Cellular Comm Ec3036 Notes Module 1 Spring 2023

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Cellular Comm-EC3036-Notes-Module-1-Spring 2023
Cellular Communication (Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology)
Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by Mohit Kumar das (mohitkumardas4029@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|33629077
EC 3036
Cellular Communication

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Syllabus
EC 3036 CELLULAR COMMUNICATION Cr-3
Course Outcomes: At the end of the course, students will be able to :
CO1. Analyze basic Cellular Architecture and practical mobile communication strategies.
CO2. Solve basic propagation models and understand signal degradation in wireless channels.
CO3. Apply channel equalization and diversity techniques in wireless systems.
CO4. Distinguish between the different types of multiple access schemes and GSM technology
CO5. Analyze multicarrier communication using OFDM technique
CO6. Analyze MIMO and space time communication systems.
Prerequisites: Analog Communication Techniques (EC2012), Digital Communication Techniques (EC3005)/ Communication Engineering (EC2016)
Cellular Communication Principle: Cellular Concept System Architecture, Spectrum Allocation, Frequency Reuse, Channel Assignment Strategies,
Co-channel Interference & System Capacity, Hand off, Hand off structure, Practical Hand off consideration, Prioritizing Hand off, Power Control, Near –
Far Problem, System capacity, Improvement Techniques: Cell splitting, Sectoring, Micro cell Zone concept.
RF Propagation & Multi-path Model: Free space propagation model, propagation mechanism, Large Scale fading, Diffraction & Scattering by high –
raise structures, shadowing and path loss, Small Scale Fading, Doppler and time-delay spread, coherence Bandwidth and coherence-Time, Types of
Small – Scale Fading.
Equalization and Diversity Techniques: Fundamentals of Equalization, Adaptive equalizer, Concept of diversity, Types of diversity (space, time,
frequency, polarization), Rake receiver.
Multiple Access Techniques: Multiplexing & multiple access, TDD & FDD techniques, Description of FDMA, TDMA, Spread spectrum technique &
CDMA systems, Description & special features of GSM, IS–95, WCDMA.
Multicarrier Communication: Data transmission using multiple carriers, concept of OFDM for multicarrier communication.
Multiple Antennas and Space-Time Communications: Concept of Multi Input Multi Output Antenna system, Narrow band MIMO model, MIMO
channel capacity, MIMO Diversity gain, Space time Modulation.
Text Books:
1.Wireless Communication Principle & Practice – T. S. Rappaport, 2nd edition, Pearson Education, 2012. 2. Wireless Communication – Andrea Goldsmith – Cambridge
Press, 1st Edition, 2005.
Reference Books:
1. Wireless communications – A. F. Molisch-Wiley Publication, 2nd Edition 2010 2. Wireless and Cellular Communication –W. C. Y. Lee – McGraw Hill, 3rd Edition, 2006.
3. Mobile Communication – J. Schiller – Pearson Education, 2nd Edition, 2010. 4. Communication Systems – S. Haykin – John Wiley , 4th Edition, 2001.
5. Fundamentals of Wireless Communication – D. Tse & P. Viswanath –Cambridge, 2010.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Lesson Plan
EC 3036 Cellular Communication
6th
Semester (B. Tech.) 3-0-0 3Cr
Lesson Plan
Department / Program : SoEE (ETCE)
Academic Session : Spring 2021-2022
Subject No : EC-3036 (3 Cr)
Semester : 6th Semester
Subject Name : Cellular Communication
Topic Coverage No. of Books Mapping with Course
Lectures Outcome
C e l l u l a r 1. Cellular concept, system architecture, highlights of different generations (from 1G to 7G) of 12(1-12) T1, T2, R2 CO1
Communication wireless communication, Spectrum allocation, Frequency reuse.
Principle 2. Channel assignment strategies (FCA, DCA), Co-channel interference & system capacity,
Adjacent channel interference, Channel sharing & Channel borrowing, Handoff, handoff
structure, practical handoff consideration, prioritizing handoff, Roaming.
3. Power Control, Near – Far Problem, Trunking & GOS, System capacity, Improvement
Techniques: Cell splitting, Sectoring, Microcell Zone concept.
RF Propagation 1. Free space propagation mechanisms (qualitative), Large scale fading, Diffraction & Scattering by 10(13-22) T1, T2, R2 CO2
& Multi-path high – raise structures (qualitative), Fresnel Zone and Knife-edge diffractions, shadowing and
Model path loss, log-distance path loss models for indoor and outdoor propagation, Okumura model,
Hata model, PCS extension to Hata model.
2. Small scale fading, Doppler and time-delay spread, coherence bandwidth and coherence time,
ISI, Types of Small – scale fading. PDFs for Rayleigh fading, Rician Fading (no derivation). Level
crossing rate & Average duration of fade.
Equalization and 1. Fundamentals of Equalization, Linear and non-linear equalizers (qualitative), Decision Feedback 5(23-27) T1, R1, R2, CO3
D i v e r s i t y Equalizer (qualitative), MLSE equalizer (qualitative), Adaptive equalization algorithm (Zero R4
Techniques forcing algorithm).
2. Types of diversity (space, time, frequency, polarization), Selective combining, Switched

