MATRUSRI

ENGINEERING COLLEGE

MATRUSRI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING

SUBJECT NAME: MOBILE AND CELLULAR COMMUNICATIONS

FACULTY NAME: N SHRIBALA

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MOBILE AND CELLULAR COMMUNICATIONS

COURSE OBJECTIVES:
1. To understand the concept and implementation of frequency reuse an
Handoff techniques and to analyze interference and capacity enhancement.
2. To appreciate the factors influencing outdoor and indoor propagation
systems .
3. To analyze various multiple access protocols based on their merits and
demerits.
4. To visualize the system architectures and implementation of GSM and
CDMA based mobile communication systems.
5. To understand the concepts in various Mobile Technologies

COURSE OUTCOMES:
CO1: Illustrate the basic concepts cellular system and hand off mechanism.
CO2: Analyze the propagation of EM waves, types of channels and impact
of channel over propagation
CO3: Describe the multiple access techniques in Wireless communication
Systems
CO4: Describe the basic operation of GSM and CDMA
CO5: Understand latest trends in microprocessors.
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SYLLABUS
UNIT I- Basic Cellular system : Basic Cellular system and its
operation, frequency reuse, channel assignment strategies, Handoff
process, factors influencing handoffs, handoffs in different
Generations, Interference and system capacity, Cross talk, Enhancing
capacity and cell coverage, Trunked radio system. Manual and
Automatic Electronic Exchanges.

UNIT II- Free space propagation model : Free space propagation

model, three basic propagation mechanisms, practical link budget
design using path loss models, outdoor propagation models:
Durkin’s model and indoor propagation model, partition losses.
Small scale multipath propagation, Parameters of mobile multipath
channels, types of small scale fading. Cell Tower Antenna/radiation
pattern, Mobile antennas/ radiation patterns.
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UNIT III- Data multiple access Technologies in Communication:

FDMA, TDMA, SSMA, FHMA, CDMA, SDMA, Packet radio protocols,
CSMA, Reservation protocols time Frame details.

UNIT IV- GSM: Services and Features, System architecture, Radio

Sub system, Channel Types, Frame structure and Signal processing
CDMA: Digital Cellular standard IS-95, Forward Channel, Reverse
Channel.

UNIT V- Comparison of Mobile communication Technologies:

1G, 2G and 2.5G, technology Features of 3G and 4G and 5G, WLAN,
Bluetooth, PAN, Trends in Radio and Personal Communications,
UMTS system architecture and Radio Interface.
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TEXT BOOKS /REFERENCES

TEXT BOOKS:
1.Theodore.S. Rappaport, “Wireless Communications: Principles and
Practice,” 2/e, Pearson Education, 2010 2.William Stallings,
2. William. C.Y. Lee, “Mobile Communication Engineering,” 2/e,
Mc-Graw Hill, 2008.
3. T.L. Singal “Wireless Communication Systems,” 1/e, TMH
Publications, 2010.

REFERENCES:
1.William.C.Y. Lee, “Mobile Cellular Telecommunications: Analog
and Digital Systems,” 2/e, McGraw Hill, 2011.
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LESSON PLAN:
UNIT -I: Basic Cellular system

Text Book/
No. Relevant
S. No. Topic(S) Reference
of Hrs COs
Book
1. Basic Cellular system and its operation 2 CO1 T1,T2

2. Frequency reuse, 1 CO1 T1,T2

3. channel assignment strategies 1 CO1 T1,T2

4. Handoff process, factors influencing handoffs, 1 CO1 T1,T2

handoffs in different Generations,
5. Interference and system capacity, Cross talk, 1 CO1 T1,T2

6. Enhancing capacity and cell coverage, 1 CO1 T1,T2

7. Trunked radio system. 1 CO1 T1,T2

8. Manual and Automatic Electronic Exchanges . 1 CO1 T1,T2

TOTAL 9
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LESSON PLAN:
UNIT -II: Free space propagation model

Text Book/
No. Relevant
S. No. Topic(S) Reference
of Hrs COs
Book

1. Free space propagation model, three basic 1 CO2 T1,T2

propagation mechanisms,
2. practical link budget design using path loss models, 1 CO2 T1,T2

3. outdoor propagation models: Durkin’s model and 1 CO2 T1,T2

4. Indoor propagation model, partition losses 1 CO2 T1,T2

5. Small scale multipath propagation, Parameters of 1 CO2 T1,T2

mobile multipath channels, types of small scale
fading.
6. Cell Tower Antenna/radiation pattern, 1 CO2 T1,T2

7. Mobile antennas/ radiation patterns. 1 CO2 T1,T2

TOTAL 7
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LESSON PLAN:
UNIT -III: Data multiple access Technologies in Communication

Text Book/
No. Relevant
S. No. Topic(S) Reference
of Hrs COs
Book
1. Data multiple access Technologies in 2 CO3 T1
Communication: FDMA,
2. TDMA, 1 CO3 T1

3. SSMA, FHMA, 1 CO3 T1

4. CDMA, SDMA, 1 CO3 T1

5. Packet radio protocols, CSMA , 1 CO3 T1

6. Reservation protocols time Frame details 1 CO3 T1

TOTAL 07
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LESSON PLAN:
UNIT -IV: GSM

Text Book/
No. Relevant
S. No. Topic(S) Reference
of Hrs COs
Book

1. GSM: Services and Features, 1 CO4 T1

2. System architecture, Radio Sub system, 1 CO4 T1

3. Channel Types, Frame structure and Signal 1 CO4 T1

processing
4. CDMA: 1 CO4 T1

5. Digital Cellular standard IS-95, 1 CO4 T1

6. Forward Channel, Reverse Channel. 1 CO4 T1

TOTAL 06
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LESSON PLAN:

UNIT -V: Comparison of Mobile communication Technologies

Text Book/
No. Relevant
S. No. Topic(S) Reference
of Hrs COs
Book
1. 1G, 2G and 2.5G, 1 CO5 T1

2. Technology Features of 3G and 4G and 5G, WLAN, 2 CO5 T1

Bluetooth,
3. PAN, Trends in Radio and Personal 1 CO5 T1
Communications,
4. UMTS system architecture and Radio Interface 1 CO5 T1

Total 05
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PRE-REQUISITES FOR THIS COURSE:

AC, DC, AWP III-SEM 3-Credits

EXTERNAL SOURCES FOR ADDITIONAL LEARNING:

Relevance
Description Proposed Actions Relevance With POs
With PSOs
5G, Wi-max, Student Seminar
PO3, PO4, PO5 PSO2

CONTENT BEYOND SYLLABUS:

S. No. Topic Relevance with POs and
PSOs
1. MIMO PSO1
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UNIT-I:BASIC CELLULAR SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION:
IN THE EARLY YEARS OF MOBILE RADIO SYSTEMS, A LARGE COVERAGE WAS
ACHIEVED BY USING A SINGLE HIGH-POWERED TRANSMITTER WITH THE ANTENNA
MOUNTED ON TALL TOWER. ALTHOUGH A LARGE COVERAGE COULD BE ATTAINED
BY THIS APPROACH, IT DOES NOT ALLOW THE REUSE OF THE SAME RADIO
FREQUENCIES DUE TO INTERFERENCE. THE CELLULAR CONCEPT WAS INVENTED IN
SOLVING THE SPECTRAL CONGESTION AND USER CAPACITY. CELLULAR TELEPHONY
IS A SYSTEM-LEVEL CONCEPT, WHICH REPLACES A SINGLE HIGH POWER
TRANSMITTER WITH A LARGE NUMBER OF LOW-POWER TRANSMITTERS FOR
COMMUNICATION BETWEEN ANY TWO DEVICES OVER A LARGE GEOGRAPHIC AREA.

OUTCOMES:
1.Demonstrate cellular mobile system design concepts in wireless mobile
communication networks
2. Identify the limitations of conventional Mobile Telephone Systems; understand the
basic cellular mobile system
3. Understand the concept of frequency Reuse channels, deduce Co- channel
interference reduction factor
4. Remember concepts of cell coverage for signal and traffic
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UNIT-I:BASIC CELLULAR SYSTEM

CONTENTS: INTRODUCTION
1.1. BASIC CELLULAR SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION,
1.2. FREQUENCY REUSE,
1.3. CHANNEL ASSIGNMENT STRATEGIES,
1.4. HANDOFF PROCESS, FACTORS INFLUENCING HANDOFFS, HANDOFFS IN
DIFFERENT GENERATIONS, 1.5. INTERFERENCE AND SYSTEM CAPACITY, CROSS
TALK,
1.6. TRUNKED RADIO SYSTEM.
1.7. ENHANCING CAPACITY AND CELL COVERAGE
1.8. MANUAL AND AUTOMATIC ELECTRONIC EXCHANGES.
OUTCOMES
1.Demonstrate cellular mobile system design concepts in wireless mobile
communication networks
2. Identify the limitations of conventional Mobile Telephone Systems; understand
the basic cellular mobile system
3. Understand the concept of frequency Reuse channels, deduce Co- channel
interference reduction factor
4. Remember concepts of cell coverage for signal and traffic
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MODULE-I

CONTENTS:
INTRODUCTION

OUTCOMES:
Understand the basic fundamentals of wireless communications
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INTRODUCTION
WIRELESS COMMUNICATION INVOLVES THE TRANSMISSION OF INFORMATION OVER
A DISTANCE WITHOUT HELP OF WIRES, CABLES OR ANY OTHER FORMS OF
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS. THE TRANSMITTED DISTANCE CAN BE ANYWHERE
BETWEEN A FEW METERS (FOR EXAMPLE, A TELEVISION’S REMOTE CONTROL) AND
THOUSANDS OF KILOMETERS (FOR EXAMPLE, RADIO COMMUNICATION).

