A

Seminar Report
On

SOLAR COLLECTOR
Submitted
In partial fulfilment
For the award of the Degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In
Mechanical Engineering

Submitted To: Submitted By:

Dr. Abir Das Guddu Kumar
Assistant Professor 19EAIME017
Mechanical Department Fourth Year (VII Sem)

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Arya Institute of Engineering & Technology, Jaipur

Rajasthan Technical University, Kota

[2019-2023]
 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING ARYA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERIN
RIICO INDUSTRIAL AREA KUKAS, JAIPUR (RAJASTHAN)- 302028

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the work, which is being presented in the practical Seminar report for
practical seminar taken at Solar Collector is submitted by Guddu Kumar, 19EAIME017 student
of fourth year (VII Sem) B. Tech in Mechanical Engineering as a partial fulfilment for the award
of degree of Bachelor of Technology is a record of student’s work carried out and found
satisfactory for submission.

SEMINAR COORDINATOR HEAD OF DEPARTMENT

Dr. Abir Das Mr. Sandeep Jhamb
(Assistant Professor) (Head of Department)
Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering

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 CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the work, which is being presented in the seminar report for practical training
taken at Solar Collector in partial fulfilment for the award of Degree of “Bachelor of Technology” in
Dept. of Mechanical. Engineering and submitted to the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Arya
Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajasthan Technical University is a record of my own
investigations.

I have not submitted the matter presented in this report anywhere for the award of any other Degree.

Guddu Kumar
B. Tech, Mechanical Engineering
Roll No- 19EAIME017
Arya Institute of Engineering & Technology

Seminar Coordinator

Dr. Abir Das

Assistance Professor
Mechanical Engineering

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my deep sense of gratitude to our seminar Guide Dr. Abir Das for guiding me from
inception till the completion of the project. I sincerely acknowledge him for giving his valuable
guidance, support for literature survey, critical reviews and comments for our project.
I would like to first of all express our thanks to Dr. Arvind Agarwal President & Dr. Pooja
Agarwal Vice President of Arya Institute of Engineering & Technology for providing us such a great
infrastructure environment for overall development.
I express sincere thanks to Dr. Himanshu Arora the principal of AIET, for his kind cooperation and
extendible support towards the completion of our training.
Words are inadequate in offering our thanks to Er. Sandeep Jhamb HOD of mechanical department
for consistent encouragement & support for shaping the training in the presentable form.
I also express my deepest thanks to Mr. Shubham Mahajan for his support in providing technical
requirement and fulfilling our various requirements.
I also like to express my thanks to all supporting Mechanical Engineering Faculty members who have
been a constant source of encouragement for successful completion of the training.
Also my warm thanks to Arya Institute of Engineering & Technology, who providing us this
opportunity to carryout, this prestigious Project and enhance our learning in various technical fields

Guddu Kumar
Roll No. 19EAIME017

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 LIST OF CONTENTS

CERTIFICATE I
CANDIDATE DECLARATION ii
AKNOWLEDGEMENT iii
LIST OF CONTENTS iv
LIST OF FIGURES v
ABSTRACT vi
1. CHAPTER 1 :- SOLAR COLLECTOR 1-8
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 SOLAR THERMAL COLLECTOR 2
1.3 FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR 3
1.4 EVACUATED TUBE 5
1.5 COMPARISON 7

2. CHAPTER 2 :- EVACUATED FLATE PLATE COLLECTOR 9-12

2.1 POLYMER FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR 9
2.2 BOWL COLLECTOR 11

3 CHAPTER 3 :- APPLICATIONS 13-15

3.1 SOLAR THERMAL COLLECTOR 14
3.2 SPACE TESTING AND VENTILATION 14
3.3 PROCESS HEATING 14

4 CHAPTER 4 :- TYPES OF SOLAR COLLECTOR 16-18

4.1 AIR DUCTING METHOD 16
4.1.1 THROUGH PASS AIR COLLECTOR 16
4.1.2 BACK, FRONT AND COMBINATION 16
4.2 OUTER SURFACE 17
4.2.1 GLAZED SYSTEM 17
4.2.2 UNGLAZED SYSTEM 17

