MATRUSRI

ENGINEERING COLLEGE

MATRUSRI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING

SUBJECT NAME: MOBILE AND CELLULAR COMMUNICATIONS

FACULTY NAME: N SHRIBALA

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MOBILE AND CELLULAR COMMUNICATIONS

COURSE OBJECTIVES:
1. To understand the concept and implementation of frequency reuse an
Handoff techniques and to analyze interference and capacity enhancement.
2. To appreciate the factors influencing outdoor and indoor propagation
systems .
3. To analyze various multiple access protocols based on their merits and
demerits.
4. To visualize the system architectures and implementation of GSM and
CDMA based mobile communication systems.
5. To understand the concepts in various Mobile Technologies

COURSE OUTCOMES:
CO1: Illustrate the basic concepts cellular system and hand off mechanism.
CO2: Analyze the propagation of EM waves, types of channels and impact
of channel over propagation
CO3: Describe the multiple access techniques in Wireless communication
Systems
CO4: Describe the basic operation of GSM and CDMA
CO5: Understand latest trends in microprocessors.
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SYLLABUS
UNIT I- Basic Cellular system : Basic Cellular system and its
operation, frequency reuse, channel assignment strategies, Handoff
process, factors influencing handoffs, handoffs in different
Generations, Interference and system capacity, Cross talk, Enhancing
capacity and cell coverage, Trunked radio system. Manual and
Automatic Electronic Exchanges.

UNIT II- Free space propagation model : Free space propagation

model, three basic propagation mechanisms, practical link budget
design using path loss models, outdoor propagation models:
Durkin’s model and indoor propagation model, partition losses.
Small scale multipath propagation, Parameters of mobile multipath
channels, types of small scale fading. Cell Tower Antenna/radiation
pattern, Mobile antennas/ radiation patterns.
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UNIT III- Data multiple access Technologies in Communication:

FDMA, TDMA, SSMA, FHMA, CDMA, SDMA, Packet radio protocols,
CSMA, Reservation protocols time Frame details.

UNIT IV- GSM: Services and Features, System architecture, Radio

Sub system, Channel Types, Frame structure and Signal processing
CDMA: Digital Cellular standard IS-95, Forward Channel, Reverse
Channel.

UNIT V- Comparison of Mobile communication Technologies:

1G, 2G and 2.5G, technology Features of 3G and 4G and 5G, WLAN,
Bluetooth, PAN, Trends in Radio and Personal Communications,
UMTS system architecture and Radio Interface.
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TEXT BOOKS /REFERENCES

TEXT BOOKS:
1.Theodore.S. Rappaport, “Wireless Communications: Principles and
Practice,” 2/e, Pearson Education, 2010 2.William Stallings,
2. William. C.Y. Lee, “Mobile Communication Engineering,” 2/e,
Mc-Graw Hill, 2008.
3. T.L. Singal “Wireless Communication Systems,” 1/e, TMH
Publications, 2010.

REFERENCES:
1.William.C.Y. Lee, “Mobile Cellular Telecommunications: Analog
and Digital Systems,” 2/e, McGraw Hill, 2011.
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LESSON PLAN:
UNIT -I: Basic Cellular system

Text Book/
No. Relevant
S. No. Topic(S) Reference
of Hrs COs
Book
1. Basic Cellular system and its operation 2 CO1 T1,T2

2. Frequency reuse, 1 CO1 T1,T2

3. channel assignment strategies 1 CO1 T1,T2

4. Handoff process, factors influencing handoffs, 1 CO1 T1,T2

handoffs in different Generations,
5. Interference and system capacity, Cross talk, 1 CO1 T1,T2

6. Enhancing capacity and cell coverage, 1 CO1 T1,T2

7. Trunked radio system. 1 CO1 T1,T2

8. Manual and Automatic Electronic Exchanges . 1 CO1 T1,T2

TOTAL 9
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LESSON PLAN:
UNIT -II: Free space propagation model

Text Book/
No. Relevant
S. No. Topic(S) Reference
of Hrs COs
Book

1. Free space propagation model, three basic 1 CO2 T1,T2

propagation mechanisms,
2. practical link budget design using path loss models, 1 CO2 T1,T2

