2010mogo Thesis

University of Yaoundé I
Faculty of Science
MODELING AND DYNAMICS OF PENDULUM

ARMS OF ELECTROMECHANICAL ROBOTS
By
Mogo Jules Bonaventure
Dissertation
Submitted to the Faculty of Science

in Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)
Supervisor
Prof. Paul Woafo
Laboratory of Modeling and Simulation

in Engineering and Biological Physics
Department of Physics
Yaoundé, January 2010

List of the Permanent Teaching
Staff of the Faculty of Science,
University of Yaounde I
Dean : BITJONG NDOMBOL (Professor)

Vice-Dean (Academic affairs) : NJOPWOUO Daniel (Professor)
Vice-Dean (DARR) : ABOSSOLO born ANGUE (Senior Lecturer)
Vice-Dean (Research and Cooperation) : WOAFO Paul (Professor)
i
1 - DEPARTMENT OF BIOCHEMISTRY(B.C.) (31)
01 ETOA François Xavier Professor Head of Dept.
02 BENG born NINTCHOM P. V. Associate Professor on duty
03 ESSIA NGANG Jean Justin Senior Lecturer on duty
04 FEKAM BOYOM Fabrice Associate Professor on duty
05 MBATCHAM Wilfried Associate Professor on duty
06 MOUNDIPA FEUWOU Paul Associate Professor on duty
07 OBEN Julius ENYONG Associate Professor on duty
08 ATOGHO Barbara Mama Senior Lecturer on duty
09 BELINGA born NDOYE FOE F. Senior Lecturer on duty
10 BIGOGA DIAGA Jude Senior Lecturer on duty
11 BIYITI BI ESSAM born AKAM Senior Lecturer IG MINRESI
12 BOUDJEKO THADEE Senior Lecturer on duty
13 DEMMANO Gustave Senior Lecturer on duty
14 DJOKAM TAMO Rosine Rachel Senior Lecturer on duty
15 EVEHE BEBANDOUE M.-S. Senior Lecturer on duty
16 FOKOU Elie Senior Lecturer on duty
17 KANSCI Germain Senior Lecturer on duty
18 MINKA Samuel Senior Lecturer on duty
19 MOFOR born TEUGWA C. Senior Lecturer CE SEP MINESUP
20 NGUEFACK Julienne Senior Lecturer on duty
21 RIWOM Sara Honorine Senior Lecturer on duty
22 SHANG Judith DZELAMBONG Senior Lecturer on duty
23 TCHANA NKOUATCHOUA A. Senior Lecturer on duty
24 WAKAM born NANA Louise Senior Lecturer on duty
25 ACHU Mercy BIH Assistant on duty
26 BODA Maurice Assistant on duty
27 EFFA ONOMO Pierre Assistant on duty
28 NGONDI Judith Laure Assistant on duty
29 NJAYOU Frédéric Nico Assistant on duty
30 NYEGUE Maximilienne Assistant on duty
31 SADO KAMDEM Sylvain Leroy Assistant on duty
ii
2 - DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL BIOL. AND PHYSIOL. (B.P.A.) (30)
01 BILONG BILONG Charle F. Professor Head of Dept.
02 KAMTCHOUING Pierre Professor on duty
03 MINFOUNDI Remy Professor on duty
04 DIMO Théophile Associate Professor on duty
05 DJAMEN Dieudonné Associate Professor on duty
06 FOMENA Abraham Associate Professor on duty
07 NGASSAM Pierre Associate Professor on duty
08 NJIOKOU Flobert Associate Professor on duty
09 NOLA Moı̈se Associate Professor on duty
10 TAN VEMYU Paul Associate Professor on duty
11 TCHUEM TCHUENTE L. Associate Professor on duty
12 BAPFUBUSA Bénoı̂t Alain Senior Lecturer on duty
13 BELLET EDIMO Oscar R. Senior Lecturer on duty
14 CHUNGAG ANYE born NKEH Senior Lecturer on duty
15 DJIETO Lordon Champlain Senior Lecturer on duty
16 ENO Anna Arrey Senior Lecturer on duty
17 ESSOMBA born NTSAMA M. Senior Lecturer on duty (HCY)
18 FOTO MENBOHAN Samuel Senior Lecturer (CT2 MIN. ENERGY)
19 KAMGANG René Senior Lecturer MINRESI/ IMPM
20 MEGNEKOU Rosette Senior Lecturer on duty
21 RAKOTONIRINA Vincent S. Senior Lecturer on duty
22 ZEBAZE TOGOUET Serge H. Senior Lecturer on duty
23 AJEAGAH Gidéon AJHAINDUM Assistant on duty
24 ALENE Désirée Chantal Assistant on duty
25 DZEUFIET DJOMENI Paul D. Assistant on duty
26 GOUNOUE KAMKUMO Raceline Assistant on duty
27 KEKENOU Sévilor Assistant on duty
28 KEMKA Norbert Assistant on duty
29 NGUEGUIM TSOFACK Florence Assistant on duty
30 TOMBI Jeannette Assistant on duty
iii
3 - DEPARTMENT OF PLANT BIOLOGY (B.P.V.) (23)
01 AMOUGOU AKOA Professor Head of Dept.
02 MOSSEBO Dominique C. Associate Professor on duty
03 NKONGMENECK Bernard A. Associate Professor on duty
04 YOUMBI Emmanuel Associate Professor on duty
05 AMBANG Zachée Senior Lecturer on duty
06 BELL Joseph Martin Senior Lecturer on duty
07 BIYE Elvire Hortense Senior Lecturer on duty
08 BOYOMO ONANA Senior Lecturer on duty
09 DJOCGOUE Pierre F. Senior Lecturer on duty
10 KENGNE NOUMSI Yves M. Senior Lecturer on duty
11 MBARGA BINDZI Marie A. Senior Lecturer CEA MINESUP
12 MBOLO Marie Senior Lecturer on duty
13 NDONGO BEKOLO Solange Senior Lecturer on duty
14 NGOUO Lucas Vincent Senior Lecturer Head Of Div. UDs
15 NSOM ZAMO Annie Claude Senior Lecturer on duty
16 NWAGA Dieudonné M. Senior Lecturer on duty
17 TSOATA Esaı̈e Senior Lecturer on duty
18 ZAPFACK Louis Senior Lecturer on duty
19 ANGONI Hyacinthe Assistant on duty
20 ESSONO EBOUGOU G. G. Assistant on duty
21 NGALLE Hermine BILLE Assistant on duty
22 NGOBO NKONGO M. pse MEKE Assistant on duty
23 NGODO MELINGUI Jean B. Assistant on duty
iv
4 - DEPARTMENT OF INORGANIC CHEMISTRY (C.I.) (30)
01 GHOGOMU Paul MINGO Associate Professor Head of Dept.
02 NEMBA Robert Professor D.G. ANRP (MINRESI)
03 NGAMENI Emmanuel Professor on duty
04 NJOPWOUO Daniel Professor Vice-Dean / DPSAA
05 NOAH NGAMVENG J. Professor on duty
06 ELIMBI Antoine Associate Professor on duty
07 MELO born CHINJE U. F. Associate Professor Dir. Mipromalo
08 NDIFON Peter TEKE Associate Professor ISI MINRESI
09 YOUNANG Elie Associate Professor on duty
10 AGWARA ONDOH M. Senior Lecturer On Duty
11 AVOM Jérôme Senior Lecturer Dir. I.A.I Gabon
12 BABALE born DJAM D. Senior Lecturer In Char. of Mis. P.R
13 BAIZOUMI ZOUA Senior Lecturer Head Div. MINTOUR
14 DJOUFAC WOUMFO E. Senior Lecturer on duty
15 GWET Simon-Pierre Senior Lecturer on duty
16 KETCHA MBADCAM J. Senior Lecturer on duty
17 KONG SAKEO Senior Lecturer C.M of P.M
18 LAMINSI Samuel Senior Lecturer on duty
19 LIBOUM Senior Lecturer on duty
20 MOULIOM Christophe Senior Lecturer on duty
21 NANSEU Charles Péguy Senior Lecturer on duty
22 NDIKONTAR Maurice KOR Senior Lecturer on duty
23 NENWA Justin Senior Lecturer on duty
24 NGOMO Horace MANGA Senior Lecturer C.T. of P.M
25 PAYOM Gaston Senior Lecturer on duty
26 SIGNING Pierre Senior Lecturer on duty
27 EMADACK Alphonse Assistant on duty
28 KEUMEGNE MBOUGUEM J.C. Assistant on duty
29 NJIOMOU C. pse DJANGANG Assistant on duty
30 NJOYA Dayirou Assistant on duty
v
5 - DEPARTMENT OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY (C.O.) (30)
01 NKENFACK Augustin E. Professor Head of Dept.
02 FON KIMBU Samuel Professor on duty
03 GHOGOMU TIH Raphäel Professor on duty
04 NGADJUI TCHALEU B. Professor Head Of Dept.FMBS
05 NYASSE Barthélemy Professor Head Div. MINESUP
06 TSAMO Etienne Professor on duty
07 WANDJI Jean Professor on duty
08 DONGO Etienne Associate Professor on duty
09 FOLEFOC G. NGOSONG Associate Professor Vice-Dean U.B.
10 KAPNANG Henriette Associate Professor on duty
11 MBAFOR Joseph Associate Professor on duty
12 NGOUELA Silvère A. Associate Professor on duty
13 PEGNYEMB Dieudonné E. Associate Professor Head Div. MINESUP
14 YANKEP Emmanuel Associate Professor on duty
15 Alex de Théodore ATCHADE Senior lecturer on duty
16 KEUMEDJIO Félix Senior Lecturer on duty
17 KEUMOGNE Marguerite Senior Lecturer on duty
18 KOUAM Jacques Senior Lecturer on duty
19 MBAZOA born DJAMA C. Senior Lecturer on duty
20 MESSANGA Bernard B. Senior Lecturer on duty
21 NOUNGOUE TCHAMO D. Senior Lecturer on duty
22 NYEMBA born ETOUNOU A.-M. Senior Lecturer on duty
23 TCHOUANKEU Jean-Claude Senior Lecturer Head Serv. Chanc. UYI
24 TIH born NGO BILONG E.A. Senior Lecturer on duty
25 EYONG Kenneth OBEN Assistant on duty
26 MKOUNGA Pierre Assistant on duty
27 NGO MSING Josephine Assistant on duty
28 TABOPDA KUATE Turibio Assistant on duty
29 TAGATSING FOTSING Maurice Assistant on duty
30 ZONDEGOUMBA Ernestine Assistant on duty
vi
6 - DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE (IN) (22)
01 LOUKA Basile Senior Lecturer Head of Dept
02 TCHUENTE Maurice Professor PCA UB
03 FOTSO Pauline Laure Associate Professor Vice-Chancellor UDs
04 ATSA ETOUNDI Roger Senior Lecturer Head Div. MINFOPRA
05 FOUDA NDJODO Marcel Senior Lecturer IA4 MINESUP/Head Dpt. ENS
06 KAMGNIA Emmanuel Senior Lecturer on duty
07 NDOUNDAM René Senior Lecturer on duty
08 NZALI Jean-Pierre Senior Lecturer on duty
09 TINDO Gilbert Senior Lecturer on duty
10 CHEDOM FOTSO D. E. Assistant on duty
11 EBELE Serge Alain Assistant on duty
12 HAMZA Adamou Assistant on duty
13 KOUPKAM KOUOKAM E. A. Assistant on duty
14 LONLAC LONLAC Jerry G. Assistant on duty
15 MELATAGIA YONTA P. Assistant on duty
16 MEYEMDOU Nadege Sylvianne Assistant on duty
17 MOTTO PONG Serge A. Assistant on duty
18 NGOKO Yanick Martial Assistant on duty
19 SOUOPGUI Innocent Assistant on duty
20 TAPOMO Hyppolite Assistant on duty
21 TCHUENTE FOGUEM Germaine Assistant on duty
22 TSOPZE Norbert Assistant on duty
vii
7 - DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS (MA) (31)
01 WAMON François Associate Professor Head of Dept.
02 BEKOLLE David Professor Vice-Chancellor UN
03 BITJONG NDOMBOL Professor Dean Fac. Science
04 DOSSA COSSY Marcel Professor on duty
05 NGUETSENG Gabriel Professor Head of CUTI UYI
06 NOUTCHEGUEME Norbert Professor on duty
07 TONGA Marcel Associate Professor on duty
08 BINZOULI Etienne J.-J. Senior Lecturer on duty
09 EMVUDU WONO Yves S. Senior Lecturer Head Div. MINESUP
10 FOMEKONG Christophe Senior Lecturer on duty
11 KIKI Maxime A. Senior Lecturer on duty
12 MBAKOP Guy Merlin Senior Lecturer on duty
13 MBIANDA Gilbert Senior Lecturer on duty
14 MEWOLI Boulchard Senior Lecturer on duty
15 NDAKBO Victor Senior Lecturer on duty
16 NGUIMTSA Charles Senior Lecturer on duty
17 NKUIMI JUGNIA Célestin Senior Lecturer on duty
18 NOUNDJEU Pierre Senior Lecturer on duty
19 TCHANGANG Roger D. Senior Lecturer on duty
20 TCHAPNDA NJABO S. B. Senior Lecturer on duty
21 TIAYA TSAGUE N. A.-M. Senior Lecturer on duty
22 ZAME Alfred Senior Lecturer on duty
23 AYISSI Raoult Domingo Assistant on duty
24 CHENDJOU Gilbert Assistant on duty
25 KONLACK Socgnia Virginie Assistant on duty
26 MBEHOU Mohamed Assistant on duty
27 NDOUNE Assistant on duty
28 NIMPA PEFOUNKEU Romain Assistant on duty
29 POLA NDOUNDOU Emmanuel Assistant on duty
30 TAN AHANDA Barnabé Assistant Head Serv. MINPLAMAT
31 TCHOUNDJA Edgar Landry Assistant on duty
viii
8 - DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS (PH) (34)
01 KOFANE Timoléon Crépin Professor Head of Dept.
02 WOAFO Paul Professor Vice-Dean DRC
03 ESSIMBI ZOBO Bernard Associate Professor on duty
04 MKANKAM KAMGA F. Associate Professor on duty
05 NJOMO Donatien Associate Professor on duty
06 OUMAROU BOUBA Associate Professor Chancellor UYI
07 OWONO ATEBA Associate Professor Vice-Chancellor UYII
08 TCHAWOUA Clément Associate Professor on duty
09 BIYA MOTTO Frédéric Senior Lecturer Head Serv. UYI
10 EKOBENA FOUDA H. P. Senior Lecturer on duty
11 MAGA Emire Mondésir Senior Lecturer on duty
12 MBANE BIOUELE Senior Lecturer on duty
13 MBONO SAMBA Yves C.U. Senior Lecturer Vice-Dean UDS
14 MOUSSA Idolko Senior Lecturer S. Dir. MINUH
15 NDJAKA Jean Marie B. Senior Lecturer on duty
16 NJANDJOCK NOUCK P. Senior Lecturer on duty
17 NDOP Joseph Senior Lecturer on duty
18 NOUAYOU Robert Senior Lecturer on duty
19 OBOUNOU Marcel Senior Lecturer on duty
20 PEMHA Elkana Senior Lecturer on duty
21 SIMO Elie Senior Lecturer on duty
22 TABOD Charles TABOD Senior Lecturer on duty
23 TCHOFFO Fidèle Senior Lecturer on duty
24 ZEKENG Serge Sylvain Senior Lecturer on duty
25 BEN-BOLIE Germain H. Assistant on duty
26 DJUIDJE K. G. pse ALOYEM Assistant on duty
27 EDONGUE Hervais Assistant on duty
28 EYEBE FOUDA Jean Sire Assistant on duty
29 FEWO Serge Ibraid Assistant on duty
30 NANA NBENDJO Blaise Assistant on duty
31 SEIDOU Assistant on duty
32 SIEWE SIEWE Martin Assistant on duty
33 WAKATA born BEYA Annie Assistant on duty
34 WOULACHE Rosalie Laure Assistant on duty
ix
9 - DEPARTMENT OF EARTH SCIENCE (S.T.) (34)
01 ABOSSOLO born ANGUE M. Senior Lecturer Head of Dept. VD/DSSE
02 EKODECK Georges E. Professor Vice-Chancellor UD
03 BILONG Paul Associate Professor Dean FS UD
04 BITOM Dieudonné L. Associate Professor on duty
05 NZENTI Jean-Paul Associate Professor on duty
06 BEKOA Etienne Senior Lecturer on duty
07 BISSO Dieudonné Senior Lecturer Dir. Projet Barrage Memvelle
08 BONDJE Charles Senior Lecturer on duty
09 ESSONO Jean Senior Lecturer C.E.A. MINES
10 GHOGOMU R. TANWI Senior Lecturer on duty
11 KAMGANG Pierre Senior Lecturer on duty
12 LAMILEN BILLA D. Senior Lecturer on duty
13 MINYEM Dieudonné Senior Lecturer Dir. Projet Hydro-MIN
14 MOUAFO Lucas Senior Lecturer on duty
15 MOUNDI Amidou Senior Lecturer Head Serv. UYI
16 MVONDO ONDOA J. Senior Lecturer S/Head MINVILLE
17 NDAM NGOUPAYOU J.-R. Senior Lecturer on duty
18 NDJIGUI Paul-Désiré Senior Lecturer on duty
19 NGOS III Simon Senior Lecturer on duty
20 NJILAH Isaac KONFOR Senior Lecturer on duty
21 NJOM Bernard de Lattre Senior Lecturer on duty
22 NKOUMBOU Charles Senior Lecturer on duty
23 NYECK Bruno Senior Lecturer on duty
24 TCHAKOUNTE J. pse NUMBEN Senior Lecturer on duty
25 TCHOUANKOUE Jean-Pierre Senior Lecturer on duty
26 TEMDJIM Robert Senior Lecturer on duty
27 YENE ATANGANA J. Q. Senior Lecturer Head Serv. MINEF
28 YONGUE born FOUATEU Rose Senior Lecturer on duty
29 EKOMANE Emile Marie Assistant on duty
30 LIENOU Gaston Assistant on duty
31 NGO BIDJECK Louise Marie Assistant on duty
32 NGUETCHOUA Gabriel Assistant on duty
33 ONANA Vincent Assistant on duty
34 ZO’O ZAME Philémon Assistant Attach P.R.C.
x
SHARING OF LECTURERS IN THE FACULTY OF SCIENCE
ACCORDING TO DEPARTMENTS
(09 April 2009)
DEPARTMENT NUMBER OF LECTURERS

