DISCLAIMER

This module is exclusively made and designed, in good faith, for the
STUDENTS OF TARLAC STATE UNIVERSITY ONLY to address the flexible
learning scheme for A.Y. 2020-2021 as implemented by the Commission on
Higher Education brought by the COVID -19 pandemic. Furthermore, this is
particularly intended and strictly limited for EDUCATIONAL and NON-
COMMERCIAL purposes only. Many parts of the module were lifted or
adapted from different sources; for this, the designer claims no ownership. All
credits and rights remain and are reserved to the authors and owners. No
reproduction of any part of this module may be used, sold or distributed for
commercial purposes or be changed or edited for other business, work or
publication, whether in print or electronic copies.
 Republic of the Philippines
Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
Main Campus Tarlac City
Tel. No. (045) 493-0182; Fax. No. (045) 982-0110

Social Science 4 – General Sociology

TSU VMGO

VISION Tarlac State University is envisioned to be a premier

university in Asia and the Pacific.

MISSION Tarlac State University commits to promote and

sustain the offering of quality & programs in higher
and advanced education ensuring equitable access to
education for people empowerment, professional
development, and global competitiveness.

Towards this end, TSU shall:

1. Provide high quality instruction trough

qualified, competent & adequately trained
faculty members & support staff.
2. Be a premier research institution by enhancing
research undertaking in the fields of
technology & sciences & strengthening
collaborating with local and international
institution.
3. Be a champion in community development by
strengthening partnership with public and
private organization & individuals

CORE VALUES E – xcellence

Q - uality
U - nity
I - ntegrity
T - rust in God, Transparency & True Commitment
Y - earning for Global Competitiveness
PREPARED BY THE FOLLOWING FACULTY MEMBERS:

DR. AGNES S. MALLARI-MACARAEG

Professor V
 ammacaraeg@tsu.edu.ph
Dr. Agnes M. Macaraeg was the Dean of
the College of Arts and Social Sciences of
Tarlac State University, Tarlac City, from
June 01, 2009 to August 04, 2019. Dr.
Macaraeg was a graduate of Baguio
Colleges Foundation, now the known
University of Cordillera, Baguio City with a
degree Bachelor of Arts in Political Science
in 1985. She is also a holder of Master’s Degree in Administration and
Supervision and Doctor of Education major in Educational Management. She is a
Licensed Professional Teacher. She is currently under the Social Sciences
Department of the College of Arts and Social Sciences, teaching subjects such
as General Sociology, Readings in Philippine History, Philippine Constitution,
Contemporary World and Ethics. Dr. Macaraeg is also a faculty member of the
Graduate Studies at the Tarlac State University and St. La Salle University of
Bacolod, teaching masters’ and doctorate students under the Eduardo
Cojuangco Foundation Program and likewise, she is a volunteer Professor at Our
Lady of Peace College Seminary, Tarlac City. She is one of the authors of the
Sociology book entitled SOCIOLOGY (Exploring Society and Culture published in
2010 by TCS Publishing House.

RUBY ROSE P. VINLUAN

Lecturer

 rubyvinluan.tsu@gmail.com

Ruby Rose P. Vinluan is a graduate of

Bachelor of Arts in Social Sciences Major in
Economics and Minor in Political Science at
University of the Philippines Baguio in 2015.
Currently, she is taking up Juris Doctor at
Tarlac State University. She is also a lecturer
of General Education Department (Social
Science), College of Arts and Social Sciences of the same institution since 2015.
She has been teaching different social science subjects such as Readings in
Philippine History, Philippine Constitution, Life and Works of Rizal, Economics
and Taxation, Humanities, Sociology, Socio-Anthropology, Ethics, Contemporary
World, and Gender and Society.

COURSE DESCRIPTION:
This course is a part of the General Education curriculum of the
University. It deals with the basic concepts and principles of social life and social
living. It includes the study of culture, Philippine values, social functions, social
organizations, and social problems. Likewise, it covers the very life of man as a
social being, seeking to understand how man lives and interrelate with others. It
shall present a comprehensive coverage of the concept of socialization, Social
groups and interaction, social institutions and social change, ethnic relations,
demography and population education and the current situation on the rural and
urban communities.

COURSE OUTLINE:

MIDTERM COVERAGE

MODULE 1: Social Foundations

A. Meaning & scope of sociology

B. Origin/Beginning of sociology
C. Other social sciences fields related to sociology
D. Importance of the study of sociology
E. Methods of sociological research
F. Perspectives/Approaches in the study of sociology

MODULE 2 : Culture: Social Experience

A. Meaning of culture

B. Types of culture

C. Characteristics of culture

D. Components of culture

E. Importance/Functions of culture in the society

MODULE 3 : Values and Value System

A. Meaning of values & value system

B. Philippines values system

 C. Strengths and weaknesses of the Filipino character

MODULE 4 : Social Organization

A. Personality & the process of Socialization

B. Social groups & social processes

C. Social change, collective behavior & social movements

D. Race & Ethnic relations

FINAL TERM COVERAGE

Major Social Institutions

MODULE 5 : Marriage & Family

MODULE 6 : Church & Religion

MODULE 7 : Education & School

MODULE 8 : State & Government

Human Ecology

MODULE 9 : Demography & Population

MODULE 10 : Family Planning

MODULE 11 : Rural & Urban Community

 RATIONALE:
Module 1 introduces to students the basic concepts, processes, theories and
approaches in Sociology with special emphasis on the interrelationship of the
different fields of social sciences and its implication within the social system.
Students will likewise Conceptualize sociology as a distinct subject matter in
analyzing the importance of man’s existence as a member of the society and its
relationship with other individual, groups and institutions within the larger social
framework. It also aims to let the students commit themselves towards the
attainment of better social relations to realize self-actualization and to become an
active participant in the nation building.

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE USER:

1. The user is to study this module at his/her own pace within the time
frame set by the Professor/Instructor. Check the OBTL syllabus for
guidance.
2. Video links for subtopics are also provided in this module.
3. References, Supplemental and Additional reading materials are also
given for further understanding and appreciation of the lesson.
4. Self-Check Test are also available for student’s self-assessment.
Respective Professor/Instructor may ask the students to submit
answers via agreed platforms

ATTENTION!!!
Before you go to the next page, PLEASE ANSWER the
COURSE PRE-TEST on page 38
PRE – ACTIVITY on page 41

GOOD LUCK!!! 😊
 MODULE 1
SOCIAL FOUNDATIONS

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this module, the student must be able to:

 Discuss the definition of sociology and the different concepts related

to sociology.
 Critically assess the history and origin of sociology.
 Explain the relationship of other social sciences to sociology.
 Explore the different sociological research methods.
 Analyze a social problem and apply the different perspectives of
sociology.

1.1 Definition
Sociology is the study of society and human social interaction and all the
social systems that such interaction creates. It comes from the Latin word
“socius”, meaning member, friend, or ally, thus referring to the people in general.
It also comes from the suffix "logy" and Greek word “logus” which means study
of. It is therefore a social science involving the study of the social lives of people,
groups, and societies. Sometimes it is also defined as the study of social
interactions. It generally concerns itself with the social rules and processes that
bind people not only as individuals, but as members of associations, groups, and
institutions, and includes the examination of the organization and development of
human social life.
Sociology is only one of the social sciences and other disciplines share its
interest in many topics. Its interest in communication and public opinion is shared
by psychology and political science, criminology is shared with psychology,
political science and law and police science. Sociology is especially close to
psychology and anthropology and overlaps with them constantly. For example,
social stratification studies inequality and class structure; demography studies
changes in a population size or type; criminology examines criminal behavior and
deviance; political sociology studies government and laws; and the sociology of
race and sociology of gender examine the social construction of race and gender
as well as race and gender inequality in society. New sociological sub-fields
continue to appear such as network analysis, many of which are cross-
disciplinary in nature.
The sociologist is especially interested in customs, traditions and values
which emerge from group living and in the way group living is in turn affected by
these customs, traditions and values. Sociology is interested in the way groups

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interact with one another and in the processes and institutions which they
develop.

1.2 History and Origins of Sociology

The origins of Sociology lie in the 19th century but during the 1960s-
1970s, it became a major social science subject, taught in universities and
colleges, and schools. The scope of sociology has only become more scientific
with time. It is relatively a new academic discipline among other social sciences
like economics, political science, anthropology, history, and psychology. The
ideas behind it, however, have a long history and can trace their origins to a
mixture of common human knowledge and philosophy.
Striking transformation in 18th and 19th century Europe drove the
development of Sociology brought about by the following:
1. Scientific discoveries and technological advances that produced
factory based industrial economy.
2. The growth of cities
3. The age of enlightenment that brought new ideas about
democracy and political rights.