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Lesson Plan
M u l t i p l e A c c e s s 1. Multiplexing and multiple access, FDM, TDM, Efficiency of TDM system, 8(28-35) T1, R2, R3 CO4
Techniques TDD and FDD techniques, Description of FDMA, TDMA, CDMA.
2. Spread spectrum technique, DS-SS, FH-SS, Description and special
features of GSM and IS – 95, WCDMA
M u l t i c a r r i e r 1. Data transmission using multiple carriers, Basics of MC-CDMA. 5(36-40) T1, T2, R2 CO5
Communication 2. Concept of OFDM for multicarrier communication, PAPR.
Multiple Antennas and 1. Concept of Multi Input Multi Output Antenna system, Narrow band MIMO 5(41-45) R3, R4, R5 CO6
S p a c e - T i m e model, MIMO channel capacity, MIMO Diversity gain, Space time Modulation,
Communications Concept of Massive MIMO.
Text Books:
1. Wireless Communication Principle & Practice – T.S.Rappaport – 2nd edition 2012 - Pearson Education.
2. Wireless Communication – Andrea Goldsmith – Cambridge Press, 1st Edition, 2005.
Reference Books:
1. Wireless communications – A. F. Molisch-Wiley Publication,2nd Edition 2010
2. Wireless and Cellular Communication –W. C. Y. Lee – McGraw Hill, 3rd Edition, 2006.
3. Mobile Communication – J. Schiller – Pearson Education, 2nd Edition, 2010.
4. Communication Systems – S. Haykin – John Wiley , 4th Edition, 2001.
5. Fundamentals of Wireless Communication – D. Tse & P. Viswanath –Cambrige, 2010.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Module 1
Cellular Communication Principle

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Generations
v 1G: Analog 25 or 30KHz FM, voice only, mostly vehicular communication [IMTS, AMPS etc.]. Data
rate is up to 2.5 Kbps.
v 2G: Narrowband TDMA and CDMA, voice and low bit-rate data, portable units [GSM, D-AMPS, TDMA,
CDMA-1 etc.]. Data rate is up to 64 Kbps.
v 2.5G: Increased data transmission capabilities, web browsing in addition to voice [GPRS, CDMA-
2000, EDGE].
v 3G: Wideband TDMA and CDMA, voice and high bit-rate data, portable units [W-CDMA, UMTS etc.].
Data rate is 125Kbps to 2Mbps.
v 3.5G (Beyond 3G):Technologies beyond the well defined 3G wireless/mobile technologies. HSDPA
(High-speed downlink packet access) and HSUPA (high-speed uplink packet access

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Generations
v 4G & Beyond: Broadband, High Speed data, Multimedia Services, Mobility, Freedom of Movement, No loss of Connectivity,
Anytime Anywhere Mobile Services (MANET based). Data rate is up to 1Gbps.
v 5G: There is no particular specifications for 5G, but in some research papers and in some projects the term 5G is used which
aims to provide service by 2020. People says 5G is REAL wireless communication with almost no limit.
v Some reports say that Samsung has tested 5G network successfully with 1Gbps speed and aims to extend up to 10 Gbps. 5G
technology includes camera, MP3 recording, video player, large phone memory, dialing speed, audio player.
v 5G technology will provide to access any country’s mobile network using a local cellular phone. Perhaps 5G phone will be
millimeterwave phone.
v Beyond 4G and 5G will develop smarter and far less expensive wireless infrastructure by means of smaller, lighter antennas
with directional beamforming USING UNCROWDED MILLIMETER-WAVE SPECTRUM, where 50 to 100 times more user
capacity is readily available.
v Sixth Generation (6G): In 6G services, satellite mobile will be used with high data rate.6G Sky Connection for Remote
Locations: Satellite, UAV (Drone), HAP (High Altitude Platform).
v Seventh Generation (7G): In 7G services, satellite mobile will be used with high data rate and with international roaming using
satellite.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Mobile Cellular System

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Basic Components of a Cellular System
qIn a cellular system, in a small geographical area

( s a y, o f 1 . 5 k m r a d i u s ) , c a l l e d a c e l l , t h e
telecommunication and multimedia services are
provided by a base station (BS).
qEach base station is allocated by a group of radio

channels in the cell for providing service to the users.
qThe radio coverage of a cell is called “footprint”.
qUsers uses mobile hand set (This is known as

mobile station or MS) or any other hand-held
devices, like, laptop etc.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Cellular Concept, Cellular System Architecture

qSelecting or allocating a group of channels are done by a strategy, called frequency reuse.
qIn frequency reuse, same frequency is used after a certain distance based on minimum interference.
qA duplex communication system is a point-to-point system composed of two or more connected parties or
devices that can communicate with one another in both directions.
qIn a full-duplex system, both parties can communicate with each other simultaneously. An example of a full-
duplex device is old telephone service, parties at both ends of a call can speak and be heard by the other party
simultaneously.
qIn a half-duplex or semi-duplex system, both parties can communicate with each other, but not simultaneously;
the communication is one direction at a time. An example of a half-duplex device is a walkie-talkie.
q Frequency Division Duplex (FDD): In FDD, two different carrier frequencies, one from each band, are assigned
to a user; one carrier frequency for transmission from the user (also known as upstream, reverse link, or uplink)
and one carrier frequency for reception by the user (also known as downstream, forward link, or downlink).
qTime Division Duplex (TDD): TDD allows uplink and downlink to use the entire frequency spectrum, but in
different time slots. Time is divided up into short slots and some are designated for uplink while others are
designated for downlink. TDD enables asymmetric traffic and time-varying uplink and downlink demands. The main
drawbacks of TDD are latency (as information can only be sent when a channel becomes available)