Prof. Ass. Prof. Sen. Lect. Asst. Total
BC 1 (0) 6 (1) 17 (11) 7 (3) 31 (15)
BPA 3 (0) 8 (0) 11 (4) 8 (4) 30 (8)
BPV 1 (0) 3 (0) 14 (3) 5 (2) 23 (5)
C.I. 4 (0) 5 (1) 16 (1) 4 (1) 30 (3)
C.O. 7 (0) 7 (1) 10 (6) 6 (2) 30 (8)
IN 1 (0) 1 (1) 7 (0) 12 (2) 22 (3)
MA 5 (0) 2 (0) 15 (1) 9 (1) 31 (2)
PH 2 (0) 6 (0) 16 (1) 10 (3) 34 (4)
ST 1 (0) 3 (0) 25 (3) 6 (1) 34 (4)
Total 25 (0) 41 (4) 130 (30) 67 (18) 265 (51)
So a total of: 265 with

- Professors 25
- Associate Professors 41
- Senior Lecturers 130
- Assistants 67
- () = Number of Women.
xi
Dedications
In loving memory of my Daddy, Mogo Bonaventure
xii
Acknowledgments
Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisor Professor WOAFO Paul for pro-
viding me with the opportunity to work in such an unusual and exciting field. His
knowledge and extensive practical experience in the area of nonlinear electromechan-
ical systems was a great resource for me. I have gained an invaluable amount of
knowledge and experience working in his laboratory.
The Laboratory equipment grant from the Academy of Sciences for the Devel-
oping World (TWAS) under Research grant N.03-322 RG/PHYS/AF/AC is truly
appreciated.
I am indebted to Dr. NANA Bonaventure for his help with the circuits and
for many other fruitful discussions. My task would have been much more difficult if
he had not provided a solid basis to the analog simulation of the systems.
It was a great experience working with all my colleagues in the Laboratory of

Modeling and Simulation in Engineering and Biological Physics at the University of
Yaounde I and I thank them for being supportive and making the whole process of
research so much fun.
Special thanks are extended to Professor Timoléon Crépin KOFANE, Pro-

fessor Clément TCHAWOUA and all the teaching staff of the department of
physics of the Yaounde I University who guided us on the way of research through
theirs educations and theirs appreciated supports.
xiii
Next, I would like to extend my thanks to all my elders and mates Dr. Réné
YAMAPI, Dr. Yanne CHEMBO, Dr. Blaise NANA NBENDJO, Dr. Gae-
tan FAUTSO KUIATE, and Dr. Cédrick KITIO KWUIMY. Thank you for
all the discussions we had together concerning this work.
I thank God for his silent support in all the moments of accomplishing this re-
search.
There are a lot of them and they will certainly recognize themselves, the ones who
have contributed directly or indirectly for the achievement of this work. I would like
to express my gratitude to them.
xiv
Contents
List of the Permanent Teaching Staff i
Dedications xii
Acknowledgments xiii
Table of Contents xv
List of Figures xvii
Abstract xx
Résumé xxi
General Introduction 1
Chapter 1 Literature Review and Problem Statement 5

1.1 Generalities on Electromechanical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Nonlinearities in Electromechanical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3 Active Control Methods and their Applications to Electromechanical
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4 Nonlinear Dynamics, Emerging Technologies, and Electromechanical
Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.5 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Chapter 2 Methodology: Modeling of Pendulum arms, Mathemati-

cal Formalisms and Numerical Methods 23
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 Design and Modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2.1 Model 1: Rigid pendulum robot arm coupled to moving-coil
transducer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
xv
2.2.2 Model 2: Rigid pendulum robot arm coupled to moving-coil
transducer with nonlinear capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.3 Model 3: Inverted pendulum robot arm coupled to moving-coil
2.2.4 Model 4: Flexible pendulum robot arm coupled to moving-coil
2.3 Parameters identification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.3.1 Rigid model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.3.2 Flexible model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.4 Control algorithm designing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.5 Dynamics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.5.1 Numerical method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.5.2 Analytical method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Chapter 3 Results and Discussions 53

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.2 Critical forcing amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.3 Dynamical behaviors of rigid arms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.3.1 Model 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.3.2 Model 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.3.3 Model 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.4 Dynamical behaviors of flexible arm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.4.1 Results from numerical simulations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.4.2 Results from mathematical investigations. . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
General Conclusion 92
0.1 Main results of the thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
0.2 Future works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
References 96
List of Publications 104
xvi
List of Figures
Figure 1 Moving-coil transducer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Figure 2 The setup of the nonlinear condenser made of an ideal oper-
ational amplifier (A) of reference LF 356, identical diodes Di,
(i = 1, ..., 4) of reference 1N 4001, two linear condensers C1 and
C2 and one linear resistance R1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Figure 3 Rigid pendulum robot arm coupled to RL moving-coil transducer. 24

Figure 4 The Pendulum mechanism. ur and uθ are the polar unit vectors. 26
Figure 5 Horizontal plane motion of the rigid pendulum robot arm. . . 29
Figure 6 The Electromechanical device. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Figure 7 The Electromechanical device. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Figure 8 The inverted pendulum mechanism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Figure 9 The setup of the Electromechanical device. . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Figure 10 A small element of the beam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Figure 11 Model 1 numerical boundary criterion for rotation in the (ω, E0c )
plane. (a): Vertical motion; (b): Horizontal motion. . . . . . . 55
Figure 12 Model 2 numerical boundary criterion for rotation in the (ω, Ec )
plane. (a) : α = 0.0 ; (b) : α = 0.95. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Figure 13 (a): Bifurcation diagram and (b): Lyapunov exponent when E0
varies with ω = 0.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Figure 14 State diagrams of the forced pendulum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Figure 15 Frequency-response diagram: (...): Numerical and (xxx): An-
alytical. (a): Jump phenomenon observed when the mean fre-
quency ω is slowly decreased or increased. (b): Approximation
from Eq.2.54 holds for E0 = 0.07. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
xvii
Figure 16 Model 2 (a): Bifurcation diagram and (b): Lyapunov exponent
when E0 varies with ω = 1.0 for the case of nonlinear electrical
circuit and vertical rigid arm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Figure 17 Model 2 State diagrams of the forced pendulum for ω = 1.0 and
α = 0.95. (a) period-one: E0 = 37; (b) period-two: E0 = 42;
(c) period-four: E0 = 43.5; and (d) chaotic motion: E0 = 46. . 65
Figure 18 (a): Influence of the electrical nonlinearity on the response of
the output Arm. (b): Comparison of numerical results with
perturbation theory(...): Numerical and (xxx): Analytical results. 67
Figure 19 Model 3 (a): Bifurcation diagram and (b): Lyapunov exponent
when E0 varies with ω = 1.0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Figure 20 Model 3 State diagrams of the forced inverted pendulum for
ω = 1.0 and α = 0.95. (a) period-one: E0 = 37; (b) period-two:
E0 = 42; (c) period-four: E0 = 43.5; and (d) chaotic motion:
E0 = 46. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Figure 21 a): Influence of the electrical nonlinearity on the response of the
output Arm for E0 = 0.5. (b): Comparison of numerical results
with perturbation theory(...): Numerical and (xxx): Analytical,
for E0 = 0.2, and α = 0.95. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Figure 22 (a): Bifurcation diagram and (b): Lyapunov exponent when E0
varies with ω = 0.278 and α = 1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Figure 23 (c): Bifurcation diagram and (d): Lyapunov exponent when ω
varies with E0 = 0.1 and α = 1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Figure 24 (e): Bifurcation diagram and (f): Lyapunov exponent when E0
varies with ω = 0.278 and α = 1.0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Figure 25 (g): Bifurcation diagram and (h): Lyapunov exponent when ω
varies with E0 = 0.1 and α = 1.0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Figure 26 Phase portraits of the forced node for ω = 0.278 and α =
1.2. (i1 ) period-one: E0 = 0.1; (i2 ) period-two: E0 = 0.6;
(i3 ) period-three: E0 = 0.725; (i4 ) period-five: E0 = 0.2; (i5 )
period-seven: E0 = 0.98; and (i6 ) chaotic motion: E0 = 0.4. . . 81
Figure 27 Jump phenomena for E0 = 0.01. (j1 ): α = 0.8, (j2 ): α = 1.0 ,
(j3 ): α = 1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Figure 28 Hysteresis phenomenon for E0 = 0.01 and α = 1.0. (Full Line):
Forward Sweep. (Dash Line): Backward Sweep. . . . . . . . . 84
xviii
Figure 29 (k1 ): Node amplitudes comparison, (k2 ) : Zoom, f or E0 = 0.01
and α = 0.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Figure 30 Influence of the Nonlinearity on the response of the output Arm
for E0 = 0.01. (...): Numerical and (***): Analytical. (L1 ):
α = 0.8, (L2 ): α = 1.0 , (L3 ): α = 1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
xix
Abstract
This thesis deals with the modeling and dynamics of systems, consisting of rigid and flexible
pendulum arms, magnetically coupled with electrical circuits by means of electromechanical trans-
ducers.
Two methods are used to investigate the forced pendula for which the control parameters are
the driving amplitude and frequency, and the nonlinear electrical parameter: the analytical method
and the numerical method. Harmonic balance technique is chosen to tackle analytical solutions
of our models. The computer based simulation tool Fortran and the classical fourth-order Runge-
Kutta algorithm are employed for all numerical simulations; assuming similar initial conditions. The
control law is designed following an energy-based approach.
The forced response of pendula is very rich and complex. The approximate solution of the
system of differential equations are plotted using the phase portraits. Bifurcation diagrams show
various states of the model: uniperiodicity, period-doubling, quasiperiodicity, multiperiodicity, as
well as chaotic behavior.
Keywords: Pendulum arm, Electromechanical systems, Robots, Rigid and flexible arms, Chaotic
dynamics.
xx
Résumé
Dans cette these, nous étudions la modélisation et la dynamique des systèmes à bras pendulaires
rigides et flexibles, magnétiquement couplés à des circuits électriques aux moyens des transducteurs
électromécaniques.
Deux méthodes sont utilisées pour l’investigation des pendules forcés dont les paramètres de
contrôle sont la fréquence et l’amplitude de la source d’excitation ainsi que le paramètre de non
linéarité électrique: la méthode analytique et la méthode numérique. La technique de la balance
des harmoniques est choisie pour l’étude analytique. Le langage Fortran ainsi que l’algorithme de
Runge-kutta d’ordre 4 ont été utilisés pour toutes les simulations numériques avec des conditions
initiales similaires. La loi de contrôle a été élaborée suivant une approche énergétique.
La réponse forcée des pendules est tres riche et complexe. Les solutions graphiques des systèmes
d’équations différentielles sont obtenues via les portraits de phase. Les diagrammes de bifurcation
nous renseignent sur les différentes transitions dans le systeme: uni-périodicité, dédoublement de
période, quasi-périodicité et multi- périodicité, comportement chaotique.
Mots clés: Bras Pendulaire, Systèmes électromécaniques, Robots, Bras rigides et flexibles, Dy-
namique chaotique.
xxi
General Introduction
Since the time of Galileo [1], the pendulum has constituted a physical object fascinat-
ing physicists and therefore becoming one of the paradigms in the study of physics and
natural phenomena. In the framework of nonlinear dynamics, there is no doubt that
the pendulum is one of the objects that have deserved more attention in modeling all
kinds of phenomena related to oscillations, bifurcations and chaos. Its paradigmatic
importance in mathematics has been also pointed out [2]. And its interest derives
not only from its intrinsic value as a notable example to test and search for new
phenomena, but also from its wide range of applicability.
From the theoretical point of view, the study of the pendulum may be considered
of fundamental interest, where new results appear once in a while (for example, on the
stability of pendula, following the theorem proved by Acheson [3-5], and all possible
combinations of pendula, such as the double pendulum [6], coupled pendula or even
networks of pendula are used from very different perspectives and approaches [7-
9].) One example of an interesting new result applied to this system refers to the
Wada property, which was thoroughly studied for the forced pendulum in [10,11],
and has to do with the unpredictability of the system, even when it has simple
periodic attractors. On the other hand, many physical phenomena may be modeled
as pendula. This is because many oscillatory problems may be reduced in some way
to the equations of the pendulum. One could argue that, as a kind of oscillatory
unit, it may be found almost everywhere where oscillations occur. Apart from the
familiar cases which appear in mechanics, it has been used to model a charged particle
1
inside an electric field with applications to nuclear reactors and plasma, and even as a
universal model for nonlinear resonator [12]. Other fields of application are Josephson
superconducting junctions [13,14], modeling of structural and electronic properties in
condensed matter physics, and in celestial mechanics, especially related to the stability
of the solar system [15], just to name a few. A good source of examples mostly related
to mechanical engineering and mechanics are found in the book by Moon [16]. Another
reference, which is basically dedicated to many phenomena associated to pendula,
including many applications to plasma physics, is the book by Sagdeev et al. [17].
Also, in problems related to engineering and control, the study of the pendulum is of
interest. For instance, for a textbook in which the basic characteristics of chaos are
introduced with the help of the simple pendulum (see [18]).

From the technological point of view, the pendulum arm is one of the fundamen-
tal elements of an engineering structure. It finds uses in varied structural applica-
tions. Moreover, structures like helicopter rotor blades, spacecraft antennae, flexible
satellites, airplane wings, gun barrels, robot arms, mechanical manipulators, high-
rise buildings, long-span bridges, and subsystems of more complex structures can be
modeled as a rigid or flexible pendulum-like slender member. Therefore, studying the
dynamical response, both analytically and numerically, of this simple structural com-
ponent under various loading conditions would help in understanding and explaining
the behavior of more complex, real structures under similar loading.
Although significant progress has been made in many aspects over the last two
decades, many issues are not resolved yet. Today, many engineering problems involv-
ing vibrations of mechanical structures still cannot be well-understood or explained.
In the same way, simple, effective, and reliable controls of pendulum robot arm ma-
nipulators still remain an open question. Clearly, further efforts and results in this
area would contribute significantly to robotics, and in particular, automation, as well
2
as its application and educational importance in general control engineering.
To speed up this process, this thesis presents the current research in design, model-
ing, control and applications of strongly nonlinear electromechanical pendulum robot
arm manipulators, as handled by the leading experts in this important research area
of electromechanics (combining the sciences of electrical engineering and mechanics).
Pendulum-like structures are used in diverse applications, ranging from entertain-
ment to manufacturing and to space applications. Each application has its own
requirements in terms of performance, design and operating environment. Based on
these requirements, we have designed electromechanical devices with three types of
pendulum-like structures that perform designated tasks with maximum possible effi-
ciency. This present work enters in the class of nonlinear electromechanical devices
with a pendulum arm, and is organized as follows.
In chapter one, we focus on the literature review on electromechanical systems
and the problem statement of the thesis. We first turn to techniques of actuation
in electromechanical systems which allows us to deal with the different classes of
electromechanical systems, with an emphasis on the macroscopic scale class which
will be used throughout the thesis. Thereafter, we present the sources of nonlinearity
in electromechanical systems. This chapter further extends to active control methods
and their applications to electromechanical systems. Some technological applications

of the work are presented as well as the problem statement of our contribution.
The second chapter is devoted entirely to our methodology. Once we have designed
our models, we examine how the dynamical equations of electromechanical systems
can be derived from Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws, Ohm’s law, law of induction,
coulomb’s law, Newtonian methods and Hooke’s law. The coupling between both
ports is modeled taking the advantage of the magnetomotive motion actuation. Each
model is governed by a set of ordinary differential equations or partial differential
3
equations. In the latest case, a discrete version of the model is produced. The
spatial dependence in the solution of the partial differential equation is eliminated
and perturbation methods are used to derive the equation of motions. Our models
experience geometric and capacitive nonlinearities.