5 CHAPTER 5 :- SOLAR GENERATING ELECTRICITY 19-21

5.1 PARABOLIC TROUGH 20
5.2POWER TOWER 21
CONCLUSION 22
REFERENCE 23

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 1.1 Solar collector 2

Fig. 1.2 Solar thermal collector 3
Fig. 1.3 Flat plate collector 5
Fig. 1.4 Equivalent tube collector 6
Fig. 2.1 Polymer flat plate collector 10
Fig. 2.2 Bowl collector 12
Fig. 5.1 Parabolic trough 19
Fig. 5.2 Solar Parabolic trough 20
Fig. 5.3 Solar power tower 21

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 ABSTRACT
A solar thermal collector collects heat by absorbing sunlight. The term "solar collector"
commonly refers to a device for solar hot water heating, but may refer to large power
generating installations such as solar parabolic troughs and solar towers or non water
heating devices such as solar air heaters.

flat plate collectors will generally be more cost-effective than evacuated tubes. However,
evacuated tube collectors are well-suited to cold ambient temperatures and work well in
situations of low solar irradiance, providing heat more consistently throughout the year.
Unglazed flat plate collectors are the preferred devices for heating swimming pool water.

traditional design with bottom pipe risers and top collection pipe, used in low
pressure thermosyphon and pumped systems;

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 CHAPTER 1

SOLAR COLLECTOR
1.1 Introduction

A solar thermal collector collects heat by absorbing sunlight. The term "solar collector"
commonly refers to a device for solar hot water heating, but may refer to large power
generating installations such as solar parabolic troughs and solar towers or non water heating
devices such as solar air heaters.

Solar thermal collectors are either non-concentrating or concentrating. In non-concentrating

collectors, the aperture area (i.e., the area that receives the solar radiation) is roughly the same
as the absorber area (i.e., the area absorbing the radiation). A common example of such a
system is a metal plate that is painted a dark color to maximize the absorption of sunlight.
The energy is then collected by cooling the plate with a working fluid, often water or glycol
running in pipes attached to the plate.

Concentrating collectors have a much larger aperture than the absorber area. The aperture is
typically in the form of a mirror that is focussed on the absorber, which in most cases are the
pipes carrying the working fluid. Due to the movement of the sun during the day,
concentrating collectors often require some form of solar tracking system, and are sometimes
referred to "active" collectors for this reason.

Non-concentrating collectors are typically used in residential, industrial and commercial

buildings for space heating, while concentrating collectors in concentrated solar power plants
generate electricity by heating a heat-transfer fluid to drive a turbine connected to an
electrical generator.

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 Fig. 1.1 Solar Collector

1.2 Solar Thermal Collector having water

Flat-plate and evacuated-tube solar collectors are mainly used to collect heat for space
heating, domestic hot water, or cooling with an absorption chiller. In contrast to solar hot
water panels, they use a circulating fluid to displace heat to a separated reservoir. The first
solar thermal collector designed for building roofs was patented by William H. Goettl and
called the "Solar heat collector and radiator for building roof".

Evacuated flat-plate solar collectors are a more recent innovation and can be used for Solar
Heat for Industrial Cooling (SHIC) and Solar Air Conditioning (SAC), where temperature in
excess of 100 °C (212 °F) are required. These non-concentrating collectors harvest both
diffuse and direct light and can make use of steam instead of water as fluid.

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 Fig. 1.2 Solar thermal collectors

1.3 Flat plate collectors

Flat-plate collectors are the most common solar thermal technology in Europe. They consist
of an (1) enclosure containing (2) a dark-colored absorber plate with fluid circulation
passageways, and (3) a transparent cover to allow transmission of solar energy into the
enclosure. The sides and back of the enclosure are typically insulated to reduce heat loss to
the ambient. A heat transfer fluid is circulated through the absorber's fluid passageways to
remove heat from the solar collector. The circulation fluid in tropical and sub-tropical
climates is typically water. In climates where freezing is likely, a heat transfer fluid similar to
an automotive antifreeze solution may be used instead of water, or in a mixture with water. If
a heat transfer fluid is used, a heat exchanger is typically employed to transfer heat from the
solar collector fluid to a hot water storage tank. The most common absorber design consists
of copper tubing joined to a high conductivity metal sheet (copper or aluminum). A dark

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coating is

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applied to the sun-facing side of the absorber assembly to increase its absorption of solar
energy. A common absorber coating is black enamel paint.