Wireless Applications:
Pager.
Cellular Mobile Communications.
Satellite Communication.
Radar Communication.
TV Broadcasting.
FM Broadcasting.
Wi-Fi.
Bluetooth.
Wireless Sensor Networks.
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INTRODUCTION
1. RADIO COMMUNICATION WAS INVENTED BY NOKOLA TESLA AND GUGLIELMO MARCONI:
IN 1893, NIKOLA TESLA MADE THE FIRST PUBLIC DEMONSTRATION OF WIRELESS (RADIO)
TELEGRAPHY; GUGLIELMO MARCONI CONDUCTED LONG DISTANCE TELEGRAPHY IN 1897.

2. IN 1940 THE FIRST WALKIE-TALKIE WAS USED BY THE US MILITARY .

3. IN 1947, JOHN BARDEEN AND WALTER BRATTAIN FROM AT&T’S BELL LABS INVENTED
THE TRANSISTOR (SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE USED TO AMPLIFY AND SWITCH ELECTRONIC
SIGNALS)

4. AT&T INTRODUCED COMMERCIAL RADIO CAR PHONE – TWO WAY RADIO LINK TO THE
LOCAL PHONE NETWORK.

5. IN 1979 THE FIRST COMMERCIAL CELLULAR PHONE SERVICE WAS LAUNCHED BY THE
NORDIC MOBILE TELEPHONE (IN FINLAND, SWEDEN, NORWAY, DENMARK ).

1942 1946

Car Phone
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INTRODUCTION

1937 1916-1945 1964-65 1973

First Commercial Telegraph First Walki-talki First Cardless Phone First Cellular Phone
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INTRODUCTION

GENERATION OF CELLULAR SYSTEM:

1G (FIRST GENERATION:1970-80) : VOICE-ORIENTED SYSTEMS BASED ON
ANALOG TECHNOLOGY; EX.: ADVANCED MOBILE PHONE SYSTEMS (AMPS) AND
CORDLESS SYSTEMS

2G (SECOND GENERATION:1990-2004) : VOICE-ORIENTED SYSTEMS BASED ON

DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY; MORE EFFICIENT AND USED LESS SPECTRUM THAN 1G;
EX.: GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE (GSM) AND US TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE
ACCESS
3G (US-TDMA)
(Third generation:2004-2010) : high-speed voice-oriented systems integrated
with data services; ex.: General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), Code Division Multiple
Access (CDMA)

4G (Fourth generation:): based on Internet protocol networks and will provide

voice, data, True mobile broad band and multimedia service to subscribers

5G (Fifth generation):With Higher data rate >1GB,using technology wwww

(World Wide Wireless Web)
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INTRODUCTION
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1G IS AN ANALOG TECHNOLOGY AND THE PHONES

GENERALLY HAD POOR BATTERY LIFE AND VOICE QUALITY
WAS LARGE WITHOUT MUCH SECURITY, AND WOULD
SOMETIMES EXPERIENCE DROPPED CALLS.

2G NETWORKS ARE DIGITAL. 2G INTRODUCED MANY OF THE

FUNDAMENTAL SERVICES THAT WE STILL USE TODAY, SUCH
AS SMS, INTERNAL ROAMING , CONFERENCE CALLS, CALL
HOLD AND BILLING BASED ON SERVICES E.G. CHARGES BASED
ON LONG DISTANCE CALLS AND REAL TIME BILLING. THE MAX
SPEED OF 2G WITH GENERAL PACKET RADIO SERVICE ( GPRS )
IS 50 KBPS OR 1 MBPS WITH ENHANCED DATA RATES FOR
GSM EVOLUTION ( EDGE ). BEFORE GOING TO 3G WIRELESS
NETWORKS, THE LESSER-KNOWN 2.5G AND 2.75G WAS AN
INTERIM STANDARD THAT BRIDGED THE GAP.
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3G STANDARD UTILIZES A NEW TECHNOLOGY CALLED UMTS

AS ITS CORE NETWORK ARCHITECTURE - UNIVERSAL MOBILE
TELECOMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM. MOBILE
TELECOMMUNICATIONS USE SERVICES AND NETWORKS THAT
COMPLY WITH THE INTERNATIONAL MOBILE
TELECOMMUNICATIONS-2000 ( IMT-2000 ) SPECIFICATIONS
BY THE INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION.

4G PROVIDE HIGH SPEED , HIGH QUALITY AND HIGH

CAPACITY TO USERS WHILE IMPROVING SECURITY AND
LOWER THE COST OF VOICE AND DATA SERVICES,
MULTIMEDIA AND INTERNET OVER IP USING MIMO
(MULTIPLE INPUT MULTIPLE OUTPUT) AND OFDM
(ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING). THE
TWO IMPORTANT 4G STANDARDS ARE WIMAX AND LTE
(LONG TERM EVOLUTION) WHICH IS A SERIES OF UPGRADES
TO EXISTING UMTS TECHNOLOGY
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5G PROMISES SIGNIFICANTLY FASTER DATA RATES, HIGHER

CONNECTION DENSITY, MUCH LOWER LATENCY, AMONG
OTHER IMPROVEMENTS. PLANS FOR 5G INCLUDE
DEVICE-TO-DEVICE COMMUNICATION, BETTER BATTERY
CONSUMPTION, AND IMPROVED OVERALL WIRELESS
COVERAGE. THE MAX SPEED OF 5G IS AIMED AT BEING AS
FAST AS 35.46 GBPS , WHICH IS OVER 35 TIMES FASTER THAN
4G.

MASSIVE MIMO, MILIMETRE WAVE GIVE 10GB/S TO A USER,

WITH AN UNSEEN LOW LATENCY (1 MS), AND ALLOW
CONNECTIONS FOR AT LEAST 100 BILLION DEVICES .
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INTRODUCTION
CHALLENGES OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION:
1. EFFICIENT HARDWARE 7. COST EFFICIENCY
2. EFFICIENT USE OF FINITE RADIO SPECTRUM 8. FADING
3. INTEGRATED SERVICES 9. MULTIPATH
4. NETWORK SUPPORT FOR USER MOBILITY 10. PROBABILITY OF DATA
CORRUPTION
5. MAINTAIN QOS 11. STRONGER SECURITY SYSTEM
6. CONNECTIVITY AND COVERAGE
Basic Wireless Communication system Block diagram:
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MODULE-2

CONTENTS:
1.1. BASIC CELLULAR SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION,

OUTCOMES:
Demonstrate cellular system design concepts in wireless mobile communication
networks.
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Mobile communication
MOBILE COMMUNICATION:
1. IT IS THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION WHILE MOVING AROUND A WIDE
GEOGRAPHIC AREA.

2. PORTABLE - HAND-HELD DEVICES USED AT WALKING SPEED.

3. STAY CONNECTED IN EVERYWHERE WE GO.

4. STAY CONNECTED IN MANY WAYS(E.G. CALLS, VIDEO ETC)COMMUNICATION

FACILITY BETWEEN STATIONARY AND MOBILE OR MOBILE AND MOBILE USERS (
UNITS )
5. A conventional mobile telephone system is usually designed by selecting autonomous
geographic zones(50miles).

6. one or more channels from a specific frequency allocation for use in the geographic
zones.

7. Large coverage area so High powered transmitters are used for coverage.
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Why Cellular Mobile Telephone system?

LIMITATIONS OF CONVENTIONAL MOBILE TELEPHONE SYSTEM:
1. LIMITED SERVICE CAPABILITY
2. POOR SERVICE PERFORMANCE
3. INEFFICIENT FREQUENCY SPECTRUM UTILIZATION
4. TECHNOLOGY FEASIBILITY AND SERVICE AFFORDABILITY

Hand off:
The handoff is a process of
automatically changing
frequencies as the mobile
unit moves into a different
frequency zone so that the
conversation can be
. Large cell size continued in a new frequency
. High power zone without redialing
Conventional Mobile
system
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1.1. BASIC CELLULAR SYSTEM AND IT’S OPERATION

Cellular Concept:
Replacing a single, high power transmitter (large cell)with many low power transmitters
(small cells).
Each providing coverage to only a small portion of the service area.
Each base station is allocated a portion of the total number of channels available to
the entire system, Nearby base stations are assigned different groups of channels.
All the available channels are assigned to a relatively small number of neighboring base
stations.
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1.1. BASIC CELLULAR SYSTEM AND IT’S OPERATION

A CELL: BASIC GEOGRAPHICAL UNIT OF A CELLULAR NETWORK; IS THE AREA

AROUND AN ANTENNA WHERE A SPECIFIC FREQUENCY RANGE IS USED; IS
REPRESENTED GRAPHICALLY AS A HEXAGONAL SHAPE, BUT IN REALITY IT IS
IRREGULAR IN SHAPE.