The third chapter presents the results and discussions of the dynamical behaviors
of the pendulum arms. The dynamical analysis of the complex nonlinear oscillations
in our models are investigated, exploiting its nonlinear characteristics. Next, we have
built controllers that cause the devices to behave in the desired manner. Theoretical
models have been done to validate the numerical simulations.
The study ends with a general conclusion where the main dynamics and control
features observed are summarized. The study also suggests a brief outline of possible
future research directions.
4
Chapter 1
Literature Review and Problem

Statement
1.1 Generalities on Electromechanical Systems
The terms ”actuator”, ”sensor”, and ”transducer” are widely, used, sometimes
interchangeably in the description of measurement systems. In the broadest sense,
a transducer receives energy from one system and transmits this energy to another
system, often in a different form. A sensor monitors a system; it responds to physical
stimuli, such as heat, light, pressure, or motion, and generates an electronic impulse
for detection. An actuator, on the other hand, imposes a state upon a system.
Most commonly, this involves converting an input electrical impulse into motion.
Thus, actuators and sensors are both transducers intended for different tasks. In
accordance with these general definitions, an electromechanical transducer converts

electrical energy into mechanical energy, and vice versa. The overall purpose of this
conversion of energy back and forth between the mechanical and electrical domains
may be to accomplish a mechanical task in a controllable manner.
An electromechanical system refers to a mechanical element coupled to electrical
circuits via electromechanical transducers. The input transducer takes electrical sig-
nals from the input circuit and provides mechanical stimuli to the mechanical system;
this is generally referred to as actuation. Because of the obvious importance of actua-
5
tors to electromechanics, there has been research in a wide variety of actuators. Such
actuators operate on various basic principles. The most common electromechanical
system actuation methods include piezoelectric, thermal expansion, electrostatic, and
electromagnetic.
• Piezoelectric actuators, in which a material expands or contracts in response to
an applied voltage, are capable of high forces and can be fabricated from thin films.
Their properties are well known, and have been used for decades. However, their high
temperature sensitivity, nonlinear working zones and hysteresis prevent physicists
from using them more often. Zn O or P V DF are typical materials used nowadays.
Examples of piezoelectric applications could be beam actuation and sensing, [19] and
actuation in microscopy [20,21].

• Electrostatic actuation is currently the most common microelectromechanical
systems actuation scheme because it does not require exotic materials or complicated
fabrication. This simplicity has made electrostatic actuation ubiquitous. One can
find it in the first microelectromechanical system designs to build a gate transistor
[22]. In [23], Chembo and Woafo studied the stability and the control of chaos in elec-
trostatic transducers, and in [24] the dynamics of a nonlinear electrostatic transducer
with two outputs, while in [25], Taffoti and Woafo studied the complete synchro-
nization condition in a network of piezoelectric micro-beam. Nowadays, capacitive

effects are used in resonators [26], accelerometers [27], gyroscope [28], to name a few.
The force is generated by coulombic attraction between two structures charged to

different potentials. Electrostatic actuators are capacitive structures; when a voltage
is applied, some features of the actuator will move to increase the capacitance, either
by closing the gap between overlapping features, or increasing the overlapping area.
Electrostatic actuators are simple to fabricate in a variety of processes, they are ca-
pable of high frequency operation, and they use very little energy. On the negative
6
side, they have very low force per unit area. To achieve higher forces they require
large areas, small gaps between the charged structures, or high voltages. Thus for
applications requiring high forces, electrostatic actuators either use up room on the
die, are expensive to fabricate, or are voltage-incompatible with standard electronic

components.
• Another common microelectromechanical systems actuation scheme is based on
Thermal expansion, which can generate larger forces in less volume than electrostatic
actuators. Here, the deformation of the materials due to thermal effects can be used to
actuate devices, forcing the increase of temperature in the device. However, thermal
actuators are much slower and use more power than electrostatic devices. The method
is easy to implement, and there exist some working devices using this phenomenon
[29].
• Due to the large forces it can achieve, Electromagnetic actuation/moving-coil
transducer is common in macrosystems, in the form of electric motors and solenoids.

In Electromagnetic actuation, the Lorentz force generated upon a current-carrying
conductor in a static magnetic field supplies the actuation force. Successful examples
of applications exist in the literature, as it could be, in gyros or relays. Recently,
Kitio in [30] has experimentally studied the magnetically coupled self-sustained elec-
tromechanical system with flexible arm. In reference [31], the authors have considered
the nonlinearity of the stiffness of the spring and a self-sustained electromechanical
transducers. Other authors in [32,33] have taken the structure where the mechanical
part consists of a flexible beam. The effects of discontinuity of elasticity and damping
of the electromechanical transducer have been studied in [34]. The analysis when the
nonlinearity on the system is due to the capacitor [35-37] has been studied.
The only drawback of this electromechanical system actuation method is the re-
quirement of strong magnetic fields, which are usually generated by using supercon-
7
ducting coils. In this thesis, only actuator operated by the electromagnetic field is
considered. However, the energy requirement for the actuation of pendulum robot
arm manipulators leave Electromagnetic actuation as a really desirable method for
our study. In the next subsection, the constitutive equations for an ideal moving-coil
transducer is discussed.
Constitutive equations of a moving-coil transducer
Figure 1: Moving-coil transducer.
A moving-coil transducer is an energy transformer which converts electrical power
into mechanical power and vice-versa. The system consists of a permanent magnet
~ normal to the gap, and a
(Figure 1 (a)) which produces a uniform magnetic field B
coil which is free to move axially with the gap. Let ~v be the velocity of the coil, f~ the
external force acting to maintain the coil in equilibrium against the electromagnetic
forces, e the voltage difference across the coil and i the current into the coil. In this
8
ideal transducer, we neglect the electrical resistance and the self inductance of the
coil, as well as its mass and damping (if necessary, these can be handled by adding
R and L to electrical circuit of the coil, or a mass and damping to its mechanical
model).
The constitutive equations of the moving-coil transducer follow from Faraday’s
law and the Lorentz law. Faraday’s law states that the voltage current flow, induced
by motion of the coil is
de = ~v × B. ~
~ dl (1.1)
On the other hand, a charge particle moving in an electromagnetic field (electric field
~ and magnetic flux density B)
E ~ is subjected to the Lorentz force
f~ = q(E
~ + ~v .B)
~ (1.2)
In the macroscopic world, this force is dominated by its magnetic contribution, and
the electrostatic contribution can be omitted. If we consider a current formed by a
very large number of charged particles (the electrons) moving along the conductor,
~ of the conductor is
the total force of the field acting on an elementary length dl
~ = idl
df ~ ×B
~ (1.3)
~ = ~rdθ of one turn of the coil [B,

Applying (1.1) to an elementary length dl ~
~ ~v and dl
are mutually orthogonal, Figure 1 (b)], one finds that the voltage increment in the
direction of the current flow is
de = ~v × B. ~ = −vBrdθ.
~ dl (1.4)
Integrating over θ, assuming that B is uniform in the gap, the voltage drop in the
9
coil, in the direction of the current, is
e = 2πnrBv = T v (1.5)
where
T = 2πnrB (1.6)
is the transducer constant, equal to the product of length of the coil exposed to the
magnetic field B. On the other hand, the Lorentz force of the magnetic field acting
~ = ~rdθ of one turn of the coil with a current i follows from (1.3)
on the element dl
df = irBdθ (1.7)
The force f~ defined in Figure 1 (a) is the external force required to balance the total
force of the magnetic field on n turns of the conductor; integrating (1.7) over the
length of the conductor exposed to the magnetic flux density, one finds
f = −i2πnrB = −T i (1.8)
where T is again the transducer constant (1.6). Eqs. (1.5) and (1.8) are the consti-
tutive equations of the movable-coil transducer.
Notice that the transducer constant T appearing in Faraday’s law expressed in
V olt.sec/m, is the same as that appearing in the Lorentz force, expressed in N/Amp.
The total power delivered to the moving-coil transducer is equal to the sum of
the electric power ei, and the mechanical power, f v. Combining with Eqs. (1.5) and
(1.8), one gets

ei + f v = T vi − T iv = 0. (1.9)
10
Thus, at any time, there is an equilibrium between the electrical power absorbed
by the device and the mechanical power delivered (and vice versa). the moving-coil
transducer cannot store energy, and behaves as a perfect electromechanical converter.
In practice, however, the transfer is never perfect due to eddy currents, flux leakage
and magnetic hysteresis, leading to different values of T in Eqs. (1.5) and (1.8).
It follows from Eq. (1.9) that the magnetic energy Wm remains constant, equal
to its reference value that can be taken as Wm = 0. The constitutive equation (1.5)
can be written equivalently in terms of flux linkage
λ = T (x − x0 ) (1.10)
where x0 is an arbitrary reference state. This allows us to write the coenergy function
Wm∗ (x, i) = λi − Wm (x, λ) = T i(x − x0 ). (1.11)
Upon taking the total differential of the coenergy and taking into account relations
∂Wm ∗ ∗
λ= ∂i
and f = − ∂W
∂x
m
, we recover the constitutive equations
∂Wm∗
f =− = −T i (1.12)
∂x
and
∂Wm∗
λ= = T (x − x0 ). (1.13)
∂i
In chapter 2 of this thesis, models of real transducers which involve additional
elements on the electrical side as well as on the mechanical side of the transducer, will
be focused on. Before that, we shall examine nonlinearity sources in electromechanical

systems.
11
1.2 Nonlinearities in Electromechanical Systems
1.2.1 Nonlinearity and effects
Any physically realistic system involves nonlinearities. Indeed, interesting phys-

ical phenomena occur in structures in the presence of nonlinearities, which cannot
be explained by linear models. These phenomena include jumps, hysteresis, subhar-

monic, superharmonic, and combination resonances, self-excited oscillations, modal
interactions, and chaos. In reality, no physical system is strictly linear and hence lin-
ear models of physical systems have limitations of their own. In general, linear models
are applicable only in a very restrictive domain like when the vibration amplitude is
very small. Thus, to accurately identify and understand the dynamical behavior of
structural systems under general loading conditions, it is essential that nonlinearities
present in the system should also be modeled and studied.

Nonlinear phenomena have applications to a wide variety of fields, ranging from
mathematics, physics, biology, and chemistry, to engineering, economics and medicine.

Roughly speaking, the nonlinearities may arise from two main sources in mechanical
systems:
(i) Material nonlinearity due to nonlinear stress-strain relationships,
(ii) Geometric nonlinearity due to large deformation, and inertia due to the pres-
ence of concentrated or distributed mass.
Many investigators have conducted numerous analytical, numerical, and experi-
mental studies of dynamical systems with either geometric or material nonlinearities

[38-42].
One of the fields where nonlinearities can have positive interests is electromechan-
ical engineering. However, the understanding of such electromechanical devices in

nonlinear regime is essential for the improvement of industrial and domestic prod-
12
ucts.
As far as electromechanical systems are concerned, nonlinearities can arise from
various sources such as spring and damping mechanisms, resistive, inductive, and
capacitive circuit elements. Surface and fluidic forces [43] can also be other sources
of nonlinearity. In the rest of this subsection, we will give some details on nonlinear
components encountered in electromechanical systems with a particular emphasis on
the one which will further be used throughout the thesis.

1.2.2 Nonlinearity in the electrical subsystem
The circuit element namely resistors, capacitors and inductors can be either lin-
ear or nonlinear depending upon their characteristic curves, namely v − i (voltage-

current), v − q (voltage-charge) and i − φ (current-magnetic flux) curves respectively.
(a) Resistors : If a resistor is characterized by a v − i curve other than a straight

line through the origin, it is called a nonlinear resistor. The characteristic curve of a
typical nonlinear resistor is given as
" µ ¶ µ ¶3 #
i 1 i
v(i) = Ra ia − + , (1.14)
ia 3 ia
where Ra and ia are respectively the normalization resistance and current, i is the
value of current corresponding to the limit resistor voltage. In this case, the model
has the property to exhibit self-excited oscillations. This is due to the presence of the
nonlinear resistor whose current-voltage characteristic curve shows a negative slope
and the fact that the model incorporates through its nonlinear resistance a dissipative
mechanism to damp oscillations that grow too large and a source of energy to pump
up those that become small. Because of this particular behavior, we can qualify a
physical system with nonlinear resistor as a self-sustained oscillator. Of all the possi-
ble nonlinear circuit elements, nonlinear resistors are easy to build and model using
13
operational amplifiers, diodes and linear resistances. In this connection, this type of
resistance has been used recently in [44] for the synchronization of four mutually cou-
pled electromechanical devices. Many other circuits with typical nonlinear resistors
(tunnel diode, thyristor, dead-zone conductor, serially connected Zener diodes, neon
bulb, etc.) have been reported in the literature (see Refs. [45,46])
(b) Inductors : A two-terminal circuit element will be called an inductor if at any
time t its flux φ(t) and its current i(t) satisfy a relation defined by a curve in the i − φ
plane. By definition the characteristic of the linear time-invariant has an equation
relating the terminal voltage v and current i given by
di
v(t) = L . (1.15)
dt
The characteristic is a fixed straight line through the origin whose slope is L.
Most physical inductors have nonlinear characteristics. Only for certain specific
ranges of currents can inductors be modeled by linear time-invariant inductors. A
typical characteristic of a nonlinear time-invariant inductor can be represented by:
i = a1 φ + a3 φ3 , (1.16)
where the coefficient ai are constants peculiar to the inductor. A number of au-
thors have reported circuits with typical nonlinear inductors (saturable core inductor,
Josephson junctions, ferrosesonant power systems), see Reference [46].
(c) Capacitors : A circuit element whose charge q(t) and voltage v(t) falls on some
fixed (characteristic) curve in the q − v plane represented by the equation fC (q, v) = 0
at any time t is called a time-invariant capacitor. If the measure q − v characteristic

curve is a straight line passing through the origin, then the capacitor is said to be
14
linear and it satisfies the voltage-current relation
dv
i=C . (1.17)
dt
In all other cases, the capacitor is nonlinear.

In this thesis, the target nonlinear electric component is the capacitor C of the
series RLC circuit used to kick the mechanical subsystem. Our nonlinear capacitor is
made of an ideal operational amplifier A of reference LF 356, four diodes of reference
1N 4001, two linear condensers C1 and C2 and one linear resistance R1 as depicted on
Figure 2. This analog circuit simulator can be easily modeled as follows:
Figure 2: The setup of the nonlinear condenser made of an ideal operational amplifier
(A) of reference LF 356, identical diodes Di, (i = 1, ..., 4) of reference 1N 4001, two
linear condensers C1 and C2 and one linear resistance R1 .
Applying (KVL) to the circuit of Figure 2 and (KCL) at junction B, we obtain

the following equations
15
v(q) = u1 + u2 , (1.18)
Z
1
R1 i2 + i1 dt = 0, (1.19)
C2
i2 + i22 = i21 . (1.20)
According to the diode equation, Maxwell-Boltzman statistics applied to diffusion

of charge carriers can predict current density across junction in forward and reverse
bias, then
· µ ¶ ¸
eu2
i21 = I0 exp −1 , (1.21)
2KT0
where K, T0 , e, u2 , I0 are the Boltzman’s constant, the absolute temperature, the

electronic charge, the bias voltage and the leakage current in the reverse bias of
the diode, respectively. Inserting Eq.(1.8) into Eq.(1.7) and taking into account the
expression of i22 , one finds that the nonlinear characteristic of the capacitor is a
constitutive relation of the form:
µ ¶
q −q
v(q) = + 2V0 sinh−1 , (1.22)
C1 2I0 R1 C2
kT
where V0 = e
is the characteristics voltage, with T0 = 300K, I0 = 100µA, K =
1.38 × 10−23 J.K −1 , e = 1.6 × 10−19 C.
This form of v(q) is typical of nonlinear reactance components such as varactor and
junction diodes, widely used in electrical engineering especially to design for example,
parametric amplifiers, upconverters, mixers, low-power microwave oscillators, etc [46].
16
1.2.3 Nonlinearity in the mechanical subsystem
In structural mechanics, nonlinearities can be broadly classified into the following
categories:
1. Damping is essentially a nonlinear phenomenon. Linear viscous damping is
an idealization. Coulomb friction, aerodynamic drag, hysteretic damping, etc. are
examples of nonlinear damping.
2. Geometric nonlinearity exists in systems undergoing large deformations or de-
flections. This nonlinearity arises from the potential energy of the system. In struc-
tures, large deformations usually result in nonlinear strain and curvature-displacement
relations. This type of nonlinearity is present, for example, in the equation governing
the large-angle motion of a simple pendulum, in the nonlinear strain-displacement

relations due to mid-plane stretching in strings, and due to nonlinear curvature in
cantilever beams or for hardening spring effect in mechanical problems, it is found
experimentally that the stiffness is not constant but increases with the received con-
straint. It is approximately defined by the relation:
K(x) = K0 + K1 x2 , (1.23)
where K0 is the stiffness for small stretching, x the elongation and K1 a coefficient of
nonlinearity. Electromechanical devices with a nonlinear spring have been studied by
Chedjou et al. in [31] and [47], Chembo et al. in [23], Yamapi et al. in [36,37,48].
3. Inertia nonlinearity derives from nonlinear terms containing velocities and/or

accelerations in the equations of motion. It should be noted that nonlinear damping,
which has similar terms, is different from nonlinear inertia. The kinetic energy of
the system is the source of inertia nonlinearities. Examples include centripetal and
Coriolis acceleration terms. It is also present in the equations describing the motion of
17
an elastic pendulum (a mass attached to a spring) and those describing the transverse
motion of an inextensional cantilever beam.
4. When the constitutive law relating the stresses and strains is nonlinear, we have
the so-called material nonlinearity. Rubber is the classic example. Also, for metals,
the nonlinear Ramberg- Osgood material model is used at elevated temperatures.
5. Nonlinearities can also appear in the boundary conditions. A nonlinear bound-
ary condition exists, for instance, in the case of a pinned-free rod attached to a
nonlinear torsional spring at the pinned end.