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Some Important Points:
1.Very near to the base station signal strength is

high & degrades away from the base station (at the
cell boundary)
2. For high velocity of mobile (travelling in a vehicle),

Doppler frequency shift occurs.
3. Most of the cases, signal coming to the mobile is

in NLOS (non-line of sight) condition, signal reaches
to the mobile after a number of reflections.
4. In case of LOS propagation (tower is visible) also

there is path loss of incoming signal.
5. At the boundary of a cell, interference from

neighbour cell may occur.
6. To serve a particular area, the height of the

antenna matters.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Cell Structure
qH e x a g o n a l c e l l s h a p e i s p e r f e c t o v e r s q u a r e o r
triangular cell shapes in cellular architecture because it cover an
entire area without overlapping, that is hexagonal cells can cover the
entire geographical region without any gaps.
qFrequency reuse and cell splitting are two main concepts Hexagonal cell
in cellular networks which can be explained very easily using
hexagonal cell structure.
qTheory is based on Circular cell. Practical cells are neither

hexagonal nor circular.
Non-overlapping Circular cell Overlapping Circular cell
qThe base stations are either atthe centre of the cell (mostly) or at
one corner of the cell.
qThe infrastructure technology needed to support a base station is

not simple, requires huge investment to maintain a cellular network
as good coverage requires vast numbers of base stations.
Practical cell 12

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Frequency Channels & Frequency Reuse

Fr e q u e n c y R e u s e m e an s t he s a m e r a d i o
frequency channel will be reused after a certain
geographical distance (based on minimum
interference) in the cellular coverage area.
Frequency Reuse
Mobile-to-mobile Call Establishment

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Frequency Reuse
qConsider a cellular system has a ‘S’ duplex channels for the users and ‘k’
number of channels are allocated in each cell (k<S). Then for ‘N’ number of
cells, total available channels are S=kN.
qThe ‘N’ number of cells which use the complete set of available frequencies
is called a cluster.
qIf a cluster is replicated ‘M’ times within the system, the total number of
duplex channels (C), which may be consider as the capacity of the cellular
system is C = MkN = MS.
q‘N’ is called the cluster size, and 1/N is known as frequency reuse factor.
qNumber of cells per cluster satisfy the equation N =i 2 + ij + j 2 , (i, j are

positive integers), for Hexagonal cell structures.
qIf, i=1, j=1, then smallest value of ‘N’ is N=3.
qIf, i=1, j=2, then N=7. This is known as 7-cell frequency reuse system in a
cellular network.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Frequency Reuse Distance
qThe minimum distance which allows the same frequency to

be reused will depend on many factors, like, number of co-
channel cells in the vicinity of the centre cell, the type of
geographic terrain contour, the antenna height and the
transmitted power of each cell.
qThe frequency reuse distance ‘D’ can be determined from

D= √(3N) R , where ‘N’ is the frequency reuse pattern and ‘R’
is the radius of each cell.
qThe co-channel reuse ratio is defined as Q= D/R = √(3N) .

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Channel Allocation/Assignment Strategies

qChannel Allocation (Assignment) means to allocate the available
channels to the cells in a cellular system.
qChannels, also known as radio channels, are assigned to the

active users based on some strategies.
qChannels in a wireless communication system typically consist

of time slots, frequency bands and/or CDMA pseudo noise
sequences
qChannel Allocation Strategies are designed in such a way that

there is efficient use of frequencies, time slots and bandwidth.
qThere are three major categories for assigning these channels to

cells (or base-stations). They are:
vFixed Channel Allocation/Assignment (FCA).
vDynamic Channel Allocation/Assignment (DCA).
vHybrid Channel Allocation which is a combination of the first two

methods.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Fixed Channel Allocation/Assignment (FCA)
qFixed Channel Allocation (FCA): Fixed Ch annel

Allocation is a strategy in which fixed number of channels or
voice channels are allocated to the cells. Once the channels
are allocated to the specific cells then they cannot be
changed.
qI n F C A c h a n n e l s a r e a l l o c a t e d i n a m a n n e r t h a t
maximize Frequency reuse.
qDue to short term fluctuations in the traffic, FCA scheme is

not able to maintain high quality of service and capacity as
per traffic demand.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Dynamic Channel Allocation/Assignment (DCA)
qDynamic Channel Allocation (DCA): Dynamic Channel allocation is a strategy in

which channels are not permanently allocated to the cells.
qWhen a User makes a call request then Base Station (BS) send that request to the
Mobile Station Center (MSC) for the allocation of channels or voice channels. This way
the likelihood of blocking calls is reduced. As traffic increases more channels are
assigned and vice-versa.
qIn Centralized DCA, only one controller under one MTSO controls the channel
allocation in different cells.
qIn Distributed DCA, number of controllers under one MTSO can control the channel
allocation in different cells.
qHybrid Channel Allocation (HCA): Hybrid Channel Allocation is a combination of

both Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA) and Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA). The total
number of channels or voice channels are divided into fixed and dynamic sets.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Comparison Between FCA and DCA
FCA DCA
qRadio equipment covers all channels assigned to the cell qRadio equipment covers the temporary channel assigned
to the cell
q Independent channel control
q Fully centralized or fully distributed control dependent on
q Low computational effort the scheme
q Low call set up delay q High computational effort
q Low implementation complexity q Moderate to high call set up delay
q Complex, labour intensive frequency planning q Moderate to high implementation complexity
q Low signalling load q No frequency planning
q Centralized control q Moderate to high signalling load
q Centralized, distributed control depending on the scheme