3. outdoor propagation models: Durkin’s model and 1 CO2 T1,T2

4. Indoor propagation model, partition losses 1 CO2 T1,T2

5. Small scale multipath propagation, Parameters of 1 CO2 T1,T2

mobile multipath channels, types of small scale
fading.
6. Cell Tower Antenna/radiation pattern, 1 CO2 T1,T2

7. Mobile antennas/ radiation patterns. 1 CO2 T1,T2

TOTAL 7
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LESSON PLAN:
UNIT -III: Data multiple access Technologies in Communication

Text Book/
No. Relevant
S. No. Topic(S) Reference
of Hrs COs
Book
1. Data multiple access Technologies in 2 CO3 T1
Communication: FDMA,
2. TDMA, 1 CO3 T1

3. SSMA, FHMA, 1 CO3 T1

4. CDMA, SDMA, 1 CO3 T1

5. Packet radio protocols, CSMA , 1 CO3 T1

6. Reservation protocols time Frame details 1 CO3 T1

TOTAL 07
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LESSON PLAN:
UNIT -IV: GSM

Text Book/
No. Relevant
S. No. Topic(S) Reference
of Hrs COs
Book

1. GSM: Services and Features, 1 CO4 T1

2. System architecture, Radio Sub system, 1 CO4 T1

3. Channel Types, Frame structure and Signal 1 CO4 T1

processing
4. CDMA: 1 CO4 T1

5. Digital Cellular standard IS-95, 1 CO4 T1

6. Forward Channel, Reverse Channel. 1 CO4 T1

TOTAL 06
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LESSON PLAN:

UNIT -V: Comparison of Mobile communication Technologies

Text Book/
No. Relevant
S. No. Topic(S) Reference
of Hrs COs
Book
1. 1G, 2G and 2.5G, 1 CO5 T1

2. Technology Features of 3G and 4G and 5G, WLAN, 2 CO5 T1

Bluetooth,
3. PAN, Trends in Radio and Personal 1 CO5 T1
Communications,
4. UMTS system architecture and Radio Interface 1 CO5 T1

Total 05
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PRE-REQUISITES FOR THIS COURSE:

AC, DC, AWP III-SEM 3-Credits

EXTERNAL SOURCES FOR ADDITIONAL LEARNING:

Relevance
Description Proposed Actions Relevance With POs
With PSOs
5G, Wi-max, Student Seminar
PO3, PO4, PO5 PSO2

CONTENT BEYOND SYLLABUS:

S. No. Topic Relevance with POs and
PSOs
1. MIMO PSO1
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UNIT-III: Data multiple access Technologies in Communication

INTRODUCTION:
INTRODUCES TIME, FREQUENCY AND CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS AS WELL S
MORE CENT MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES SUCH AS PACKET RESERVATION AND
SPACE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS. ALSO DESCRIBES HOW EACH ACCESS METHOD
CAN ACCOMMODATE A LARGE NUMBER OF MOBILE USERS AND DEMONSTRATES
HOW MULTIPLE ACCESS IMPACTS CAPACITY AD THE NETWORK INFRASTRUCTURE
OF CELLULAR SYSTEM

OUTCOMES:
Imbibe knowledge about Wireless Systems And Standards GSM channels, multiple
access scheme, TDMA, CDMA.
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UNIT-III: Data multiple access Technologies in Communication

INTRODUCTION:
INTRODUCES TIME, FREQUENCY AND CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS AS WELL S
MORE CENT MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES SUCH AS PACKET RESERVATION AND
SPACE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS. ALSO DESCRIBES HOW EACH ACCESS METHOD
CAN ACCOMMODATE A LARGE NUMBER OF MOBILE USERS AND DEMONSTRATES
HOW MULTIPLE ACCESS IMPACTS CAPACITY AD THE NETWORK INFRASTRUCTURE
OF CELLULAR SYSTEM

OUTCOMES:
Imbibe knowledge about Wireless Systems And Standards GSM channels, multiple
access scheme, TDMA, CDMA.
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UNIT-III: Data multiple access Technologies in Communication

CONTENTS:
3.1FDMA,
3.2 TDMA,
3.3 SSMA:
- FHMA,
- CDMA,
3.4 SDMA,
3.5 PACKET RADIO PROTOCOLS,
- CSMA
- RESERVATION PROTOCOLS TIME FRAME DETAILS

OUTCOMES:
Imbibe knowledge about Wireless Systems And Standards GSM channels,
multiple access scheme, TDMA, CDMA.
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MODULE-I

CONTENTS:
INTRODUCTION
3.1FDMA,

OUTCOMES:
Understand the introduction about multiple access techniques and FDMA.
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INTRODUCTION
Multiple Access Schemes:
Multiple Access schemes are used to allow many mobile user to share simultaneously a
finite amount of radio spectrum.
Or

The method of providing radio communication services Simultaneously to many users

over a wide are using a Fixed BW is called MULTIPLE ACCESS. The basic principle of
multiple access technique is to allow Frequency channel to be subdivided among many
users.