6. Many other types of nonlinearities exist: like the ones in systems with impacts,
with backlash or play in their joints, etc.
1.3 Active Control Methods and their Applica-
tions to Electromechanical Systems
The vibration control is of importance in preventing fractures of machines and

structures. In physical terms, the behavior of a vibrating system is described by
the interplay between an energy storing component and an energy-carrying compo-
nent. Thus, the system dynamics are described in terms of energy changes, that is,
the motion of the system results from an energy exchange. The control of vibrating
mechanical systems is an important area of research, which has provided technologi-
cal solutions to several problems concerning oscillatory behaviors of some important

classes of dynamical systems. For instance, active control of vibrations allows atten-
uating undesired oscillations in buildings affected by external forces such as strong

winds and earthquakes (see, e.g., [49-55] and the references therein), and computer-
based active suspension systems are now common in cars as a mean to improve road
handling. As far as mathematical tools are concerned, the control of vibrations has
18
mainly been tackled via frequency-domain techniques, which are essentially restricted
to linear systems (see, e.g., [56,57]). If the vibrating systems are nonlinear and if they
oscillate too far away from their equilibrium points, then, frequency-domain tech-
niques are not suitable. In the case of nonlinear systems characterized by small
domains of attraction around their equilibrium points, the linear approach is not
very effective. Hence, modern approaches, employing time-domain nonlinear control
strategies, would yield better performance.

In this research, vibration control of pendulum robot arm manipulators is done
following an energy-based approach, that is, the control of vibrations is tackled via
the shaping of the energy flow that characterizes the system. The control of vibrations
is considered in terms of the solution of a particular asymptotic stabilizing feedback
control problem around a selected equilibrium point. A stabilizing controller is then
obtained following an energy-based approach, which exploits the physical properties
of the mechanical system. Intuitively speaking, the energy based control shapes,
using a feedback loop, the input energy of the controlled system to ensure a motion
guaranteeing the control objective (see, e.g., [54,58,59]).
1.4 Nonlinear Dynamics, Emerging Technologies,
and Electromechanical Devices
Linear analysis as a mathematical discipline began in the nineteenth century, and

in the intervening years, has achieved many spectacular successes throughout science.
But in fact, most problems posed by nature are nonlinear, and the linear approxi-
mations we use to describe them are often a tacit admission that the underlying
equations cannot be solved.
The growth of the field of nonlinear dynamics, which is essentially conceived as an
19
interdisciplinary subject, depends not only on the novel and fundamental concepts
that are being/will be unraveled to explain many natural phenomena, but also on
the fact that these concepts can lead to new cutting edge engineering and technology
applications that can replace the existing technologies. Such developments then can
clearly show why the study of the effects of nonlinearities under varied circumstances
is an essential ingredient of scientific enquiry. In this connection several potential
applications have been envisaged at different times in recent years. Of course, for
many systems the point at which they enter the nonlinear regime is precisely that
at which they become of interest for technological applications. These include [60]
(1) nonlinear optics, (2) optical soliton-based communication in fibers, (3) optical
soliton-based computing, (4) micromagnetics and magnetoelectronics, (5) synchro-

nization of chaos and chaos secure communication, (6) computing using chaos, (7)
chaos and financial markets, and so on. Each of these potential applications offer ex-
citing engineering, technological and commercial applications. Already some of these

aspects have found their way into real-world applications such as second harmonic
generation, photonic switching, optical soliton communication, etc. Some theoretical
investigations have been done as far as the nonlinear behavior of electromechanical
devices are concerned. Aspects of interest in these studies include nonlinear oscilla-
tions, bifurcation structures, chaos control and synchronization of some prototypes

of such devices with self-sustainable behavior or using external electrical excitation.
The understanding of such nonlinear devices gives room for improvement in manufac-
turing, especially that of electrodomestic and industrial products like shakers, mixers,
vibration hammers and various machines for milling, impact printing, sewing, washing
and soil compacting tamping. For example, the hysteresis phenomenon is interesting
in nonlinear oscillations. The frequency-response curves in this case are multivalued
while others are single valued. The multiplicity of the response has a significance
20
from the physical point of view because it leads to hysteresis phenomenon with two
stable amplitudes. Consequently, the electromechanical device with robot output arm
can vibrate in these domains with two stable different amplitudes of the harmonic
oscillations depending on the initial conditions. In their chaotic state, nonlinear elec-
tromechanical devices can have positive or negative implications depending on the
precise utilization. As positive implications, the chaotic behavior of the electrome-
chanical output robot arm can lead to high productivity rate when used for instance
as shakers or mixers. Moreover, the chaotic state of an electromechanical output
mechanical manipulator can be converted to a particular target state due to the flex-
ibility of motion and to the infinite number of trajectories embedded within a chaotic
attractor.
However, the intriguing point is that while the importance and significance of
nonlinear effects are indisputable, one starts wondering how far nonlinear dynamical
concepts have lead to really path-breaking technological advancements at the forefront

of human endeavors that can take over the existing technologies based on linear
concepts.
1.5 Problem Statement
The main purpose of this thesis is to study the dynamics of pendulum arms of
electromechanical robots. Our models consist of rigid and flexible pendulum arms,
magnetically coupled with electrical circuits by means of electromechanical transduc-
ers, and nonlinearities are due to material components or large deformations. The
pendulum arm is one of the fundamental elements of an engineering structure, with
applications extending beyond the presented systems. Moreover, structures like heli-
copter rotor blades, spacecraft antennae, flexible satellites, airplane wings, gun bar-
21
rels, robot arms, mechanical manipulators, high-rise buildings, long-span bridges, and
subsystems of more complex structures can be modeled as a rigid or flexible pendulum-
like slender member. Therefore, studying the dynamical response, both theoretically
and numerically, of this simple structural component under various loading condi-
tions would help in understanding and explaining the behavior of more complex real
structures for various applications.
22
Chapter 2
Methodology: Modeling of
Pendulum arms, Mathematical
Formalisms and Numerical
Methods
2.1 Introduction
Scientists have always been interested in understanding, predicting and control-

ling the behavior of systems they study. In this chapter, the design, modeling, control
and dynamical study of nonlinear electromechanical pendulum robot arm manipula-

tors are discussed. The mathematical formalism as well as the numerical methods
used in the thesis are also presented. To achieve our goal, we will process as follows:
In the next section, we will construct a simplified and abstracted representation of
electromechanical systems, called the system model. Once a system model is selected,
equations describing its behavior are derived using fundamental theories of physics
and mechanics such as Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws, Ohm’s law, law of induc-
tion, coulomb’s law, Newton’s laws, Hooke’s laws. This step is what we consider as
the modeling phase. In order to meet technological systems, an integrated approach
is used at the design and modeling levels, making it necessary to take into account
23
all the aspects of the system at the same time. Section 3 deals with parameters iden-
tification, geometrical and physical properties of the materials used are measured,
and their values are given. In section 4, the control methods are discussed for the
devices when they are used to electromechanical systems. Section 5 is focussed on

determining the dynamics of the system model, the solutions of the latter equations
need to be found. Two methods are used to find these solutions: analytical method
and numerical method. The last section is devoted to the conclusion.
2.2 Design and Modeling.
2.2.1 Model 1: Rigid pendulum robot arm coupled to moving-
coil transducer
Description of the electromechanical device
Figure 3: Rigid pendulum robot arm coupled to RL moving-coil transducer.
24
Depicted in Figure 3, the first model of our study considers a rigid pendulum
robot arm, coupled via a moving-coil transducer, to a RL electric circuit with sinu-
soidal voltage source e(τ ) = U0 sin Ωτ (U0 and Ω being respectively, the amplitude
and frequency, and τ the time). The rigid pendulum is a thin rod OA of mass m
and length l, having a plate on which n conducting electric windings of length σl each
are applied, with σ = 21 . The pendulum is hinged at O about a horizontal axis with
only the portion σl of the rod in the magnetic field of two identical, symmetrical,
and repulsive permanent magnets. The principle of transduction is based on the con-
stitutive equations of the moving-coil transducer established in the previous chapter.
Accordingly, the voltage drop in the coil and the Lorentz force are given by:
nBσ 2 l2 dθ
ebemf (τ ) = − , (2.1)
2 dτ
and
F = niBσl, (2.2)
θ is the deflection of the pendulum and i the current flowing in the conducting wire.
Electrical governing equation

Denoting the forced mesh current i in the RL circuit as shown in Figure 3, ap-
plying the Kirchhoff ’s laws and taking into account the contribution of the Lenz’s
electromotive voltage (Eq. 2.1), we find
di nBσ 2 l2 dθ
L0 + R0 i + = U0 cos Ωτ (2.3)
dτ 2 dτ
di
where L0 dτ , and R0 i are the voltages across the inductance L0 , and the resistor R0 ,
respectively.
25
Mechanical governing equation of the vertical plane motion
Figure 4: The Pendulum mechanism. ur and uθ are the polar unit vectors.
In Figure 4, the forces acting on the pendulum are represented. The plate on
which the electrical windings are applied has been omitted for clarity. The total
mass of the conducting wire and the plate bathing in the magnetic field have been
neglected compared to the pendulum mass. The moment of inertia of the output is
then reduced to:
1
I = ml2 . (2.4)
3
The clockwise direction is considered to be positive to measure the angles and the
moments. When a current i flows through the conducting wire in the magnetic field,
there appears, according to the directions of the current, (upwards or downwards)
26
two identical Laplace forces (direction and magnitude) whose the resultant f sets
the pendulum into motion in a viscous medium with frictional coefficient β. A mech-
anism for reducing the effects of both magnetic fields from the permanent magnets
on the response of the electromechanical device is applied. This method permits the
pendulum arm to align itself with the resultant magnetic field such that the magnetic
field interference on the device response (and vice-versa) is minimized. This consists
of a rigid iron blade placed between the two permanent magnets and embedded at its
two ends. Note that this iron blade has also been omitted in Figure 4 for the same
reason of clarity.
Newton’s law of rotational dynamics tells us that the moment of inertia I times the
angular acceleration equals the sum of torques due to forces applied on the pendulum
(Laplace force, given by Eq. 2.2 applied at the center of the plate, gravity and
friction forces). Thus the pendulum motion is described by
niBσ 2 l2 mgl βl2

I θ̈ = − sin θ − θ̇. (2.5)
2 2 4
We divide by the moment of inertia to obtain a second order and nonlinear ordi-
nary differential equation in standard form:
2 3β 3nBσ 2
θ̈ + ωm sin θ + θ̇ − i = 0, (2.6)
4m 2m
2 3g
where ωm = 2l
, is the resonance frequency of the pendulum robot arm, and overdots
denote derivatives with respect to dimensional time τ .
The dynamical equations of the deflection of the pendulum robot arm coupled to
the electromagnetic circuit is thus governed by the set of nonlinear ordinary differen-
27
tial equations (ODE):
di nBσ 2 l2 U0
+ ω0 i + θ̇ = cos Ωτ (2.7)
dτ 2L0 L0
2 3β 3nBσ 2
θ̈ + ωm sin θ + θ̇ − i = 0, (2.8)
4m 2m
R0
where ω0 = L0
is a frequency base dimension.
Nondimensionalization of system equations of motion
It is convenient to write the equations of motion in nondimensional forms. Defining

dimensionless variables as below:
i θ
x= , y = , t = ω0 τ, (2.9)
i0 θ0
where θ0 and i0 are deflection and current base dimensions, respectively.
The dimensionless system equations of motion of the electromechanical system

can be written as follows:
x0 + x + γe y 0 = E0 cos(ωt) (2.10)
y 00 + λm y 0 + ω12 sin(θ0 y) − γm x = 0, (2.11)
where prime denotes a derivative with respect to dimensionless time t, and
nBσ 2 l2 θ0 U0 Ω
γe = , E0 = 2
, ω= ,
2Li0 ω0 Li0 ω0 ω0
2
3β 2 ωm 3nBσ 2 i0
λm = , ω1 = , γm = .
4mω0 θ0 ω02 2mω0 θ0
28
Horizontal plane motion of the pendulum robot arm
Figure 5: Horizontal plane motion of the rigid pendulum robot arm.
The design for the horizontal plane motion of the rigid robot arm is similar to
the above vertical motion. For the same reason of clarity, the electric circuit is
omitted on Figure 5, but the plate on which the electrical windings are applied as
the two permanent magnets are maintained here to help the reader comprehend the
discontinuities in the response of the output when the plate baths in the magnetic
field of the magnets or not. Modeling procedure is also similar, the only novel is the
torque gravity that is not considered here due to the horizontal displacement of the
output. Accordingly, the dimensionless equations describing the horizontal motion of
the mechanical is reduced to:
29
x0 + x + γe y 0 = E0 cos(ωt) (2.12)
y 00 + λm y 0 − γm x = 0, (2.13)
Horizontal pendulum are principally used either as seismographs, namely recorders
of earthquakes and other similar earth movements, or as tiltometers, namely recorders

of changes of level of the ground. They are also used in a host of other areas like
laboratories, to place and remove test tubes in centrifuges and to handle hazardous
chemicals. In the nuclear industry, they are used to handle radioactive fuel as well
as radioactive waste. Horizontal pendulum robot arm manipulators are also used in
remote or highly contaminated areas to measure radiation or toxic levels. Horizontal
pendulum robot arm manipulators have also found their way into the field of agricul-
ture. An interesting application is their use as a sheepshearing machine, where it is
used to shear wool off sheep.
2.2.2 Model 2: Rigid pendulum robot arm coupled to moving-
coil transducer with nonlinear capacitance
Description of the electromechanical device and system equations of mo-
tion
Here a nonlinear capacitance is added to the electric circuit of the previous model,
and only the vertical motion of the mechanical port is considered. Then, the electrical
governing equation become:
di nBσ 2 l2 dθ
L + Ri + v(q) + = U0 cos Ωτ (2.14)
dτ 2 dτ
where q and v(q) are the charge and the voltage across the nonlinear capacitor N LC,
30
Figure 6: The Electromechanical device.
³ ´
−q
respectively. By expanding sinh−1 2I0 R1 C2
from Eq. 1.22 and retaining the first
two terms, we arrive at