Square Equilateral Hexago

triangle n
Cluster
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1.1. BASIC CELLULAR SYSTEM AND IT’S OPERATION

BASIC CELLULAR SYSTEM

Basic cellular system consists of: 1.Mobile unit

2. Cell site
3. MTSO and 4. Connections
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1.1. BASIC CELLULAR SYSTEM AND IT’S OPERATION

BASIC CELLULAR SYSTEM

MOBILE TELEPHONE SWITCHING OFFICE (MTSO) RESPONSIBLE FOR CONNECTING

ALL MOBILES TO THE PSTN IN A CELLULAR SYSTEM.

EACH MOBILE COMMUNICATES VIA RADIO WITH ONE OF THE BASE STATIONS AND
MAY BE HANDED OFF TO ANY NUMBER OF BASE STATIONS THROUGHOUT THE
DURATION OF A CALL.

THE MOBILE STATION CONTAINS A TRANSCEIVER, AN ANTENNA, AND CONTROL

CIRCUITRY.

THE BASE STATIONS CONSIST OF SEVERAL TRANSMITTERS AND RECEIVERS WHICH

SIMULTANEOUSLY HANDLE FULL DUPLEX COMMUNICATIONS AND GENERALLY HAVE
TOWERS WHICH SUPPORT SEVERAL TRANSMITTING AND RECEIVING ANTENNAS.

THE BASE STATION SERVES AS A BRIDGE BETWEEN ALL MOBILE USERS IN THE CELL
AND CONNECTS THE SIMULTANEOUS MOBILE CALLS VIA TELEPHONE LINES OR
MICROWAVE LINKS TO THE MSC.

THE MSC COORDINATES THE ACTIVITIES OF ALL OF THE BASE STATIONS AND
CONNECTS THE ENTIRE CELLULAR SYSTEM TO THE PSTN.
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1.1. BASIC CELLULAR SYSTEM AND IT’S OPERATION

BASIC CELLULAR SYSTEM

THE CHANNELS USED FOR VOICE TRANSMISSION FROM THE BASE STATION TO
MOBILES ARE CALLED
FORWARD VOICE CHANNELS (FVC) AND THE CHANNELS USED FOR VOICE
TRANSMISSION FROM
MOBILES TO THE BASE STATION ARE CALLED REVERSE VOICE CHANNELS (RVC).

THE TWO CHANNELS RESPONSIBLE FOR INITIATING MOBILE CALLS ARE THE
FORWARD CONTROL CHANNELS (FCC) AND REVERSE CONTROL CHANNELS
(RCC).

CONTROL CHANNELS ARE OFTEN CALLED SETUP CHANNELS BECAUSE THEY ARE
ONLY INVOLVED IN SETTING UP A CALL AND MOVING IT TO AN UNUSED VOICE
CHANNEL.

CONTROL CHANNELS TRANSMIT AND RECEIVE DATA MESSAGES THAT CARRY

CALL INITIATION AND SERVICE REQUESTS, AND ARE MONITORED BY MOBILES
WHEN THEY DO NOT HAVE A CALL IN PROGRESS.

FORWARD CONTROL CHANNELS ALSO SERVE AS BEACONS WHICH

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1.1. BASIC CELLULAR SYSTEM AND IT’S OPERATION

HOW A CALL IS MADE

---WHEN A CELLULAR PHONE IS TURNED ON, IT FIRST SCANS THE GROUP OF

FORWARD CONTROL CHANNELS TO DETERMINE THE ONE WITH THE
STRONGEST SIGNAL.

---WHEN A TELEPHONE CALL IS PLACED TO A MOBILE USER, THE MSC

DISPATCHES THE REQUEST TO ALL BASE STATIONS IN THE CELLULAR SYSTEM.
THE MOBILE IDENTIFICATION NUMBER (MIN), WHICH IS THE SUBSCRIBER’S
TELEPHONE NUMBER, IS THEN BROADCAST AS A PAGING MESSAGE OVER ALL OF
THE FORWARD CONTROL CHANNELS THROUGHOUT THE CELLULAR SYSTEM.

---THE MOBILE RECEIVES THE PAGING MESSAGE SENT BY THE BASE STATION
WHICH IT MONITORS, AND RESPONDS BY IDENTIFYING ITSELF OVER THE
REVERSE CONTROL CHANNEL.
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CALL TO MOBILE USER INITIATED BY LANDLINE SUBSCRIBER

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CALL TO MOBILE USER INITIATED BY MOBILE SUBSCRIBER

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1.1. BASIC CELLULAR SYSTEM AND IT’S OPERATION

PERFORMANCE CRITERIA:
1. VOICE QUALITY
CM Score Quality scale
CM 5 5 Excellent (Speech Perfectly Understandable)
CM4 4 Good (Speech easily understandable, Some noise)

CM3 3 Fair (Speech understandable with slight effort, repetition req.)

CM 2 2 Poor (Speech understandable only with considerable effort, freq .
repetition)
CM1 1 Unsatisfactory (Speech Not understandable)

2. Service Quality: Coverage

Required grade of service
No. of Dropped calls
3. Special Features: Call forwarding
Call Waiting
Voice Stored Box(VSR)
Automatic Roaming and Navigation services
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MODULE-3

CONTENTS:
1.2. FREQUENCY REUSE

OUTCOMES:
Understand the concept of frequency Reuse channels,

.
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1.2. FREQUENCY REUSE

The concept of frequency reuse is based on
assigning to each cell a group of radio
channels used within a small geographic area.

Cells are assigned a group of channels that is

completely different from neighbouring cells.

The coverage area of cells is called the

footprint and is limited by a boundary so that
the same group of channels can be used in
cells that are far enough apart.

Cells labelled with the same letter have the

same group of frequencies .

The design process of selecting and allocating channel groups for all of
the cellular base stations within a system is called frequency reuse
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1.2. FREQUENCY REUSE

• CONSIDER A CELLULAR SYSTEM WHICH HAS A TOTAL OF S DUPLEX
CHANNELS AVAILABLE FOR USE.

IF EACH CELL IS ALLOCATED A GROUP OF K CHANNELS , AND IF THE S

CHANNELS ARE DIVIDED AMONG N CELLS INTO UNIQUE AND DISJOINT
CHANNEL GROUPS WHICH EACH HAVE THE SAME NUMBER OF
CHANNELS, THE TOTAL NUMBER OF AVAILABLE RADIO CHANNELS CAN
BE EXPRESSED AS S=KN

THE N CELLS WHICH COLLECTIVELY USE THE COMPLETE SET OF

AVAILABLE FREQUENCIES
IS CALLED A CLUSTER. IF A CLUSTER IS REPLICATED M TIMES WITHIN
THE SYSTEM, THE TOTAL NUMBER OF DUPLEX CHANNELS, C, CAN BE
USED AS A MEASURE OF CAPACITY AND IS GIVEN C = MKN = MS

C∝M

THE FACTOR N IS CALLED THE CLUSTER SIZE AND IS TYPICALLY EQUAL

TO 4, 7, OR 12.
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1.2. FREQUENCY REUSE

IF THE CLUSTER SIZE N IS REDUCED WHILE THE CELL SIZE IS KEPT
CONSTANT, MORE CLUSTERS ARE REQUIRED TO COVER A GIVEN
AREA AND HENCE MORE CAPACITY (A LARGER VALUE OF C) IS
ACHIEVED.