Based upon available BW allocated to the users, these techniques are categorized as 2
types:

1.Narrow band Systems

2. Wideband systems
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INTRODUCTION
NARROW BAND SYSTEMS:
1. IN THIS SYSTEMS, THE TRANSMISSION BW OF A SINGLE CHANNEL IS RELATED TO
THE EXPECTED
COHERENCE BW OF THE CHANNEL.
2. IN NB FDMA, USER IS ASSIGNED A PARTICULAR CHANNEL WHICH IS NOT SHARED
BY OTHER
USERS IN THE VICINITY AND IF FDD IS USED ,THEN THE SYSTEMS CALLED
FDMA/FDD.
3. IN NB TDMA, USERS ARE ALLOWED TO SHARE THE SAME RADIO CHANNEL BUT
ALLOCATES A UNIQUE
TIME SLOT TO EACH USER IN A CYCLICAL FASHION ON THE CHANNEL. NBTDMA IS
ALLOCATED
Wide band systems:
CHANNELS USING EITHER FDD OR TDD, AND SUCH SYSTEMS ARE CALLED
1. In WB systems, the transmission BW of a single channel is much larger than the
TDMA/FDD OR
coherence
TDMA/TDD
BW of the channel.
2. In WB multiple access systems a no. of transmitters are allowed to transmit on
the same channel.
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INTRODUCTION
FDD(FREQUENCY DIVISION DUPLEXING):
- TWO BANDS OF FREQUENCIES FOR EVERY USER
- FORWARD BAND
- REVERSE BAND
- DUPLEXER NEEDED
- FREQUENCY SEPARATION BETWEEN FORWARD BAND AND REVERSE BAND IS CONSTANT
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INTRODUCTION

TDD (TIME DIVISION DUPLEXING):

- USES TIME FOR FORWARD AND REVERSE LINK
- MULTIPLE USERS SHARE A SINGLE RADIO CHANNEL
- FORWARD TIME SLOT
- REVERSE TIME SLOT
- NO DUPLEXER IS REQUIRED
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3.1 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

FDMA:
-SINGLE CHANNEL PER CARRIER
-ALL FIRST GENERATION SYSTEMS USE FDMA.
- IN FDMA , THE AVAILABLE FREQUENCY BW BANDS AND THEIR SUB BANDS (I. E.,
CHANNELS) ARE
ALLOCATED TO THE DIFFERENT USERS.
- THESE CHANNELS ARE ASSIGNED ON DEMAND TO USERS WHO REQUEST SERVICE,
DURING THE
PERIOD OF THE CALL, NO OTHER USER CAN SHARE THE SAME CHANNEL.
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3.1 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

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3.1 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

.

Control channel
Forward (Downlink) control channel
Reverse (Uplink) control channel
Traffic channel
Forward traffic (traffic or information) channel
Reverse traffic (traffic or information) channel
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3.1 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

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3.1 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

NONLINEAR EFFECTS IN FDMA:
Many channels share the same antenna at the base station.

The power amplifiers or the power combiners, when operated at or near

saturation for maximum power efficiency, are nonlinear.

The nonlinearities cause signal spreading in the frequency domain and

generate inter-modulation (IM) frequencies.

The first U.S. analog cellular system, the Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS), is
based on FDMA/FDD.

A single user occupies a single channel while the call is in progress, and the single
channel is actually two simplex channels which are frequency duplexed with a 45 MHz
split.

When a call is completed, or when a handoff occurs, the channel is vacated so that
another mobile subscriber may use it.
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3.1 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

Multiple or simultaneous users are accommodated in AMPS by giving each user a

unique channel.