In higher performance solar collector designs, the transparent cover is tempered soda-lime
glass having reduced iron oxide content same as for photovoltaic solar panels. The glass may
also have a stippling pattern and one or two anti-reflective coatings to further
enhance transparency. The absorber coating is typically a selective coating, where selective
stands for having the special optical property to combine high absorption in the visible part of
the electromagnetic spectrum coupled to low emittance in the infrared one. This creates
a selective surface, which reduces black body energy emission from the absorber and
improves performance. Piping can be laser or ultrasound welded to the absorber sheet to
reduce damage to the selective coating, which is typically applied prior to joining to large
coils in a roll-to-roll process.

Absorber piping configurations include:

● harp: traditional design with bottom pipe risers and top collection pipe, used in low
pressure thermosyphon and pumped systems;
● serpentine: one continuous S-shaped pipe that maximises temperature but not total energy
yield in variable flow systems, used in compact solar domestic hot water only systems
(no space heating role);
● flooded: consisting of two sheets of metal molded to produce a wide circulation zone that
improves heat transfer;
● boundary layer: consisting of several layers of transparent and opaque sheets that enable
absorption in a boundary layer. Because the energy is absorbed in the boundary layer,
heat conversion may be more efficient than for collectors where absorbed heat is
conducted through a material before being accumulated in the circulating liquid.

A flat plate collector making use of a honeycomb structure to reduce heat loss also at the
glass side too has also been made available commercially. Most flat plate collectors have a
life expectancy of over 25 years.

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 Fig. 1.3 Flat Plate Collectors

1.4 Evacuated tube

collectors

Evacuated tube collectors are the most common solar thermal technology in China and in the
world.[6] They make use of a glass tube to surround the absorber with high vacuum and
effectively resist atmospheric pressure. The vacuum that surrounds the absorber greatly
reduces convection and conduction heat loss, therefore achieving greater energy conversion
efficiency. The absorber can be either metallic as in the case of flat plate collectors or being a
second concentric glass tube ("Sydney Tube"). Heat transfer fluid can flow in and out of each
tube or being in contact with a heat pipe reaching inside the tube. For the latter, heat pipes
transfer heat to the fluid in a heat exchanger called a "manifold" placed transversely with
respect to the tubes. The manifold is wrapped in insulation (glass wool) and covered by a
protective metal or plastic case also used for fixing to supports.

Glass-metal evacuated tubes are made with flat or curved metal absorber sheets same as those
of flat plates. These sheets are joined to pipes or heat pipes to make "fins" and placed inside a
single borosilicate glass tube. An anti-reflective coating can be deposited on the inner and
outer surfaces of such tubes to improve transparency. Both selective and anti-reflective
coating (inner tube surface) will not degrade until the vacuum is lost. A high vacuum-tight
glass-metal seal is however required at one or both sides of each evacuated tube. This seal is
cycled between ambient and fluid temperature each day of collector operation and might lead
to failures in time.

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Glass-glass evacuated tubes are made with two borosilicate glass tubes fused together at one
or both ends (similar a vacuum bottle or dewar flask). The absorber fin is placed inside the
inner tube at atmospheric pressure. Glass-glass tubes have a very reliable seal, but the two
layers of glass reduce the amount of sunlight that reaches the absorber. The selective coating
can be deposited on the inner borosilicate tube (high vacuum side) to avoid this, but heat has
then to flow through the poorly conducting glass thickness of the inner tube in this case.
Moreover, moisture may enter the non-evacuated area inside the inner tube and cause
absorber corrosion in particular when made from dissimilar materials (galvanic corrosion).

A Barium flash getter pump is commonly evaporated inside the high vacuum gap in between
tubes to keep the internal pressure stable through time.

The high temperatures that can occur inside evacuated tubes may require special design to
prevent overheating. Some evacuated tube collectors work as a thermal one-way valve due to
their heat pipes. This gives them an inherent maximum operating temperature that acts as a
safety feature. Evacuated tubes collectors can also be provided with low concentrating
reflectors at the back of the tubes realising a CPC collector.