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Channel Sharing & Channel Borrowing
qIn Channel Borrowing schemes, cell (acceptor cell) that has used all its
nominal channels can borrow free channels from its neighboring cell (donor
cell) to accommodate new calls.
qBorrowing can be done from an adjacent cell which has largest number of
free channels (borrowing from the richest).
qSelect the first free channel found for borrowing using a search algorithm
(borrow first available scheme)
qIn Channel Sharing scheme, from the total number of allocated channels,
two cells have agreement to use some common channels.
qFor example, suppose both the two cells have 50 channels each. Then
from those 50 channels, cells have agreement to use some specific 10
common channels from both the cells. Then each cell has 40 + 20=60
channels for use.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Handoff (Handover) Strategies

qHandoff Management is the process of initiating and ensuring a
seamless and lossless handoff of a mobile terminal from the region
covered by one base station to another base station
qWhen a mobile user (MS) is moving from one cell to another cell
while conversation is going on then MSC handover the controlling
charge to the neighbour cell. This is known as Handoff or Handover.
qHandoff operation involves the identifying the new base station and
allocation of new voice and control signals for the MS.
qAn optimum signal level must be specified at which handoff process

will be initiated.
qThe time over which a call may be maintained within a neighbour

cell without Handoff is called Dwell time. The Dwell time of a
particular user depends on many factors, like, propagation,
interference, distance between user and base station etc.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
qFigure (a) shows that the handoff is not made even the
signal level is below the threshold level which is “dropped
call” and this may happen when MSC takes excessive
time to assign a handoff (due to the unavailability of
channel in busy traffic condition) or when the threshold is
set too small for the handoff time in the system.
qIn the 1st Generation analog cellular system, the signal

strength measurements are done by the base stations
and supervised by the MSC.
qThis is done by the measurement of Radio Signal

Strength Indicators (RSSI) by locator receiver, control
by the MSC.
Handoff at Cell Boundary

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Soft Handoff, Hard Handoff, Horizontal Handoff, Vertical Handoff

qHard Handoff: If the channel used by the MS in source cell-1 is not available in the
target cell-2, then channel is changed for that MS. This is Hard handoff and it is also
known as break-before-make.
qSoft Handoff: If the channel used by the MS in source cell-1 is available in the target
cell-2, then channel is NOT changed for that MS. This is Soft handoff and it is also known
as make-before-break (generally, used in CDMA & WCDMA). If hanoff occurs under the
same cell in different sectors, the handoff is softer handoff.
qHorizontal Handoff: Horizontal handoff is the basic handoff due to the movement of the
MS over the terrain horizontally from one cell to other and in this case IP address changes
without changing access technology, network interface and QoS parameters.
qVertical Handoff: Vertical handover takes place when the mobile node changes access
technology and access networks along with the change of IP address. In such cases, the
main issue is to maintain the on going service even when there is a change not only in IP
address but also in network interfaces, QoS parameters.
qInter-cell Handoff: In Inter-cell handoff, handover is initiated when MS moves from one
cell to other.
qIntra-cell Handoff: In Intra-cell handoff, the handoff process switches a call in progress
from one physical channel of a cell to another physical channel of the same cell.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077

qThere are numerous methods of performing Handoff.
qThree basic methods of handoff are: Network-controlled handoff, Mobile-

assisted handoff and Mobile-controlled handoff.
qNetwork-controlled Handoff: In Network-controlled handoff protocal,

network takes a decision based on the measurements of the RSSI of MSs at a
number of BSs. It takes about 100-200 ms. 1st generation analog systems, like,
AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Systems), NMT (Nordic Mobile Telephone)
etc.
qMobile-assisted Handoff: In the 2nd Generation digital TDMA system, hand

off decisions are mobile assisted. In mobile assisted handoff (MAHO), every
mobile station (MS) measures the received power from the surrounding base
stations and continually reports to the serving base station and network takes
the decision of handoff.
•MAHO is initiated when received power from any of the neighbour base
station exceeds the received power from the serving base station.
qMobile-controlled Handoff: In Mobile-controlled handoff, MS completely

controls the handoff process by measuring s ignal strength from the
Handoff at Cell Boundary
surrounding BSs. When signal strength of serving BS is lower than the another
BS by a threshold, handoff decision takes place.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Prioritized Handoff
qHandoff failure rate can be reduced by providing Handoff priority to the user based on some strategies.
qIn a heavy traffic condition, handoff minimizing algorithms show poor performance. In this case handoff
priority can improve seamless connectivity.
qTwo basic methods for priority handoff are 1. Guard Channel 2. Queuing Method.
qGuard Channel Method: In this case, a fraction of total available channels in a cell is reserved
exclusively for handoff requests from ongoing calls. This method has the disadvantage of reducing the total
carried traffic. But guard channel method offer efficient spectrum utilization when dynamic channel
allocation scheme is used.
qQueuing Method: Queuing of handoff requests can decrease the probability of forced termination of a
call due to lack of available channels. Queuing is a way of delaying handoff. The MSC queues the
handoff requests instead of denying access if the candidate BS is busy.
§Queuing is possible because there is a sufficient time interval between the time of signal level drops below
the threshold level and the time the call is terminated due to insufficient signal level. The probability of a
successful handoff can be improved by queuing handoff requests at the cost of increased new call blocking
probability.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Practical Handoff Considerations
qIn practical cellular systems, several problems arise when attempting to design for a wide range of mobile
velocities.
qIn practical scenario, problems occur because of a large range of mobile velocities (pedestrians to high
speed vehicles).
qLoad of MSC becomes heavy when high speed users are passed between very small cells.
q Although the cellular concept clearly provides additional capacity through the addition of cell sites, in
practice, it is difficult for cellular service providers to obtain new physical cell site locations in urban areas.
q Umbrella cell concept may be used for high speed and low speed traffics by dividing the total
geographical area into a large cell and into a small cell.
qIn Umbrella cell concept, multiple antennas are used at different heights to cover Large cell and Small cell
and the power is controlled to serve in these areas.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Practical Handoff Consideration