In the Philippines, the teaching of sociology began in 1896 when the first
course was offered by Fr. Valentin Marin at the University of Sto. Tomas. Later in
1911 University of the Philippines offered the course. Dean Conrado Benitez
was the first Filipino teacher to teach sociology.
Sociology emerged as a scientific discipline in the early 19th century as
an academic response to the challenge of modernity: as the world was becoming
smaller and more integrated, people's experience of the world was increasingly
atomized and dispersed. Sociologists hoped not only to understand what held
social groups together, but also to develop an antidote to social disintegration.
The development of sociology can be traced out of the contribution of the
following social philosophers:
Auguste Comte
• He coined the term sociology in 1838 from Latin Socius
(companion, associate) and Greek lógos (speech).
• He hoped to unify all studies of humankind - including history,
psychology and economics.
• He believed all human life had passed through the same distinct
historical stages (theology, metaphysics, positive science) and that, if
one could grasp this progress, one could prescribe the remedies for
social ills.
• He was recognized as the “Father of Sociology” because of his initial
significant efforts to advance sociology to the frontiers of human

2
 knowledge and considered sociology to be the “queen of social
sciences”.
Herbert Spencer
• An English philosopher who compared society with an organism and
thus suggested the close relatedness of institutions of any society to
function as a whole.
• He saw evolution as the change from a homogeneous condition that
was innately unstable, to a heterogenous and stable one.
• He highlighted four main concepts: Growth, Differentiation,
Integration and Adaptation, ideas commonly present in
developmental biology, and which could easily be brought into the
context of a developing, growing society.
Karl Marx
• A German thinker who believed that human society is evolving toward
a more perfect state in which everyone would be equal and where the
capitalist economic system would be overthrown.
• He was known as the “Father of Communism”.
• Marx argued that if you are to understand human history you must not
see it as the story of great individuals or the conflict between states.
Instead, you must see it as the story of social classes and their
struggles with each other.
• Marx explained that social classes had changed over time but in the
19th century the most important classes were the bourgeoisie and the
proletariat.
• Bourgeoisie means the owners of the factories and the raw materials
which are processed in them. The proletariat own very little and are
forced to sell their labor to the capitalists.
Emile Durkheim
• A French intellectual who founded the first European department of
sociology in 1895 at the University of Bordeaux and the founder of
L'Année Sociologique (1896).
• He believes that the key element in social behavior is social
cohesion or solidarity, the force that is needed for cooperation and
unity.
• He argues that suicide primarily results from a lack of integration of
the individual into society. He found that people who are not
integrated into the society that they live in are more likely to kill
themselves.
• Four classifications of suicide according to Durkheim:
a. Egoistic suicide. This is where people kill themselves for their
own individual interest. This usually occurs in societies where
social bonds are weak with a low level of social integration due
to emphasis put onto individual rights, welfare and interests.

3
 b. Altruistic suicide. This occurs in societies that see individual
needs as less important than the society as a whole.
c. Anomic suicide. He said that there is a framework of
'acceptable behavior' within a society and if this framework is
weakened then people will revert to their natural selfishness.
These restraints are usually weakened by social change, so
he linked social change with the rate of suicide.
d. Fatalistic suicide. This type of suicide seems to occur in
overly oppressive societies, causing people to prefer to die
than to carry on living within this society.
Lester Ward
• In the United States, he was described by some as the Father of
American Sociology, published Dynamic of Sociology in 1883 and
the discipline was taught by its own name for the first time at the
University of Kansas, Lawrence in 1890 under the course title
Elements of Sociology (the oldest continuing sociology course in
America).
• He believed that social progress is possible only through intelligent
social action.
Max Weber
• He introduced anti-positivism (humanistic sociology).
• According to this view, which is closely related to anti-naturalism,
sociological research must concentrate on humans' cultural values.
This has led to some controversy on how one can draw the line
between subjective and objective research and has also influenced
hermeneutical studies.
• He believed that social actions should be the focus of study in
sociology. To Weber, a ‘social action’ was an action carried out by an
individual to which an individual attached a meaning.
• In social action theory, Weber believes that bureaucratic organizations
are the dominant institutions in society. Weber believes that
bureaucracies (institutions) consist of individuals carrying out rational
social actions designed to achieve the goals of bureaucracies.
• He argues that all human action is directed by meanings.
• Weber’s various types of actions based on their meanings:
a. Affective or emotional action – this stems from an individual’s
emotional state at a particular time.
b. Traditional action – this is based on established custom;
people act in a certain way because of built-in habits: they have
always done things that way.
c. Rational action – involves a clear awareness of a goal.

4
1.3 Social Theory
Social theory refers to the use of abstract and often complex theoretical
frameworks to explain and analyze social patterns and macro social structures in
social life, rather than explaining patterns of social life. While social theory is
sometimes considered a branch of sociology, it is inherently interdisciplinary, as it
deals with multiple fields including anthropology, economics, theology, history,
philosophy, and many others.
First social theories developed almost simultaneously with the birth of the
sociology as science in itself. Auguste Comte also laid the groundwork for one of
the first social theories - social evolutionism. In the 19th century three great,
classical theories of social and historical change were created: the social
evolutionism theory (of which social Darwinism is a part of), the social cycle
theory and the Marxist historical materialism theory. Although the majority of 19th
century social theories are now considered obsolete they have spawned new,
modern social theories. Modern social theories represent some advanced
version of the classical theories, like Multi-lineal theories of evolution (neo-
evolutionism, sociobiology, theory of modernization, theory of post-industrial
society) or the general historical sociology and the theory of subjectivity and
creation of the society.
In general, and particularly among adherents to pure sociology, social
theory has an appeal because it takes the focus away from the individual (which
is how most humans look at the world) and focuses it on the society itself and the
social forces which control our lives. This sociological insight (or sociological
imagination) has through the years appealed to students and others dissatisfied
with the status quo because it carries the assumption that societal structures and
patterns are either random, arbitrary or controlled by specific powerful groups --
thus implying the possibility of change.
1.4 Other Social Sciences
In the early 20th century, sociologists and psychologists who conducted
research in industrial societies contributed to the development of anthropology.
Anthropologists also conducted research in industrial societies. Today sociology
and anthropology are better contrasted according to different theoretical
concerns and methods rather than objects of study.
Sociology has some links with social psychology, but the former is more
interested in social structures and the latter in social behaviors. A distinction
should be made between these and forensic studies within these disciplines,
particularly where anatomy is involved. These latter studies might be better
named as Forensic psychology. As shown by the work of Marx and others,
economics has influenced sociological theories.

5
1.5 Sociological Research Methods
1. The Case Study
A case study, sometimes called the case history technique,
involves a comprehensive and intensive examinations of a particular
individual, group, or situation over a period of time. In making case
studies, the researcher, often as a participant-observer, observes actions
and facts and maintains careful records of significant events and
observation. This involves the documentation or a detailed account of a
certain phenomena from its origins to its development.

2. The Survey
This is a type of investigation wherein only representative group of
people is chosen from a particular “population” which maybe a school, an
occupational group, ethnic group or even, the whole nation. In the sample
survey, instead of examining the entire group of the population or
universe, one examines a small part of the group called sample. If the
people who are included in the survey are chosen by careful statistical
methods, their responses can be used as a valid indication of the
attitudes of the entire group in question. The subjects in the survey
maybe given relatively interviews, or they may be asked to complete
questionnaires about a particular topic. The information from these
surveys may then be fed into a computer and various correlations be
established between particular items – say, educational background, sex,
socioeconomic status, etc.
3. The Experimental Method
Experimentation, whether in sociology or in any other field, rest on
the assumption that there exists invariant relationships between certain
antecedents and certain consequents so that, provided a given set of
condition that prevails, if one do this, that will follow. Experts express the
view that experimentation which is the basic scientific method is the most
precise and reliable way of obtaining data. The chief characteristics of the
method is that all the conditions in a situation are carefully controlled, or
at least known. The essence of this procedure is that the one factor of
situation being studied can be isolated and varied at will while the others
remain constant. In this type of experiment the act of cause-effect
relationship maybe established.

1.5 Perspective in Sociology and the Analysis of Social Problems

Sociological perspective as stated by C. Wright Mills deals with the
"Sociological Imagination” it is a sociological mindset with regards to being able
to connect individual experiences and societal relationships. This is what we call
the interaction between biography and history.