Fig.1.4 Evacuated tube collectors

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1.5 Comparisons of flat plate and evacuated tube collectors

A longstanding argument exists between proponents of these two technologies. Some of this
can be related to the structure of evacuated tube collectors which have a discontinuous
absorbance area. An array of evacuated tubes collectors on a roof has space between the
individual tubes and a vacuum gap between each tube and its absorber inside, covering only a
fraction of the installation area on a roof. If evacuated tubes are compared with flat-plate
collectors on the basis of the area of roof occupied (gross area), a different conclusion might
be reached than if the absorber or aperture areas were compared. The recent revision of the
ISO 9806 standard states that the efficiency of solar thermal collectors should be measured in
terms of gross area and this might favour flat plates in respect to evacuated tube collectors in
direct comparisons.

Flat-plate collectors usually lose more heat to the environment than evacuated tubes because
there is no insulation at the glass side. Evacuated tube collectors intrinsically have a lower
absorber to gross area ratio (typically 60–80% less) than flat plates because tubes have to be
spaced apart. Although several European companies manufacture evacuated tube collectors
(mainly glass-metal type), the evacuated tube market is dominated by manufacturers in
China, with some companies having track records of 15–30 years or more. There is no
unambiguous evidence that the two designs differ in long-term reliability. However,
evacuated tube technology (especially for newer variants with glass-metal seals and heat
pipes) still needs to demonstrate competitive lifetimes. The modularity of evacuated tubes can
be advantageous in terms of extensibility and maintenance, for example, if the vacuum in one
heat pipe tube is lost it can be easily be replaced with minimal effort.

In most climates, flat plate collectors will generally be more cost-effective than evacuated
tubes. However, evacuated tube collectors are well-suited to cold ambient temperatures and
work well in situations of low solar irradiance, providing heat more consistently throughout
the year. Unglazed flat plate collectors are the preferred devices for heating swimming pool
water. Unglazed collectors may be suitable in tropical or subtropical environments if
domestic hot water needs to be heated by less than 20 °C (36 °F) over ambient temperature.
Evacuated tube collectors have less aerodynamic drag, which may allow for a simpler
installation on roofs in windy locations. The gaps between the tubes may allow for snow to
fall through the collector, minimizing the loss of production in some snowy conditions,
though the lack of radiated heat from the tubes can also prevent effective shedding of
accumulated snow. Flat plate collectors

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might be easier to clean. Other properties, such as appearance and ease of installation are
more subjective and difficult to compare.

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 CHAPTER 2
EVACUATED FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS

Evacuated flat plate solar collectors provide all the advantages of both flat plate and
evacuated tube collectors combined together. They surround a large area metal sheet absorber
with high vacuum inside a flat envelope made of glass and metal. They offer the highest
energy conversion efficiency of any non-concentrating solar thermal collector,[14] but require
sophisticated technology for manufacturing. They should not be confused with flat plate
collectors featuring low vacuum inside. The first collector making use of high vacuum
insulation was developed at CERN, while TVP SOLAR SA of Switzerland was the first
company to commercialise Solar Keymark certified collectors in 2012.

Evacuated flat plate solar collectors require both a glass-metal seal to join the glass plate to
the rest of the metal envelope and an internal structure to support such plate against
atmospheric pressure. The absorber has to be segmented or provided with suitable holes to
accommodate such structure. Joining of all parts has to be high vacuum-tight and only
materials with low vapour pressure can be used to prevent outgassing. Glass-metal seal
technology can be based either on metallized glass or vitrified metal and defines the type of
collector. Different from evacuated tube collectors, they make use of non-evaporable getter
(NEG) pumps to keep the internal pressure stable through time. This getter pump technology
has the advantage of providing some regeneration in-situ by exposure to sunlight. Evacuated
flat plate solar collectors have been studied for solar air condition and compared to compact
solar concentrators.

