced mycoprotein by F. venenatum. Myco- Rahim Khan: Writing – original draft; Writing – review
protein contains all EAAs and is a viable source of and editing. Fatema Hossain Brishti: Conceptualization;
omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, dietary fibre, vita- Supervision; Project administration. Brisha Arulrajah:
min B2, vitamin B6, and vitamin D and thus can be Conceptualization. Yong Meng Goh: Conceptualization;
explored as a high-quality functional protein for alter- Project administration. Muhamad Hafiz Abd Rahim:
native meat production. Conceptualization. Roselina Karim: Supervision.
While various technologies have been developed to Siti Hajar-Azhari: Conceptualization. Sam Kin Kit:
produce mycoprotein from agro-industrial waste Funding. Farooq Anwar: Writing – review and editing.
Nazamid Saari: Conceptualization; Project administra- Banach, J., Hoek-Van Den Hil, E. & Van Der Fels-Klerx, H. (2020).
tion; Supervision; Funding acquisition. Food safety hazards in the European seaweed chain. Comprehen-
sive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 19, 332–364.
Blonk, H., Kool, A., Luske, B., De Waart, S., Blonk Milieuadvies,
Conflicts of interest G. & Vegetari€ersbond, N. (2008). Environmental Effects of
Protein-Rich Food Products in The Netherlands: Consequences of
The authors declare no conflict of interest. Animal Protein Substitutes. Gouda, The Netherlands: Blonk
Consulktants.
Bottin, J., Cropp, E., Ford, H., Betremieux, L., Finnigan, T. &
Funding Frost, G. (2011). Mycoprotein reduces insulinemia and improves
insulin sensitivity. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 70, E372.
The financial support from Ultimeat Sdn. Bhd., Bottin, J.H., Swann, J.R., Cropp, E. et al. (2016). Mycoprotein
Malaysia (vote no. 6300370-11801) to Professor Naza- reduces energy intake and postprandial insulin release without
altering glucagon-like peptide-1 and peptide tyrosine-tyrosine con-
mid Saari as project leader is gratefully acknowledged. centrations in healthy overweight and obese adults: a randomised-
controlled trial. British Journal of Nutrition, 116, 360–374.
Breig, S.J.M. & Luti, K.J.K. (2021). Response surface methodology:
Ethics approval a review of its applications and challenges in microbial cultures.
Materials Today Proceedings, 42, 2277–2284.
Ethics approval was not required for this research. Castiglione, D., Platania, A., Conti, A., Falla, M., D’urso, M. &
Marranzano, M. (2018). Dietary micronutrient and mineral intake
in the Mediterranean healthy eating, ageing, and lifestyle (MEAL)
Data availability study. Antioxidants, 7, 79.
Research data are not shared. Cerda, A., Artola, A., Barrena, R., Font, X., Gea, T. & Sanchez, A.
(2019). Innovative production of bioproducts from organic waste
through solid-state fermentation. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Sys-
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Mycoprotein As A Meat Substitute Production Functional Properties and Current

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522 International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2024, 59, 522–544

et al., 2022). Therefore, a shift toward other sustainable

Figure 1 Historical development of mycoprotein: A 73-year story.

Components Mycoprotein Milk Egg Beef Chicken Soybean Wheat References

improved the creamy mouthfeel. Nevertheless, the

Ó 2023 Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF).

International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2024

International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2024

Ó 2023 Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF).

Figure 4 Submerged fermentation process for mycoprotein production.

Figure 5 Solid-state fermentation for mycoprotein production.

Figure 6 Surface-culture fermentation for mycoprotein production.

Moreover, Hosseini & Khosravi-Darani (2011) physiological beneﬁts (Hashempour-Baltork et al.,

including P. species, can produce ergothioneine, a sec-

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