6
 To expand on that definition, it refers to the understanding of the things in
the society that might possibly lead to a certain outcome. The actors mentioned
in the definition are things like norms and motives, the social context is like
country and time and the social action are the things we do that affect other
people. The things we do are shaped by the situation we are in, the values we
have, the way people around us act, and how that all relate to some sort of
outcome. Sociological Imagination can also be considered as the capacity to see
things socially, how they interact, and influence each other.
A sociologist attempting to analyze and interpret a social problem will use
one or more of the following theoretical perspective:

Table 1.1 Three Major Theoretical Perspective or Approaches in the Study

of Sociology

Theory Orientation Image of Society Core questions

1.StructuralMacro level A system of interrelated How is society
Functional parts that is relatively integrated?
Paradigm stable based on What are the major
widespread consensus parts of the society?
to what is morally How are these parts
desirable; each part interrelated?
has functional What are the
consequences for the consequences of each
operation of the society one for the operation of
as a whole. society?
2. Social- Macro-level A system characterized How is society divided?
Conflict by social inequality; What are the major
Paradigm each part of society patterns of inequality?
benefits some How do some
categories of people categories of people
more than others; attempt to protect their
conflict-based social privileges?
inequality promoted How do other
social change categories of people
challenge the status
quo?
3.Symbolic Micro-level An on-going process of How is society
-interaction social interaction in experienced?
paradigm specific settings based How do humans
on symbolic interact to create,
communication; sustain and change
individual perceptions social patterns?
of reality are varied and How does individual
changing attempt to shape reality
as perceived by
others?
How does individual
behavior change from

7
 one situation to
another?
Source: Macionis, John J. Sociology

ATTENTION!!!
Before you go to the next page, PLEASE ANSWER the:
PRE-TEST on page 41
ACTIVITIES on page 42 - 44

GOOD LUCK and GOD BLESS!!! 😊

8
 MODULE 2
CULTURE: SOCIAL EXPERIENCE

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this module, the student must be able to:

 Explain and interpret the various definition of culture

 Discuss the characteristics of culture.
 Explain the different components of culture and its functions.
 Analyze how culture changes.

2.1 Definition
Culture as defined by E.B. Taylor as “the sum total of ideas, beliefs,
values, material cultural equipment and non-material aspects which man makes
as a member of society.” Taylor's theme that culture is a result of human
collectivity has been accepted by most anthropologists. Tylorian idea can be
discerned in a modern definition of culture - culture is the man-made part of
environment (M.J. Herskovits).
It follows therefore, that culture and society are inseparable only at the
analytical level: at the actual existential level, they can be understood as the two
sides of the same coin. Culture, on one hand, is an outcome of society and, on
the other hand, society is able to survive and perpetuate itself because of the
existence of culture. Culture is an ally of man in the sense that it enhances man's
adaptability to nature. It is because of the adaptive value of culture that
Herskovits states that culture is a screen between man and nature. Culture is an
instrument by which man exploits the environment and shapes it accordingly.
Culture therefore is a shared, learned, symbolic system of values, beliefs
and attitudes that shapes and influences perception and behavior. Culture is also
defined as the system of shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and artifacts
that the members of society use to cope with their world and with one another,
and that are transmitted from generation to generation through learning.

9
2.2 Other Definitions of Culture
In attempting to lay out the various meanings attached to the word
"culture," Clifford Geertz refers to the important anthropological work, Clyde
Kluckhohn's Mirror for Man, in which the following meanings are suggested:

1. "the total way of life of a people"

2. "the social legacy the individual acquires from his group"
3. "a way of thinking, feeling, and believing"
4. "an abstraction from behavior"
5. " a theory on the part of the anthropologist about the way in
which a group of people in fact behave""
6. a "storehouse of pooled learning"
7. "a set of standardized orientations to recurrent problems"
8. "learned behavior"
9. a mechanism for the normative regulation of behavior
10. "a set of techniques for adjusting both to the external
environment and to other men"
11. "a precipitate of history"
12. a behavioral map, sieve, or matrix

2.3 Characteristics of Culture

1. Culture Is an Adaptive Mechanism
We cannot survive outside of the warmer regions of our planet without our
cultural knowledge and technology. What made it possible for our ancestors to
begin living in temperate and ultimately subarctic regions of the northern
hemisphere after half a million years ago was the invention of efficient hunting
skills, fire use, and, ultimately, clothing, warm housing, agriculture, and
commerce.
Culture has been a highly successful adaptive mechanism for our
species. It has given us a major selective advantage in the competition for
survival with other life forms. Culture has allowed the global human population to
grow from less than 10 million people shortly after the end of the last ice age to
more than 6.5 billion people today, a mere 10,000 years later. Culture has made
us the most dangerous and the most destructive large animal on our planet. It is
ironic that despite the power that culture has given us, we are totally dependent
on it for survival. We need our cultural skills to stay alive.
2. Culture is learned
Human infants come into the world with basic drives such as hunger and
thirst, but they do not possess instinctive patterns of behavior to satisfy them.
Likewise, they are without any cultural knowledge. However, they are genetically
predisposed to rapidly learn language and other cultural traits.

10
 New-born humans are amazing learning machines. Any normal baby can
be placed into any family on earth and grow up to learn their culture and accept it
as his or her own. Since culture is non-instinctive, we are not genetically
programmed to learn a particular one. Every human generation potentially can
discover new things and invent better technologies. The new cultural skills and
knowledge are added into what was learned in previous generations.

3. Culture is cumulative.
Cultural evolution is due to the cumulative effect of culture. The
progressively larger human population was very likely both a consequence and a
cause of accelerating culture growth. The more people there are, the more likely
new ideas and information will accumulate. If those ideas result in a larger, more
secure food supplies, the population will inevitably grow. In a sense, culture has
been the human solution to surviving changing environments, but it has
continuously compounded the problem by making it possible for more humans to
stay alive. In other words, human cultural evolution be solving a problem that
causes the same problem again and again.
4. Culture is stable yet dynamic
All cultural knowledge does not perpetually accumulate. While new
cultural traits are added, some old ones are lost because they are no longer
useful. For example, most city dwellers today do not have or need the skills
required for survival in a wilderness. What is more important in modern urban life
are such things as the ability to drive a car, use a computer, and understand how
to obtain food in a supermarket or restaurant.
The regular addition and subtraction of cultural traits results in culture
change. All cultures change over time--none is static. However, the rate of
change and the aspects of culture that change varies from society to society.
Change can occur as a result of both invention within a society as well as the
diffusion of cultural traits from one society to another. Predicting whether a
society will adopt new cultural traits or abandon others is complicated by the fact
that the various aspects of a culture are closely interwoven into a complex
pattern.
Changing one trait will have an impact on other traits because they are
functionally interconnected. As a result, there commonly is a resistance to major
changes. Sometimes or even most of the times an individual might possibly face
with a new situation that is foreign to him and this is called culture shock (a
feeling of displacement).
Example:
Many men in North America and Europe resisted the increase in economic and
political opportunities for women over the last century because of the far-ranging
consequences. It inevitably changed the nature of marriage, the family, and the

11
lives of all men. It also significantly altered the workplace as well as the legal
system and the decisions made by governments.

5. CULTURE is a group product

The common response in all societies to other culture is to judge them in
terms of the values and customs of their own familiar culture. This is
ethnocentrism believing that one’s culture is the best and therefore the standard
by which other culture are consequently judged. Whereas, xenocentrism is the
opposite of ethnocentrism believing that one’s own culture is inferior and what is
foreign is superior.
Being fond of your own way of life and condescending or even hostile
toward other cultures is normal for all people. Alien culture traits are often
viewed as being not just different but inferior, less sensible, and even "unnatural."
Example:
European cultures strongly condemn other societies that practice polygamy and
the eating of dogs--behavior that Europeans generally consider to be immoral
and offensive. Likewise, conservative Moslem societies, such as Afghanistan
and Saudi Arabia, consider European women highly immodest and immoral for
going out in public without being chaperoned by a male relative and without their
bodies covered from head to toe so as to prevent men from looking at them.
People in small, relatively isolated societies are also ethnocentric in their views
about outsiders.
Our ethnocentrism can prevent us from understanding and appreciating
another culture. When anthropologists study other societies, they need to
suspend their own ethnocentric judgments and adopt a cultural relativity
approach. That is, they try to learn about and interpret the various aspects of the
culture they are studying in reference to that culture rather than to the
anthropologist's own culture. This provides an understanding of how such
practices as polygamy can function and even support other cultural traditions.
6. Culture is varied
Cultures commonly allow a range of ways in which men can be men and
women can be women. Culture also tells us how different activities should be
conducted, such as how one should act as a husband, wife, parent, child, etc.
These rules of permissible behavior are usually flexible to a degree--there are
some alternatives rather than hard rules.
Culture tells us how we should dress based on our gender, but it allows
us to dress in different ways in different situations in order to communicate varied
messages and statuses. The clothing patterns of women in this society can be
particularly rich and complex. Their clothing can be intentionally business-like,
recreational, as well as sexually attractive, ambiguous, neutral, or even repulsive.