2.1 Polymer flat plate collectors

These collectors are an alternative to metal collectors and are now being produced in
Europe. These may be wholly polymer, or they may include metal plates in front of freeze-
tolerant water channels made of silicone rubber. Polymers are flexible and therefore freeze-
tolerant and can employ plain water instead of antifreeze, so that they may be plumbed
directly into existing water tanks instead of needing heat exchangers that lower efficiency. By
dispensing with a heat exchanger, temperatures need not be quite so high for the circulation
system to be switched on, so such direct circulation panels, whether polymer or otherwise,
can be more efficient, particularly at low solar irradiance levels. Some early selectively
coated
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polymer collectors suffered from overheating when insulated, as stagnation temperatures can
exceed the polymer's melting point. For example, the melting point of polypropylene is 160
°C (320 °F), while the stagnation temperature of insulated thermal collectors can exceed 180
°C (356 °F) if control strategies are not used. For this reason, polypropylene is not often used
in glazed selectively coated solar collectors. Increasingly, polymers such as high temperate
silicones (which melt at over 250 °C (482 °F)) are being used. Some non polypropylene
polymer based glazed solar collectors are matte black coated rather than selectively coated to
reduce the stagnation temperature to 150 °C (302 °F) or less.

In areas where freezing is a possibility, freeze-tolerance (the capability to freeze repeatedly

without cracking) can be achieved by the use of flexible polymers. Silicone rubber pipes have
been used for this purpose in UK since 1999. Conventional metal collectors are vulnerable to
damage from freezing, so if they are water filled they must be carefully plumbed so they
completely drain using gravity before freezing is expected so that they do not crack. Many
metal collectors are installed as part of a sealed heat exchanger system. Rather than having
potable water flow directly through the collectors, a mixture of water and antifreeze such as
propylene glycol is used. A heat exchange fluid protects against freeze damage down to a
locally determined risk temperature that depends on the proportion of propylene glycol in the
mixture. The use of glycol lowers the water's heat carrying capacity marginally, while the
addition of an extra heat exchanger may lower system performance at low light levels.

A pool or unglazed collector is a simple form of flat-plate collector without a transparent

cover. Typically, polypropylene or EPDM rubber or silicone rubber is used as an absorber.
Used for pool heating, it can work quite well when the desired output temperature is near the
ambient temperature (that is, when it is warm outside). As the ambient temperature gets
cooler, these collectors become less effective.

Fig. 2.1 Polymer Flat Plate Collectors

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2.2 Bowl collectors

A solar bowl is a type of solar thermal collector that operates similarly to a parabolic dish, but
instead of using a tracking parabolic mirror with a fixed receiver, it has a fixed spherical
mirror with a tracking receiver. This reduces efficiency but makes it cheaper to build and
operate. Designers call it a fixed mirror distributed focus solar power system. The main
reason for its development was to eliminate the cost of moving a large mirror to track the sun
as with parabolic dish systems.

A fixed parabolic mirror creates a variously shaped image of the sun as it moves across the
sky. Only when the mirror is pointed directly at the sun does the light focus on one point.
That is why parabolic dish systems track the sun. A fixed spherical mirror focuses the light in
the same place independent of the sun's position. The light, however, is not directed to one
point but is distributed on a line from the surface of the mirror to one half radius (along a line
that runs through the sphere center and the sun).

As the sun moves across the sky, the aperture of any fixed collector changes. This causes
changes in the amount of captured sunlight, producing what is called the sinus effect of
power output. Proponents of the solar bowl design claim the reduction in overall power
output compared with tracking parabolic mirrors is offset by lower system costs.

The sunlight concentrated at the focal line of a spherical reflector is collected using a tracking
receiver. This receiver is pivoted around the focal line and is usually counterbalanced. The
receiver may consist of pipes carrying fluid for thermal transfer or photovoltaic cells for
direct conversion of light to electricity.

The solar bowl design resulted from a project of the Electrical Engineering Department of the
Texas Technical University, headed by Edwin O'Hair, to develop a 5 MWe power plant. A
solar bowl was built for the town of Crosbyton, Texas as a pilot facility. The bowl had a
diameter of 65 ft (20 m), tilted at a 15° angle to optimize the cost/yield relation (33° would
have maximized yield). The rim of the hemisphere was "trimmed" to 60°, creating a
maximum aperture of 3,318 square feet (308.3 m2). This pilot bowl produced electricity at a
rate of 10 kW peak.

A 15-metre (49 ft) diameter Auroville solar bowl was developed from an earlier test of a 3.5-
metre (11 ft) bowl in 1979–1982 by the Tata Energy Research Institute. That test showed the
use of the solar bowl in the production of steam for cooking. The full-scale project to build a
solar bowl and kitchen ran from 1996 and was fully operational by 2001.

