Image Production, Film & Processing

UCD Radiography & Diagnostic Imaging Assoc. Prof.
Jonathan McNulty
School of Medicine 17/02/2023
Radiography and Diagnostic Imaging Radagraphaíochta agus Iomháineas Fáithmheasta Radiography and Diagnostic Imaging Radagraphaíochta agus Iomháineas Fáithmheasta
School of Medicine Scoil an Leighis School of Medicine Scoil an Leighis
Image Production and Film /

X-ray Film (Dental)
Film Processing
Dr Jonathan McNulty
UCD School of Medicine
1 2
General Overview X-ray Film

• Types of film
• Film – sensitive to light and/or, X-rays. – Direct exposure film
– Indirect exposure / screen type film
– Will contain image!
• Film structure / composition
– Layers
• ± Intensifying screens –
–
Emulsion
Image production
– Speed
• ± Cassette • Intraoral films
• Film storage
3 4
Types of Film Types of Film

Sensitive to light / X-ray • One emulsion or two emulsions
• Direct (X-ray sensitive)

• Single emulsion
– Intraoral
– Screen type film (light sensitive)
• Screen type film (light sensitive) • Panoramic (OPG) / Cephalometry
– Panoramic (OPG) / Cephalometry
• Duplitised / double emulsion
– Direct (X-ray sensitive)
• Intraoral
– Screen type film (light sensitive)
• Panoramic (OPG) / Cephalometry
5 6
1
UCD Radiography & Diagnostic Imaging Assoc. Prof. Jonathan McNulty
Direct Action / Direct Exposure (Non Carestream (Kodak) Insight Dental Film
Screen Film)
• Exposed directly by X-rays
• Principles / Advantages / Disadvantages

– Quality – higher resolution than screen type film
– Thickness - emulsion
– Processing – time, equipment
– ↑ Dose
• Film packet (covering, paper, film, lead foil)
7 8
Film Composition Emulsion

• Gelatin
double emulsion adhesive / • Silver halides (Ag+X-) – react to light / X-rays
(emulsion on both sides) blue-tinted base substratum
• Also:
– Sensitisers (spectral sensitivity)
– Anti-froth agent (no bubbles)
– Plasticiser (flexibility)
supercoat – Hardener (prevents swelling…)
Adhesive /
substratum – Bactericide & fungicide
emulsion with silver
halide crystals and
– Impurities
supercoat gelatin – ?Dye
9 10
Emulsion: Silver Halides Characteristics of emulsion grains

• Atoms of silver combined with atoms of halides • Size – determines speed
• Pale yellow or white crystalline salts, relatively stable but
can be converted to metallic silver in a reducing agent • Size distribution (range of sizes) – determines contrast
• This happens much more readily after the crystal has been
exposed to X-rays or light
• Spectral sensitivity (sensitisers) – Screen type film only!
– Silver bromide (Ag+Br -) 90-100%
• Sensitive to light up to 480nm wavelength
– Silver iodide (Ag+I -) 0-10%
• Extends sensitivity to 530nm
11 12
2
Carestream (Kodak) Intraoral Film Emulsion grains as seen under an electron

microscope
Tabular
• Kodak Insight film (F-speed) - tabular (flat) crystals (60% less exposure)
• Kodak Ultraspeed film (D-speed) with globular (rounded) crystals
tabular globular
top Globular
side
13 14
Emulsion: Speed Characteristic Curves

• Represents the amount of radiation required to • A graph showing the variation in optical density (degree of
produce a radiograph of acceptable density. Film speed blackening) with different exposures.
increased with larger silver halide crystals.
Too light Optimal density Too dark

Screen type film Direct exposure film
15 16
Characteristic Curves Carestream Dental Film: Characteristic Curves
Carestream Insight film

requires approximately
60% less exposure
17 18
3
Emulsion: On Exposure Latent Image Formation