12
 7. Culture no longer exists in isolation, it is organized and integrated
and transmitted from generation to generation
It is highly unlikely that there are any societies still existing in total
isolation from the outside world. Even small, out of the way tribal societies are
now being integrated to some extent into the global economy. That was not the
case a few short generations ago. Some of the societies in the Highlands of New
Guinea were unaware of anyone beyond their homeland until the arrival of
European Australian miners in the 1930's. A few of the Indian tribes in the Upper
Amazon Basin of South America remained unaware of the outside world until
explorers entered their territories in the 1950's and 1960's.
They are developing a growing knowledge of other cultures through
schools, radios, and even televisions and the Internet. As a result of this
inevitable process, their languages and indigenous cultural patterns are being
rapidly replaced. The emergence of what is essentially a shared global culture is
not likely to result in the current major cultures disappearing in the immediate
future the same way many of the small indigenous ones have. Language
differences and ethnocentrism will very likely prevent that from happening. There
are powerful conflicting trends in the world today. While many people are
actively embracing globalism, others are reviving tribalism.

2.4 Components of Culture

Culture can be a constraint to human freedom because we act in
accordance with the guidelines set forth by the society, but, it also gives us the
responsibility to make and remake ourselves and society.

Language
Values
Symbols
and
Beliefs

CULTURE
Folkways/
Norms & Laws
Rituals
Mores

Figure 2.1 Components of Culture

13
 1. Symbols- are anything that gives meaning to the culture. An example of
which are the feasts that we are celebrating. Those specific events that
gives representation to a particular culture. Even the meanings we
provide to things such as colors and graphic symbols provide
understanding which is common to a certain group of people.

2. Language - A system of organized symbols which allows communication

with others particularly the dialect in the western language is an example.
Particularly in the Philippine setting we have a lot of dialects that provide
a means of understanding. Through these, culture is hereby transmitted
to future generation through learning.

3. Folkways – are customary ways of doing things. Sometimes it is also

called “repetitive ways of doing things”. We have certain customs that
were passed on by our forebears that make up a large part of our day to
day existence and we do not question their practicality. Since they are
being practiced, it is expected that we do them also. For example,
Filipinos eat with their hands, Chinese eat with chopsticks, Westerners
use basically fork and knife while eating.

4. Values and Beliefs- This part of culture is the heritage that serves as a
reference of our actions. Values are abstract concept of what is important
and worthwhile. Beliefs are faith or trust of an individual.

5. Norms and Mores– In every culture, we are expected to behave in a

specific way. These are what we call norms. There are societal
expectations that mandate specific behaviors in specific situations. Like in
school, we are expected to behave in a particular way. If we violate the
norms, we look different. Thus, we can be called as social deviants. For
example, Filipino males are expected to wear pants, not skirts. Norms
refers to the standard set by the society while social deviation is an
alleged break to the social order. On the other hand, Mores are norms
also, but with moral undertones. For example, for mainstream Filipinos, it
is expected that we practice monogamous marriage. So, a person with
two partners is looked upon as immoral.

6. Laws – these are institutionalized norms and mores that were enacted by
the state. They are there because they will have to provide stricter
punishment in order for people to adhere to standards set by society. The
judicial system is a formal form of a Social Control. Other means by which
members of society are encouraged to conform to standards are shame,
guilt, conscience, and punishment.

2.5 Two Kinds of Culture

14
 a. Non-material Culture – is the intangible world of ideas created by
members of society that spans wide range of ideas from beliefs to
religion.
b. Material Culture - constitutes the tangible things created by members of
the society ranging from clothing to ornaments.

2.6 Functions of Culture

a. Culture provides behavioral patterns
b. Culture maintains the biological functioning of the group
c. Culture gives meaning and direction to one’s existence
d. Culture offers ready-made solutions to man’s material and immaterial
problems.
e. Culture develops man’s attitude and values and gives him a conscience.

Cultural diversity refers to the differentiation of culture all over the world which
means there is no right or wrong culture but there is appropriate culture for the
need of a specific group of people.
1. Subculture – refers to a smaller culture within a larger culture.
These are cultural patterns that set apart some segment of the
society’s population.
2. Ethnocentrism – refers to the feeling or belief that one’s culture is
better than the rest.
3. Xenocentrism – refers to the belief that one’s culture is inferior
compared to others.
4. Ideal Culture – social patterns mandated by cultural values and
norms
5. Real culture – actual patterns that only approximate cultural
expectations.
6. High culture – refers to cultural patterns that distinguish a
society’s elite
7. Popular culture – cultural patterns that are widespread among a
society’s population.

Culture Change – refers to the manner by which culture evolves.

1. Culture diffusion – refers to the transfer or spread of cultural
traits from one area to another brought about by change agents
such as people or the media.
2. Counter-culture – refers to cultural patterns that strongly oppose
those widely accepted within a society. (e.g in the 1960’s counter-
culture among teenagers reflect long hair, blue jeans, peace sign,
rock and roll music and drug abuse).
3. Cultural lag – when some parts of the society do not change as
fast as with other parts and they are left behind.

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 4. Culture Shock – inability to read meaning in one’s surroundings,
feeling of lost and isolation, unsure to act because of being
outside the symbolic web of culture that binds others.

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16
 MODULE 3
VALUES AND VALUE SYSTEM

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this module, the student must be able to:

 Indicate the difference of values and value system.

 Distinguished the different categories of values.
 Explain the Philippine values and assess its impacts on the daily lives
of Filipinos.

3.1 Definition
Values are those things that really matter to each one of us ... the ideas
and beliefs we hold as special. Caring for others, for example, is a value; so is
the freedom to express our opinions. Most of us learned our values - or morals,
at home, at church or at school. Too often young people today are most
influenced by what they see and hear on television or on the street.
Values are ideals that guide or qualify our personal conduct, interaction
with others, and involvement in our career. Like morals, they help us to
distinguish what is right from what is wrong and inform us on how we can
conduct our life in a meaningful way.

3.2 Four Categories of Values

1. Personal Values - are principles that define an individual. Personal
values, such as honesty, reliability, and trust, determine how an individual
will face the world and relate with people.

2. Cultural Values - like the practice of one’s faith and customs, are
principles that sustain connections with our cultural roots. They help us
feel connected to a larger community of people with similar backgrounds.

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 3. Social Values - are principles that indicate how one relate meaningfully
to others in social situations, including those involving family, friends, and
co-workers.

4. Work Values - are principles that guide our behavior in professional

contexts. They define how we work and how we relate to our co-workers,
bosses, and clients. They also reveal our potential for advancement.

Table 3.1 Examples of the Four Categories of Values.

Personal Cultural Social Values Work Values

Values Values

Caring Celebration of Altruism Autonomy

Fiesta

Courage Ethnic roots Diversity Competitiveness

Creativity Faith Eco- Conscientiousnes

consciousness s

Friendliness Linguistic ties Equality Dedication

Honesty National ties Fairness Equanimity

Honour Regional ties Family closeness Loyalty

Independence Tradition Lovingness Professionalism

Integrity Colonial Morality Punctuality

Mentality

Spirituality Bahala na Reliability Remunerative

worth

Devotion Team player

3.3 Value System

A value system refers to how an individual or a group of individuals
organize their ethical or ideological values. A well-defined value system is a
moral code. One or more people can hold a value system. Likewise, a value
system can apply to either one person or many.
a. A personal value system is held by and applied to one individual
only.