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In locations with average available solar energy, flat plate collectors are sized approximately
1.2 to 2.4 square decimeter per liter of one day's hot water use.

Fig. 2.2 Bowl collectors

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 CHAPTER 3
APPLICATIONS
The main use of this technology is in residential buildings where the demand for hot water
has a large impact on energy bills. This generally means a situation with a large family or a
situation in which the hot water demand is excessive due to frequent laundry washing.
Commercial applications include laundromats, car washes, military laundry facilities and
eating establishments. The technology can also be used for space heating if the building is
located off- grid or if utility power is subject to frequent outages. Solar water heating systems
are most likely to be cost effective for facilities with water heating systems that are expensive
to operate, or with operations such as laundries or kitchens that require large quantities of hot
water. Unglazed liquid collectors are commonly used to heat water for swimming pools but
can also be applied to large-scale water pre-heating. When loads are large relative to the
available collector area, the bulk of the water heating can be done at low temperature, lower
than swimming pool temperatures where unglazed collectors are well established in the
marketplace as the right choice. Because these collectors need not withstand high
temperatures, they can use less expensive materials such as plastic or rubber. Many unglazed
collectors are made of polypropylene and must be drained fully to avoid freeze damage when
air temperatures drop below 44 °F (7 °C) on clear nights. A smaller but growing percentage
of unglazed collectors are flexible meaning they can withstand water freezing solid inside
their absorber. The freeze concern only needs to be the water-filled piping and collector
manifolds in a hard freeze condition. Unglazed solar hot water systems should be installed to
"drainback" to a storage tank whenever solar radiation is insufficient. There are no thermal
shock concerns with unglazed systems. Commonly used in swimming pool heating since
solar energy's early beginnings, unglazed solar collectors heat swimming pool water directly
without the need for antifreeze or heat exchangers. Hot water solar systems require heat
exchangers due to contamination possibilities and in the case of unglazed collectors, the
pressure difference between the solar working fluid (water) and the load (pressurized cold
city water). Large-scale unglazed solar hot water heaters, like the one at the Minoru Aquatic
Center in Richmond, BC operate at lower temperatures than evacuated tube or boxed and
glazed collector systems. Although they require larger, more expensive heat exchangers, all
other components including vented storage tanks and uninsulated plastic PVC piping reduce
the costs of this alternative dramatically compared to the higher temperature collector types.
When heating hot water, we

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are actually heating cold to warm and warm to hot. We can heat cold to warm as efficiently
with unglazed collectors, just as we can heat warm to hot with high-temperature collectors.

3.1 Solar thermal collectors heating air

A simple solar air collector consists of an absorber material, sometimes having a selective
surface, to capture radiation from the sun and transfers this thermal energy to air via
conduction heat transfer. This heated air is then ducted to the building space or to the process
area where the heated air is used for space heating or process heating needs. Functioning in a
similar manner as a conventional forced-air furnace, solar-thermal-air systems provide heat
by circulating air over an energy collecting surface, absorbing the sun’s thermal energy, and
ducting air coming in contact with it. Simple and effective collectors can be made for a
variety of air conditioning and process applications.

Many applications can utilize solar air heat technologies to reduce the carbon footprint from
the use of conventional heat sources, such as fossil fuels, to create a sustainable means to
produce thermal energy. Applications such as space heating, greenhouse season extension,
pre- heating ventilation makeup air, or process heat can be addressed by solar air heat
devices. In the field of 'solar co-generation', solar thermal technologies are paired with
photovoltaics (PV) to increase the efficiency of the system by taking heat away from the PV
collectors, cooling the PV panels to improve their electrical performance while
simultaneously warming air for space heating.

3.2 Space heating and ventilating

Space heating for residential and commercial applications can be done through the use of
solar air heating panels. This configuration operates by drawing air from the building
envelope or from the outdoor environment and passing it through the collector where the air
warms via conduction from the absorber and is then supplied to the living or working space
by either passive means or with the assistance of a fan. A pioneering figure of this type of
system was George Löf, who built a solar-heated air system in 1945 for a house in Boulder,
Colorado. He later included a gravel bed for heat storage.