qLarge cell for high speed traffics (fewer handoff) and Small cell for
low speed traffic.
qThe umbrella cell approach ensures that the number of handoffs is

minimized for high speed users and provides additional microcell
channels for pedestrian users.
qCell Dragging: Cell dragging in microcellular zone results from

pedestrian users that provide a very strong signal to the base station,
mainly, when there is a line-of-sight (LOS) radio path between the
subscriber and the base station.
§As the user travels away from the BS at a very slow speed, the
average signal strength does not decay rapidly. Even when the user
has traveled well beyond the designed range of the cell, the received
signal at the base station may be above the handoff threshold, thus a
handoff may not be made.
§This creates a potential interference and traffic management

problem, since the user has meanwhile traveled deep within a
neighboring cell. To solve the cell dragging problem, handoff
thresholds and radio coverage parameters must be adjusted carefully.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Roaming
qRoaming is the ability for a mobile user to access cellular services while travelling outside the geographical coverage area of the
home network, by means of using a network of another operator.
qThe term ‘Roaming’ is derived from Real-time Optimally Adapting Mesh (ROAM).
qService providers decide roaming strategies (call transmitting charge, call receiving charge etc.)
qRoaming can be either national roaming or international roaming. In National roaming the mobile users make use of another
network in geographical areas where there own operator does not have coverage.
q International roaming is used when mobile subscribers travel abroad & use the network of an operator in the foreign country.
qRoaming services are usually included in user service packages for use outside local networking zones. Services are either free
or billed according to local area rates.
Purulia, WB Ranchi, Jharkhand

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Power Control for Reducing Interference
qIn practical cellular radio and personal communication systems the power levels transmitted
by every subscriber unit are under constant control by the serving base stations.
qThis is done to ensure that each mobile transmits the smallest power necessary to
maintain a good quality link on the reverse channel.
qPower control increases battery life for the subscriber unit and also reduces the reverse
channel signal-to-interference ratio (S/I) in the system.
qDifferent types of algorithms are involved in power control including optimization theory, control
theory, game theory etc.
qPower control is especially important for CDMA spread spectrum systems that allow
every user in every cell to share the same radio channel (same frequency at same time).

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Near End-to-Far End Problem//Near-Far Problem

qThe near–far problem (also known as hearability problem) is the effect
of a strong signal from a near signal source in making it hard for a receiver
to hear a weaker signal from a further source due to adjacent-channel
interference, co-channel interference, distortion, etc.
qNear-far problem is one of the major problems that affects mobile

communications badly.
qSuppose two MSs are simultaneously transmitting signals to one base

station, where nearer MS is at a distance d2 and remote MS at a distance d1
from BS. Transmitted power of both the mobiles are same.
§The stronger received signal by the nearer mobile will mask the
weaker signal of the remote mobile.
§Near-end-to-far-end Ratio
= [Path loss due to d2 (near end)/ Path loss due to d1 (far end)]
Where desired signal is considered for mobile far from the BS and
interfering signal for nearer mobile.
qTo reduce the near-end-to-far-end interference problem, two mobile

units mast be served by two different frequencies with wide separation.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Trunking & Grade of Service (GoS)

qThe concept of trunking allows a large number of users to share the relatively small number of channels
in a cell by providing access to each user, on demand, from a pool of available channels. In a trunked radio
system, each user is allocated a channel on a per call basis, and upon termination of the call, the previously
occupied channel is immediately returned to the pool of available channels.
qDefinitions of Parameters Related to the Trunking Theory:
§Set-up Time: The time required to allocate a trunked radio channel to a requesting user.
§Blocked Call: Call which cannot be completed at time of request, due to congestion. Also referred to as a lost call.
§Holding Time: Average duration of a typical call. Denoted by H (in seconds).
§Traffic Intensity: Measure of channel time utilization, which is the average channel occupancy measured in
Erlangs. This is a dimensionless quantity and may be used to measure the time utilization of single or multiple
channels. Denoted by A.
§Load: Traffic intensity across the entire trunked radio system, measured in Erlangs.
§Request Rate: The average number of call requests per unit time. Denoted by λ seconds-1.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Earlang & Grade of Service (GoS)
§The Erlang A, Erlang B and Erlang C formulas were developed in the begining of the 20th century, but not in order.
1st developed Erlang B, then Erlang C and then Erlang A.
§Erlang B is used for blocked calls, Erlang C is used for a call being delayed beyond a certain amount of time.
§Erlang A: The Erlang A helps to predict the number of abandoned calls in the contact centre. Erlang A is an
extension of Erlang C, which takes into account the number of people who abandon their calls before they reach
an advisor, which does take “Abandons” into account. For 0% abandon rate Erlang A is Erlang C.
§Erlang: One Erlang ( after the name of Erlang, a Danish mathematician) represents the amount of traffic intensity
carried by a channel that is completely occupied (i.e. 1 call-hour per hour or 1 call-minute per minute). For example,
a radio channel that is occupied for thirty minutes during an hour carries 0.5 Erlangs of traffic.
§Grade of Service (GoS): A measure of congestion which is specified as the probability of a call being
blocked (for Erlang B), or the probability of a call being delayed beyond a certain amount of time (for
Erlang C).