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 b. A communal value system is held by and applied to a
community/group/society. Some communal value systems can
take the form of legal codes or law.
As a member of a society, group or community, an individual can hold
both a personal value system and a communal value system at the same time. In
this case, the two value systems (one personal and one communal) are
externally consistent provided they bear no contradictions or situational
exceptions between them.
A value system in its own right is internally consistent when:
• its values do not contradict each other and
• its exceptions are
• abstract enough to be used in all situations and
• consistently applied.
Conversely, a value system by itself is internally inconsistent if:
• its values contradict each other and
• its exceptions are
• highly situational and
• inconsistently applied.
Value system consistency can be a value in and of itself. In this case it
would be a meta-value.
Abstract exceptions serve to reinforce the ranking of values. Their
definitions are generalized enough to be relevant to any and all situations.
Situational exceptions, on the other hand, are ad hoc and pertain only to
specific situations. The presence of a type of exception determines one of two
more kinds of value systems:
a. An idealized value system is a listing of values that lacks
exceptions. It is, therefore, absolute and can be codified as a strict
set of proscriptions on behavior. Those who hold to their idealized
value system and claim no exceptions (other than the default) are
called absolutists.
b. A realized value system contains exceptions to resolve
contradictions between values in practical circumstances. This
type is what people tend to use in daily life.
The difference between these two types of systems can be seen when
people state that they hold one value system yet in practice deviate from it, thus
holding a different value system. For example, a religion lists an absolute set of
values while the practice of that religion may include exceptions.
Implicit exceptions bring about a third type of value system called a
formal value system. Whether idealized or realized, this type contains an
implicit exception associated with each value: "as long as no higher-priority value
is violated". For instance, a person might feel that lying is wrong. Since

19
preserving a human life is probably more highly valued than adhering to the
principle that lying is wrong, lying to save someone’s life is acceptable. Perhaps
too simplistic in practice, such a hierarchical structure may warrant explicit
exceptions.
Although sharing a set of common values, two different parties might not
rank those values equally. Also, two parties might disagree as to certain actions
are right or wrong, both in theory and in practice, and find themselves in an
ideological or physical conflict. Ethonomics, the discipline of rigorously
examining and comparing value systems, enables us to understand politics and
motivations more fully in order to resolve conflicts.
Conflict would be a value system based on individualism pitted against a
value system based on collectivism. A rational value system organized to
resolve the conflict between two such value systems might take the form below.
Note that added exceptions can become recursive and often convoluted.
• Individuals may act freely unless their actions harm others or
interfere with others' freedom or with functions of society that
individuals need, provided those functions do not themselves
interfere with these proscribed individual rights and were agreed
to by a majority of the individuals.
• A society (or more specifically the system of order that enables
the workings of a society) exists for the purpose of benefiting
the lives of the individuals who are members of that society.
The functions of a society in providing such benefits would be
those agreed to by most individuals in the society.
• A society may require contributions from its members for them
to benefit from the services provided by the society. The failure of
individuals to make such required contributions could be
considered a reason to deny those benefits to them, although a
society could elect to consider hardship situations in determining
how much should be contributed.
• A society may restrict behavior of individuals who are
members of the society only for the purpose of performing its
designated functions agreed to by most individuals in the society,
only insofar as they violate the values. This means that a society
may abrogate the rights of any of its members who fails to uphold
the values.

3.4 Philippine Value System

The great majority of the Philippine population is bound together by
common values and a common religion. Philippine society is characterized by
many positive traits. Among these are strong religious faith, respect for authority,
and high regard for:

20
1. Amor proprio (self-esteem) and Smooth Interpersonal Relationships
(SIR)
Philippine respect for authority is based on the special honor paid
to elder members of the family and, by extension, to anyone in a position
of power. Filipinos are sensitive to attacks on their own self-esteem and
cultivate a sensitivity to the self-esteem of others as well. Anything that
might hurt another's self-esteem is to be avoided or else one risks
terminating the relationship. One who is insensitive to others is said to
lack a sense of shame and embarrassment, the principal sanction against
improper behavior. This great concern for self- esteem helps to maintain
harmony in society and within one's particular circle, but it also can give
rise to clannishness and a willingness to sacrifice personal integrity to
remain in the good graces of the group. Strong personal faith enables
Filipinos to face great difficulties and unpredictable risks in the assurance
that "God will take care of things." But, if allowed to deteriorate into
fatalism, even this admirable characteristic can hinder initiative and stand
in the way of progress.

2. Bonds of ritual kinship, sealed on any of three ceremonial

occasions--baptism, confirmation, and marriage--intensify and
extend personal alliances.
This mutual kinship system, known as compadrazco, meaning
godparenthood or sponsorship, dates back at least to the introduction of
Christianity and perhaps earlier. It is a primary method of extending the
group from which one can expect help in the way of favors, such as jobs,
loans, or just simple gifts on special occasions. But in asking a friend to
become godparent to a child, a Filipino is also asking that person to
become a closer friend. Thus, it is common to ask acquaintances who are
of higher economic or social status than oneself to be sponsors. Such
ritual kinship cannot be depended on in moments of crisis to the same
extent as real kinship, but it still functions for small and regular acts of
support such as gift giving.

3. A dyadic bond--between two individuals--may be formed based on

the concept of utang na loob.
Although it is expected that the debtor will attempt repayment, it is
widely recognized that the debt (as in one's obligation to a parent) can
never be fully repaid and the obligation can last for generations. Saving
another's life, providing employment, or making it possible for another to
become educated are "gifts" that incur utang na loob. Moreover, such
gifts initiate a long-term reciprocal interdependency in which the grantor
of the favor can expect help from the debtor whenever the need arises
and the debtor can, in turn, ask other favors. Such reciprocal personal
alliances have had obvious implications for the society in general and the
political system in particular. In 1990 educated Filipinos were less likely to
feel obligated to extend help (thereby not initiating an utang na loob
relationship) than were rural dwellers among whom traditional values

21
 remained strong. Some observers believed that as Philippine society
became more modernized and urban in orientation, utang na loob would
become less important in the political and social systems.

4. In the commercial context, suki relationships (market- exchange

partnerships) may develop between two people who agree to
become regular customer and supplier.
In the marketplace, Filipinos will regularly buy from certain specific
suppliers who will give them, in return, reduced prices, good quality, and,
often, credit. Suki relationships often apply in other contexts as well. For
example, regular patrons of restaurants and small neighborhood retail
shops and tailoring shops often receive special treatment in return for
their patronage. Suki does more than help develop economic exchange
relationships. Because trust is such a vital aspect, it creates a platform for
personal relationships that can blossom into genuine friendship between
individuals.

5. Filipinos also extend the circle of social alliances with friendship.

Friendship often is placed on a par with kinship as the most
central of Filipino relationships. Certainly, ties among those within one's
group of friends are an important factor in the development of personal
alliance systems. Here, as in other categories, a willingness to help one
another provides the prime rationale for the relationship.

These categories--real kinship, ritual kinship, utang na loob relationships,

suki relationships, patron-client bonds, and friendship--are not exclusive. They
are interrelated components of the Filipino's personal alliance system. Thus, two
individuals may be cousins, become friends, and then cement their friendship
through godparenthood. Each of their social networks will typically include kin
(near and far, affinal and consanguineal), ritual kin, one or two patron-client
relationships, one or more other close friends (and a larger number of social
friends), and a dozen or more market-exchange partners. Utang na loob may
infuse any or all these relationships. One's network of social allies may include
some eighty or more people, integrated and interwoven into a personal alliance
system.

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22
 MODULE 4
SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this module, the student must be able to:

 Identify the role of heredity and environmental determinants in

developing personality.
 Explain the meaning of Socialization.
 Distinguish the difference between the role of the agents of
socialization to the determinants of socialization.
 Explain the influence of the social group, social process, social
change, and collective behavior in their lives.
 Discuss the difference between race and ethnicity.
 Identify the problems met and provide solutions on how to reduce if
not to eliminate prejudice and discrimination.

4.1 Personality and the Process of Socialization

Determinants of Personality
Man is born with certain biological structures inherited from his parents.
These biological structures include the nervous system, the glands, the organic
drives, and the general and specific capacities for mental behavior. Heredity
furnishes the mechanism, but experience determines the way they will be used.
Personality can also be developed through contacts resulting from the
varied interactions and adaptations of different individuals in their collective

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efforts to satisfy their human needs and wants. These interactions are learned
behavior which is commonly found in all cultures in all ages. In any group life,
there is leading, following, teaching, imitating, fighting, praising, blaming, and
ostracizing. These processes furnish the social experience necessary for the
formation of personality (Hunt et.al.)
Sigmund Freud

Freud came to see personality as having three aspects, which work

together to produce all of our complex behaviors: the Id, the Ego and the
Superego. All 3 components need to be well-balanced in order to have good
amount of psychological energy available and to have reasonable mental health.

However, the Ego has a difficult time dealing with the competing
demands of the Superego and the Id. According to the psychoanalytic view, this
psychological conflict is an intrinsic and pervasive part of human experience.
The conflict between the Id and Superego, negotiated by the Ego, is one of the
fundamental psychological battles all people face. The way in which a person
characteristically resolves the instant gratification vs. longer-term reward
dilemma in many ways comes to reflect on their "character".