Voice signals are sent on the forward channel from the base station to mobile unit, and
on the reverse channel from the mobile unit to the base station.

In AMPS, analog narrowband frequency modulation (NBFM) is used to modulate the

carrier.
NO. OF CHANNELS IN FDMA:
The no. of channels that can be simultaneously supported in a FDMA system is:
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• The FDMA channel carries only one phone circuit at a time.

• If an FDMA channel is not in use, then it sits idle and cannot be used by other users
to increase or share capacity. It is essentially a wasted resource.
• After the assignment of a voice channel, the base station and the mobile transmit
simultaneously and continuously.
• The bandwidths of FDMA channels are relatively narrow (30 kHz) as each channel
supports only one circuit per carrier That is, FDMA is usually implemented in
narrowband systems.
• The symbol time is large as compared to the average delay spread. This implies that
the amount of intersymbol interference is low and, thus, little or no equalization is
required in FDMA narrowband systems.
• The complexity of FDMA mobile systems is lower when compared to TDMA systems,
though this is changing as digital signal processing methods improve for TDMA.
• Since FDMA is a continuous transmission scheme, fewer bits are needed for
overhead purposes (such as synchronization and framing bits) as compared to TDMA.
• FDMA systems have higher cell site system costs as compared to TDMA systems,
because of the single channel per carrier design, and the need to use costly bandpass
filters to eliminate spurious radiation at the base station.
• The FDMA mobile unit uses duplexers since both the transmitter and receiver
operate at the same time. This results in an increase in the cost of FDMA subscriber
units and base stations.
• FDMA requires tight RF filtering to minimize adjacent channel interference.
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If Bt is 12.5 MHz, Bguard is 10 kHz, and is Bc is 30 kHz, determine the

number of channels available in an FDMA system. (Ans: 416)

The number of channels available in the FDMA system is given as

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MODULE-2

CONTENTS:
INTRODUCTION
3.2 TDMA,

OUTCOMES:
Understand the Concept of TDMA.
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3.2 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

TDMA systems divide the radio spectrum into time slots, and in each slot only
one user is allowed to either transmit or receive.

Each user occupies a cyclically repeating time slot, so a channel may be

thought of as particular time slot that reoccurs every frame, where N time
slots comprise a frame
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3.2 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

TDMA systems transmit data in a buffer-and-burst method, thus the transmission for
any user is non-continuous.

This implies that, unlike in FDMA systems which accommodate analog FM, digital data
and digital modulation must be used with TDMA.

The transmission from various users is interlaced into a repeating frame structure as
shown in Figure. It can be seen that a frame consists of a number of slots. Each frame
is made up of a preamble, an information message, and tail bits.
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3.2 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

In TDMA/TDD, half of the time slots in the frame information message would be used for
the forward link channels and half would be used for reverse link channels.

In TDMA/FDD systems, an identical or similar frame structure would be used solely for
either forward or reverse transmission, but the carrier frequencies would be different
for the forward and reverse links.
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• TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users, where each user makes use of
nonoverlapping time slots.
• Data transmission for users of a TDMA system is not continuous, but occurs in bursts. This results
in low battery consumption, since the subscriber transmitter can be turned off when not in use
(which is most of the time).
• Because of discontinuous transmissions in TDMA, the handoff process is much simpler for a
subscriber unit, since it is able to listen for other base stations during idle time slots.
• An enhanced link control, such as that provided by mobile assisted handoff (MAHO) can be carried
out by a subscriber by listening on an idle slot in the TDMA frame.
• TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception, thus duplexers are not required.
Even if FDD is used, a switch rather than a duplexer inside the subscriber unit is all that is required
to switch between transmitter and receiver using TDMA.
• Adaptive equalization is usually necessary in TDMA systems, since the transmission rates are
generally very high as compared to FDMA channels.
• In TDMA, the guard time should be minimized. If the transmitted signal at the edges of a time slot
are suppressed sharply in order to shorten the guard time, the transmitted spectrum will expand
and cause interference to adjacent channels.
• High synchronization overhead is required in TDMA systems because of burst transmissions.
• TDMA transmissions are slotted, and this requires the receivers to be synchronized for each data
burst. In addition, guard slots are necessary to separate users, and this results in the TDMA
systems having larger overheads as compared to FDMA.
• TDMA has an advantage in that it is possible to allocate different numbers of time slots per frame
to different users. Thus bandwidth can be supplied on demand to different users by concatenating
or reassigning time slots based on priority.
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3.2 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

.