Ventilation, fresh air or makeup air is required in most commercial, industrial and
institutional buildings to meet code requirements. By drawing air through a properly designed
unglazed transpired air collector or an air heater, the solar heated fresh air can reduce the
heating load during daytime operation. Many applications are now being installed where
the transpired

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collector preheats the fresh air entering a heat recovery ventilator to reduce the defrost time
of HRV's. The higher your ventilation and temperature the better your payback time will be.

3.3 Process heating

Solar air heat is also used in process applications such as drying laundry, crops (i.e. tea, corn,
coffee) and other drying applications. Air heated through a solar collector and then passed
over a medium to be dried can provide an efficient means by which to reduce the moisture
content of the material. High temperature process heat can be produced by a solar furnace.

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 CHAPTER 4

TYPES OF SOLAR COLLECTOS

Collectors are commonly classified by their air-ducting methods as one of three types:

● through-pass collectors
● front-pass
● back pass
● combination front and back pass collectors

Collectors can also be classified by their outer

surface:

● glazed
● unglazed

4.1 Collectors are commonly classified by their air-ducting methods as one

of three types:

4.1.1 Through-pass air collector

Offering the highest efficiency of any solar technology the through-pass configuration, air
ducted onto one side of the absorber passes through a perforated material and is heated from
the conductive properties of the material and the convective properties of the moving air.
Through-pass absorbers have the most surface area which enables relatively high conductive
heat transfer rates, but significant pressure drop can require greater fan power, and
deterioration of certain absorber material after many years of solar radiation exposure can
additionally create problems with air quality and performance.

4.1.2 Back, front, and combination passage air collector

In back-pass, front-pass, and combination type configurations the air is directed on either the
back, the front, or on both sides of the absorber to be heated from the return to the supply
ducting headers. Although passing the air on both sides of the absorber will provide a greater
surface area for conductive heat transfer, issues with dust (fouling) can arise from passing air
on the front side of the absorber which reduces absorber efficiency by limiting the amount of

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sunlight received. In cold climates, air passing next to the glazing will additionally cause
greater heat loss, resulting in lower overall performance of the collector.

4.2 Collectors can also be classified by their outer surface

4.2.1 Glazed systems

Glazed systems usually have a transparent top sheet and insulated side and back panels to
minimize heat loss to ambient air. The absorber plates in modern panels can
have absorptivity of more than 93%. Glazed Solar Collectors (recirculating types that are
usually used for space heating). Air typically passes along the front or back of the absorber
plate while scrubbing heat directly from it. Heated air can then be distributed directly for
applications such as space heating and drying or may be stored for later use. Payback for
glazed solar air heating panels can be less than 9–15 years depending on the fuel being
replaced.

4.2.2 Unglazed systems

Unglazed systems, or transpired air systems have been used to heat make-up or ventilation air
in commercial, industrial, agriculture and process applications. They consist of an absorber
plate which air passes across or through as it scrubs heat from the absorber. Non-transparent
glazing materials are less expensive and decrease expected payback periods. Transpired
collectors are considered "unglazed" because their collector surfaces are exposed to the
elements, are often not transparent and not hermetically sealed.

Unglazed transpired solar collectors

Background

The term "unglazed air collector" refers to a solar air heating system that consists of a metal
absorber without any glass or glazing over top. The most common type of unglazed collector
on the market is the transpired solar collector. The technology has been extensively
monitored by these government agencies, and Natural Resources Canada developed the
feasibility tool RETScreen™ to model the energy savings from transpired solar collectors.
Since that time, several thousand transpired solar collector systems have been installed in a
variety of commercial, industrial, institutional, agricultural, and process applications in
countries around the world. This technology was originally used primarily in industrial
applications such as manufacturing and assembly plants where there were high ventilation
requirements, stratified ceiling heat, and often negative pressure in the building. With the
increasing drive to install renewable energy systems on buildings, transpired solar
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collectors are now used across the

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entire building stock because of high energy production (up to 750 peak thermal Watts/square
metre), high solar conversion (up to 90%) and lower capital costs when compared against
solar photovoltaic and solar water heating.