1
Vc (q) = q + a3 q 3 , (2.15)
C0
where
1 1 V0 V0
= − , a3 = 2 2 2
,
C0 C1 I0 R1 C2 24I0 R1 C2
are the linear value of the capacitor, and the nonlinear coefficient respectively.
Substituting back Eq. 2.15 into Eq. 2.14, the motion equation of the rigid robot
arm undergoing deflection and coupled to the nonlinear series RLC is given by the
set of ordinary differential equations as follow:
31
R a3 nBσ 2 l2 U0
q̈ + q̇ + ω22 q + q 3 + θ̇ = cos(Ωτ ) (2.16)
L L 2L L
2 3β 3nBσ 2
θ̈ + ωm sin θ + θ̇ − q̇ = 0, (2.17)
4m 2m
1
where ω22 = LC0
is a frequency base dimension.
Using the transformation
q θ
x= , y = , t = ω2 τ, (2.18)
Q0 θ0
where x, y and t are dimensionless variables, Q0 , and θ0 are charge and deflection base
quantity, respectively. The mathematical model of the nonlinear electromechanical
device can then be written as follows:
x00 + λe x0 + x + αx3 + γe y 0 = E0 cos(ωt) (2.19)
y 00 + λm y 0 + ω32 sin(θ0 y) − γm x0 = 0, (2.20)
where prime denotes a derivative with respect to t and
R a3 Q20 nBσ 2 l2 θ0 U0 Ω
λe = , α= 2
, γ e = , E0 = 2
, ω= ,
Lω2 Lω2 2Lω2 Q0 Lω2 Q0 ω2
3β ω2 3nBσ 2 Q0
λm = , ω32 = m2 , γm = .
4mω2 θ 0 ω2 2mω2 θ0
32
2.2.3 Model 3: Inverted pendulum robot arm coupled to
moving-coil transducer with nonlinear capacitance

tion
Figure 7: The Electromechanical device.
The model 2 setup is likewise in use here, the novel is the inverted position of the
output pendulum arm at equilibrium. Therefore, the electric equation of the previous
subsection is reconsidered.
Mechanical governing equation of the inverted pendulum robot arm

In Figure 8, the forces acting on the pendulum are represented. The pendulum
is attached at the base by a rotary spring and dashpot (viscous damping), about a
horizontal axis with only the portion σl of the rod in the magnetic field. The restoring
33
Figure 8: The inverted pendulum mechanism.
torque exerted by such a spring when rotated through an angle θ is assumed to be
given by the linear relation Γ = cθ, where c is a constant called the torque constant
of the spring.
The equation of motion of the pendulum is
nq̇Bσ 2 l2 mgl βl2

I θ̈ = + sin θ − cθ − θ̇. (2.21)
2 2 4
We divide by the moment of inertia to obtain a second order, nonlinear, ordinary

differential equation in standard form:
3β 3c 3g 3nBσ 2
θ̈ + θ̇ + 2 θ − sin θ − q̇ = 0 (2.22)
4m ml 2l 2m
The system equations of motion of the electromechanical system is modified as
34
follow:
R a3 nBσ 2 l2 U0
q̈ + q̇ + ω22 q + q 3 + θ̇ = sin(Ωτ ) (2.23)
L L 2L L
3β 3c 3g 3nBσ 2
θ̈ + θ̇ + 2 θ − sin θ − q̇ = 0, (2.24)
4m ml 2l 2m

Using the transformation
q θ
x= , y = , t = ω2 τ, (2.25)
Q0 θ0
where x, y and t are dimensionless variables, the mathematical model of the nonlinear
electromechanical device can then be written as follows:
x00 + λe x0 + x + αx3 + γe y 0 = E0 cos(ωt) (2.26)
y 00 + λm y 0 − ω32 sin(θ0 y) + ω42 y − γm x0 = 0, (2.27)
where prime denotes a derivative with respect to t and
R a3 Q20 nBσ 2 l2 θ0 U0 Ω
λe = , α= 2
, γ e = , E0 = 2
, ω= ,
Lω2 Lω2 2Lω2 Q0 Lω2 Q0 ω2
3β ω2 3c 3nBσ 2 Q0
λm = , ω32 = m2 , ω42 = , γ m = .
4mω2 θ0 ω2 ml2 ω22 2mω2 θ0
35
2.2.4 Model 4: Flexible pendulum robot arm coupled to
moving-coil transducer with nonlinear capacitance

tion
Figure 9: The setup of the Electromechanical device.
So far, the robots that we presented have rigid members. Rigid members have
fewer problems with vibration, control and structural rigidity. But, they are bulky,
implying that these robots have to slew in addition to their payload, their mass also,
thereby putting greater demand on power requirements and structural reinforcement.

This leads to increased capital and operating cost. Hence, there is a tendency now
to develop robots that are less bulky. This leads to less rigid members resulting
in elastic deformation of the robot structural members. Also there are applications
36
where long reach robots are needed, such as in surgery or waste clean-up, where the
robot thickness is small compared to its length which results in elastic motions.
This subsection considers the modeling of a flexible pendulum arm as a beam like-
structure, magnetically coupled to a nonlinear electric circuit, as shown in Figure 9.

The flexible pendulum arm is presumed to be a slender, isotropic, uniform rod whose
bending moment depends linearly on the curvature. The electrical and mechanical
portions of the model are coupled by the Laplace point force, acting on the beam at
an arbitrary nodal point i and by the back emf (a voltage called the back electromotive
force) acting on the circuit as it is the case in the previous models. The constitutive
equations of the moving-coil transducer here are given by:
∂U
ebemf (Y, τ ) = −l0 B δ(Y − Yi ). (2.28)
∂τ
l0 B dq
F (Y, τ ) = δ(Y − Yi ), (2.29)
L0 dτ
where L0 is the length of the flexible pendulum, l0 the length of wire bathing within
the magnetic field, U the deflection of the the flexible pendulum, and δ(.) stands for
the Dirac delta function.
Electrical governing equation
Here, we reconsider the electrical circuit as its mathematical model from the latest
subsection:
µ ¶
d2 q R dq 2V0 −q l0 B ∂U U0
2
+ + ω52 q + sinh−1 + δ(Y − Yi ) = sin(Ωτ ), (2.30)
dτ L dτ L 2I0 R1 C2 L ∂τ L
1
where ω52 = LC1
.
37
Mechanical governing equation
Figure 10: A small element of the beam.
Flexural vibration can occur in many structures such as aircraft wings, robot ma-
nipulators, bridges and buildings. In structures where the thickness is relatively small
compared to the length and width, flexural vibration is usually more critical to struc-
tural integrity than other vibration such as axial vibration and torsional vibration.
The flexible pendulum that is used is thin and relatively long. Hence the torsional
and axial vibrations are negligible compared to the flexural vibration. Hence, the
equation of motion derived here is only for the flexural vibration.
Consider a thin beam of length L0 with cross-sectional area A, as shown in Figure

9, whose density and flexural rigidity at point Y are ρ(Y ) and EI(Y ), respectively.
The point transverse force is F (Y, τ ). The following assumptions are valid for the
beam:
38
1. The material follows Hookes Law.
2. The shear deformation is negligible compared to the bending deformation.
3. The rotation of the element is negligible compared to the vertical/transverse
translation.
The free-body diagram of an element dY is shown in Figure 10, where Q denotes
the shearing force and M the bending moment. Applying Newton’s second law to
vertical force components (U direction) gives
µ ¶
∂Q(Y, τ ) ∂ 2 U (Y, τ )
Q (Y, τ ) + dY − Q (Y, τ ) + F (Y, τ ) = ρA(Y )dY (2.31)
∂Y ∂τ 2
which is equivalent to
∂Q(Y, τ ) ∂ 2 U (Y, τ )
+ F (Y, τ ) = ρA(Y ) . (2.32)
∂Y ∂τ 2
The moment equation of motion about the axis normal to Y and U (out-of-the
page direction) is
µ ¶ µ ¶
∂M (Y, τ ) ∂Q(Y, τ )
M (Y, τ ) + dY − M (Y, τ ) + Q (Y, τ ) + dY dY +
∂Y ∂Y
dY
F (Y, τ )dY = 0. (2.33)
2
The terms involving the second power in dY are negligible. Canceling M (Y, τ ) in
Eq. 2.32 and disregarding the terms involving the second power in dY , the shearing
force in terms of the bending moment is
39
∂M (Y, τ )
Q (Y, τ ) = − . (2.34)
∂Y
Eq. 2.33 into Eq. 2.31 gives
∂ 2 M (Y, τ ) ∂ 2 U (Y, τ )
− + F (Y, τ ) = ρA(Y ) . (2.35)
∂Y 2 ∂t2
From the theory of beam bending, the bending moment can be related to the
deflection as [61]
∂ 2 U (Y, τ )
M (Y, τ ) = EI(Y ) . (2.36)
∂Y 2
By inserting Eq. 2.35 in Eq. 2.34, the equation of motion for the point forced
flexural vibration could be described as
µ ¶
∂2 ∂ 2 U (Y, τ ) ∂ 2 U (Y, τ )
EI(Y ) + ρA(Y ) = F (Y, τ ). (2.37)
∂Y 2 ∂Y 2 ∂τ 2
The flexible mechanical manipulator is a uniform beam. Therefore, Eq. 2.36 can
be simplified to
∂ 4 U (Y, τ ) ∂ 2 U (Y, τ )
EI + ρA = F (Y, τ ). (2.38)
∂Y 4 ∂τ 2
Taking into consideration the dissipation, we obtain
∂ 4 U (Y, τ ) ∂ 2 U (Y, τ ) ∂U (Y, τ )

EI 4
+ ρA 2
+λ = F (Y, τ ), (2.39)
∂Y ∂τ ∂τ
where λ is the damping coefficient.

The partial differential equation (PDE) (2.38) describes the deflection of the beam
U (Y, τ ) for different positions Y at different time τ . To find a unique solution for
40
U (Y, τ ), four boundary conditions from the supports of the flexible mechanical manip-
ulator are needed in this research: the fixed end (Y = 0) must have zero displacement
and zero slope due to the clamp
U (0, τ ) = 0,
∂U (0, τ )
= 0. (2.40)
∂Y
The free end (Y = L0 ) cannot have a shearing force nor a bending moment
∂ 2 U (L0 , τ )
EI = 0,
∂Y 2
µ ¶
∂ ∂ 2 U (Y, τ )
EI = 0. (2.41)
∂Y ∂Y 2 (L0 ,τ )
The dynamical equation of the deflection of the flexible mechanical manipulator
undergoing bending and coupled to the electric circuit is governed by the set of
following equations:
µ ¶
d2 q R dq 2V0 −q l0 B ∂U U0
2
+ + ω52 q + sinh−1 + δ(Y − Yi ) = sin(Ωτ ), (2.42)
dτ L dτ L 2I0 R1 C2 L ∂τ L
∂ 2 U (Y, τ ) ∂U (Y, τ ) ∂ 4 U (Y, τ ) dq

ρA 2
+ λ + EI 4
= l0 B δ(Y − Y1 ), (2.43)
∂τ ∂τ ∂Y dτ
with the boundary conditions given above.
41
It is convenient to write the equations of motion in nondimensional forms. Defining
nondimensional parameters as below
q U Y
x= , u= , y= , t = ω5 τ, (2.44)
2I0 R1 C2 L0 L0
where x, u , y and t are dimensionless variables. The mathematical model of the
nonlinear electromechanical device can then be written as follows:
d2 x dx ∂u(y, t)
2
+ λe + x + α sinh−1 (−x) + γe δ(y − yi ) = E0 sin(ωt), (2.45)
dt dt ∂t
∂ 2 u(y, t) ∂u(y, t) ∂ 4 u(y, t) dx

+ λm + σ − γ m δ(y − yi ) = 0, (2.46)
∂t2 ∂t ∂y 4 dt
with
R V0 lL0 B U0 Ω
λe = , α= 2
, γe = , E0 = 2
, ω= ,
Lω5 Lω5 I0 R1 C2 2Lω5 I0 R1 C2 2Lω5 I0 R1 C2 ω5
λ EI 2lBI0 R1 C2
λm = , σ= 4 2
, γm = ,
ρAω5 ρAL0 ω5 ρAL20 ω5
and the boundary conditions become
∂u
u(0, t) = 0, and (0, t) = 0, (2.47)
∂y
∂2u ∂ 3u
(1, t) = 0, and (1, t) = 0, (2.48)
∂y 2 ∂y 3
at the fixed end and free end, respectively.
42
2.3 Parameters identification.
Parameters identification is an established modeling tool in control engineering. Ac-
cording to the identified model rigid or flexible, geometrical and physical properties
of the materials used may be easily measured, and the following values are obtained:
2.3.1 Rigid model.
i0 = 0.1 A, R0 = 1047.2 Ω, L0 = 174.5 H, n = 400, θ0 = π rad,
B = 2 × 10−2 T, l = 1.0 m, g = 9.81 m/s2 , m = 0.05 kg, β = 0.1 N s/m ,
C1 = 1624.67213 µF, C2 = 15.53148591 µF, R1 = 100 kΩ, Q0 = 10−1 C,
R = 6.71 Ω, L = 1.1 H, C0 = 2200 µF, a3 = 43182 V C − 3, c = 0.15 N/m.
This gives the following values for nondimensional constants:
Model 1.
γe = 0.03, λm = 0.25, ω1 = 0.36, γm = 0.32.
Model 2 and 3.
λe = 0.30, γe = 1.40, λm = 0.07, γm = 0.10, ω3 = 0.11 , ω4 = 0.15 .
43
2.3.2 Flexible model.
C1 = 40 µF, C2 = 1 µF, R1 = 0.87 GΩ, R = 1.35 Ω,
L = 0.1 H, B = 10−1 T, l0 = 1.0 m, ρ = 2729.5 kg/m3 ,
A = 8.039 × 10−7 m2 , I = 96.6 × 10−18 m4 , E = 0.7 × 1011 N.m2 .
λ = 0.76 kg.m−1 .s−1
This give the following nondimensional constants:
λe = 0.027, γe = 0.002, λm = 0.7, σ = 78 × 10−7 , γm = 0.4,
The model 1 inductance value of L0 = 174.5 H as it is recorded above raises

the question on why it is so much higher. This inductor construction method uses
core materials with high permeability to increase the magnetic field forms around the
current-carrying conductor and confine it closely to the inductor, thereby increasing
the inductance. For example, by coiling a copper wire conductor around a core
material such as iron, this can increase the inductance by 2000 times.
In the remainder of our study, the above nondimensional constants will be used
for all numerical and analytical computing, and α, ω and E0 are chosen as control
parameters.
2.4 Control algorithm designing.
Vibration control of pendulum robot arm manipulators is done following an energy-

based approach, that is, the controller design algorithm of vibrations is tackled via
44
the shaping of the energy flow that characterizes the system.
Eq.(2.11) and Eq.(2.20) modeled nonconservative systems with positive damping
coefficient λm , coupled with factor γm to an electric nonlinear circuit using the har-
monic external action e(t) = E0 sin(ωt). The behavior of the free systems depends
on the value of the total energy H(y, y 0 ) and the shape of the sinusoidal potential
ω2
energy function Π(y) = − θ02 cos(θ0 y), which is a single-well potential energy with two
unstable points (saddle) located on both sides of a stable focus. One of the interesting
phenomena which occurs in such a system is its escape from motion around its stable
focus to a large amplitude motion. In such a situation, the arm shows complete rota-
tion. The study of escape from a potential well is important in many fields of physics
and mechanics [62,65]. Sometimes escape is an undesirable event and it is important

to find conditions preventing it (e.g. buckling of the shells, capsize of the ships, etc.).
In other cases, escape is useful and the conditions guaranteeing it are needed. Escape
may correspond to a phase transition in the system. In all cases, the conditions of
achieving escape by means of as small an external force as possible are of interest.
In [63] such a possibility (optimal escape) has been studied for typical nonlinear
oscillators with a single-well potential Πe (ϕ) = (ϕ2 /2)−(ϕ3 /3) (so-called escape equa-
tion) and a twin-well potential ΠD (ϕ) = (−ϕ2 /2) − (ϕ4 /4) (Duffing oscillator). The
least amplitude of a harmonic external forcing u(t) = u0 sin(ωt) for which no stable
steady state motion exists within the well was determined by computer simulations.
This part of our study attempts to avoid these harmful rotations of the arm.
Now the problem is how to find the control law in order to achieve this aim. This
problem falls into the field of control theory. To solve it, we suggest to use the so-
called energy-gradient (EG) method: we seek by the means of computer simulations

how the control parameter ω affects the critical value E0c of the excitation for such
phenomena to take place. In fact using (EG) method, the amplitude of the excitation
45
leading to escape can be easily computed.
To determine numerically the domain in the parameters space where the control
of amplitudes is achieved, we proceed as follows. In the boundary of such domain,
the dimensionless maximum angular displacement of the pendulum is equal to one:
ymax = 1. (2.49)
Under this condition, the flow of energy from the voltage source to the oscillatory
pendulum should be controlled so that θ(t) < θc , amplitude near π radians, the
inverted position of the pendulum. Model 3 control law is inherent the fabrication
of the mechanical port of the device. Here, the rotary spring and dashpot attached
at the base of the inverted pendulum about a horizontal axis acts as the controller,
hence, help to avoid complete rotation of the mechanical structure.
2.5 Dynamics.
Two steps are used in studying the dynamics of vibrating structures: numerical
method and analytical method.
2.5.1 Numerical method.
In general, real-life electromechanical systems are complex. Furthermore, it is not

always easy or inexpensive to build a prototype for these systems. Hence, numeri-
cally simulating the controlled behavior of such electromechanical systems becomes

extremely important, prior to their implementation in an actual system. Numerical
results give us a good estimate of the real-life response, especially when we take into
account all of the possible variables affecting the response.
46
In the case of the flexible pendulum arm, we use finite-difference formulas to eval-
uate the involved derivatives of the space dependence. A discrete version of the model
is produced. The spatial dependence in the solution of the partial differential equa-
tion of the flexible pendulum is eliminated by applying central spatial discretization

with space interval hp . To this end, the flexible pendulum is assembled from N finite
bending elements with N nodal points n = 1, 2, ..., N. The discrete version of the
mathematical model is then given as follows:
x00 + λe x0 + x + α sinh−1 (−x) + γe u0i = E0 sin(ωt), (2.50)
u00n + λm u0n + β (un+2 − 4un+1 + 6un − 4un−1 + un−2 ) − γm x0 δni = 0, (2.51)
1 ≤ n ≤ N with
σ
β=
h4p
u1 = 0, and u2 = 0, (2.52)
uN −1 uN −2
uN = , and uN −1 = , (2.53)
2 2
at the fixed end and free end, respectively.
The computer based simulation tool Fortran and the classical fourth-order Runge-
Kutta algorithm with time step of 5×10−3 are employed for all numerical simulations.
The system of second order differential equations is put in a system of first order differ-
ential equations. Small variations of the initial condition in the system may produce
large variations in the long term behavior of the system. The approximate solution
of the system of ordinary differential equations are plotted using the phase portraits
47
and bifurcation diagrams to show various states of the model: uniperiodicity, period-
doubling routes to chaos, quasiperiodic, multiperiodic, as well as chaotic behavior.
The largest Lyapunov exponent [66] assures the conclusion about chaotic response,
measuring the rate of divergence between initially closed trajectories. The numerical
results will also verify the analytical findings.
2.5.2 Analytical method.
2.5.2.1 Overview on analytical methods
Mathematicians and physicists have developed a number of perturbational tech-
niques to deal with analytical solutions of nonlinear differential equations. Although