Channels in
Simplex Mode:
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3.2 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

No. of channels available

Efficiency of TDMA: where, Nr is the number of

The number of overhead bits per frame reference bursts per
frame, N t is the number of
traffic bursts per frame, br
is the number of overhead
Total number of bits per frame bits per reference burst, b p
Tf is the frame duration, and R is the channel bit rate. is the number of overhead
bits per preamble in each
Frame Efficiency slot, and bg is the number
of equivalent bits in each
guard time interval.
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3.2 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

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3.2 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

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3.3 . Spread Spectrum Multiple Access

Spread spectrum – a transmission technique wherein data occupy a larger
bandwidth than necessary

Bandwidth spreading is a accomplished before transmission using a code that

is independent of the transmitted data. The same code is used to demodulated the
data at receiving end.

Originally designed for military used to avoid jamming.

Why spread the signal over a wider spectrum?

more robust, will survive if part of the spectrum is noisy
will allow other systems to operate in the same environment

Two techniques
frequency hopping
direct sequence
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3.3 . Spread Spectrum Multiple Access

1. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
A pseudorandom sequence is used to change the radio signal
frequency across a broad frequency band in a random fashion.
The modulation technique implies that the radio transmitter
frequency hops from channel to channel in a predetermined fashion.
The RF signal is dehopped at the receiver end using a frequency
synthesizer control by a pseudorandom sequence generator.

A frequency hopping may be: Fast hopped/Slow hopped

Multiple simultaneous tx from several users is possible using FH as long as
each uses different FH sequences and not collide.
The difference between FHMA and a traditional FDMA system is that the
frequency hopped signal changes channels at rapid intervals.
If the rate of change of the carrier frequency is greater than the symbol rate
then the system is referred to as a fast frequency hopping system. If the
channel changes at a rate less than or equal to the symbol rate, it is called
slow frequency hopping,
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3.3 . Spread Spectrum Multiple Access

FHSS:
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3.3 . Spread Spectrum Multiple Access

FHSS:
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3.3 . Spread Spectrum Multiple Access

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

In this method, the radio signal is multiplied by a pseudorandom sequence whose
bandwidth is much greater than that signal itself – spreading its bandwidth.

Pseudorandom sequence directly phase modulates a carrier – increase the

bandwidth of transmission and lowering the spectral power density.

The resulting RF signal has a noise like spectrum. Noise to others but not to the
intended receiver.

The received signal is despread by correlating it with the local identical

pseudorandom sequence to spread the carrier at the receiver.
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3.3 . Spread Spectrum Multiple Access

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
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3.3 . Spread Spectrum Multiple Access

. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum for CDMA
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3.3 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

•Users share bandwidth by using code sequences that are orthogonal to each other
• Some second generation systems use CDMA
• Most of third generation systems use CDMA
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3.3 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

.
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3.3 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Signal transmission consists of the following steps:

1.A pseudo-random code is generated, different for each channel and each successive
connection.
2.The Information data modulates the pseudo-random code (the Information data is
“spread”).
3.The resulting signal modulates a carrier.
4.The modulated carrier is amplified and broadcast.

Signal reception consists of the following steps:

1.The carrier is received and amplified.

2.The received signal is mixed with a local carrier to recover the spread digital signal.
3.A pseudo-random code is generated, matching the anticipated signal.
4.The receiver acquires the received code and phase locks its own code to it.
5.The received signal is correlated with the generated code, extracting the Information
data.
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Comparisons of FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA

Operation FDMA TDMA CDMA

Allocated Bandwidth 12.5 MHz 12.5 MHz 12.5 MHz
Frequency reuse 7 7 1
Required channel BW 0.03 MHz 0.03 MHz 1.25 MHz
No. of RF channels 12.5/0.03=416 12.5/0.03=416 12.5/1.25=10
Channels/cell 416/7=59 416/7=59 12.5/1.25=10
Control channels/cell 2 2 2
Usable channels/cell 57 57 8
Calls per RF channel 1 4* 40**
Voice channels/cell 57x1=57 57x4=228 8x40=320
Sectors/cell 3 3 3
Voice calls/sector 57/3=19 228/3=76 320
Capacity vs FDMA 1 4 16.8
* Depends on the number of slots ** Depends on the number of codes
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Comparisons of FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA

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Comparisons of FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA

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3.4 Space Division Multiple Access

Space division multiple access (SDMA) controls the radiated energy for each user in
space.
Different areas covered by the antenna beam may be served by the same frequency (in
a TDMA or CDMA systern) or different frequencies (in an FDMA system). Sectorized
antennas may be thought of as a primitive application of SDMA.