lOMoARcPSD|33629077

q Grade of Service (GoS): The grade of service (GOS) is a measure of the ability of a user to access a trunked
system during the busiest hour.
qIt is the wireless designer's job to estimate the maximum required capacity and to allocate the proper number
of channels in order to meet the GoS. GoS is typically given as the likelihood that a call is blocked, or the
likelihood of a call experiencing a delay greater than a certain queuing time.
qThe traffic intensity offered by each user is equal to the call request rate λ multiplied by the holding time H. That
is, each user generates a traffic intensity of Au Erlangs given by, Au = λ H
For a system containing U users and an unspecified number of channels, the total offered traffic intensity A, is
given as A = Au U
Again, in a C channel trunked system, if the traffic is equally distributed among the channels, then the traffic
intensity per channel, is given as Ac = Au U/C

lOMoARcPSD|33629077

q There are two types of trunked systems which are commonly used.
§The first type offers no queuing for call requests. That is, for every user who requests service, it is assumed
there is no setup time and the user is given immediate access to a channel if one is available. If no channels are
available, the requesting user is blocked without access and is free to try again later. This type of trunking is
called blocked calls cleared and is represented by Erlang B formula. The Erlang B formula determines the
probability that a call is blocked and is a measure of the GOS for a trunked system which provides no
queuing for blocked calls.
qErlang B formula (also known as the blocked calls cleared formula): The Erlang B fonnula determines the
probability that a call is blocked and is a measure of the GOS for a trunked system which provides no queuing for
blocked calls. The Erlang B formula is
where C is the number of trunked channels offered by a trunked radio system and A is the total offered
traffic.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077

§The second kind of trunked system is one in which a queue is provided to hold calls which are blocked. If a
channel is not available immediately, the call request may be delayed until a channel becomes available. This
type of trunking is called Blocked Calls Delayed, and its measure of GOS is defined as the probability that a
call is blocked after waiting a specific length of time in the queue.
§To find the GOS, it is first necessary to find the likelihood that a call is initially denied access to the system. The
likelihood of a call not having immediate access to a channel is determined by the Erlang C formula given as
= GOS
qTrunking efficiency: Trunking Efficiency is a measure of the number of users which can be offered a particular
GOS with a particular configuration of fixed channels. The way in which channels are grouped can substantially
alter the number of users handled by a trunked system. It should be clear that the allocation of channels in a
trunked radio system has a major impact on overall system capacity.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Interference & System Capacity

qInterference is the major limiting factor in the performance of cellular radio systems. Sources of interference
include another mobile in the same cell, a call in progress in a neighboring cell, other base stations
operating in the same frequency band, or any non-cellular system which leaks energy into the cellular
frequency band.
qInterference on voice channels causes cross talk, where the subscriber hears interference in the background due
to an undesired transmission.
qThe two major types of system-generated cellular interference are co-channel interference and adjacent
channel interference.
qCo-channel interference (CCI) is interference between same frequency bands and mainly happens from
neighbour cells. This is the crosstalk when two different radio transmitters using the same radio channels.
qAdjacent channel interference (ACI) is out-of-band interference and mainly happens from the same cell.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Co-channel Interference & System Capacity

qFrequency reuse implies that in a given coverage area there are several cells that
use the same set of frequencies. These cells are called co-channel cells, and the
interference between signals from these cells is called co-channel interference.
qTo reduce co-channel interference, co-channel cells must be physically separated

by a minimum distance to provide sufficient isolation due to propagation.
qWhen the size of each cell is approximately the same, and the base stations
transmit the same power, the co-channel interference ratio is independent of the
transmitted power and becomes a function of the radius of the cell (R) and the
distance between centers of the nearest co-channel cells (D).
qThe parameter Q [=D/R= √(3N)], called the co-channel reuse ratio, is related to
the cluster size and is a factor to reduce co-channel interference. ‘N’ is the
frequency reuse pattern.
qA small value of Q provides larger capacity since the cluster size N is small,
whereas a large value of Q improves the transmission quality, due to a smaller
level of co-channel interference. A trade-off must be made between these two
objectives in actual cellular design.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077

qNumber of cells per cluster satisfy the equation N =i 2 + ij + j 2, (i, j are positive integers), for
Hexagonal cell structures.
qIf i=I,j=l, N=3, Q= 3, If i=I,j=2, N=7, Q= 4.58, If i=2,j=2, N=12, Q= 6
qLet i0 be the number of co-channel interfering cells. Then, the signal-to-interference ratio (S/I or
SIR) for a mobile receiver which monitors a forward channel can be expressed as
qWhere S is the desired signal power from the desired base station and I i is the interference
power caused by the i-th interfering co-channel cell base station.
qThe average received power Pr at a distance d from the transmitting antenna is approximated
by
Pr = P0 (d/d0)-n or Pr(dBm) = P0(dBm) - 10nlog(d/d0)
qwhere P0 is the power received at a close-in reference point in the far field region of the antenna
at a small distance d0 from the transmitting antenna, and n is the path loss exponent.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077