N ↓ M↑ C↑ CO-CHANNEL I/F ↑

N ↑ M ↓ C ↓ CO-CHANNEL I/F ↓
THE FREQUENCY REUSE FACTOR OF A CELLULAR SYSTEM IS GIVEN
BY I /N, SINCE EACH CELL WITHIN A CLUSTER IS ONLY ASSIGNED
1/N OF THE TOTAL AVAILABLE CHANNELS IN THE SYSTEM.
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1.2. FREQUENCY REUSE

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1.2. FREQUENCY REUSE

Hexagonal geometry has

– exactly six equidistance neighbors
– the lines joining the centers of any cell
and each of its neighbors are separated
by multiples of 60 degrees .
(N=19, i.e., i=3,j=2)

Frequency Reuse factor:1/4

(1) move i cells along any chain of hexagons and then

(2) turn 60 degrees counter-clockwise and move j cells.
Frequency Reuse factor:1/7
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IF A TOTAL OF 33 MHZ OF BANDWIDTH IS ALLOCATED TO A

PARTICULAR FDD CELLULAR TELEPHONE SYSTEM WHICH USES
TWO 25 KHZ SIMPLEX CHANNELS TO PROVIDE FULL DUPLEX VOICE
AND CONTROL CHANNELS, COMPUTE THE NUMBER OF CHANNELS
AVAILABLE PER CELL IF A SYSTEM USES (A) 4-CELL REUSE, (B)
7-CELL REUSE (C) 12-CELL REUSE. IF 1 MHZ OF THE
ALLOCATED SPECTRUM IS DEDICATED TO CONTROL CHANNELS,
DETERMINE AN EQUITABLE DISTRIBUTION OF CONTROL
CHANNELS AND VOICE CHANNELS IN EACH CELL FOR EACH OF THE
THREE SYSTEMS.
GIVEN:
TOTAL BANDWIDTH =33 MHZ
CHANNEL BANDWIDTH = 25 KHZ X 2 SIMPLEX CHANNELS = 50
KHZ/DUPLEX CHANNEL
TOTAL AVAILABLE CHANNELS = 33,000/50 = 660 CHANNELS
(A) FOR N= 4, TOTAL NUMBER OF CHANNELS AVAILABLE PER CELL
= 660/4≈ 165 CHANNELS.
(B)FOR N=7, TOTAL NUMBER OF CHANNELS AVAILABLE PER CELL =
660/7 ≈ 95 CHANNELS.
(C) FOR N = 12, TOTAL NUMBER OF CHANNELS AVAILABLE PER
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A 1 MHZ SPECTRUM FOR CONTROL CHANNELS IMPLIES THAT

THERE ARE 1000/50 = 20 CONTROL CHANNELS OUT OF THE
660 CHANNELS AVAILABLE.

TO EVENLY DISTRIBUTE THE CONTROL AND VOICE

CHANNELS, SIMPLY ALLOCATE THE SAME NUMBER OF
CHANNELS IN EACH CELL WHEREVER POSSIBLE. HERE, THE
640 CHANNELS MUST BE EVENLY DISTRIBUTED TO EACH
CELL WITHIN THE CLUSTER.

(A) FOR N = 4, WE CAN HAVE 5( 5X 4= 20)CONTROL

CHANNELS AND 160 VOICE CHANNELS PER CELL. IN
PRACTICE, HOWEVER, EACH CELL ONLY NEEDS A SINGLE
CONTROL CHANNEL. THUS, ONE CONTROL CHANNEL AND 160
(160 X 4=640) VOICE CHANNELS WOULD BE ASSIGNED TO
EACH CELL.
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(B) FOR N = 7, 4 CELLS WITH 3 CONTROL CHANNELS AND 92

VOICE CHANNELS, 2 CELLS WITH 3 CONTROL CHANNELS AND 90
VOICE CHANNELS, AND 1 CELL WITH 2 CONTROL CHANNELS
AND 92 VOICE CHANNELS COULD BE ALLOCATED.
IN PRACTICE, HOWEVER, EACH CELL WOULD HAVE ONE
CONTROL CHANNEL, FOUR CELLS WOULD HAVE 91 VOICE
CHANNELS, AND THREE CELLS WOULD HAVE 92 VOICE
CHANNELS. (4X91+3X92 =640)

(C) FOR N = 12, WE CAN HAVE 8 CELLS WITH 2 CONTROL

CHANNELS AND 53 VOICE CHANNELS, AND 4 CELLS WITH 1
CONTROL CHANNEL AND 54 VOICE CHANNELS EACH.
IN AN ACTUAL SYSTEM, EACH CELL WOULD HAVE 1 CONTROL
CHANNEL, 8 CELLS WOULD HAVE 53 VOICE CHANNELS, AND 4
CELLS WOULD HAVE 54 VOICE CHANNELS. (8X53+4X54=640)
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

MODULE-4

CONTENTS:
1.3. CHANNEL ASSIGNMENT STRATEGY
1.4. HANDOFF PROCESS, FACTORS INFLUENCING HANDOFFS, HANDOFFS IN
DIFFERENT GENERATIONS

OUTCOMES:
Understand the concepts of Handoff, and discuss about channel assignment.

.
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.3. CHANNEL ASSIGNMENT STRATEGIES

For efficient utilization of radio spectrum, a frequency reuse scheme that consisting of
objectives of increasing capacity and minimizing interference is required.

Variety of channel assignment strategies can be classified as:

Fixed
Dynamic
• Fixed channel assignment
– each cell is allocated a predetermined set of voice channel
– any new call attempt can only be served by the unused channels
– the call will be blocked if all channels in that cell are occupied
– In one approach, called the borrowing strategy, a cell is allowed to borrow channels
from a neighboring cell if all of its own channels are already occupied.
– MSC supervises such borrowing procedures and ensures that the borrowing of a
channel does not disrupt or interfere with any of the calls in progress in the donor
cell.
• Dynamic channel assignment
– channels are not allocated to cells permanently.
– allocate channels based on request.
– reduce the likelihood of blocking, increase channel utilization
– MSC should collect real-time data on channel occupancy, traffic distribution, radio
signal strength indications (RSSI) of all channels on a continuous basis.
– This increases the storage and computational load on the system
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.4. HANDOFF STRATEGIES

HAND-OFF :
When a mobile moves into a different cell while a
conversation is in progress, the MSC automatically
transfers the call to a new channel belonging to the
new base station

• Handoff operation
– identifying a new base station
– re-allocating the voice and control channels with the new base
station.
• Handoff Threshold
– Slightly higher than minimum usable signal for acceptable voice
quality (-90dBm to -100dBm)
– Handoff margin cannot be too large or too
small.
– If is too large, unnecessary handoffs burden the MSC
– If is too small, there may be insufficient time to complete
handoff before a call is lost.
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.4. HANDOFF STRATEGIES

HANDOFF MUST ENSURE THAT THE DROP IN THE MEASURED SIGNAL IS NOT DUE TO
MOMENTARY FADING AND THAT THE MOBILE IS ACTUALLY MOVING AWAY FROM
THE SERVING BASE STATION.
Signal drops below the
minimum acceptable level
to keep the channel
active.
This dropped call event
can happen when there is
an excessive delay by the
MSC in assigning a
handoff, or when the
threshold is set too small
for the handoff time in
the system.
Excessive delays may
occur during high traffic
conditions due to
computational loading at
the MSC or due to the
fact that no channels are
available on any of the
nearby base stations
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.4. HANDOFF STRATEGIES

• RUNNING AVERAGE MEASUREMENT OF SIGNAL STRENGTH SHOULD BE
OPTIMIZED SO THAT UNNECESSARY HANDOFFS ARE AVOIDED.

DEPENDS ON THE SPEED AT WHICH THE VEHICLE IS MOVING.

STEEP SHORT TERM AVERAGE -> THE HAND OFF SHOULD BE MADE
QUICKLY.

THE SPEED CAN BE ESTIMATED FROM THE STATISTICS OF THE RECEIVED

SHORT-TERM FADING SIGNAL AT THE BASE STATION
• Dwell time: The time over which a call may be maintained within a cell
without handoff.

• Dwell time depends on:

– propagation
– interference
– distance
– speed
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.4. HANDOFF STRATEGIES

HANDOFF MEASUREMENT:
IN FIRST GENERATION ANALOG CELLULAR SYSTEMS, SIGNAL STRENGTH
MEASUREMENTS ARE MADE BY THE BASE STATION AND SUPERVISED BY THE
MSC.
IN SECOND GENERATION SYSTEMS (TDMA), HANDOFF DECISIONS ARE MOBILE
ASSISTED, CALLED MOBILE ASSISTED HANDOFF (MAHO).
EVERY MOBILE STATION MEASURES THE RECEIVED POWER FROM SURROUNDING
BASE STATIONS AND CONTINUALLY REPORTS THE RESULTS OF THESE
MEASUREMENTS TO THE SERVING BASE STATION.
A HANDOFF IS INITIATED WHEN THE POWER RECEIVED FROM THE BASE
STATION OF A NEIGHBORING CELL BEGINS TO EXCEED THE POWER RECEIVED
Intersystem
FROM THE handoff:
CURRENT BASE STATION BY A CERTAIN LEVEL OR FOR A CERTAIN
PERIOD OF TIME.
If a mobile moves from one cellular system to a
different cellular system controlled by a
different MSC.

HO requests is more important than

handling a new call.
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.4. HANDOFF STRATEGIES

PRACTICAL HANDOFF CONSIDERATION:
• Different type of users
– High speed users need
frequent handoff during a call.
– Low speed users may never
need a handoff during a call.

• Microcells to provide capacity, the

MSC can become burdened if high
speed users are constantly being
passed between very small cells.

• Large and small cells can be

• Minimize handoff intervention
– handle the simultaneous traffic
of high speed and low speed
users.
located at a single location
(umbrella cell)
– different antenna height
– different power level
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.4. HANDOFF STRATEGIES

Observations:
• High speed vehicles pass through the coverage region of a cell within a
matter of seconds.

• Pedestrian users may never need a handoff during a call

• Particularly with the addition of microcells to provide capacity, the MSC can
quickly become burdened if high speed users are constantly being passed
between very small cells.