Structure of Personality

- THE ID (“It”): functions in the irrational and emotional part of the mind. At birth
a baby’s mind is all Id - want want want. The Id is the primitive mind. It contains
all the basic needs and feelings. It is the source for libido (psychic energy). And it
has only one rule --> the “pleasure principle”: “I want it and I want it all now”. In
transactional analysis, Id equates to "Child".

- THE EGO: (“I”): functions with the rational part of the mind. The Ego develops
out of growing awareness that you can’t always get what you want. The Ego
relates to the real world and operates via the “reality principle”. The Ego realizes
the need for compromise and negotiates between the Id and the Superego. The
Ego's job is to get the Id's pleasures but to be reasonable and bear the long-term
consequences in mind. The Ego denies both instant gratification and pious
delaying of gratification. The term ego-strength is the term used to refer to how
well the ego copes with these conflicting forces. To undertake its work of
planning, thinking and controlling the Id, the Ego uses some of the Id's libidinal
energy.

- THE SUPEREGO (“Over-I”): The Superego is the last part of the mind to
develop. It might be called the moral part of the mind. The Superego becomes
an embodiment of parental and societal values. It stores and enforces rules. It
constantly strives for perfection, even though this perfection ideal may be quite
far from reality or possibility. Its power to enforce rules comes from its ability to
create anxiety.

The Superego has two subsystems: Ego Ideal and Conscience. The Ego
Ideal provides rules for good behaviour, and standards of excellence towards
which the Ego must strive. The Ego ideal is basically what the child’s parents

24
approve of or value. The Conscience is the rules about what constitutes bad
behaviour. The Conscience is basically all those things that the child feels mum
or dad will disapprove of or punish.

Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development

This theory is probably the most well known as well as the most
controversial, as Freud believed that we develop through stages based upon a
particular erogenous zone. During each stage, an unsuccessful completion
means that a child becomes fixated on that particular erogenous zone and either
over– or under-indulges once he or she becomes an adult.

Oral Stage (Birth to 18 months).

During the oral stage, the child if focused on oral pleasures (sucking). Too
much or too little gratification can result in an Oral Fixation or Oral Personality
which is evidenced by a preoccupation with oral activities. This type of
personality may have a stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, over eat, or
bite his or her nails. Personality wise, these individuals may become overly
dependent upon others, gullible, and perpetual followers. On the other hand, they
may also fight these urges and develop pessimism and aggression toward
others.

Anal Stage (18 months to three years).

The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is on eliminating and retaining

feces. Through society’s pressure, mainly via parents, the child has to learn to
control anal stimulation. In terms of personality, after effects of an anal fixation
during this stage can result in an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and
control (anal retentive). On the opposite end of the spectrum, they may become
messy and disorganized (anal expulsive).

Phallic Stage (ages three to six).

The pleasure zone switches to the genitals. Freud believed that during
this stage boy develop unconscious sexual desires for their mother. Because of
this, he becomes rivals with his father and sees him as competition for the
mother’s affection. During this time, boys also develop a fear that their father will
punish them for these feelings, such as by castrating them. This group of feelings
is known as Oedipus Complex ( after the Greek Mythology figure who
accidentally killed his father and married his mother).

Later it was added that girls go through a similar situation, developing

unconscious sexual attraction to their father. Although Freud Strongly disagreed
with this, it has been termed the Electra Complex by more recent
psychoanalysts.

25
 According to Freud, out of fear of castration and due to the strong
competition of his father, boys eventually decide to identify with him rather than
fight him. By identifying with his father, the boy develops masculine
characteristics and identifies himself as a male, and represses his sexual feelings
toward his mother. A fixation at this stage could result in sexual deviancies (both
overindulging and avoidance) and weak or confused sexual identity according to
psychoanalysts.

Latency Stage (age six to puberty).

It’s during this stage that sexual urges remain repressed and children
interact and play mostly with same sex peers.

Genital Stage (puberty on).

The final stage of psychosexual development begins at the start of

puberty when sexual urges are once again awakened. Through the lessons
learned during the previous stages, adolescents direct their sexual urges onto
opposite sex peers, with the primary focus of pleasure is the genitals.

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development

1. Learning Basic Trust Versus Basic Mistrust (Hope)

Chronologically, this is the period of infancy through the first one or two
years of life. The child, well - handled, nurtured, and loved, develops trust and
security and a basic optimism. Badly handled, he becomes insecure and
mistrustful.

2. Learning Autonomy Versus Shame (Will)

The second psychosocial crisis, Erikson believes, occurs during early

childhood, probably between about 18 months or 2 years and 3½ to 4 years of
age. The "well - parented" child emerges from this stage sure of himself, elated
with his new found control, and proud rather than ashamed.

Autonomy is not, however, entirely synonymous with assured self -

possession, initiative, and independence but, at least for children in the early part
of this psychosocial crisis, includes stormy self - will, tantrums, stubbornness,
and negativism. For example, one sees may 2 year olds resolutely folding their
arms to prevent their mothers from holding their hands as they cross the street.
Also, the sound of "NO" rings through the house or the grocery store.

3. Learning Initiative Versus Guilt (Purpose)

Erikson believes that this third psychosocial crisis occurs during what he
calls the "play age," or the later preschool years (from about 3½ to, in the United

26
States culture, entry into formal school). During it, the healthily developing child
learns: (1) to imagine, to broaden his skills through active play of all sorts,
including fantasy (2) to cooperate with others (3) to lead as well as to follow.
Immobilized by guilt, he is: (1) fearful (2) hangs on the fringes of groups (3)
continues to depend unduly on adults and (4) is restricted both in the
development of play skills and in imagination.

4. Industry Versus Inferiority (Competence)

Erikson believes that the fourth psychosocial crisis is handled, for better
or worse, during what he calls the "school age," presumably up to and possibly
including some of junior high school. Here the child learns to master the more
formal skills of life: (1) relating with peers according to rules (2) progressing from
free play to play that may be elaborately structured by rules and may demand
formal teamwork, such as baseball and (3) mastering social studies, reading,
arithmetic. Homework is a necessity, and the need for self-discipline increases
yearly. The child who, because of his successive and successful resolutions of
earlier psychosocial crisis, is trusting, autonomous, and full of initiative will learn
easily enough to be industrious. However, the mistrusting child will doubt the
future. The shame - and guilt-filled child will experience defeat and inferiority.

5. Learning Identity Versus Identity Diffusion (Fidelity)

During the fifth psychosocial crisis (adolescence, from about 13 or 14 to

about 20) the child, now an adolescent, learns how to answer satisfactorily and
happily the question of "Who am I?" But even the best - adjusted of adolescents
experiences some role identity diffusion: most boys and probably most girls
experiment with minor delinquency; rebellion flourishes; self - doubts flood the
youngster, and so on.

Erikson believes that during successful early adolescence, mature time

perspective is developed; the young person acquires self-certainty as opposed to
self-consciousness and self-doubt. He comes to experiment with different -
usually constructive - roles rather than adopting a "negative identity" (such as
delinquency). He actually anticipates achievement, and achieves, rather than
being "paralyzed" by feelings of inferiority or by an inadequate time perspective.
In later adolescence, clear sexual identity - manhood or womanhood - is
established. The adolescent seeks leadership (someone to inspire him), and
gradually develops a set of ideals (socially congruent and desirable, in the case
of the successful adolescent). Erikson believes that, in our culture, adolescence
affords a "psychosocial moratorium," particularly for middle - and upper-class
American children. They do not yet have to "play for keeps," but can experiment,
trying various roles, and thus hopefully find the one most suitable for them.

6. Learning Intimacy Versus Isolation (Love)

The successful young adult, for the first time, can experience true
intimacy - the sort of intimacy that makes possible good marriage or a genuine
and enduring friendship.

27
7. Learning Generativity Versus Self-Absorption (Care)

In adulthood, the psychosocial crisis demands generativity, both in the

sense of marriage and parenthood, and in the sense of working productively and
creatively.

8. Integrity Versus Despair (Wisdom)

If the other seven psychosocial crisis have been successfully resolved,

the mature adult develops the peak of adjustment; integrity. He trusts, he is
independent and dares the new. He works hard, has found a well - defined role
in life, and has developed a self-concept with which he is happy. He can be
intimate without strain, guilt, regret, or lack of realism; and he is proud of what he
creates - his children, his work, or his hobbies. If one or more of the earlier
psychosocial crises have not been resolved, he may view himself and his life with
disgust and despair.