qIf Di is the distance of the i-th interferer from the mobile, the received power at a given mobile due to the i-th
interfering cell will be proportional to (Di)-n. In a urban cellular system, n ranges from 2 to 4.
qWhen the transmit power of each base station is equal and the path loss exponent is the same throughout the
coverage area, S/I for a mobile can be approximated as
qConsidering only the first layer of interfering cells, if all the interfering base stations are equidistant from
the desired base station and if this distance is equal to the distance D between cell centers, then above equation
simplifies to
qThis equation relates S/I to the cluster size N, which in turn determines the overall capacity of the
system.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077

qFrom Figure, for a 7-cell cluster, with the mobile unit is at the cell
boundary, the mobile is a distance D — R from the two nearest co-
channel interfering cells and approximately D + R/2, D and D — R/2, and
D + R from the other interfering cells in the first tier.
qAssuming n=4, the signal-to-interference ratio for the worst case can be
closely approximated as
qIn terms of the co-channel reuse ratio Q (=D/R), above equation

becomes
CCI can be reduced by efficient frequncy allocation, reducing

trsmitter-receiver power, cell sectoring, cell splitting

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Adjacent Channel Interference

qInterference resulting from signals which are adjacent in frequency to the desired signal is called adjacent
channel interference. Adjacent channel interference results from imperfect receiver filters which allow
nearby frequencies to leak into the passband.
qThe problem can be particularly serious if an adjacent channel user is transmitting in very close range to a
subscriber's receiver, while the receiver attempts to receive a base station on the desired channel. This is referred
to as the near-far effect, where a nearby transmitter (which may or may not be of the same type as that used by
the cellular system) captures the receiver of the subscriber.
qIf the frequency reuse factor is small, the separation between adjacent channels may not be sufficient to
keep the adjacent channel interference level within tolerable limits.
qFor example, if a mobile is 20 times as close to the base station as another mobile and has energy spill out of its
passband, the signal-to-interference ratio for the weak mobile (before receiver filtering) is approximately
S/I = (20)-n
If, path loss exponent n=4, then S/I = -52 dB
qIn practice, each base station receiver is preceeded by a high Q cavity filter in order to reject adjacent channel
interference.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Improving Capacity In Cellular Systems

qAs the demand for wireless service increases, the number of channels assigned to a cell eventually
becomes insufficient to support the required number of users.
qAt this point, cellular design techniques are needed to provide more channels per unit coverage area.
Techniques such as cell splitting, sectoring, and coverage zone approaches are used in practice to expand
the capacity of cellular systems.
qSectoring uses directional antennas to further control the interference and frequency reuse of channels.
qCell splitting allows an orderly growth of the cellular system. While cell splitting increases the number of base
stations in order to increase capacity.
qThe Microcell zone concept distributes the coverage of a cell and extends the cell boundary to hard-to-reach
places.
qSectoring and zone microcells rely on base station antenna placements to improve capacity by reducing co-
channel interference.
qCell splitting and zone microcell techniques do not suffer the trunking inefficiencies experienced by sectored
cells, and enable the base station to oversee all handoff chores related to the microcells, thus reducing the
computational load at the MSC.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Sectoring of Cell
qThe technique for decreasing co-channel interference and thus
increasing system capacity by using directional antennas is called
sectoring, a cellular zone is divided into a number of smaller sectors.
qSectors of 1200, 900, 600, 300: Known as 3-sector, 4-sector, 6-sector

and 12-sector cells respectively. 3-sector cells are widely used.
q By using directional antennas, a given cell will receive interference

and transmit with only a fraction of the available co-channel cells.
Therefore, sectoring reduces interference.
qBy using sector cell, frequency utilization becomes better because

if an omnidirectional cell has F number of frequency channels, in a 3-
sector antenna using directional antennas frequency channels
becomes 3F.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Cell Splitting
qCell splitting is the process of subdividing a congested cell into
smaller cells, each with its own base station and a corresponding
reduction in antenna height and transmitter power.
qCell splitting increases the capacity of a cellular system since it

increases the number of times that channels are reused.
qBy defining new cells which have a smaller radius than the original cells
and by installing these smaller cells between the existing cells, capacity
increases due to the additional number of channels per unit area.
qIn Figure, the base stations are placed at corners of the cells, and
the area served by base station A is assumed to be saturated with traffic
and by cell splitting new cells should be generated.
qThe original base station A has been surrounded by six new cell
base stations. Here, the smaller cells were added in such a way as
to preserve the frequency reuse plan of the system.
qFor example, the base station labeled G was placed half way between
two larger stations utilizing the same channel set G. This is also the case
for the other cells in the figure.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Cell Splitting
q In this case, the radius of each new microcell is half that of the original cell.
qFor the new cells to be smaller in size, the transmit power of these cells must be reduced. The transmit power
of the new cells with radius half that of the original cells can be found by examining the received power at the new
and old cell boundaries and setting them equal to each other.
qIf Pt1 and Pt2 are the transmit powers of the larger and smaller cell base stations, respectively, and ‘n’ is the path
loss exponent, then received power Pr at the new and old cell boundaries become
qIf path loss factor , n=4, then
In other words, the transmit power must be reduced by 16 (12 dB) in order to fill in the original coverage area
with new smaller cells, while maintaining the S/I requirement.
qIn practice, not all cells are split at the same time. different cell sizes will exist simultaneously. In such situations,
special care needs to be taken to keep the distance between co-channel cells at the required minimum, and
hence channel assignments become more complicated.
qThis splitting process continues until all the channels in an area are used in the lower power group, at which point
cell splitting is complete within the region. Antenna downtilting, which deliberately focuses radiated energy from the
base station towards the ground, is often used to limit the radio coverage of newly formed cells.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Microcell Concept
qThe increased number of handoffs required when sectoring is
employed results in an increased load on the switching and
control link elements of the mobile system.
qThe solution of this problem is to divide a cellular zone into