Poisson was the first to use perturbation techniques, modern perturbation theory is
attributed to Poincare. With the advent of low cost digital computational facilities,
perturbation techniques have become one of the most powerful methods to solve non-
linear differential equations. Perturbational techniques approximate the solution of
nonlinear governing system equations by considering only the first few terms of an
asymptotic expansion. One can get more accurate solutions if more terms of the
perturbation expansions are included. There are several methods commonly used in
these techniques:
(1) The straight-forward (or pedestrian) asymptotic expansion method [67]
(2) The Lindstept-Poincare Method [68].
(3) The method of harmonic balance [68,69].
(4) The averaging methods [68,70] including
(4-i) The Krylov-Bogliubov technique [71],

(4-ii) The Krylov-Bogliubov-Mitropolski (KBM) technique [72],
(4-iii) The Struble technique [73].
(5) The method of multiple scales [74,75].
48
All these methods are different in their approaches, but they are similar in their
basic idea. Some are valid only in a limited region, e.g., the straight-forward expansion
method cannot have uniform expansion when time, t, increases to 0(²−1 ) [67,76]. Some
need to have a tedious formulation, especially for a multi-degree-of-freedom system,

e.g., the harmonic balance method needs to carry enough terms in the solution or
an inaccurate approximation might be obtained. The averaging methods can have
valid results, but Mahaffey [77] showed that inconsistency between this and other
techniques might possibly exist. Cheung and Lau [78,79] developed an incremental
harmonic balance (IHB) method, and generalized it to multiple time-scales. This is
a new approach of a combination of methods (3) and (5). In this thesis, harmonic
balance technique is chosen to tackle analytical solutions of our models.

2.5.2.2 Some simplifications for the mathematical analysis: case of
rigid Models.
Differential equations (2.11), (2.13), (2.20) and (2.27) are coupled by inertial terms
and by nonlinear terms produced by the pendulum arms motion. Therefore, to get
analytical solutions, it has been assumed that the swing of the pendulum is not large.
On the basis of this assumption, the nonlinear function sin (θ0 y) is expanded in Taylor
series around the lower steady state, for θ0 y = 0. Taking into account the third-order
terms we get
1
sin (θ0 y) = θ0 y − θ03 y 3 . (2.54)
6
Substituting Eq 2.54 into equations (2.11), (2.20) and (2.27), the system equations
of motion of the rigid pendulum arms become
49
x0 + x + γe y 0 = E0 sin(ωt) (2.55)
1
y 00 + λm y 0 + ω12 θ0 y − ω12 θ03 y 3 − γm x = 0, (2.56)
6
x00 + λe x0 + x + αx3 + γe y 0 = E0 cos(ωt), (2.57)
1
y 00 + λm y 0 + ω32 θ0 y − ω32 θ03 y 3 − γm x0 = 0, (2.58)
6
x00 + λe x0 + x + αx3 + γe y 0 = E0 cos(ωt), (2.59)
1
y 00 + λm y 0 + (ω42 − ω32 θ0 )y + ω32 θ03 y 3 − γm x0 = 0 (2.60)
6
respectively.
Since the exciting source is harmonic, we can expect that the vibrations of the
rigid pendulum arms are harmonic with the same frequencies, then the periodic term
produced by equations (2.55), (2.57) and (2.59) acts as the parametric excitation
in equations (2.13), (2.56), (2.58) and (2.60), respectively. It means that the rigid
pendulum arms vibrate under the principal parametric resonance condition. Thus,
the solutions are assumed as
x = a1 cos(ωt) + a2 sin(ωt) (2.61)
y = b1 cos(ωt) + b2 sin(ωt), (2.62)
where a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 are slowly changing in time functions that represent the pendulum
arm amplitudes, which are defined as A2 = a21 + a22 and B 2 = b21 + b22 .
50
2.5.2.3 Some simplifications for the mathematical analysis: case of
flexible Model.
For analytical investigation of the flexible pendulum arm, we expand sinh−1 (−x)
from the electrical equation with the result
1 3
sinh−1 (−x) = −x + x3 − x5 , (2.63)
6 40
the discrete mathematical model then become:
1 3
x00 + λe x0 + (1 − α) x + αx3 − αx5 + γe u0i = E0 sin(ωt), (2.64)
6 40
u00n + λm u0n + β (un+2 − 4un+1 + 6un − 4un−1 + un−2 ) − γm x0 δni = 0, (2.65)
1 ≤ n ≤ N with
σ
β=
h4p
u1 = 0, and u2 = 0, (2.66)
uN −1 uN −2
uN = , and uN −1 = , (2.67)
2 2
at the fixed end and free end, respectively. Here, the solutions are assumed as
x = a0 cos(ωt) + b0 sin(ωt) (2.68)
un = an cos(ωt) + bn sin(ωt), (2.69)
with A2k = a2k + b2k with k = 0, n.
51
2.6 Conclusion
The purpose of this chapter has been to design, to mathematically model, and to
present the mathematical and numerical methods for the study of electromechanical
pendulum robot arm manipulators. Four models have been presented: the electrome-
chanical device with rigid arm and RL circuit, both vertical and horizontal plane
motions were considered. The electromechanical device with rigid arm and RLC
circuit, both vertical and inverted plane motions were analyzed, and finally the elec-
tromechanical device with flexible pendulum arm coupled to RLC circuit. According
to the identified model rigid or flexible, geometrical and physical properties of the
materials were measured. Using energy-based approach, the controller design algo-
rithm of vibrations is tackled via the shaping of the energy flow that characterizes
the system. Thereafter, the study of the dynamics of the vibrating systems were
analyzed numerically and analytically. The different methods used for both methods
have been described. The next chapter deals with the results and discussion on these
nonlinear electromechanical systems.
52
Chapter 3
Results and Discussions
3.1 Introduction
The forced response of systems described in the previous chapter are considered in
this chapter. We present and discuss the results on the control and dynamical be-
haviors carried out in chapter 2. This part of our study is organized as follows: The
second section elaborates on numerical investigations of the control law. The pro-
posed control law relies solely on the computing of the critical forcing amplitude E0c
leading to the complete rotation of the pendulum. In the third section, the dynamical
behavior of the controlled electromechanical devices is focussed on. Global analysis
of different kinds of response are found using standard methods (performed via the
phase portrait, the bifurcations diagram and the largest Lyapunov exponent repre-
sentations). A direct numerical simulation of the equations of motions of the system
is compared with the analytical treatment. The nonlinearity has been shown to give
rise to various interesting and complex dynamics like jump phenomenon, hysteresis,
period doubling route to chaos and chaotic motion. In the case of the flexible output
arm, the influence of the input signal on different nodes of vibration of the output
is studied, and it is reported that the fundamental mode does not always experi-
ence dominant resulting motion. The last section of this chapter is devoted to the
conclusion.
53
3.2 Critical forcing amplitude
In order to meet the requirement from Eq. (2.49), we seek by the means of computer
simulations how the control parameter ω affects the critical forcing amplitude E0c of
the excitation. This procedure is achieved for model 1 and model 2 with the initial
condition x = 0; x0 = 0; y = 0; y 0 = 0. We then control the driving amplitude E0 by

varying the frequency ω: For each chosen value of ω, we increase the amplitude E0 ,
and observe whether the arm deflection is greater than 1 or not.
In Figure 11 and Figure 12, we have plotted the critical driving amplitude E0c
leading to complete rotation of the output arm versus the excitation frequency ω for
the above mentioned models, respectively. The domain located below each curve is
where the dimensionless amplitude of vibration of the pendulum y varies between 0
and 1. Above the curve, there are complete rotations.

We consider two ranges of ω for the model 1 case: 0 ≤ ω ≤ 0.31 and 0.32 ≤
ω ≤ 2.0. The curves of Figure 11 (a) and Figure 11 (b) show that, within the first
range of ω, vertical plane motion require more energy to enter rotational regime than
horizontal plane motion. While increasing ω, one observe exactly the contrary. for
example for ω = 2.0, E0 peaks at 21.3 for vertical plane motion and at 26.1 for the
horizontal plane motion. The probable reason for this change in the force amplitude
peak is due to the gravity suppression in the equation of motion of the horizontal
case. Of course, starting from rest, the pendulum needs more energy to be setting
into motion in the vertical plane motion while in the horizontal case, it does not feel
the gravity at all. At a certain level when permanent regime is reached, geometrical
fabrication of both pendula determine their behavior: vertical plane pendulum then
takes the advantage of the gravity to topple within the domain of rotation whereas
horizontal pendulum may need to be boosted by the source to make similar. This
54
25
(a)
20
15
E0c
10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
ω
30
(b)
25
20
E0c
15
10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
ω
Figure 11: Model 1 numerical boundary criterion for rotation in the (ω, E0c ) plane.
(a): Vertical motion; (b): Horizontal motion.
is confirmed by the resonant state in both systems when the frequencies of the arm
and the source are equal and when we are expecting maximum displacement of the
output: For ω = 0.36, E0 peaks at 0.3 for vertical plane motion and at 0.5 for the
horizontal plane motion.
55
45
(a)
40
35
30
25
E0c
20
15
10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
ω
150
(b)
100
E0c
50
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
ω
Figure 12: Model 2 numerical boundary criterion for rotation in the (ω, Ec ) plane.
(a) : α = 0.0 ; (b) : α = 0.95.
The curves of Figure 12 show that the system requires more energy when α is
considered than suppressed. This is due to the fact that the electric system tends to
suppress the charge, and hence the current when α increases. One can also notice that,
for some selected frequencies, E0c attains relative minima corresponding to various
56
resonant states that can occur in the device. The absolute minimum corresponds to
ω ' 0.11, (e.g. when the frequency of the excitation is equal to that of the pendulum).
It should be pointed out the fact that, if the amplitude of the driving force becomes
larger than the critical value at which the pendulum begins to rotate, the motion is
a combination of positive and negative rotations in between which the pendulum
undergoes damped oscillations.
3.3 Dynamical behaviors of rigid arms
3.3.1 Model 1
3.3.1.1 Results from numerical simulations.

Now that boundary criterion for rotation is known, we perform a global analysis
of different kinds of response. For this aim, bifurcation diagram of the vertical rigid
pendulum arm coupled to moving coil transducer is plotted in Figure 13 (a) for
2π
ω = 0.7. Sampling angular position y, recorded after each period T = ω
against
the slow quasi-static variation of the forcing amplitude E0 . Similar or other types
of bifurcation diagrams can be obtained for other sets of parameters, or by varying
other parameters (for instance ω). This diagram allows one to observe regions related
to periodic and chaotic motion.
From Figure 13 (a), one can easily measure the value of the amplitude excitation
leading to complete rotation of the arm when ω = 0.7; that is E0 = 0.9. Prior to
going rotation, the output arm undergoes period-one motion for the set of chosen
parameters. We can represent period-one motion schematically as AAAAAAAAA....,
where A represents a pattern of motion which is repeated every period of the external
drive. In Figure 13 (a), this is imaged by the curve between 0 and 1 of E0 abscissa.
By gradually increasing the forcing amplitude, period-one is converted into a period-
57
7
(a)
6
y
3
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
E0c
0.3
(b)
0.2
0.1
Lyapunov exponent
−0.1
−0.2
−0.3
−0.4
−0.5
0 1 2 3 4 5
E0
Figure 13: (a): Bifurcation diagram and (b): Lyapunov exponent when E0 varies
with ω = 0.7.
infinity attractor which never repeats itself, no matter how long we wait. In dynamics,
such bounded aperiodic motion is generally referred to chaos. Chaos arises in the
system only for rotational motion, for large deflection of the pendulum. This type of
chaos is due to geometric nonlinearity and is related to the restoring torque ω12 sin(θ0 y)
58
from Eq. (2.11). The corresponding Lyapunov exponent is plotted in Figure 13 (b)
and confirms the arising of chaos in the system between the values of 1 and 2 of the
excitation amplitude. It was also found that, for the same set of parameters and in the
case of horizontal plane motion, the system undergoes one period oscillatory motion
and do not experience chaos. This is due to the absence of the restoring torque in
Eq. (2.13).
Now, different kinds of response are considered, let us provide a simple framework
in which to understand our results, we present here the state diagram of the forced
pendulum in non rotational and rotational regimes. For the couple of parameters
(ω = 0.7, E0 = 0.4), one observes the predicted period-one motion (Figure 14 (a)),
and by changing E0 to 1.7, chaos appears (Figure 14 (b)). It is important to note

the qualitative picture of the bifurcation diagram as the state diagrams are closely
related to it.
0.15 1
(a) (b)
0.8
0.1
0.6
0.05 0.4
0.2
0
dy/dt
dy/dt
0
−0.05
−0.2
−0.1 −0.4
−0.6
−0.15
−0.8
−0.2 −1
−0.25 −0.2 −0.15 −0.1 −0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 −8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8
y y
Figure 14: State diagrams of the forced pendulum.
It is known that the dynamics of a system close to the fundamental resonance
region may be analyzed through a frequency-response diagram, which is obtained
plotting the amplitude of the oscillating system versus the frequency of the excitation
59
term. For the pendulum robot arm manipulator, this graph is estimated by numerical
simulations defining the amplitude as the maximum absolute value of the amplitude
of pendulum oscillation(denoted by y), and the frequency as the mean value of the
external driving force (denoted ω).