The base station has complete control

over the power of all the transmitted
signals on the forward link. However,
because of the transmitted radio
propagation paths between each user
and the base station, the transmitted
power from each subscriber unit must
be dynamically controlled to prevent
any single user from driving up the
interference level for all other users
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3.4 Space Division Multiple Access

Transmit power is limited by battery consumption at the subscriber unit, therefore

there are limits on the degree to which power may be controlled on the reverse link. If
the base station antenna is made to spatially filter each desired user so that more
energy is detected from each subscriber, then the reverse link for each user is
improved and less power is required.

Adaptive antennas used at the base station promise to mitigate some of the problems
on the reverse link. In the limiting case of infinitesimal beam width and infinitely fast
tracking ability, adaptive antennas implement optimal SDMA, thereby providing a
unique channel that is free from the interference of all other users in the cell .

With SDMA, all users within the system would be able to communicate at the same
time using the same channel.
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Comparison of FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, SDMA

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MODULE-4

CONTENTS:
3.5 PACKET RADIO PROTOCOLS,
- CSMA
- RESERVATION PROTOCOLS TIME FRAME DETAILS

OUTCOMES:
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3.5 Packet radio protocols

Multiple access control channels:
Each node is attached to a
transmitter/receiver which
communicates via a channel
shared by other nodes.

Transmission from any node

is received by other nodes

•In Packet Radio (PR) access techniques, many subscribers attempt to access a
single channel in an uncoordinated manner • Collisions from simultaneous
transmissions from multiple transmitters are detected at the base station
receiver, in which case an ACK or NACK signal is broadcasted by the base station
to alert the user • PR subscribers use a contention technique to transmit on a
common channel
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3.5 Packet radio protocols

Contention protocols:
• Random Access: there is no coordination among the users and the
messages are transmitted from the users as they arrive at the transmitter.
• Scheduled Access: based on a coordinated access of users on the
channel and the users transmit messages within allotted slots or time
intervals.
• Hybrid Access: a combination of random access and scheduled access.
• ALOHA protocols: pure and slotted
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3.5 Packet radio protocols

Classification of Multiple Access Protocols:
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3.5 Packet radio protocols

.ALOHA
Developed in the 1970s for a packet radio network by Hawaii University.
Whenever a station has a data, it transmits. Sender finds out whether
transmission was successful or experienced a collision by listening to the
broadcast from the destination station. Sender retransmits after some random
time if there is a collision.
Slotted ALOHA
Improvement: Time is slotted and a packet can only be transmitted at the
beginning of one slot. Thus, it can reduce the collision duration.

CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)

Improvement: Start transmission only if no transmission is ongoing
CSMA/CD (CSMA with Collision Detection)
Improvement: Stop ongoing transmission if a collision is detected
CSMA/CA (CSMA with Collision Avoidance)
Improvement: Wait a random time and try again when carrier is quiet. If still
quiet, then transmit
CSMA/CA with ACK
CSMA/CA with RTS/CTS
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3.5 Packet radio protocols

Pure ALOHA:

The pure ALOHA protocol is a random access protocol used for data transfer.
A user accesses a channel as soon as a message is ready to be transmitted. After a
transmission, the user waits for an acknowledgment on either the same channel or a
separate feedback channel.
In case collision occurs the terminal waits for a random period of time and
retransmits the message. As the number of users increase, a greater delay occurs
because the probability of collision increases
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3.5 Packet radio protocols

Pure ALOHA:

In order to determine the throughput, it is important to determine the

vulnerable period, which is defined as the time interval during which the
packets are susceptible to collisions with transmissions from other users.
For the ALOHA protocol, the vulnerable period (time interval during which the
packets are susceptible to collisions with transmissions from other users) is
double the packet duration
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3.5 Packet radio protocols

.Throughput of ALOHA
For the ALOHA protocol, the vulnerable period (time interval during which the packets are
susceptible to collisions with transmissions from other users) is double the packet duration
Thus, the probability of no collision during this interval (2 packets time) is found by
evaluating Pr (n) given as

The probability P(0) that a packet is successfully received without collision is calculated
by letting n=0 in the above equation.