smaller zones having each of these zone Tx/Rx systems.
q In this scheme (as in figure) each of the three zone sites are
connected to a single base station and share the same radio
equipment.
qThe zones are connected by coaxial cable, fiber optic cable, or

microwave link to the base station. Multiple zones and a single
base station make up a cell.
qAs a mobile travels within the cell, it is served by the zone

with the strongest signal. This approach is superior to sectoring
since antennas are placed at the outer edges of the cell, and any
base station channel may be assigned to any zone by the base
station.

lOMoARcPSD|33629077
Microcell Concept
q The coverage area of a Macrocell may be from
10 km to 20 km. Macrocells are found in rural
areas or along highways.
qThe coverage area of a Microcell is from 1 km

to 2 km. Over a smaller cell area, a Microcell is
used in a densely populated urban area.
qCoverage area of a Picocell is 200 meters or

less, Picocells are used for areas smaller
than Microcells, such as a large office, a mall, or
train station.
qA Femtocell is of the order of 10 meters. In

3GPP terminology, a Home NodeB (HNB) is a
3G Femtocell. A Home eNodeB (HeNB) is an
LTE 4G Femtocell.

Cellular Comm Ec3036 Notes Module 1 Spring 2023

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Cellular Comm Ec3036 Notes Module 1 Spring 2023

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

lOMoARcPSD|33629077

Cellular Comm-EC3036-Notes-Module-1-Spring 2023

Cellular Communication (Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology)

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by Mohit Kumar das (mohitkumardas4029@gmail.com)

Downloaded by Mohit Kumar das (mohitkumardas4029@gmail.com)

Downloaded by Mohit Kumar das (mohitkumardas4029@gmail.com)

Downloaded by Mohit Kumar das (mohitkumardas4029@gmail.com)

Downloaded by Mohit Kumar das (mohitkumardas4029@gmail.com)

Downloaded by Mohit Kumar das (mohitkumardas4029@gmail.com)

Downloaded by Mohit Kumar das (mohitkumardas4029@gmail.com)

Mobile Cellular System

Downloaded by Mohit Kumar das (mohitkumardas4029@gmail.com)

Basic Components of a Cellular System

qIn a cellular system, in a small geographical area

qEach base station is allocated by a group of radio

qThe radio coverage of a cell is called “footprint”.

qUsers uses mobile hand set (This is known as

Downloaded by Mohit Kumar das (mohitkumardas4029@gmail.com)

Cellular Concept, Cellular System Architecture

Downloaded by Mohit Kumar das (mohitkumardas4029@gmail.com)

Some Important Points:

1.Very near to the base station signal strength is

2. For high velocity of mobile (travelling in a vehicle),

3. Most of the cases, signal coming to the mobile is

4. In case of LOS propagation (tower is visible) also

5. At the boundary of a cell, interference from

6. To serve a particular area, the height of the

Downloaded by Mohit Kumar das (mohitkumardas4029@gmail.com)

qTheory is based on Circular cell. Practical cells are neither

qThe infrastructure technology needed to support a base station is

Downloaded by Mohit Kumar das (mohitkumardas4029@gmail.com)

Frequency Channels & Frequency Reuse

Downloaded by Mohit Kumar das (mohitkumardas4029@gmail.com)

qNumber of cells per cluster satisfy the equation N =i 2 + ij + j 2 , (i, j are

qIf, i=1, j=1, then smallest value of ‘N’ is N=3.

Downloaded by Mohit Kumar das (mohitkumardas4029@gmail.com)

Frequency Reuse Distance

qThe minimum distance which allows the same frequency to

qThe frequency reuse distance ‘D’ can be determined from

qThe co-channel reuse ratio is defined as Q= D/R = √(3N) .

Downloaded by Mohit Kumar das (mohitkumardas4029@gmail.com)

Channel Allocation/Assignment Strategies

qChannels, also known as radio channels, are assigned to the

qChannels in a wireless communication system typically consist

qChannel Allocation Strategies are designed in such a way that

qThere are three major categories for assigning these channels to

vFixed Channel Allocation/Assignment (FCA).

vDynamic Channel Allocation/Assignment (DCA).

vHybrid Channel Allocation which is a combination of the first two

Downloaded by Mohit Kumar das (mohitkumardas4029@gmail.com)

Fixed Channel Allocation/Assignment (FCA)

qFixed Channel Allocation (FCA): Fixed Ch annel

qDue to short term fluctuations in the traffic, FCA scheme is

Downloaded by Mohit Kumar das (mohitkumardas4029@gmail.com)

Dynamic Channel Allocation/Assignment (DCA)

qDynamic Channel Allocation (DCA): Dynamic Channel allocation is a strategy in

qHybrid Channel Allocation (HCA): Hybrid Channel Allocation is a combination of

Downloaded by Mohit Kumar das (mohitkumardas4029@gmail.com)

Comparison Between FCA and DCA

q Low call set up delay q High computational effort

q Low implementation complexity q Moderate to high call set up delay

q Complex, labour intensive frequency planning q Moderate to high implementation complexity