Figure 15 (a) presents the resonance curve for different values of the amplitude
excitation when the mean frequency ω is slowly increased. The results are similar
when the mean frequency ω is slowly decreased. The curves show one peak of reso-
nance. Around this resonance peak, the energy input within the output mechanical
manipulator is very high than those received in any oscillation. In this case, the model
can give more interesting applications in engineering, particulary when it is used for
ballistics. But the model with high energy may be dangerous since it can give rise to
catastrophic damage of the system. A commonly found phenomenon in the response
of nonlinear systems is the amplitude jump phenomenon, the rapid rise or collapse of
response at points in the region of resonance. For E0 = 0.3, Figure 15 (a) shows a
region in the response diagram where two physical states of the system are possible.
The resulting state depends on the initial conditions or on the value of the past driv-
ing frequency. This dependence on initial conditions is completely different from the
behavior of damped linear system in which the steady-state solution is independent
of the initial conditions.
3.3.1.2 Results from mathematical investigations.
In order to interpret these numerical results, it is helpful to compare them with

those expected from classical perturbation theory.
Substituting solutions (2.61) and (2.62) into the nonlinear differential equations
(2.55) and (2.56), and next balancing the harmonic terms cos(ωt) and sin(ωt), we get
a set of first order approximate differential equations that the reader can easily find,
assuming that the terms due to higher frequencies are neglected.
60
After some algebraic manipulations, it comes that the amplitudes A and B of
the rigid vertical pendulum arm coupled to linear RL circuit satisfy the following
expressions
B 6 + f4 B 4 + f2 B 2 + f0 = 0, (3.1)
A2 = g6 B 6 + g4 B 4 + g2 B 2 , (3.2)
with
· ¸
1 ω2 γe γm ω 2
f4 = −16 − + ,
θ0 ω12 θ02 ω12 θ02 (1 + ω 2 )
"µ ¶2 µ ¶2 #
1 ω2 γe γm ω 2 λm ω γe γm ω
f2 = 64 − + + + 2 3 ,
θ02 ω12 θ03 ω12 θ03 (1 + ω 2 ) 2 3
ω1 θ0 ω1 θ0 (1 + ω 2 )
2
64γm E02
f0 = − 4 6 .
ω1 θ0 (1 + ω 2 )
2
ω14 θ06 (ω12 θ0 − ω 2 ) ω12 θ03 (ω12 θ0 − ω 2 ) + λ2m ω 2
g6 = 2
, g 4 = − 2
, g 2 = 2
.
64γm 4γm γm
In the case of horizontal plane motion of the pendulum, the gravity torque is
suppressed and the above amplitude equations are modified as follow
2
γm E02 (1 + ω 2 )
B2 = , (3.3)
[−ω 2 (1 + ω 2 ) + γm γe ω 2 ]2 + [λm ω(1 + ω 2 ) + γm γe ω]2
ω 4 + λ2m ω 2 2
A2 = 2
B . (3.4)
γm
Figure 15 (b) shows that for lower amplitude excitation, there is a good agreement
between the observed behavior and the results obtained with perturbation theory. We
observe the usual resonance shape, with a shift of the resonance peak to a low value.
61
0.9
(a)
0.8
0.7
E =0.3
0
0.6
0.5
y
E =0.2
0.4 0
0.3
E0=0.1
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
ω
0.14
(b)
0.12
0.1
0.08
y
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
ω
Figure 15: Frequency-response diagram: (...): Numerical and (xxx): Analytical.

(a): Jump phenomenon observed when the mean frequency ω is slowly decreased or
increased. (b): Approximation from Eq.2.54 holds for E0 = 0.07.
3.3.2 Model 2
The forced response of the vertical pendulum arm coupled to moving coil trans-
ducer with nonlinear capacitance is much more complex. The numerical simulation
shows that the set of Eq. 2.19 and Eq. 2.20 can lead to complex dynamical behav-
62
iors such as multiperiodic and chaotic states. However, the transition to the chaotic
region is gradual.
1.5
(a)
1
y
0.5
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
E0
0.2
(b)
0.1
0
Lyapunov exponent
−0.1
−0.2
−0.3
−0.4
−0.5
−0.6
−0.7
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
E0
Figure 16: Model 2 (a): Bifurcation diagram and (b): Lyapunov exponent when E0
varies with ω = 1.0 for the case of nonlinear electrical circuit and vertical rigid arm.
Bifurcations of stable orbits follow the Feigenbaum scenario of period doubling

finally reaching the chaotic motion. It is possible to vary any of the system parameters
63
in order to achieve clear transition to chaos. In our case the voltage of the driving
source can be easily adjusted. We have chosen to enter the chaotic region by slowly
increasing the driving amplitude.

At relatively high amplitudes the response repeats after one driving cycle (Figure
17 (a)) what is usually called a period-one motion. If the amplitude is gradually
increased one-period motion trajectory becomes unstable. The motion in phase di-
agram is now attracted to two different intersecting stable orbits. After one driving
cycle the motion reaches the point of intersection and changes the orbit. In this case
the response repeats after two driving cycles thus called a period-two motion (Figure
17 (b)). Likewise, we can represent period-two motion as ABABABAB..., where A

and B represent distinguishable patterns of motion which are repeated every alternate
period of the external drive. This type of transition is termed period-doubling bifur-
cation, since it involves a sudden doubling of the repetition period of the pendulum
time asymptotic motion. The similar bifurcation phenomena with period-doubling

from period-two to period-four motion (Figure 17 (c)) occurs when the amplitude is
further increased. The bifurcation diagram (Figure 16 (a)) nicely shows the forking
of the possible periods of stable orbits from 1 to 2 to 4 to 8, etc. Each of these bifur-
cation points is a period-doubling bifurcation. The driving amplitudes intervals from
one doubling to another are geometrically increasing and finally lead to the chaotic
response (Figure 17 (d)), this is particulary interesting if the pendulum arm is used to
mix different liquids, chemicals or powders and to accomplish other tasks where chaos
could give high efficiency. Lyapunov exponent of Figure 16 (b) assures the conclusion
about chaotic response of the mechanical manipulator.
64
0.4 0.6
(a) (b)
0.3
0.4
0.2
0.1 0.2
0
0
dy/dt
dy/dt
−0.1
−0.2
−0.2
−0.3 −0.4
−0.4
−0.6
−0.5
−0.6 −0.8
−0.4 −0.3 −0.2 −0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 −0.5 0 0.5
y y
0.6 0.6
(c) (d)
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
dy/dt
dy/dt
−0.2 −0.2
−0.4 −0.4
−0.6 −0.6
−0.8 −0.8
−0.5 0 0.5 −0.5 0 0.5
y y
Figure 17: Model 2 State diagrams of the forced pendulum for ω = 1.0 and α = 0.95.
(a) period-one: E0 = 37; (b) period-two: E0 = 42; (c) period-four: E0 = 43.5; and
(d) chaotic motion: E0 = 46.
65
The assumption we took for the designing of the control law seem realistic as
the results (Figure 12 (b) and Figure 16 (a)) confirm. Note the agreement between
the constraint curve and the bifurcation diagram from the above mentioned figures.
For the frequency excitation value of ω = 1.0, the amplitude excitation leading to
complete rotation of the arm is measured: E0 = 118.00, and while reporting the
pendulum deflection when E0 is varied from bifurcation diagram, we have y = 1.0099.
It was observed that without the cubic nonlinearity, the system rarely shows
chaotic behavior with the chosen parameters even for very large pendulum displace-
ment. Nevertheless, despite the fact that the pendulum rotation is avoided, its ex-
perienced chaotic motion with the nonlinear electrical parameter. The nonlinear
capacitance is the key element giving room to complexities in this particular model of
pendulum arm with a single-well potential. The influence of this nonlinearity on the
response of the arm has been studied by changing the nonlinear electrical coefficient α
and keeping the excitation amplitude at E0 = 0.5. The nonlinear electrical coefficient
α is increased from 0.0 to 0.95 in 0.01 increments.
Figure 18 (a) presents the frequency response of the model, obtained numerically.
For a given value of α, no change in the curve shape, mainly near the jump region
when the mean frequency ω is increased or decreased, was observed. In this region,
the process occurs the same way in both cases: there is a transition from a nonreso-
nant to a resonant response (or vice-versa) accompanied by a subsequent decrease in
the mean frequency ω. This behavior occurs because the chaotic state of the pendu-
lum puts a greater effort on the excitation operation, consequently, causing a small
decrease in its mean frequency. It should be also point out the fact that the peak am-
plitude of the arm decreases and moves rightward with α. Another important result
from this section is the case α = 0.95: the dynamics analysis here may be compared
with engineering systems that exhibit softening characteristics, where there is a dis-
66
0.7
(a)
0.6
0.5
α=0.0
0.4
α=0.5
y
0.3
α=0.95
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
ω
0.35
(b)
0.3
0.25
0.2
y
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
ω
Figure 18: (a): Influence of the electrical nonlinearity on the response of the output
Arm. (b): Comparison of numerical results with perturbation theory(...): Numerical
and (xxx): Analytical results.
continuous jump from a nonresonant to a resonant solution. However, in the present
case, the resonant solution exhibits a more complicated and different behavior, con-
67
firmed by the presence of a secondary jump in the graph. This jump causes a decrease
in the amplitude of pendulum oscillations, followed by a steady-state multi-periodic
solution.
Numerical analysis of the system has been carried out on the basis of data taken
from the realistic system, for which the dimensionless parameters were measured.
The vibration amplitudes of the system have been found by solving the set of Eq.
2.19 and Eq. 2.20. To draw a comparison between approximate analytical solutions
and those obtained numerically, the set of Eq. 2.57 and Eq. 2.58 are solved, and
our findings show that the amplitudes A and B of the rigid vertical pendulum arm
coupled to nonlinear RLC circuit satisfy the following expressions
A2 = g6 B 6 + g4 B 4 + g2 B 2 , (3.5)
f8 (B)A8 + f6 (B)A6 + f4 (B)A4 + f2 (B)A2 + f0 (B) = 0, (3.6)
with
81 2 4 ¡ 2 ¢
f8 (B) = B α µ1 + λ2m ω 2 ,
256
· µ ¶¸
27 2 2 ¡ ¢ 9 3 ¡ ¢ 3
f6 (B) = λm ω 1 − ω 2 α3 + µ1 α2 µ1 1 − ω 2 α − γ m γ e ω 2 α B2,
16 8 2 4
h i
9 2 2 2 2 2
f4 (B) = − 16 γm ω E0 α + 98 (λm ωµ2 + γm γe λe ω 3 ) λm ωα2 + 49 λ2m ω 2 (1 − ω 2 ) α2 B 2
h ¡3 ¢2 i 2
9 2 2 2 3 2
+ 8 (µ1 µ2 − γm γe ω (1 − ω )) µ1 α + 2 µ1 (1 − ω ) α − 4 γm γe ω α B ,
68
f2 (B) = − 32 γm
2 2 2
ω E0 (1 − ω 2 ) α + [3 (λm ωµ2 + γm γe λe ω 3 ) λm ω (1 − ω 2 ) α] B 2
£ ¡ ¢¤
+ 2 (µ1 µ2 − γm γe ω 2 (1 − ω 2 )) 23 µ1 (1 − ω 2 ) α − 34 γm γe ω 2 α B 2 ,
h¡ ¡ ¢¢2 ¡ ¢2 i 2
f0 (B) = µ 1 µ2 − γ m γ e ω 2 1 − ω 2 + λm ωµ2 + γm γe λe ω 3 2 2 2
B − γm ω E0 µ2 ,
1
µ1 = − ω32 θ03 B 2 + ω32 θ0 − ω 2 , µ2 = (1 − ω 2 )2 + λ2e ω 2 .
8
2
ω34 θ06 (ω32 θ0 − ω 2 ) ω32 θ03 (ω32 θ0 − ω 2 ) + λ2m ω 2
g6 = , g4 = − , g2 = .
64ω 2 γm 2 4ω 2 γm
2 ω 2 γm2
Figure 18 (b) shows a good agreement between numerical and analytical solutions
for E0 = 0.2, and α = 0.95.
3.3.3 Model 3
The remarkable difference between the actual model and the previous one is the
introduction of the rotary spring and dashpot at the base of the pendulum. The rotary
spring and dashpot input is twofold, not only it maintains the pendulum oscillation in
the upward position, but it avoids rotational regime in the mechanical system. Image
generated by numerically computing the solutions of Eq. 2.27 shows on Figure 19 (a)
that the deflection of the pendulum arm during the different transitions in the system
do not exceed 1. The control law here is then inherently validated by the model.
On the other hand, by maintaining the pendulum oscillation in the upward po-
69
1.1
(a)
0.9
0.8
y
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0 20 40 60 80 100
E0
0.2
(b)
0.1
0
Lyapunov exponent
−0.1
−0.2
−0.3
−0.4
−0.5
−0.6
−0.7
−0.8
0 20 40 60 80 100
E0
Figure 19: Model 3 (a): Bifurcation diagram and (b): Lyapunov exponent when E0
varies with ω = 1.0.
sition, the rotary spring and dashpot changes to negative the sign of the restoring
torque and then determines the character of the pendulum behavior. The only stable
equilibrium point at zero angle position from the previous model is changed to a labile
one. Beside this, there are two symmetrically placed stable equilibrium angles.
70
0.4
(a) (b)
0.3 0.4
0.2
0.2
0.1
0
0
dy/dt
dy/dt
−0.1
−0.2
−0.2
−0.3
−0.4 −0.4
−0.5
−0.6 −0.6
−0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 −0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
y y
0.6 0.6
(c) (d)
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
dy/dt
dy/dt
−0.2 −0.2
−0.4 −0.4
−0.6 −0.6
−0.8 −0.8
−0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1
y y
Figure 20: Model 3 State diagrams of the forced inverted pendulum for ω = 1.0
and α = 0.95. (a) period-one: E0 = 37; (b) period-two: E0 = 42; (c) period-four:
E0 = 43.5; and (d) chaotic motion: E0 = 46.
71
All bifurcations from the previous model 2 are closely repeated in the actual one
as shown in Figure 19 and Figure 20. Note that the period-3 motion between the
two bandwidths of chaotic response from model 2 have been changed to period-two
for the inverted pendulum, and the pendulum deflection is damped beyond E0 =
60. But the interesting nonlinear novel response is that, prior to going chaotic, the
pendulum is found to break its spatial symmetry and oscillate with a larger amplitude
to one side than the other. This symmetry-breaking phenomenon appears to be an
inherent part of the period-doubling cascade (pitchfork bifurcations) in this particular
system, and is probably due to the form of its potential energy as mentioned in the
previous paragraph. By increasing the amplitude excitation in the state diagram at
fixed frequency ω = 1.0, note the symmetry breaking, following by period-doubling,

followed by chaos. In the previous models state diagrams, the orbit spends as much
time in the region y < 0 as in the region y > 0 . However, in the actual model,
the orbits of period-1, period-2 period-4, except chaotic motion spend the majority
of their time in the region y > 0 .
In other words, the inverted pendulum favors the region to right of the pendu-
lum vertical. This is somewhat surprising, since there is nothing in the pendulum
equations of motion which differentiates between the regions to the left and to the
right of the vertical. We refer to a solution of this type which fails to realize the
full symmetry of the dynamical system as a symmetry breaking solution. In this
case, because the particular symmetry which is broken is a spatial symmetry, we

refer to the process by which the symmetry breaking solution suddenly appears, as
the control parameter E0 is adjusted, as spatial symmetry breaking. Needless to say,
spatial symmetry breaking is an intrinsically nonlinear process; it cannot take place

in dynamical systems possessing linear equations of motion. Spontaneous symmetry
breaking plays an important role in many areas of physics. For instance, symmetry
72
breaking gives mass to elementary particles in the unified theory of electromagnetic
and weak interactions. Symmetry breaking also plays a pivotal role in the so-called
inflation theory of expansion of the early universe.
0.45
(a)
0.4
0.35
0.3
α=0.0
0.25
α=0.5
y
0.2
α=0.95
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
ω
0.35
(b)
0.3
0.25
0.2
y
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
ω
Figure 21: a): Influence of the electrical nonlinearity on the response of the output
Arm for E0 = 0.5. (b): Comparison of numerical results with perturbation theory(...):
Numerical and (xxx): Analytical, for E0 = 0.2, and α = 0.95.
73
Frequency response of the inverted pendulum on Figure 21 shows that, forced
oscillations damp much faster than in the case of normal pendulum, because the
restoring torque is now a difference of elastic and gravitational torques, so that the
ratio between restoring torque and friction is smaller. Besides, all phenomena ob-
served in the previous model repeated themselves in the actual model.
Likewise, Inserting Eq 2.61 and Eq 2.62 into Eq 2.59 and Eq 2.60, we find that the
amplitudes A and B of the rigid inverted pendulum arm coupled to nonlinear RLC
circuit satisfy the following expressions
A2 = g6 B 6 + g4 B 4 + g2 B 2 , (3.7)
f8 (B)A8 + f6 (B)A6 + f4 (B)A4 + f2 (B)A2 + f0 (B) = 0, (3.8)
with
81 2 4 ¡ 2 ¢
f8 (B) = B α µ3 + λ2m ω 2 ,
256
· µ ¶¸
27 2 2 ¡ ¢ 9 3 ¡ ¢ 3
f6 (B) = λm ω 1 − ω 2 α3 + µ3 α2 µ3 1 − ω 2 α − γ m γ e ω 2 α B2,
16 8 2 4
h i
9 2 2 2 2 2
f4 (B) = − 16 γm ω E0 α + 98 (λm ωµ2 + γm γe λe ω 3 ) λm ωα2 + 49 λ2m ω 2 (1 − ω 2 ) α2 B 2
h ¡3 ¢2 i 2
9 2 2 2 3 2
+ 8 (µ3 µ2 − γm γe ω (1 − ω )) µ3 α + 2 µ3 (1 − ω ) α − 4 γm γe ω α B ,
74
f2 (B) = − 32 γm
2 2 2
ω E0 (1 − ω 2 ) α + [3 (λm ωµ2 + γm γe λe ω 3 ) λm ω (1 − ω 2 ) α] B 2
£ ¡ ¢¤
+ 2 (µ3 µ2 − γm γe ω 2 (1 − ω 2 )) 23 µ3 (1 − ω 2 ) α − 34 γm γe ω 2 α B 2 ,
h¡ ¡ ¢¢2 ¡ ¢2 i 2
f0 (B) = µ 3 µ2 − γ m γ e ω 2 1 − ω 2 + λm ωµ2 + γm γe λe ω 3 2 2 2
B − γm ω E0 µ2 ,
1
µ3 = ω32 θ03 B 2 + ω42 − ω32 θ0 − ω 2 .
8
2
ω34 θ06 (ω32 θ0 − ω 2 ) ω32 θ03 (ω32 θ0 − ω 2 ) + λ2m ω 2
g6 = , g4 = − , g2 = .
64ω 2 γm 2 4ω 2 γm
2 ω 2 γm2
The assumptions we took for the calculus of the response diagram seem realistic
as the result confirms. In fact, Figure 21 (b) shows that the agreement is fair only at
small amplitude.
3.4 Dynamical behaviors of flexible arm
3.4.1 Results from numerical simulations.
The study of the flexible pendulum is done with the aim of its usability for automa-
tion processes. The location of the actuation point affects the performance of the
proposed model, dominant resulting motion shall occur at a nodal point n regarding
the excitation frequency control parameter value. We have chosen to actuate the arm
at the nodal point i = 4 and we focus our study on the behavior of nodes n = 3, 4, 5
and 10.
75
3.4.1.1 Bifurcation and Chaos.
In order to perform a global analysis of different kinds of response, bifurcation
diagrams in Figures 22, 23, 24, 25 are constructed, sampling deflection of the flexible
pendulum robot arm against the slow quasi-static variation of the amplitude and
frequency excitation parameters. Figure 22 (a) and Figure 24 (e) are constructed for
(ω = 0.278, α = 1.2) and (ω = 0.278, α = 1.0), respectively. The output arm shows
period-doubling cascade route to chaos as multiperiodic and quasiperiodic solutions
when the excitation amplitude is gradually varied. Lyapunov exponent Figure 22 (b)
and Figure 24 (f) assure the conclusion about chaotic response, measuring the rate
of divergence between initially closed trajectories. It should be pointed out the huge
influence of the nonlinearity on the response of the arm. For α = 1.2, one can notice
that the chaotic character of the mechanical manipulator is more preponderant than
for α = 1.0.
On the other hand we have constructed in Figures 23 and Figures 25 bifurcation