•We can calculate throughput T with a traffic load R as follows:

• The Maximum throughput of ALOHA is

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3.5 Packet radio protocols

Slotted ALOHA:

• Time is divided into equal time slots of length greater than the packet
duration .
• The subscribers each have synchronized clocks and transmit a message only
at the beginning of a new time slot.
• The vulnerable period of slotted ALOHA is only one packet duration, since
partial collisions are prevented through synchronization
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Comparison

Pure Aloha Slotted Aloha

In Pure Aloha, at any time can be sent In Slotted Aloha, each station can send
the data in any station. the data at the provided time slot.

The time is not globally synchronized The time is globally synchronized

Continuous time Discrete time

Vulnerable time is 2 * Tfr Vulnerable time is Tfr

The maximum throughput occurs at The maximum throughput occurs at

R = 1/2 which is 18.4%. R = 1 which is 37%.

Slotted Aloha reduces collision

Pure Aloha does not reduce to half the
numbers to half, therefore doubles
number of collisions.
the efficiency.
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Determine the maximum throughput that can be achieved using ALOHA and
slotted ALOHA protocols.

Thus the best traffic utilization one can hope for using
ALOHA is 0.184 Erlangs.

The maximum throughput for slotted ALOHA is found by taking the derivative
of equation and equating it to zero.

Maximum throughput is found by substituting Rmax in equation, and this value

can be seen as the maximum throughput.

Notice that slotted ALOHA provides a maximum channel utilization of 0.368

Erlangs, double that of ALOHA.
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ENGINEERING COLLEGE

3.5 Packet radio protocols

.
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
By listening to the channel before engaging in transmission, greater efficiencies
may be achieved. CSMA protocols are based on the fact that each terminal on
the network is able to monitor the status of the channel before transmitting
information. If the channel is idle (i.e., no carrier is detected), then the user is
allowed to transmit a packet based on a particular algorithm which is common
to all transmitters on the network.

Variations:
– 1-persistent CSMA
– non-persistent CSMA
– p-persistent CSMA
– CSMA/CD
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. 1-persistent CSMA
•The terminal listens to the channel and waits for transmission until it finds the
channel idle.
•As soon as the channel is idle, the terminal transmits its message with
probability one.

2.non-persistent .CSMA
•In this type of CSMA strategy after receiving a negative acknowledgment the
terminal waits a random time before retransmission of the packet.
•This is popular for wireless LAN applications, where the packet transmission
interval is much greater than the propagation delay to the farthermost user.

3. p-persistent CSMA
• p-persistent CSMA is applied to slotted channels.
•When a channel is found to be idle, the packet is transmitted in the first
available slot with probability p or in the next slot with probability 1-p.
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3.5 Packet radio protocols

. 4. CSMA/CD
• In CSMA with collision detection (CD), a user monitors its transmission for
collisions.
•If two or more terminals start a transmission at the same time, collision is
detected, and the transmission is immediately aborted in midstream.
•This is handled by a user having both a transmitter and receiver which is able
to support listen-while-talk operation.
•For a single radio channel, this is done by interrupting the transmission in
order to sense the channel.
•For duplex systems, a full duplex transceiver is used .
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3.5 Packet radio protocols

Throughput:
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3.5 Packet radio protocols

CSMA/CD (CSMA with Collision Detection)
▪In CSMA, if 2 terminals begin sending packet at the same time, each will transmit its
complete packet (although collision is taking place).

▪Wasting medium for an entire packet time.

CSMA/CD
Step 1: If the medium is idle, transmit
Step 2: If the medium is busy, continue to listen until the channel
is idle then transmit
Step 3: If a collision is detected during transmission,
cease transmitting
Step 4: Wait a random amount of time and repeats the same
algorithm
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3.5 Packet radio protocols

CSMA/CD:
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3.5 Packet radio protocols

. CSMA/CA (CSMA with collision Avoidance):

▪All terminals listen to the same medium as CSMA/CD.

▪Terminal ready to transmit senses the medium.