• Incident photon (light / X-
• Photon interacts with negative Bromide ion ray) ejects Br electron
– Electron released, (ionisation).
• Electron trapped at
• Electron free to move for very short time before becoming
lodged in low energy electron trap called “sensitivity speck” sensitivity speck.
(introduced by impurities (Iodide & “sensitivity specks” -silver • Neg electron attracts
sulphide) added during manufacture), interstitial Ag+ ion.
– Negative charge builds up in sensitivity speck,
• Ag+ and e- combine to
• Eventually Ag+ ions attracted by negative sensitivity speck, form neutral metallic Ag
become Ag (metallic silver)
– Then termed “development centre”.
(black).
• Latent image, • If >6-10 Ag accumulate at

speck, it becomes a latent
• Processing makes changes which are macroscopic, visible (x109) – image center: ie, it is
visible image. developable.
19 20
The Invisible Image Film Sizes (Intraoral)
• The photographic effect # 0: Children (PA & BW); small mouths
• Silver halides # 1: Adult anterior (PA): paralleling
• Bromide barrier # 2: Adult anterior PA (Bisecting); adult

posterior PA & BW; children occlusal
• Depleted bromide barrier
# 3: Extra long BW
• The latent image
# 4: Adult Occlusal
21 22
Film Packet
• Keeps out light and moisture; protects emulsion
#2 #3 plastic paper
Sunken
dot
#1
#4 # of films
in packet
#2 #2 #1
#0 D-speed
tab
F-speed
(Ultraspeed) (Insight)
23 24
4
Raised Dot Kodak Clinasept Packets
• The raised dot on • Reduces the risk of cross-

contamination.
any intraoral
direct exposure
• Each intraoral film packet
film indicates the is encased in a clear
tube side barrier, which guards the
film packet against
contaminants.
• No need for separate

barrier envelopes.
notch
25 26
Kodak Supersoft Packets
• Increased patient comfort.
• Soft, round, cushioned edge

covers the perimeter of the
film packet.
• Separate barrier envelope

required.
27 28
Contents of Film Packet Backscatter

(scattered X-rays that go
Black paper: surrounds film; “back” toward the film)
protects emulsion.
Film: one or two films; raised

dot in one corner used for film
orientation.
Lead foil: protects film from

backscatter (see next slide);
reduces patient exposure;
strengthens packet; pattern on foil
identifies when film is placed
backwards (back of film faces
Primary beam X-rays
teeth).
Scatter X-ray photons
29 30
5
Indirect Action / Screen type Film Screen type film emulsion

• Exposed primarily by light • As per direct exposure film
• Single or double emulsion

• Extraoral examinations
• Always used in conjunction with an intensifying screen
• Principles • Spectral sensitivity (sensitisers)
– Monochromatic (blue)
• Uses – Orthochromatic (blue & green)
– Panchromatic (all)
• Spectral sensitivity - colour
31 32
Film Performance Film Storage

• Store at 10-210 Celcius
- storage at higher temperatures may
What can effect the performance of a film? result in film fogging.
• Grain size and grain size distribution
• Grain type • Minimal humidity, no windows (low light levels).
• Emulsion thickness • Opened boxes of screen (extraoral) film need to be kept in light-
• Storage and care tight area (darkroom); need to be cool.
– Expiration date
• Use film before expiration date to avoid film fogging.
– Shelf life
– Stock rotation • Do not store film in room where radiographs are taken.
– Location
33 34
Film Storage
• Lead-lined storage box for
intraoral films.
Film Processing:
• Must seal fully. Principles and Practice
• Can be stored in examination
room (must be closed during
exposures).
35 36
6
Introduction Latent Image

Air/soft tissue Bone Amalgam/metal
• The invisible image; Many X-rays penetrate Fewer X-rays penetrate Few, if any, X-rays
and expose many silver and not as many silver penetrate; silver
halide crystals halide crystals are halide crystals not
• Processing stages; exposed exposed
• Automatic;
• Equipment / lighting.
37 38
Processing Stages Developer

• To convert the invisible image to a visible image;
• Four main stages in film processing: • The sensitised silver halide grains in the emulsion are
converted to metallic silver to produce the black / grey
parts of the image;
1) Developer
• Not all developers are perfect and given time all silver
2) Fixer halide grains would be converted;
3) Wash – A good developer is highly selective (acting faster on
exposed grains to unexposed grains)
4) Dry – A poor developer (or good developer under bad conditions)
will act on unexposed grains producing chemical fog.
39 40
Developer Developing Solution
• Recognition of exposed and unexposed silver bromide

grains; e e
– Both surrounded by a negative charge barrier of bromine ions;
– Protects silver bromide grains from attack by electrons in e
developing solution.
e
e e
• Exposed silver bromide grains contain a weakness in their
protective charge barrier due to presence of neutral silver
atoms at the sensitivity speck (development centre);
– Allows developer electrons to enter grain and reduce all silver ions Unexposed silver bromide grain Exposed silver bromide grain
to metallic silver. (with sensitivity speck)
41 42
7
Developing Developing (continued)

Development centres converted to black metallic silver Entire crystal converted to black metallic silver
Air/soft tissue Bone Amalgam/metal Air/soft tissue Bone Amalgam/metal
43 44
Or….. Developing Solution