• It is difficult for cellular service providers to obtain new physical cell site
locations in urban areas.

• Another practical handoff problem in microcell systems is known as cell

dragging
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.4. HANDOFFS IN DIFFERENT GENERATIONS

HANDOFF FOR FIRST GENERATION ANALOG CELLULAR SYSTEMS
- 10 SECS HANDOFF TIME
IS IN THE ORDER OF 6 DB TO 12 DB

Handoff for second generation cellular systems, e.g., GSM

– 1 to 2 seconds handoff time
– mobile assisted handoff
– is in the order of 0 dB to 6 dB
– Handoff decisions based on signal strength, co-channel interference, and
adjacent channel interference.
IS-95 CDMA spread spectrum cellular system
– Mobiles share the channel in every cell.
– No physical change of channel during handoff
– MSC decides the base station with the best receiving signal as the service
station
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

MODULE-5

CONTENTS:
1.5 INTERFERENCE AND SYSTEM CAPACITY, CROSS TALK

OUTCOMES:

Explain Co-channel interference with near end far end interference.

 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.5 Interference and system capacity, cross talk

SOURCES OF INTERFERENCE
ANOTHER MOBILE IN THE SAME CELL
A CALL IN PROGRESS IN THE NEIGHBORING CELL
OTHER BASE STATIONS OPERATING IN THE SAME FREQUENCY BAND
NON-CELLULAR SYSTEM LEAKS ENERGY INTO THE CELLULAR
FREQUENCY BAND

Two major cellular interference

1. Co-channel interference
2. Adjacent channel interference
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.5 Interference and system capacity

FREQUENCY REUSE - THERE ARE SEVERAL CELLS THAT USE THE
SAME SET OF FREQUENCIES
CO-CHANNEL CELLS AND THE INTERFERENCE BETWEEN
SIGNALS FROM THESE CELLS IS CALLED CO-CHANNEL
INTERFERENCE

• To reduce co-channel interference, co-channel cell must be separated by a minimum

distance.
• When the size of the cell is approximately the same
– co-channel interference is independent of the transmitted power
– co-channel interference is a function of
• R: Radius of the cell
• D: distance to the center of the nearest co-channel cell
• Increasing the ratio q=D/R, the interference is reduced.
• q is called the co-channel reuse ratio
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.5 (A) Co-channel Interference and System Capacity

FOR A HEXAGONAL GEOMETRY

• A small value of Q provides large capacity

• A large value of Q improves the transmission quality - smaller level of co-channel
interference
• A tradeoff must be made between these two objectives

Co-channel Reuse ratio for some values of N

Cluster Size(N) Co-Channel Reuse Ratio(Q)
i=1,j=1 3 3
i=1,j=2 7 4.58
i=2,j=2 12 6
i=1,j=3 13 6.24
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.5 (A) Co-channel Interference and System Capacity

• Let be the number of co-channel interfering cells. The signal-to-interference ratio
(SIR) for a mobile receiver can be expressed as

S: the desired signal power

: interference power caused by the ith interfering co-channel cell base
station

• The average received power at a distance d from the transmitting antenna is

approximated by

close-in reference point

n is the path loss exponent which ranges between 2 and 4
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.5 (A) Co-channel Interference and System Capacity

• When the transmission power of each base station is equal, SIR for a mobile can be
approximated as

• Consider only the first layer of interfering cells

• Example: AMPS requires that SIR be greater

than 18dB
– N should be at least 6.49 for n=4.
– Minimum cluster size is 7
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.5 (A) Co-channel Interference and System Capacity

FOR HEXAGONAL GEOMETRY WITH 7-CELL CLUSTER, WITH THE MOBILE UNIT BEING
AT THE CELL BOUNDARY, THE SIGNAL-TO-INTERFERENCE RATIO FOR THE WORST
CASE CAN BE APPROXIMATED AS

For N = 7, Q = 4.6, and the worst case S/I is

approximated as 49.56 (17 dB)
The approximate solution yields 17.8 dB
To design the cellular system in worst case
N is ↑ to 12 (i = j = 2) implies C↓ spectrum
utilization ↓ 1/12
In practice, a capacity reduction of 7/12
would not be tolerable to accommodate for
the worst case situation which rarely
occurs.
Co-channel interference determines link
performance, which in turn dictates the
frequency reuse plan and the overall
capacity of cellular systems.
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

If a signal to interference ratio of 15 dB is required for

satisfactory forward channel performance of a cellular
system, what is the frequency reuse factor and cluster size
that should be used for maximum capacity if the path loss
exponent is (a) n = 4 , (b) n = 3? Assume that there are 6
co-channels cells in the first tier, and all of them are at the
same distance from the mobile. Use suitable
approximations.

(a) n = 4. First consider a 7-cell reuse pattern. D/R = (3N)1/2

=4.583.
S/I = (I/6)x(4.583)4 = 75.3 = 18.66 dB.
Since this is greater than the minimum required S/I, N = 7
can be used.
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

b) n = 3
First, let us consider a 7-cell reuse pattern.
S/I = (I/6)x(4.583)3 = 16.04 = 12.05 dB.
Since this is less than the minimum required S/I (15 dB), we
need to use a larger N.
The next possible value of N is 12, (I = j = 2).
For N=12, D/R = 6.0 and S/I is determined.
S/I = (I/6)x(6)3 = 36 = 15.56 dB.
Since this is greater than the minimum required S/I, N = 12
can be used.
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.5.(B) ADJACENT CHANNEL INTERFERENCE

ADJACENT CHANNEL INTERFERENCE:
INTERFERENCE RESULTING FROM SIGNALS WHICH ARE ADJACENT IN
FREQUENCY TO THE
DESIRED SIGNAL
IMPERFECT RECEIVER FILTERS ALLOW NEARBY FREQUENCIES TO LEAK INTO
THE PASS BAND.
PERFORMANCE DEGRADES SERIOUSLY DUE TO NEAR-FAR EFFECT ( IF AN
ADJACENT
CHANNEL USER IS TRANSMITTING IN VERY CLOSE RANGE TO A SUBSCRIBER'S
RECEIVER, WHILE
THE RECEIVER ATTEMPTS TO RECEIVE A BASE STATION ON THE DESIRED
CHANNEL).
ALTERNATIVELY, THE NEAR-FAR EFFECT OCCURSFrequency
WHEN A MOBILE
separationCLOSE TO
between
A BASE STATION TRANSMITS ON A CHANNEL CLOSE TOchannel
each ONE BEING USEDcell
in a given BYisAas
WEAK MOBILE. large as possible to reduce ACI.
THE BASE STATION MAY HAVE DIFFICULTY IN DISCRIMINATING THEgreater
Channel separation DESIRED than
MOBILE USER six is needed to reduce ACI, or
FROM THE "BLEEDOVER" CAUSED BY THE CLOSE ADJACENT
tighter baseCHANNEL MOBILE.
station filters are
needed .
Base station receiver is preceded
by a high Q cavity filter to reject
ACI.
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.5.(B) ADJACENT CHANNEL INTERFERENCE

• Adjacent channel interference can be minimized through careful filtering and channel
assignment.
• Keep the frequency separation between each channel in a given cell as large as possible
• A channel separation greater than six is needed to bring the adjacent channel interference
to an acceptable level

• Adjacent channel interface can be reduced by:

- channel Assignments
- Careful filtering
- Reduction of near-end-far –end interference

• Adjacent channel interference is again classified into 2 types

1. Next channel interference
2. Neighboring channel interference
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.5.(B) ADJACENT CHANNEL INTERFERENCE

Power Control for Reducing Interference:
• Ensure each mobile transmits the smallest power necessary to maintain a
good quality link on the reverse channel
– long battery life
– increase SIR
– solve the near-far problem

Power control is especially important for emerging CDMA spread spectrum

systems that allow every user in every cell to share the same radio channel.
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

MODULE-6

CONTENTS:
1.6. TRUNKED RADIO SYSTEM
1.7. ENHANCING CAPACITY AND CELL COVERAGE

OUTCOMES:
Remember concepts of cell coverage for signal and traffic
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.6. TRUNKED RADIO SYSTEM

CELLULAR RADIO SYSTEMS RELY ON TRUNKING TO ACCOMMODATE A
LARGE NUMBER OF
USERS IN A LIMITED RADIO SPECTRUM. . IN A TRUNKED RADIO SYSTEM,
EACH USER IS ALLOCATED A CHANNEL ON A PER CALL BASIS, AND UPON
TERMINATION OF THE CALL, THE PREVIOUSLY OCCUPIED CHANNEL IS
IMMEDIATELY RETURNED TO THE POOL OF AVAILABLE CHANNELS.
TRAFFIC
THE PRODUCT OF THE CALLING RATE AND THE AVERAGE HOLDING TIME IS
DEFINED AS THE TRAFFIC INTENSITY.
THE CONTINUOUS SIXTY-MINUTE PERIOD DURING WHICH THE TRAFFIC
INTENSITY IS HIGH IS THE BUSY HOUR. WHEN THE TRAFFIC EXCEEDS THE
LIMIT TO WHICH THE SWITCHING SYSTEM IS DESIGNED, A SUBSCRIBER
EXPERIENCES BLOCKING
Erlang
The traffic in a telecommunication network is measured by an internationally
accepted unit of traffic intensity known as Erlang (E).