▪If medium is busy it waits until the end of current transmission.

▪It again waits for an additional predetermined time period DIFS (Distributed inter
frame Space).

▪Then picks up a random number of slots (the initial value of backoff counter) within a
contention window to wait before transmitting its frame.

▪If there are transmissions by other terminals during this time period (backoff time), the
terminal freezes its counter.

▪It resumes count down after other terminals finish transmission + DIFS. The terminal
can start its transmission when the counter reaches to zero.
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3.5 Packet radio protocols

. CSMA/CA:
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3.5 Packet radio protocols

CSMA/CA/ACK

▪Immediate Acknowledgements from receiver upon reception of data frame without

any need for sensing the medium.
▪ACK frame transmitted after time interval SIFS (Short Inter-Frame Space) (SIFS < DIFS)
▪Receiver transmits ACK without sensing the medium.
▪If ACK is lost, retransmission done.
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3.3 . Spread Spectrum Multiple Access

CSMA/CA with RTS/CTS:
Transmitter sends an RTS (request to send) after medium has been idle for time
interval more than DIFS.

Receiver responds with CTS (clear to send) after medium has been idle for SIFS.

Then Data is exchanged.

RTS/CTS is used for reserving channel for data transmission so that the collision
can only occur in control message.
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3.5 Packet radio protocols

CSMA/CA with RTS/CTS RTS/CTS

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3.5 Packet radio protocols

.Reservation Protocols

Reservation ALOHA is a packet access scheme based on time division multiplexing.

In this protocol, certain packet slots are assigned with priority, and it is possible for
users to reserve slots for the transmission of packets.

Slots can be permanently reserved or can be reserved on request. For high traffic
conditions, reservations on request offers better throughput.

In one type of reservation ALOHA, the terminal making a successful transmission

reserves a slot permanently until its transmission is complete, although very large
duration transmissions may be interrupted.

Another scheme allows a user to transmit a request on a subslot which is reserved in

each frame
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Assignment Question
1. DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN PURE ALOHA AND SLOTTED ALOHA. DETERMINE THE
MAXIMUM VALUE OF THROUGHPUT FOR EACH ALOHA.

2. COMPARE SSMA AND FHMA.

3. IN AN UNSLOTTED ALOHA SYSTEM THE PACKET ARRIVAL TIMES FROM A POISSON

PROCESS HAVING A RATE OF 103 PACKETS/SEC. IF THE BIT RATE IS 10MBPS AND
THERE ARE 1000 BITS/PACKET, FIND NORMALIZED THROUGH PUT OF THE SYSTEM
AND NUMBER OF BITS PER PACKET THAT WILL MAXIMIZE THE THROUGH PUT.

4. A CELLULAR OPERATOR IS ALLOCATED TOTAL SPECTRUM OF 25MHZ AND GUARD

BAND 12.5KHZ.IF THE CHANNEL BANDWIDTH IS 25 KHZ, FIND THE NUMBER OF
SIMULTANEOUS USERS SUPPORTED IN TDMA SYSTEM IF 8 USERS ARE SUPPORTED ON
EACH RADIO CHANNEL?

5. EXPLAIN FORWARD CDMA CHANNEL MODULATION PROCESS.

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Questions & Answers

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

Blooms Course
S.NO QUESTION Taxonomy Outcome
Level
1 Differentiate between TDMA and FDMA. L2 C03

2 Write features of CSMA. L1 C03

3 What is time division duplexing? L1 C03

4 Define frame efficiency of a TDMA system. L1 C03

5 Explain the advantages of CDMA over FDMA. L2 C03

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Questions & Answers

LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS
Blooms Course
S.NO QUESTION Taxonomy Outcome
Level
1 Differentiate between pure ALOHA and slotted ALOHA. L3 CO3
Determine the maximum value of throughput for each
ALOHA.
2 Explain SSMA technology .What are the advantages over L2
FDMA & TDMA?
CO3
3 Differentiate between FDMA, TDMA and CDMA techniques L2 CO3

4 Explain in detail CSMA protocol. L3 CO3

5 In an unslotted ALOHA system the packet arrival times L3 CO3

from a Poisson process having a rate of 103 packets/sec.If
the bit rate is 10Mbps and there are 1000 bits/packet, find
normalized through put of the system and number of bits
per packet that will maximize the through put.