By-products of development
• Over time, as the exposed silver halide grains are reduced,

e
e the developer solution becomes depleted of electrons
(oxidised);
e • This also occurs through contact with air (aerial oxidation);
e • Thus the developer is exhausted!
e
e
• Also, the negative bromine ions left behind following
development may combine with hydrogen ions in the
Unexposed silver bromide grain
developer to form hydrobromic acid  pH drop!
• left in developer solution too long
• elevated temperature
• concentration too high
• raised pH
45 46
Developing agents Developing agents

• Reducing agents which supply electrons to allow • Modern X-ray developing solutions use a combination
formation of metallic silver; of:
– Phenidone
– Selective
– Hydroquinone (Quinol)
– High activity – to allow complete development in a
relatively short time (20-30sec) (90-120 sec total
• PQ developer
processing time).
• P = fast acting, good reducer but not very selective

• But….. • Q = greater selectivity, slower acting
↑ activity = ↓ selectivity
and vice-versa!
47 48
8
Factors affecting development Fixer

• To stop further development;
a) Temperature • The unsensitised sliver halide crystals in the emulsion are
removed to reveal the transparent / white parts of the
b) pH
image;
c) Time • To fix the image and render it chemically stable;
• The emulsion is hardened.
d) Replenishment
e) Developer constitution 1) To stop further development;

– By using an acidic solution – stops PQ developing agents from
functioning;
– In manual processing an intermediate rinsing stage (with some acid)
partially fulfils this function (acid stop-bath)
49 50
2) The unsensitised sliver halide crystals in the emulsion are

3) To fix the image and render it chemically stable;
removed to reveal the transparent / white parts of the
– No unexposed grains left = no longer sensitive to light;
image;
– Only approx 40% of silver halide converted to metallic silver. The
– Metallic silver image is now stable.
remaining 60% (unexposed grains) will obscure light transmission
giving the image a milky (opalescent) appearance; 4) The emulsion is hardened;
– During fixation unexposed grains made soluble and dissolve out of
– Further hardening of the emulsion;
the emulsion.
– The time taken to remove the ‘milky’ appearance is the clearing – Prevents it from absorbing too much water during washing
time and provides a useful indicator of the condition of fixing and minimises drying.
solution.
– Fixing / clearing agents make the grains soluble.
51 52
Fixing Constituents of fixer

Unexposed crystals removed from film • Solvent
• Fixing agent
Air/soft tissue Bone Amalgam/metal
• Acid
• Hardener
• Buffer
• Preservative
• Anti-sludging agent
53 54
9
Fixing agents Factors affecting fixation

• Combines with silver halide to form a soluble a) Temperature
compound that can be washed away.
• Over time these agents would start to dissolve the b) Time
metallic silver image but not in normal fixing time.
– Ammonium thiosulpate (highly soluble, high activity – 15 sec fixing,
highly soluble by-products). c) Fixer constitution
• Acidic fixer used to prevent development from continuing in the

fixer (if this happens dichroic fog can occur – characteristic d) Replenishment
yellow-green-blue tinged staining when viewed with reflective
light or pink with transmitted light);
– Weak acetic acid included (thus pH ~ 4.1-4.4).
55 56
Wash Dry
• The film is washed thoroughly to remove residual chemistry;
• The final radiograph is dried;
• Normal tap water used in automatic processing (filtration
system to remove particles); • ‘Wet films’ – manual process;
• Agitation and temperature are important! • Automatic – surface water removed by squeegee
rollers and drying time ~ 25 secs;
• The washing process is never 100% efficient but enough
chemistry removed so that no staining occurs in the life of the • Hot, dry air;
radiograph (e.g. 10 yrs).
– Automatic ~ 15 sec
– Manual minimum of 10 mins advised • Type of film!
57 58
Manual Processing
Radiography and Diagnostic Imaging
School of Medicine
Radagraphaíochta agus Iomháineas Fáithmheasta
Scoil an Leighis
Radiography and Diagnostic Imaging
School of Medicine
Radagraphaíochta agus Iomháineas Fáithmheasta
Scoil an Leighis
Film Processing:
Practice
59 60
10
Automatic Processors
Dental Automatic Processor
Film
Film
Exit Dryer
Entry
(heater, fan)
Developer Fixer Wash
61 62
Cycle Time Replenishment & Recirculation
• Dry to dry cycle time! • Replenishment:

– To maintain constant activity of developer and fixer;
– Medical imaging: usually between 90 – 115 secs (rapid
cycle) – To maintain a constant volume.
• Sample cycle: developer – 26s, fixer – 15s, wash – 15s, drier – • Replenishment solutions or tank / automixer.
24s, travel – 10s = 90 sec cycle time
– Systems available up to 9 mins • Recirculation:
– Adequate agitation required (rollers plus recirculation
system)
– Also incorporates temperature control system!
63 64
Silver Recovery Unit Darkroom Lighting

• Recovery of silver from used fixer solution; 1) Ordinary lighting
• Why? 2) Safelighting
– Profit / economical
– Environmental
Ordinary lighting:
– Conservation
• For all tasks except when processing films!
– Efficiency of fixer solution
• Moderate intensity (60W tungsten, 30W fluorescent) in
order to make visual accommodation (dark adaptation)
• Silver can also be recovered from old / discarded film! under safelights easier;
• Switch by door and switch, often interlinked with safelight
switch, near working area.
65 66
11
Safelighting Most X-ray film is usually green or White Light

blue sensitive !
Ultraviolet
Infra-red
• All film would be instantly fogged if exposed to white
Green
Blue
Red
light;
• Complete darkness not viable for working!
• Safelighting = the use of dim, coloured lighting that

provides sufficient illumination to work with film.
Red filter
– Exposure to such lighting must be brief for no significant
fogging to occur (no lighting is 100% safe).
– Film already exposed to X-rays is more sensitive to fogging
than unexposed as it may have already reached the
exposure threshold making the fogging visible! GBX-2
Red light
67 68
References:
• Ball J & Price T (2010). Chesney's’ Radiographic Imaging. 6th Ed Revised.
Blackwell Science Ltd, Oxford.
• Whaites E & Drage N (2021). Radiography and Radiology for Dental Care
Professionals. 4th Ed. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh.
• Whaites E & Drage N (2020).Essentials of Dental Radiography and Radiology.

6th Ed. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh.
• White SC & Pharoah MJ (2018). Oral Radiology. Principles and Interpretation. 8th
Ed. Mosby Elsevier, St. Louis.
69 70
12

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UCD Radiography & Diagnostic Imaging Assoc. Prof.

Image Production and Film /

General Overview X-ray Film

• ± Cassette • Intraoral films

Types of Film Types of Film

• Direct (X-ray sensitive)

• Principles / Advantages / Disadvantages

• Film packet (covering, paper, film, lead foil)

Film Composition Emulsion

Emulsion: Silver Halides Characteristics of emulsion grains

Carestream (Kodak) Intraoral Film Emulsion grains as seen under an electron

Emulsion: Speed Characteristic Curves

Too light Optimal density Too dark

Characteristic Curves Carestream Dental Film: Characteristic Curves

Carestream Insight film

Emulsion: On Exposure Latent Image Formation

• Latent image, • If >6-10 Ag accumulate at

The Invisible Image Film Sizes (Intraoral)

• The photographic effect # 0: Children (PA & BW); small mouths

• Silver halides # 1: Adult anterior (PA): paralleling

• Bromide barrier # 2: Adult anterior PA (Bisecting); adult

Raised Dot Kodak Clinasept Packets

• The raised dot on • Reduces the risk of cross-

• No need for separate

Kodak Supersoft Packets

• Increased patient comfort.

• Soft, round, cushioned edge

• Separate barrier envelope

Contents of Film Packet Backscatter

Film: one or two films; raised

Lead foil: protects film from

Indirect Action / Screen type Film Screen type film emulsion

• Single or double emulsion

Film Performance Film Storage

Introduction Latent Image

Processing Stages Developer

Developer Developing Solution

• Recognition of exposed and unexposed silver bromide

Developing Developing (continued)

Or….. Developing Solution

• Over time, as the exposed silver halide grains are reduced,

Developing agents Developing agents

• P = fast acting, good reducer but not very selective

Factors affecting development Fixer

e) Developer constitution 1) To stop further development;

2) The unsensitised sliver halide crystals in the emulsion are

Fixing Constituents of fixer

Fixing agents Factors affecting fixation

• Acidic fixer used to prevent development from continuing in the

Developer Fixer Wash

Cycle Time Replenishment & Recirculation

• Dry to dry cycle time! • Replenishment:

Silver Recovery Unit Darkroom Lighting

Safelighting Most X-ray film is usually green or White Light

• Safelighting = the use of dim, coloured lighting that

• Whaites E & Drage N (2020).Essentials of Dental Radiography and Radiology.

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