Socialization refers to the lifelong process of learning and acquisition of

skills necessary for human living. It starts from birth and ends in death. It is a
lifelong social experience by which individuals develop their human potential and
learn patterns of their culture.

The importance of social experience

Unlike other living species whose behavior is biologically set, human

beings rely on social experience to learn the nuances of their culture in order to
survive. Human infant is helpless at birth and depends on others for care and
learning. Biological traits that are genetically inherited may provide differences in
personality but whether or not a person develops an inherited potential depends
on the opportunities associated with socialization. Feral children- refers to those
children reared in total isolation and were not socialized. Human Development:
Nature vs. Nurture. Human infant is helpless at birth and depends on others for
care and learning. Biological traits that are genetically inherited may provide
differences in personality but whether or not a person develops an inherited
potential depends on the opportunities associated with socialization. On the other
hand, given the capacity of man to learn, existing behavior which are no longer
needed can be unlearned or modified. This is the concept of Resocialization. It
refers to a radical alteration of the human personality through deliberate
alteration of the environment. E.g. rehabilitation centers. etc.

Agents of Socialization

1. The Family
The child’s self concept is based on how the family reared a child.
Parental attention is important in the social development of children.
Children learn from the kind of environment that adults create.
Families provide their children “cultural capital” in the form of differing
aspirations.

28
 2. School
Schooling enlarges children’s social world to include people with social
backgrounds that differ from their own. It is the children’ s first
experience with formality and impersonality.

3. Peer group
A peer group is a social group whose members have interests, social
position, and age in common. It allows young people to escape from the
direct supervision of adults. Anticipatory socialization refers to social
learning directed toward gaining a desired position. e.g young people
may mimic the styles of the group they want to join.

4. Mass media
Refers to impersonal communications directed to a vast audience.

5. Church
The church provides the moral or spiritual development of an individual.
Understanding the socialization Process

1. Charles Cooley’s Looking Glass self

The image people have of themselves is based on how they believe
others perceive them.

2. George Herbert Mead’s The Social Self

The self according to mead is a dimension of personality composed of
an individual’s self awareness and self image.

Determinants of Socialization

According to Henry Murray, there are six determinants of socialization.

1. Constitutional Determinants

The old problem of "heredity or environment" is essentially meaningless.

The two sets of determinants can rarely be completely disentangled once the
environment has begun to operate. All geneticists are agreed today that traits are
not inherited in any simple sense. The observed characters of organisms are, at
any given point in time, the product of a long series of complex interactions
between biologically-inherited potentialities and environmental forces. The
outcome of each interaction is a modification of the personality. The only
pertinent questions therefore are:

(1) which of the various genetic potentialities will be actualized as a

consequence of a particular series of life-events in a given physical, social, and
cultural environment?

(2) what limits to the development of this personality are set by genetic
constitution?

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 Because there are only a few extreme cases in which an individual is
definitely committed by his germ plasm to particular personality traits we use the
term "constitutional" rather than "hereditary." "Constitution" refers to the total
physiological make-up of an individual at a given time. This is a product of
influences emanating from the germ plasm and influences derived from the
environment (diet, drugs, etc.).

2. Group Membership Determinants

The members of any organized enduring group tend to manifest certain

personality traits more frequently than do members of other groups. How large or
how small are the groupings one compares depends on the problem at hand.

In distinguishing group-membership determinants, one must usually take

account of a concentric order of social groups to which the individual belongs,
ranging from large national or international groups down to small local units. One
must also know the hierarchical class, political or social, to which he belongs
within each of these groups. How inclusive a unit one considers in speaking of
group-membership determinants is purely a function of the level of abstraction at
which one is operating at a given time.

Some of the personality traits which tend to distinguish the members of a

given group from humanity as a whole derive from a distinctive biological
heritage. Persons who live together are more likely to have the same genes than
are persons who live far apart. If the physical vitality is typically low for one group
as contrasted with other groups, or if certain types of endocrine imbalance are
unusually frequent, the personalities the members of that group will probably
have distinctive qualities. In the greater number of cases, however, the
similarities of character within a group are traceable less to constitutional factors
than to formative influences of the environment to which all members of the
group have been subjected. Of these group-membership determinants, culture is
with little doubt the most significant.

3. Role Determinants

The culture defines how the different functions, or roles, necessary to

group life are to be performed - such roles, for example, as those assigned on
the basis of sex and age, or on the basis of membership in a caste, class, or
occupational group. In a sense, the role determinants of personality are a special
class of group-membership determinants; they apply to strata that cross-cut most
kinds of group membership. The long-continued playing of a distinctive role,
however, appears to be so potent in differentiating personalities within a group
that it is useful to treat these determinants separately.

Moreover, if one is aware of the role determinants, one will less often be
misled in interpreting various manifestations of personality. In this connection it is
worth recalling that, in early Latin, persona means "a mask" dramatis personae
are the masks which actors wear in a play, that is, the characters that are
represented. Etymologically and historically, then, the personality is the character

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that is manifested in public. In modern psychology and sociology this
corresponds rather closely to the role behavior of a differentiated person.

4. Situational Determinants

The situational determinants include things that happen a thousand times

as well as those that happen only once-provided they are not standard for a
whole group. For example, it is generally agreed that the family constellation in
which a person grows up is a primary source of personality styling. These
domestic influences are conditioned by the cultural prescriptions for the roles of
parents and children. But a divorce, a father who is much older than the mother,
a father whose occupation keeps him away from home much of the time, the fact
of being an only child or the eldest or youngest in a series - these are situational
determinants. Contact with a group involves determinants which are classified as
group-membership or situational, depending on the individual's sense of
belongingness or commitment to the group. The congeries of persons among
whom a man accidentally finds himself one or more times may affect his
personality development but not in the same manner as those social units with
which the individual feels himself allied as a result of shared experiences or of
imaginative identification.

5. Interdependence Determinants

"Culture and personality" is one of the fashionable slogans of

contemporary social science and, by present usage, denotes a range of
problems on the borderline between anthropology and sociology.

A dualism is implied, whereas "culture in personality” and "personality in

culture" would suggest conceptual models more in accord with the facts.
Moreover, the slogan favors a dangerous simplification of the problems of
personality formation. Recognition of culture as one of the determinants of
personality is a great gain, but there are some indications that this theoretical
advance has tended to obscure the significance of other types of determinants.
"Culture and personality" is as lopsided as "biology and personality." To avoid
perpetuation of an over-emphasis upon culture, the writers have treated cultural
forces as but one variety of the press to which personalities are subjected as a
consequence of their membership in an organized group. A balanced
consideration of "personality in nature, society, and culture" must be carried on
within the framework of a complex conceptual scheme which explicitly
recognizes, instead of tacitly, excluding, a number of types of determinants.

6. Similarities and Differences in Personality

The personality of an individual is the product of inherited dispositions

and environmental experiences. These experiences occur within the field of his
physical, biological, and social environment, all of which are modified by the
culture of his group. Similarities of life experience and heredity will tend to
produce similar personality characteristics in different individuals, whether in the
same society or in different societies.

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4.2 Social Groups

Characteristics of Social Groups

1. The members interact with each other over some period of time.
2. Each member identifies with the group.
3. Each member accepts responsibilities and duties
4. There is a common goal or objective among its members.

Classification of Social Groups

1. According to nature of social ties
Primary Group - intimate, personal, face to face groups which we
find among our companions and family members.
Secondary Group- characterized by impersonal, businesslike,
contractual, formal and casual relationships.
2. According to self identification
In-group – is a group to which an individual identifies himself and
which gives him a sense of belonging.
Out- group – a group to which one do not participate, one has a
feeling of strangeness and indifference towards it.
Reference Group – is that group whose outlook is used by the
actor as the frame of reference in the organization of his
perceptual needs.
3. According to organizational structure
Informal group - an unplanned organization with no rules for
memberships. Members are bound by emotions and
sentiments.
Formal groups - are groups which prescribe and allocate tasks,
privileges, and responsibilities.
Importance of Social Groups
1. The group is a transmitter of culture
2. The group is a means of social control
3. The group socializes the individual
4. The group is a source of fundamental social ideals
5. The group trains the individual in communication.

4.3 SOCIAL PROCESS

This refers to repetitive behavior which are found commonly in social life.
They are consistent patterns of social behavior and interactions.

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Two general classification of Social Processes

A. Conjunctive Social Process – those making for consensus,

cooperation, unification and integration of a group.