A switching resource is said to carry one Erlang of traffic if it is continuously

occupied through a given period of observation.
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.6. TRUNKED RADIO SYSTEM

ERLANGS: ONE ERLANG REPRESENTS THE AMOUNT OF TRAFFIC
DENSITY CARRIED BY A CHANNEL THAT IS COMPLETELY OCCUPIED.
EX: A RADIO CHANNEL THAT IS OCCUPIED FOR 30 MINUTES DURING AN
HOUR CARRIES
0.5 ERLANGS OF TRAFFIC.
GRADE OF SERVICE (GOS): THE GRADE OF SERVICE (GOS) IS A MEASURE
OF THE ABILITY OF A USER TO ACCESS A TRUNKED SYSTEM DURING THE
• BUSIEST
Each userHOUR. ALSO
generates DEFINED
a traffic AS THE
intensity of LIKELIHOOD THAT
Au Erlangs given by A CALL IS
BLOCKED.
H: average duration of a call, μ : avg number of call requests per unit time
• For a system containing U users and an unspecified number of channels,
the total offered traffic intensity A, is given by

• For C channel trunking system, the traffic intensity, is given as

• The AMPS cellular system is designed for a GOS of 2% blocking.

• This implies that the channel allocations for cell sites are designed so that 2
out of 100 calls will be blocked due to channel occupancy during the
busiest hour.
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.6. TRUNKED RADIO SYSTEM

SET-UP TIME: THE TIME REQUIRED TO ALLOCATE A TRUNKED
RADIO CHANNEL TO A REQUESTING USER.
BLOCKED CALL: CALL WHICH CANNOT BE COMPLETED AT TIME
OF REQUEST, DUE TO CONGESTION. ALSO REFERRED TO AS A
LOST CALL.
HOLDING TIME: AVERAGE DURATION OF A TYPICAL CALL.
DENOTED BY H (IN SEC).
TRAFFIC INTENSITY: MEASURE OF CHANNEL TIME UTILIZATION,
WHICH IS THE AVERAGE CHANNEL OCCUPANCY MEASURED IN
ERLANGS. THIS IS A DIMENSIONLESS QUANTITY AND MAY BE
USED TO MEASURE THE TIME UTILIZATION OF SINGLE OR
MULTIPLE CHANNELS. DENOTED BY A.
LOAD: TRAFFIC INTENSITY ACROSS THE ENTIRE TRUNKED RADIO
SYSTEM, MEASURED IN ERLANGS.
GRADE OF SERVICE (GOS): A MEASURE OF CONGESTION WHICH IS
SPECIFIED AS THE PROBABILITY OF A CALL BEING BLOCKED
(FOR ERLANG B), OR THE PROBABILITY OF A CALL BEING
DELAYED BEYOND A CERTAIN AMOUNT OF TIME (FOR ERLANG
C).
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.6. TRUNKED RADIO SYSTEM

TRUNKING EFFICIENCY IS A MEASURE OF THE NUMBER OF USERS
WHICH CAN BE OFFERED A PARTICULAR GOS WITH A
PARTICULAR CONFIGURATION OF FIXED CHANNELS. THE WAY IN
WHICH CHANNELS ARE GROUPED CAN SUBSTANTIALLY ALTER
THE NUMBER OF USERS HANDLED BY A TRUNKED SYSTEM.
FOR EXAMPLE, 10 TRUNKED CHANNELS AT A GOS OF 0.01 CAN
SUPPORT 4.46 ERLANGS OF TRAFFIC, WHEREAS 2 GROUPS OF 5
TRUNKED CHANNELS CAN SUPPORT 2 X 1.36 ERLANGS, OR 2.72
ERLANGS OF TRAFFIC.

CLEARLY, 10 CHANNELS TRUNKED TOGETHER SUPPORT 60%

MORE TRAFFIC AT A SPECIFIC GOS THAN DO TWO 5 CHANNEL
TRUNKS! IT SHOULD BE CLEAR THAT THE ALLOCATION OF
CHANNELS IN A TRUNKED RADIO SYSTEM HAS A MAJOR IMPACT
ON OVERALL SYSTEM CAPACITY.
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.7. Enhancing capacity and cell coverage

• METHODS FOR IMPROVING CAPACITY IN CELLULAR SYSTEMS:
1. CELL SPLITTING: SUBDIVIDING A CONGESTED CELL INTO SMALLER
CELLS.
2. SECTORING: DIRECTIONAL ANTENNAS TO CONTROL THE
INTERFERENCE AND FREQUENCY REUSE.
3. COVERAGE ZONE : DISTRIBUTING THE COVERAGE OF A CELL AND
EXTENDS THE CELL BOUNDARY TO HARD-TO-REACH PLACE
1. Cell splitting: Reduce R to R/2
microcell
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.7. Enhancing capacity and cell coverage

1. CELL SPLITTING:
TRANSMISSION POWER REDUCTION FROM TO
EXAMINING THE RECEIVING POWER AT THE NEW AND OLD CELL BOUNDARY

• If we take n = 4 and set the received power equal to each other

• The transmit power must be reduced by 12 dB in order to fill in the original

coverage area.
• Problem: if only part of the cells are split
– Different cell sizes will exist simultaneously
• Handoff issues - high speed and low speed traffic can be simultaneously
accommodated
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.7. Enhancing capacity and cell coverage

❖ 1. CELL SPLITTING: CELL SPLITTING INCREASES THE CAPACITY OF A CELLULAR
SYSTEM SINCE IT INCREASES THE NUMBER OF TIMES THAT CHANNELS ARE REUSED.
IN ORDER TO COVER THE ENTIRE SERVICE AREA WITH SMALLER CELLS,
APPROXIMATELY FOUR TIMES AS MANY CELLS WOULD BE REQUIRED.
THE INCREASED NUMBER OF CELLS WOULD INCREASE THE NUMBER OF CLUSTERS
OVER
THE COVERAGE REGION, WHICH IN TURN WOULD INCREASE THE NUMBER OF
CHANNELS, AND
Original transmitINpower
THUS CAPACITY, for all newAREA.
THE COVERAGE cells or the new transmit power for all the
original cells is not possible
-If the larger transmit power is used for all cells, channels used by the smaller
cells would not be sufficiently separated from co-channel cells.
-If the smaller transmit power is used for all the cells, there would be parts of
the larger cells left unserved.
-For this reason, channels in the old cell must be broken down into two channel
groups, one that corresponds to the smaller cell reuse requirements and the
other that corresponds to the larger cell reuse requirements.
-At the beginning of the cell splitting process there will be fewer channels in the
small power groups. This splitting process continues until all the channels in an
area are used in the lower power group, at which point cell splitting is complete
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.7. Enhancing capacity and cell coverage

ASSUME EACH BASE STATION USES 60 CHANNELS, REGARDLESS OF
CELL SIZE. IF EACH ORIGINAL CELL HAS A RADIUS OF 1 KM AND EACH MICROCELL HAS
A
RADIUS OF 0.5 KM, FIND THE NUMBER OF CHANNELS CONTAINED IN A 3 KM BY 3 KM
SQUARE CENTERED AROUND A, (A) WITHOUT THE USE OF MICROCELLS, (B) WHEN THE
LETTERED MICROCELLS AS SHOWN IN FIGURE ARE USED, AND (C) IF ALL THE ORIGINAL
BASE STATIONS ARE REPLACED BY MICROCELLS. ASSUME CELLS ON THE EDGE OF THE
SQUARE TO BE CONTAINED WITHIN THE SQUARE.
(a) From Figure
, we see that
this area
contains 5 base
stations. Since
each base
station has 60
channels, the
total number of
channels
without cell
splitting is
equal to 5 x 60
= 300 channels
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.7. Enhancing capacity and cell coverage

(B) WITH THE USE OF THE MICROCELLS AS SHOWN IN FIGURE : THE BASE STATION
A IS SURROUNDED BY 6 MICROCELLS. THEREFORE, THE TOTAL NUMBER OF BASE
STATIONS IN THE SQUARE AREA UNDER STUDY IS EQUAL TO 5 + 6 = 11. SINCE
EACH BASE STATION HAS 60 CHANNELS, THE TOTAL NUMBER OF
CHANNELS WILL BE EQUAL TO 11 X 60 = 660 CHANNELS.
THIS IS A 2.2 TIMES INCREASE IN CAPACITY WHEN COMPARED TO CASE (A).
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.7. Enhancing capacity and cell coverage