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 CHAPTER 5

SOLAR THERMAL COLLECTORS

GENERATING ELECTRICITY
Parabolic troughs, dishes and towers described in this section are used almost exclusively
in solar power generating stations or for research purposes. Parabolic troughs have been used
for some commercial solar air conditioning systems. Although simple, these solar
concentrators are quite far from the theoretical maximum concentration. For example, the
parabolic trough concentration is about 1/3 of the theoretical maximum for the same
acceptance angle, that is, for the same overall tolerances for the system. Approaching the
theoretical maximum may be achieved by using more elaborate concentrators based on
nonimaging optics.Solar thermal collectors may also be used in conjunction with photovoltaic
collectors to obtain combined heat and power.

Fig. 5.1 Parabolic trough

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5.1 Parabolic trough

This type of collector is generally used in solar power plants. A trough-shaped parabolic
reflector is used to concentrate sunlight on an insulated tube (Dewar tube) or heat pipe,
placed at the focal point, containing coolant which transfers heat from the collectors to the
boilers in the power station.

Parabolic dish

Fig. 5.2 Solar parabolic dish

With a parabolic dish collector, one or more parabolic dishes concentrate solar energy at a
single focal point, similar to the way a reflecting telescope focuses starlight, or a dish
antenna focuses radio waves. This geometry may be used in solar furnaces and solar power
plants.

The shape of a parabola means that incoming light rays which are parallel to the dish’s axis
will be reflected toward the focus, no matter where on the dish they arrive. Light from the sun
arrives at the Earth’s surface almost completely parallel, and the dish is aligned with its axis
pointing at the sun, allowing almost all incoming radiation to be reflected towards the focal
point of the dish. Most losses in such collectors are due to imperfections in the parabolic
shape and imperfect reflection.

Losses due to atmospheric scattering are generally minimal. However, on a hazy or foggy
day, light is diffused in all directions through the atmosphere, which significantly reduces the
efficiency of a parabolic dish. In dish stirling power plant designs, a stirling engine coupled
to a dynamo is placed at the focus of the dish. This absorbs the energy focused onto it and
converts it into electricity.

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5.2 Power tower

Fig. 5.3 Solar power tower

A power tower is a large tower surrounded by tracking mirrors called heliostats. These
mirrors align themselves and focus sunlight on the receiver at the top of the tower, collected
heat is transferred to a power station below. This design reaches very high temperatures. High
temperatures are suitable for electricity generation using conventional methods like steam
turbine or a direct high-temperature chemical reaction such as liquid salt. By concentrating
sunlight, current systems can get better efficiency than simple solar cells. A larger area can be
covered by using relatively inexpensive mirrors rather than using expensive solar cells.
Concentrated light can be redirected to a suitable location via optical fiber cable for such uses
as illuminating buildings. Heat storage for power production during cloudy and overnight
conditions can be accomplished, often by underground tank storage of heated fluids. Molten
salts have been used to good effect. Other working fluids, such as liquid metals, have also
been proposed due to their superior thermal properties.

However, concentrating systems require sun tracking to maintain sunlight focus at the
collector. They are unable to provide significant power in diffused light conditions. Solar
cells are able to provide some output even if the sky becomes cloudy, but power output from
concentrating systems drops drastically in cloudy conditions as diffused light cannot be
concentrated well.

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 CONCLUSION
A solar thermal collector collects heat by absorbing sunlight. The term "solar collector"
commonly refers to a device for solar hot water heating, but may refer to large power
generating installations such as solar parabolic troughs and solar towers or non water heating
devices such as solar air heaters.

flat plate collectors will generally be more cost-effective than evacuated tubes. However,
evacuated tube collectors are well-suited to cold ambient temperatures and work well in
situations of low solar irradiance, providing heat more consistently throughout the year.
Unglazed flat plate collectors are the preferred devices for heating swimming pool water.

traditional design with bottom pipe risers and top collection pipe, used in low
pressure thermosyphon and pumped systems;

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 REFERENCE

1. Norton, Brian (2013-10-11). Harnessing solar heat.

Dordrecht. ISBN 9789400772755. OCLC 862228449.
2. Rabl, Ari. (1985). Active solar collectors and their applications. New York: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 1429400919. OCLC 614480348.
3. "Solar heat collector and radiator for building roof", issued 1977-02-07
4. "IEA SHC || Task 49 || IEA SHC || Task 49". task49.iea-shc.org. Retrieved 2019-04-28.
5. "IEA SHC || Task 48 || IEA SHC || Task 48". task48.iea-shc.org. Retrieved 2019-04-28.

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