1. Cooperation – a form of social interaction in which two or more

people work together toward a common end. It implies an active
concern for the needs of a group.
2. Accommodation - adjustment of hostile individuals to conflict. It is the
temporary termination of conflict through displacement, compromise
and toleration.
3. Assimilation – groups which are originally dissimilar becomes similar
in outlook, sentiments and attitudes. It is the blending of two cultures.
4. Amalgamation – biological interbreeding of two peoples of distinct
physical appearance.
5. Acculturation - process of acquiring culture of another ethnic group.

B. Disjunctive Social Process – those making for opposition, disunity.

Disorganization and disintegration of groups.
1. Competition – struggle between two or more people to attain an object
or a goal.
2. Conflict – process of interaction in which two or more people struggle
with one another for some commonly prized object or value.

4.4 Social Change and Collective Behavior

Social Change refers to the alteration or the modification of social

institutions and society over a long period of time.

A. Dynamics of Social Change

1. Evolution – this claims that there is a natural tendency for
mankind to solve its natural problem and develop from
the primitive stage to modernity.
2. Revolution – violent overthrow of existing ways of doing
things in order to change the system.
a. Political Revolution – any resort in violence within a
political order to change its leaders and form a new
one (e.g. coup d’ etat).
b. Social Revolution – a drastic change in some
aspects of a society such as the change from
pastoral society to an urban society during the
Industrial Revolution.
c. Religious Revolution – a change in traditional
religious beliefs which lead to the proliferation of
different sects.

B. Barriers to Social Change

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 1. Culture lag – represents dysfunctions on the inability to
devise new ideas to check the problem.

Collective Behavior refers to unstructured and undefined social situations

and their products. It is characterized by behavior which is not controlled by
cultural norms and ordered social relations. There is a free play of emotions, a
high degree of personal interactions and the emergence of opinions and
loyalties. The study of collective behavior is important because it is a cause for
social change. It results in the establishment of new norms, and institutions.

Basic Forms of Collective Behavior

A. Elementary Collective Behavior is an emotionalized and spontaneous

variety generally characterized by wild erratic behavior. The Crowd is a form of
an elementary collective behavior which is a temporary collection of people who
react to a common focus of attention and engage in spontaneous interaction.
Different kinds of crowds would cover; Casual crowd which is a momentary
gathering without form or sense of oneness. It is a group of people attracted by
something interesting like a streetfight, accident etc. Conventional crowd on the
other hand is made up of members who assemble at a definite time or place and
follow certain regulations in their conduct for example, athletic contest and
rallies. Expressive crowd are made up of people who gather together, mill about
and finally express themselves in a purposive manner like discos, carnivals,
Mardi gras. Finally, the Acting crowd which is a goal- oriented and frequently
spectacular and most emotional type of crowd like mobs and riots.

The Mass is a relatively large group whose members participate jointly

but independently in an event , such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes or
invasion.

The Public is a group of people confronted by an issue and engaged in

the discussion of an issue. A public is a dispersed group reached by mass
media. While Public Opinion designates the views and feelings current in a
specified population at a particular time in regard to an issue of interest to the
population. The quality of public opinion depends on public discussion, available
information, freedom of though and expression, the quality of leadership and
pressure groups.
Propaganda as another form of elementary collective behavior is a
calculated dissemination of partisan ideas with the aim of influencing group
attitudes and opinions. It is a deliberate campaign to influence people to accept
a certain view, sentiment, or value.

Ways by which Propaganda tries to achieve its goals

1. By misrepresenting facts and by giving false information

2. By using the in-group and out-group
3. By utilizing the emotional attitudes and prejudices of people.

B. The Social Movement is a more developed type of collective behavior larger

than elementary collective behavior which is characterized by a more or less
predictable behavior in terms of general direction. Social Movements usually

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come about as a result of injustice, intolerance, greed and exploitation which are
usually present in a society. Demonstrations, rallies and boycotts are techniques
of social movement. (e.g Katipunan etc.). Social movement may take the form of
political movement, religious movement or fashion movement

4.5 Race and Ethnic Relations

Race – the differences of people who are brought about by physical

characteristics of genetic origin.

- applied to population within a species that can be distinguished

from other populations of the same species on the basis of
genetically transmitted physical differences.

Ethnic Group – represents a number of persons who have a common cultural

background as evidenced by a feeling of loyalty to a given geographical territory
or leader, feeling of identification with and unity among historical and other group
experiences, or a high degree of similarity in social rooms, ideas and material
objects.

- It is a category of people who are distinct because of cultural

characteristics which have been handled down from generation to
generation.

Ethnic Problems

1. Land Problem
2. Education and training – Many ethnic groups have an access to
education and vocational training that will improve their status in
Philippine society either because they are informed of it or they
find no need for it.
3. Poor Socio – economic conditions
4. Peace and order

Prejudice – is an emotional prejudgment or attitude toward a person or group of

people. It makes a person look upon all members of the groups as if they were
alike and treat them with pattern of hostility to fulfill a specific irrational feeling.

Discrimination – is a way of rationalizing and getting of guilt feelings when one

has treated an individual unfairly.

- It is the physical manifestation of prejudice.

Theories of Prejudice

1. Economic Theory- This theory assumes that racial prejudice is a social

attitude propagated by the dominant ethnic majority class for the

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 purpose of stigmatizing some group as inferior so that the exploitation of
either the group itself or its resources will be justified.
2. Scape goat Theory – This theory states that human beings are reluctant
to accept their mistakes for their troubles and failures so they look for an
ethnic minority to shoulder the blame.
3. Symbolic Theory – This theory asserts that prejudice arises because a
racial or ethnic group is a symbol of what people hate, fear or envy.
4. Social Norm Theory – this theory states that ethnocentrism (the feeling
that one’s group is superior) is a natural development of group living.

Effects of prejudice and Discrimination

1. Significant economic wastages resulting from the failure to employ the

full productivity of manpower and to make use of the fullest demand in
the market.
2. Discrimination breeds unhealthy social conditions which directly and
indirectly affect all sectors of the society including those who
discriminate.
3. Racial discrimination imposes on the prejudice group the burden of
having to determine how and what extend, they should hold down
whom they discriminate.
4. Prejudice and discrimination create communication barriers those who
discriminate and the victims of discrimination.
5. Prejudice and discrimination result to violence and deprivation of human
rights.

Measures to Reduce Prejudice-Discrimination

The different societies realizing the harmful effects of prejudice and

discrimination came up with these two types of measures to reduce prejudice.

1. Contact and Acquaintance – these are the measures that

assumes that people develop prejudice because they are ignorant
and unfamiliar of the ethnic groups ways of living. The program of
the PANAMIN has encouraged culture contact between the
dominant majority groups in university and colleges in the cities.
2. Information Approach – this measure assumes that antipathy,
prejudice and dislike arise because of ignorance, therefore, one
way to minimize these feelings is to give facts about the majority
group.

Patterns of Ethnic Relations

1. Economic and Social Competition

2. Adverse sensory perception
3. The low cultural standard of the majority group.
4. News Paper and movies.

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ASSIGNMENT:

 Read an article of at least 3 different kinds of Filipino Indigenous People

(IP’s) and make a context Analysis of their differences.

ATTENTION!!!
PLEASE ANSWER the PRE-TEST on page 54
and the ACTIVITIES on page 56

GOOD LUCK and GOD BLESS!!! 😊

REFERENCES:

1. E. Mavis Helherington, Ross D. Parker. CHILD PSYCHOLOGY: A

CONTEMPORARY VIEWPOINT. 6th Ed. (2001).

2. Ferrante, Joan. SOCIOLOGY: A Global Perspective (2006).

3. Garcia, Manuel B. et al. SOCIOLOGY: Focus on Filipino Society and

Culture (1984)

4. Garcia, Manuel B. Introductory Sociology: A Unified Approach (1994)

5. Henslin, James M. Essentials of Sociology: A Down-to-Earth Approach (7th

Edition, 2005).

6. Lahey, Benjamin B. PSYCHOLOGY: An Introduction (7th Edition, 2001).

7. Macionis, John Jane. Sociology 8th Edition

8. Massey, Garth. Readings for Sociology, Fifth Edition Introduction to

Sociology (2005).

9. Panopio, Isabel et al. Society and Culture: Introduction to Sociology and

Anthropology (2006).

10. Panopio, Isabel et al. General Sociology: Focus on the Philippines (2004).

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 NOTE!!!
Majority of the content of the module are taken from the
book – SOCIOLOGY (Exploring Society and Culture) by
Dr. Maria Elena D. David and Dr. Agnes M. Macaraeg
Permission to use the book for the purpose of writing this
module was granted by the publisher.

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