(C) IF ALL THE BASE STATIONS ARE REPLACED BY MICROCELLS:
FROM FIGURE , WE SEE THAT THERE ARE A TOTAL OF 5 + 12 = 17 BASE STATIONS
IN THE SQUARE REGION UNDER STUDY. SINCE EACH BASE STATION HAS 60
CHANNELS, THE TOTAL NUMBER OF CHANNELS WILL BE EQUAL TO 17 X 60 = 1020
CHANNELS. THIS IS A 3.4 TIMES INCREASE IN CAPACITY WHEN COMPARED TO
CASE (A). THEORETICALLY, IF ALL CELLS WERE MICROCELLS HAVING HALF THE
RADIUS OF THE ORIGINAL CELL, THE-CAPACITY INCREASE WOULD APPROACH 4.
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.7. Enhancing capacity and cell coverage

2. SECTORING:
DECREASE THE CO-CHANNEL INTERFERENCE AND KEEP THE CELL RADIUS R
UNCHANGED.
- REPLACING SINGLE OMNI-DIRECTIONAL ANTENNA BY SEVERAL DIRECTIONAL
ANTENNAS
- RADIATING WITHIN A SPECIFIED SECTOR
THE TECHNIQUE FOR DECREASING CO-CHANNEL INTERFERENCE AND THUS
INCREASING SYSTEM CAPACITY BY USING DIRECTIONAL ANTENNAS IS
CALLED SECTORING.
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.7. Enhancing capacity and cell coverage

2. SECTORING:
CAPACITY IMPROVEMENT IS ACHIEVED BY REDUCING THE NUMBER OF CELLS IN A
CLUSTER AND THUS INCREASING THE FREQUENCY REUSE. HOWEVER, IN ORDER TO
DO THIS, IT IS NECESSARY TO REDUCE THE RELATIVE INTERFERENCE WITHOUT
DECREASING THE TRANSMIT
POWER.
Interference Reduction
I/F experienced by a mobile located in the
right-most sector in the center cell labeled '5".
There are 6 co-channel cell sectors labeled "5“
Out of these 6 co-channel cells, only 2 cells have
sectors with antenna patterns which radiate into
the center cell, and hence a mobile in the center
cell will experience interference on the forward
link from only these two sectors.
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.7. Enhancing capacity and cell coverage

THE PENALTY FOR IMPROVED S/I AND THE RESULTING CAPACITY
IMPROVEMENT IS AN INCREASED NUMBER OF ANTENNAS AT EACH BASE
STATION, AND A DECREASE IN TRUNKING EFFICIENCY DUE TO CHANNEL
SECTORING AT THE BASE STATION. SINCE SECTORING REDUCES THE
COVERAGE AREA OF A PARTICULAR GROUP OF CHANNELS, THE NUMBER OF
HANDOFFS INCREASES.
IN SECTORING, THE AVAILABLE CHANNELS IN THE CELL MUST BE
SUBDIVIDED AND DEDICATED TO A SPECIFIC ANTENNA. THIS BREAKS UP
THE AVAILABLE TRUNKED CHANNEL POOL INTO SEVERAL SMALLER POOLS,
AND DECREASES TRUNKING EFFICIENCY.
Consider a cellular system in which an average call lasts 2 minutes,
and the probability of blocking is to be no more than 1%. Assume that
every subscriber makes 1 call per hour, on average. If there are a total
of 395 traffic channels for a 7-cell reuse system, there will be about 57
traffic channels per cell. Assume that blocked calls are cleared so the
blocking is described by the Erlang B distribution. From the Erlang B
distribution, it can be found that the unsectored system may handle
44.2 Erlangs or 1326 calls per hour.
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.7. Enhancing capacity and cell coverage

Now employing 120° sectoring, there are only 19 channels per antenna sector
(57/3 antennas). For the same probability of blocking and average call length,
it can be found from the Erlang B distribution that each sector can handle
11.2 Erlangs or 336 calls per hour. Since each cell consists of 3 sectors, this
provides a cell capacity of 3 x 336 = 1008 calls per hour, which amounts to a
24% decrease when compared to the unsectored case. Thus, sectoring
decreases the trunking efficiency while improving the S/I for each user in the
system.

It can be found that using 60° sectors improves the S/I even more.
In this case the number of first tier interferers is reduced from 6 to
only 1. This results in S/I = 29dB for a 7-cell system and enables 4-cell
reuse.
Of course, using 6 sectors per cell reduces the trunking efficiency and
increases the number of necessary handoffs even more. If the
unsectored system is compared to the 6 sector case, the degradation
in trunking efficiency can be shown to be 44%.
 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.7. Enhancing capacity and cell coverage

3. COVERAGE ZONE :
Zone sites are connected to a single base station and share
the same radio equipment.
The zones are connected by coaxial cable, fiber optic cable,
or microwave link to the base station.
Multiple zones and a single base station make up a cell

• Handoff not required at MSC between

zones within a cell
– No channel re-assignment
– BS will switch the channel to a
different zone site
• Reduce interference
– Low power transmitters are
employed
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MODULE-7

CONTENTS:
1.8. MANUAL AND AUTOMATIC ELECTRONIC EXCHANGES

OUTCOMES:
Differentiate various telephone exchanges
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1.8. Manual and automatic electronic exchanges

CALLING SUBSCRIBER: THE ONE WHO INITIATES THE CALL IS REFERRED TO AS

THE CALLING
SUBSCRIBER
CALLED SUBSCRIBER: THE ONE FOR WHOM THE CALL IS DESTINED IS THE
CALLED SUBSCRIBER
History and Growth Telegraphy was introduced in 1837
in Great Britain and in 1845 in France.

In March 1876, Alexander Graham Bell invented and

demonstrated his telephone set and the possibility of long
distance voice communication .

Alexander Graham Bell demonstrated the point-to-point

communication.
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1.8. Manual and automatic electronic exchanges

SWITCHING SYSTEMS:
A SWITCHING SYSTEM IS VARIEDLY KNOWN AS A SWITCHING OFFICE, A SWITCHING
CENTRE, A TELEPHONE EXCHANGE, A SWITCHING NODE OR SIMPLY A SWITCH. A
SWITCHING SYSTEM CONTAINS A NUMBER OF SWITCHING ELEMENTS

When a subscriber wants to

communicate with another a
connection is established between
the two subscribers at the
switching system by using one or
more switching element.

The functions performed by a

switching system in establishing
and releasing connections are
known as call processing
functions
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1.8. Manual and automatic electronic exchanges

CLASSIFICATION OF SWITCHING:

In electronic switching systems, the control functions are performed by a computer

or a processor. Hence, these systems are called stored program control (SPC).

The switching scheme used by electronic switching systems may be either space
division switching or time division switching
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1.8. Manual and automatic electronic exchanges

• BEFORE AUTOMATIC SWITCHING EXCHANGE WAS INVENTED, MANUAL

CROSSBAR SWITCHBOARD WAS USED

Manual crossbar Automatic switching

switchboard exchange

Mr. Strowger’s invented the automatic switch

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1.8. Manual and automatic electronic exchanges

1. IF THE CODED VALUES ARE TRANSFERRED DURING THE SAME TIME INTERVAL
FROM INPUT TO OUTPUT, THE TECHNIQUE IS CALLED SPACE SWITCHING.
2. IF THE VALUES ARE STORED AND TRANSFERRED TO THE OUTPUT AT A LATER
TIME INTERVAL, THE TECHNIQUE IS CALLED TIME SWITCHING.
3. A TIME DIVISION DIGITAL SWITCH MAY ALSO BE DESIGNED BY USING A
COMBINATION OF SPACE AND TIME SWITCHING TECHNIQUES.

The links that run between the Telecommunication Switching Network

switching systems are called
trunks, and those that run to the
subscriber premises are known as
subscriber or local lines.

The first commercial intercity

connection was operationalized
between New York and Boston in
1884.
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1.8. Manual and automatic electronic exchanges

1. NETWORK CONNECTION CANNOT BE SIMPLY MADE WITH TELEPHONE SETS
AND BUNCH OF WIRES, BUT A GOOD SYSTEM IS REQUIRED TO MAKE OR BREAK A
CONNECTION.

2. THIS SYSTEM IS KNOWN AS THE SWITCHING SYSTEM OR THE SWITCHING

OFFICE OR THE EXCHANGE.

3. THE SWITCHING SYSTEM, WHICH IS ALSO CALLED THE TELEPHONE EXCHANGE

A major component of a switching system or an exchange is the set of input and output
circuits called inlets and outlets, respectively.

The primary function of a switching system is to establish an electrical path between a given
inlet-outlet pair. The hardware used for establishing such a connection is called the
switching matrix or the switching fabric.
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1.8. Manual and automatic electronic exchanges

1.MANUAL EXCHANGE:
A MICROPHONE REQUIRES TO BE ENERGIZED IN ORDER TO PRODUCE ELECTRICAL
SIGNALS CORRESPONDING TO THE SPEECH WAVEFORM. N THE VERY EARLY SWITCHING
SYSTEMS, THE MICROPHONE WAS ENERGIZED USING A BATTERY AT THE SUBSCRIBER END.
LATER, A BATTERY LOCATED AT THE EXCHANGE WAS USED.
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1.8. Manual and automatic electronic exchanges

OPERATION:
OPERATOR WILL BE ALERTED WHEN RECEIVER IS LIFTED – SIGNAL LAMP WOULD LIGHT.

OPERATOR PLUGS THE ‘ANSWERING CORD’ INTO THE CALLER’S JACK.

OPERATOR WILL ASK THE CALLER FOR THE NUMBER TO BE CONNECTED TO.

IF THE CALLED SUBSCRIBER IS SOMEONE WITHIN THE OPERATOR’S LOCAL EXCHANGE, T HE

OPERATOR WILL PLUG THE CALLER’S ‘RINGING CORD’ INTO THE CALLED SUBSCRIBER JACK TO
START THE CALL.

IF the called subscriber is someone outside the operator’s local exchange, she would connect the caller’s
‘ringing cord’ to a trunk circuit to connect to another operator at the next local exchange start of a long
distance call.
The subsequent operator will repeat the process, and if the called subscriber is not within the other
operator’s local exchange, the call will be trunked to another local exchange.
A long distance call involves a chain operators across few local exchanges.
This chain of calls can only be made if the trunk lines are available between all the (involved) exchanges at the
same time.
When a call is completed, the operator would unplug the cords from the called subscriber jack
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1.8. Manual and automatic electronic exchanges

ACCORDINGLY, ONE MAY PLACE THE EXCHANGES IN ONE OF TWO CATEGORIES:
- LOCAL BATTERY (LB) EXCHANGES
- CENTRAL BATTERY (CB) EXCHANGES.
IN THE LB SYSTEMS, DRY CELLS WERE USED IN SUBSCRIBER SETS TO POWER
THE MICROPHONE.
LB SUBSCRIBER SETS WERE PROVIDED WITH A MAGNETO GENERATOR.
IN THIS CASE, A SUBSCRIBER NEEDED TO ROTATE A HANDLE TO GENERATE THE
REQUIRED ALTERNATING CURRENT TO OPERATE INDICATORS AT THE
EXCHANGE
The necessity to replace dry cells frequently and the cumbersome procedure of
rotating the magneto generator led to the development of CB exchanges.
The system consists of one or more switchboards manned by operators.

The subscriber lines are terminated on jacks mounted on the switchboard.

There is one jack for every subscriber line.
Associated with each jack is a light indicator to draw the attention of the operator.
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1.8. Manual and automatic electronic exchanges

2. AUTOMATIC ELECTRONIC EXCHANGES/STROWGER SWITCHING SYSTEM:
STROWGER SWITCHING SYSTEM WAS THE FIRST AUTOMATIC SWITCHING SYSTEM
DEVELOPED BY ALMON B. STROWGER IN 1889.
A GREATER DEGREE OF PRIVACY IS OBTAINED IN AUTOMATIC EXCHANGES AS NO
OPERATOR IS NORMALLY INVOLVED IN SETTING UP AND MONITORING A CALL

Strowger switching
system
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ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.8. Manual and automatic electronic exchanges

BI-MOTION SELECTOR
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ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.8. Manual and automatic electronic exchanges

STROWGER INVENTED TWO-MOTION SELECTOR.

E.g. Dialling no.

4388
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1.8. Manual and automatic electronic exchanges

2.AUTOMATIC ELECTRONIC EXCHANGES/STROWGER SWITCHING SYSTEM:
IN AUTOMATIC EXCHANGE , THE TIME REQUIRED TO ESTABLISH AND RELEASE A
CALL REMAINS MORE OR LESS OF THE SAME ORDER IRRESPECTIVE OF THE LOAD ON
THE SYSTEM OR THE TIME OF THE DAY.

ESTABLISHMENT AND REALESE OF CALLS ARE FASTER.

In introducing Dial Pulsing Mechanism in The telephone set, the following points have to
be considered:

1.Since the pulses are produced by make and break of the subscriber loop. There is
likelihood of sparking inside the telephone instrument
2.The transmitter receiver and the bell circuits of the telephone set may be damaged if the
dialing pulses are passed through them
3. The dialing habits of the users vary widely and hence all timing aspects should be
independent of user action
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1.8. Manual and automatic electronic exchanges

FEATURES OF STROWGER’ S SWITCH:
IN SMALL EXCHANGES (VILLAGE): 3 DIGITS NUMBERING SCHEME WAS USED. IN LARGE
EXCHANGES (TOWN, CITY): 4 TO 5 DIGITS NUMBERING SCHEME WAS USED.

TO CONNECT A CALL TO A ANOTHER EXCHANGE, A UNIFORM DIALING CODE WAS USED.

THE EXCHANGE-DEPENDANT-UNIQUE CODE WILL IDENTIFY A GIVEN EXCHANGE SO THAT

CALLS CAN BE MADE TO A SUBSCRIBER FROM THAT EXCHANGE REGARDLESS OF WHERE
THE CALL IS ORIGINATING FROM (THE CALLER’S LOCATION)

A DEVICE CALLED THE ‘TRANSLATOR’ WAS USED TO TRANSLATE THE UNIFORM CODE AND
ROUTE THE CALLS ACCORDINGLY.

Uniform codes used 3 digits numbering scheme,

often using the mnemonic system to help users
remember exchange codes easily.

For example: VICtoria (842)

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ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.8. Manual and automatic electronic exchanges

S.NO Manual Exchange Automatic Exchange

1 Responsibility of the Comparatively has the subscriber is A subscriber has to be educated as

subscriber simply to tell the number to the
operator. As regards the progress of the
call, the subscriber gets straight forward
reply form the operator such as line
engaged, number unobtainable etc.,
2 Access Manual operator has direct access via
the multiple of every subscriber in the
exchange
to how to dial .He should also be
familiar with the various tones
In automatic c exchange of the step
by step type of class have normally
to be routed through several ranks
of selection

3 Possibility of getting a
wrong number
4 Quality of service
5 Privacy
6 Traffic handling
capacity
Much higher, as the operator may hear
wrongly and again connect wrongly
The service give scope to the operator to
show favoritism
If the operator wishes , he can over hear
the conversation
It takes more time it complete the
establishment of a call, when all the card
circuits are engaged
Very much less
The service is uniform all
throughout the day and night
The conversation cannot be
overhead without introducing
additional circuits
It establishes a connection much
faster. It handles a larger number of
calls per minute in the busy hour
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ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.8. Manual and automatic electronic exchanges

BELLS FIRST TELEPHONE

Central hub

Operated
manually:
By actual
(women
workers)

Switch Board
Exchange
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ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Assignment Question
1. IF A TOTAL OF 66 MHZ OF BANDWIDTH IS ALLOCATED TO A CELLULAR SYSTEM WHICH USES
TWO 50 KHZ SIMPLEX CHANNELS COMPUTE THE NUMBER OF CHANNELS AVAILABLE PER
CELL IF A SYSTEM USES FOUR-CELL AND SEVEN –CELL REUSE.

2. IF SIGNAL TO INTERFERENCE RATIO OF 18 DB IS REQUIRED FOR SATISFACTORY

PERFORMANCE OF A CELLULAR SYSTEM WHAT IS THE FREQUENCY REUSE FACTOR THAT
SHOULD BE USED FOR MAXIMUM CAPACITY IF PATH LOSS EXPONENT IS 3?

3. IF SIR OF 15DB IS REQUIRED, FIND FREQUENCY REUSE FACTOR AND CLUSTER SIZE FOR
MAXIMUM CAPACITY WHEN N=4.

4. FOR A N=7 SYSTEM WITH P R [BLOCKING ]=1% AND AVERAGE CELL LENGTH OF 2MIN.FIND
THE TRAFFIC CAPACITY LOSS DUE TO TRUNKING FOR 57 CHANNELS WHEN GOING FROM OMNI
DIRECTIONAL ANTENNAS TO 60 SECTORED ANTENNAS(ASSUME THAT BLOCKED CALLS ARE
CLEARED AND THE AVERAGE PER USER CALL RATE IS Λ=1 PER HOUR).

5. EXPLAIN VARIOUS TYPES OF HANDOFF PROCESS FOR A SINGLE USER.

 MATRUSRI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Questions & Answers

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

Blooms Course
S.NO QUESTION Taxonomy Outcome
Level
1 Define Grade of service. L1 CO1

2 What are the advantages of Frequency Reuse concept? L1 CO1

3 Explain the concepts of cell splitting and cell sectoring. L2 CO1

4 Describe the methods to reduce adjacent channel L2 CO1

interference.
5 Discuss about the channel assignment strategies. L2 CO1
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ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Questions & Answers

LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS

Blooms Course
S.NO QUESTION Taxonomy Outcome
Level
1 Discuss the hand off strategies employed in the design of a L4 CO1
mobile communication system.
2 Derive an expression for a 7 cell system and assuming L4 CO1
distance between co-channel cell is R.
3 Explain sectoring and micro cell zone concepts for improving L2 CO1
coverage and capacity in cellular system.
4 Explain how cell splitting is used for improving coverage and L2 CO1
capacity of a cellular system.
5 Explain frequency reuse planning in cellular system. L2 CO1