diagrams with the corresponding Lyapunov exponents for (E0 = 0.1, α = 1.2) and
(E0 = 0.1, α = 1.0), respectively, when the excitation frequency is gradually varied.
These bifurcation diagrams allow one to have a good monitoring of the model by
knowing exactly the combination of control parameters giving room to regular or
erratic behavior of the output arm.
Here, we present some of erratic orbits as well as some regular ones in the phase
space as shown in Figure 26. Note the symmetry breaking of the forced flexible
manipulator for period-two and period-three motions.
76
2.5
(a)
Tip Deflection u4 2
1.5
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
Excitation Amplitude, E0
0.4
(b)
0.2
0
Lyapunov Exponent
−0.2
−0.4
−0.6
−0.8
−1
0 0.5 1 1.5
Figure 22: (a): Bifurcation diagram and (b): Lyapunov exponent when E0 varies
with ω = 0.278 and α = 1.2.
77
1.4
(c)
1.2
1
Tip Deflection u4
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
Excitation Frequency, ω
0.2
(d)
0
−0.2
Lyapunov Exponent
−0.4
−0.6
−0.8
−1
−1.2
−1.4
0 0.5 1 1.5
Figure 23: (c): Bifurcation diagram and (d): Lyapunov exponent when ω varies with
E0 = 0.1 and α = 1.2.
78
2.5
(e)
Tip Deflection, u4 2
1.5
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
0.4
(f)
0.2
0
Lyapunov Exponent
−0.2
−0.4
−0.6
−0.8
−1
0 0.5 1 1.5
Figure 24: (e): Bifurcation diagram and (f): Lyapunov exponent when E0 varies with
ω = 0.278 and α = 1.0.
79
0.7
(g)
0.6
0.5
Tip Deflection, u4
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
0.2
(h)
0
−0.2
Lyapunov Exponent
−0.4
−0.6
−0.8
−1
−1.2
−1.4
0 0.5 1 1.5
Figure 25: (g): Bifurcation diagram and (h): Lyapunov exponent when ω varies with
E0 = 0.1 and α = 1.0.
80
0.25 0.6
(i ) (i )
1 2
0.2
0.4
0.15
0.1 0.2
0.05
0
du4/dt
du /dt
0
4
−0.2
−0.05
−0.1 −0.4
−0.15
−0.6
−0.2
−0.25 −0.8
−0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Tip Deflection, u4 Tip Deflection, u4
0.6 0.5
(i3) (i )
4
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1
0
du4/dt
du /dt
0
4
−0.2
−0.1
−0.4 −0.2
−0.3
−0.6
−0.4
−0.8 −0.5
−1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
1.5 0.8
(i6)
(i )
5 0.6
1
0.4
0.5
0.2
du /dt
0 0
4
−0.2
−0.5
−0.4
−1
−0.6
−1.5 −0.8
−2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Figure 26: Phase portraits of the forced node for ω = 0.278 and α = 1.2. (i1 )
period-one: E0 = 0.1; (i2 ) period-two: E0 = 0.6; (i3 ) period-three: E0 = 0.725;
(i4 ) period-five: E0 = 0.2; (i5 ) period-seven: E0 = 0.98; and (i6 ) chaotic motion:
E0 = 0.4.
81
3.4.1.2 Effects of Nonlinearity on the response of the Flexible Pendu-
lum.
As shown in Figure 27, the frequency-response curve of the flexible pendulum
arm is bent either to the left or to the right, depending on whether the type of the
nonlinearity α is softening or hardening. The bending of the frequency-response curve
leads to a jump in the response amplitude when the excitation frequency is swept
from left-to-right or right-to-left. The response amplitude increases at a jump-up
point and decreases at a jump-down point. Between the jump points, single solution
for (α = 0.8 and α = 1.2) or multiple solutions for (α = 1.0) exist for a given value of
the excitation frequency, and the initial conditions determine in the case of multiple
solutions, which of these solutions represents the actual response of the system. The
jump points of a frequency-response curve coincide with the turning points of the
curve where saddle-node bifurcations occur.
Hysteresis is seen from Figure 28 where two curves acquired from a forward fre-
quency sweep and a backward frequency sweep are displayed. Jump up and jump
down between the upper and lower branches of the response curves are clearly re-
solved, indicating that there is an unstable portion of the response curve between
those points that is unattainable.
The hysteresis characteristic was also investigated for different nonlinearities of
α = 0.8, α = 1.0, α = 1.2, respectively. It was observed that the hysteresis character-
istic is very weak for α = 1.2, and did not appear in the model for α = 0.8. Indeed,
the value α = 1.0 is good nonlinearity value for the model exhibiting hysteresis.
82
0.25
(j )
1
0.2
Tip Deflection, u4
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
0.35
(j2)
0.3
0.25
Tip Deflection, u4
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
0.2
(j )
3
0.18
0.16
0.14
Tip Deflection, u4
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
Figure 27: Jump phenomena for E0 = 0.01. (j1 ): α = 0.8, (j2 ): α = 1.0 , (j3 ):
α = 1.2.
83
0.35
0.3
0.25
Tip Deflection, u4
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
Figure 28: Hysteresis phenomenon for E0 = 0.01 and α = 1.0. (Full Line): Forward
Sweep. (Dash Line): Backward Sweep.
84
3.4.1.3 Node Amplitudes Comparison.
When mechanical systems are set into forced oscillations, the amplitude of oscilla-
tion peaks when the driving frequency matches one of the natural vibration frequen-
cies of the structure. It is interesting in the case of point forced systems to understand
how the input signal acts on different nodes of vibration of the mechanical structures.
In the case of our study, we have noticed that all nodes of vibrations peak around
the value ω = 6β = 0.468 of the natural frequency of the flexible pendulum as shown
in Figure 29 (k1 ). Nevertheless, by comparing the amplitude of nodes n = 3, n = 4,
n = 5, n = 10 on Figure 29 (k2 ), a zoom around the lowest values of the excitation
frequency shows that for ω ≤ 0.023, node n = 5 amplitude is greater than node n = 4
amplitude. One can conclude that the fundamental mode does not always experience
dominant resulting motion, its depends on both excitation and mechanical structure
frequencies. This multiple coincident frequencies gives room to a multipurpose man-
ufacturing device. This type of vibration control technique that involves imposing
multiple coincident natural frequencies can help to reduce the excessive contribu-
tion of the fundamental mode, and hence, to reduce the excessive vibrations of the
mechanical structure.
85
0.25
(k1)
n=4
0.2
n=3
Tip Deflection, un
0.15
n=5
0.1
n=10
0.05
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
−3
x 10
7
(k2)
6
5
Tip Deflection, un
4
n=5 n=4
3
n=3
2
n=10
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
Figure 29: (k1 ): Node amplitudes comparison, (k2 ) : Zoom, f or E0 = 0.01 and
α = 0.8.
86
3.4.2 Results from mathematical investigations.
Using perturbation method for our analytical study is a realistic way to deal with
this tedious task, of course damping and actuation are taken in consideration, and
more important, not only the fundamental node of vibration is focused on, we have
computed the 10 nodes from which the flexible pendulum is assembled. Substituting
back for x and un and equating the coefficients of cos and sin, we obtain
µa0 + λe ωb0 = −γe ωbi (3.9)
−λe ωa0 + µb0 = E0 + γe ωai (3.10)
νan + λm ωbn + β (an+2 + an−2 ) − 4β (an+1 + an−1 ) = γm ωδni b0 (3.11)
νbn − λm ωan + β (bn+2 + bn−2 ) − 4β (bn+1 + bn−1 ) = −γm ωδni b0 (3.12)
After some algebraic manipulations, it comes that the amplitudes Ak satisfy the
following equations
³ ´ ³ ´
ν Ăn + β Ăn+2 + Ăn−2 − 4β Ăn+1 + Ăn−1 = −jγm ω Ă0 δni (3.13)
(µ − jλe ω) Ă0 − jγe ω Ăi − jE0 = 0, (3.14)
with
87
1 3
µ = 1 − α + αA20 − αA40 − ω 2
8 64
ν = 6β − ω 2 − jλm ω,
where j 2 = −1 and Ăk = ak + jbk , k = 0, n are the complex forms of Ak . The

Ă8
boundary conditions are Ă1 = Ă2 = 0, Ă9 = , Ă10 = Ă48 . For N = 10 and i = 4,
2
h i
Eq 2.83 can be put in the matrix form, [M ] × Ăn = [Q] from which expressions for
Ăn are obtained,
 where 
 ν −4β β 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 −4β ν −4β β 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 
 
 β −4β ν −4β β 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 
 0 β −4β ν −4β β 0 0 0 0 
 
 
 0 0 β −4β ν −4β β 0 0 0 
 
M = ,
 
 0 0 0 β −4β ν −4β β 0 0 
 
 
 0 0 0 0 β −4β ν −4β β 0 
 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 β −4β ν −4β β 
 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 β −4β ν −4β 
 
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 β −4β ν
and
88
   
Ă
 1   0 
   
 Ă2   0 
   
   
   
 Ă3   0 
   
   
 Ă4   −jγm ω Ă0 
   
   
 Ă5   0 
   
Ăn =  ,Q =  
 Ă   0 
 6   
   
   
 Ă7   0 
   
   
 Ă8   0 
   
   
 Ă   0 
 9   
   
Ă10 0
Now that complex amplitudes Ăk are known, it remain to rearrange their expres-
sions into real and imaginary parts in order to build Ak .
In order to confirm the approximation done in Eq. 11, a comparison of numerical

and analytical studies is done, and there is an excellent agreement between the two
methods for softening nonlinearity as shown in Figure 40. The curves are plotted
for E0 = 0.01. It is shown that the agreement of the methods is weakened with the
nonlinearity increase.
A comparison of nodes amplitudes n = 3, n = 4, n = 5, n = 10 is also studied

analytically and shows similar results as numerical one (Figure 30).
89
0.25
(L1)
0.2
Tip Deflection, u4
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
0.35
(L )
2
0.3
0.25
Tip Deflection, u4
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
0.2
(L )
3
0.18
0.16
0.14
Tip Deflection, u4
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
Figure 30: Influence of the Nonlinearity on the response of the output Arm for E0 =
0.01. (...): Numerical and (***): Analytical. (L1 ): α = 0.8, (L2 ): α = 1.0 , (L3 ):
α = 1.2.
90
3.5 Conclusion
The results obtained from the forced response of systems described in the previous
chapter have been presented and discussed in this chapter. Good agreements have
been found between the results from the analytical treatment and the ones from the
numerical simulations. For a given set of initial conditions, the time integration is
performed using step-by-step methods Runge-Kutta. The harmonic balance method
has been used to tackle analytical solutions in our investigations. For fixed geometrical
and physical properties of the materials used, various types of bifurcation sequences
showing the transitions from harmonic or regular behavior to chaotic motion have
been obtained. It has been reported that the nonlinear parameter of the electric
circuit influences the behavior of the system and can be used as a sort of chaos
controller in the systems. In addition, it has be seen that large deformation in the
system causes chaotic motion. Lyapunov exponents have been computed to assure
the conclusion about chaotic response.
91
General Conclusion
0.1 Main results of the thesis
The work presented in this dissertation has three main contributions as stated in
the objectives.
The first main contribution of this dissertation was to design models of electrome-
chanical systems with rigid and flexible pendulum robot arm manipulators.
The second contribution was to understand the behavior of our system models,
when they are subjected to external sinusoidal perturbation.
Chapter one focused on literature review on electromechanical systems in order

to identify the drawbacks of other models discussed. We first turn to techniques of
actuation in electromechanical systems which allowed us to deal with the different

classes of electromechanical systems. Thereafter, we have presented the sources of
nonlinearity in electromechanical systems. This chapter was also extended to control

methods and their applications to electromechanical systems. Also, Some technolog-
ical applications of the work have been presented.
The second chapter was devoted entirely to our methodology. Once we designed
our models, we examined how the dynamical equations of electromechanical systems
can be derived from Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws, Ohm’s law, law of induction,
coulomb’s law, Newtonian methods and Hooke’s law. In order to meet technological
systems, an integrated approach was used at the design and modeling levels, making
92
it necessary to take into account all the aspects of the system at the same time.
The study has presented four models: the electromechanical device with rigid arm
and RL circuit, both vertical and horizontal plane motions were considered. The
electromechanical device with rigid arm and RLC circuit, both vertical and inverted
plane motions were analyzed, and finally the electromechanical device with flexible
pendulum arm coupled to RLC circuit. According to the identified model rigid or
flexible, geometrical and physical properties of the materials were measured. Using
energy-based approach, the controller design algorithm of vibrations was tackled via
the shaping of the energy flow that characterizes the system: condition under which
the pendulum arms does not experience rotation was then established. Thereafter, we
analyzed numerically and analytically, using the classical fourth-order Runge-Kutta

algorithm, and the harmonic balance method, the set of motion equations of the
electromechanical devices. In the flexible model case, a discrete version of the model
was produced after a spatial discretization of the fourth order spatial derivative.
The third chapter was devoted to the results and discussion on the dynamical
behavior of electromechanical pendulum robot arm manipulators. Critical forcing
amplitudes to onset full rotation of the output were evaluated under the frequency
excitation control, and our findings have shown that vertical plane motion requires
more energy to enter rotational regime than horizontal plane motion. The absence of
gravity in the equation of motion of the horizontal case was reported to be responsible
for this. Of course, starting from rest, the pendulum needs more energy to be set into
motion in the vertical plane motion, while in the horizontal case, its does not feel the
gravity at all. This higher request of energy by the system to enter rotational regime
was also found when the nonlinear electrical coefficient was considered or suppressed.
This is due to the fact that the electric system tends to suppress the charge, and
hence the current when α increases. It was also reported that the control law for the
93
inverted pendulum was inherently validated by the model. Various types of bifurca-
tion sequences showing the transitions from harmonic or regular behavior to chaotic
motion have been performed for some set of chosen control parameters. It has been
reported that the nonlinear parameter of the electric circuit influences the behavior of
the system and can be used as a sort of chaos controller in the systems. In addition,
it has be seen that large deformation in the system causes chaotic motion. Lyapunov
exponents have been computed to assure the conclusion about chaotic response, mea-
suring the rate of divergence between initially closed trajectories. In the case of the
flexible model, it was found that the location of the actuation point affects the perfor-
mance of the proposed model, dominant resulting motion shall occur at a nodal point
regarding the excitation frequency control parameter value. We have, then as a result
concluded that the fundamental mode does not always experience dominant resulting
motion, it depends on both excitation and mechanical structure frequencies. This
multiple coincident frequencies gives room to a multipurpose manufacturing device.

This type of vibration control technique that involves imposing multiple coincident
natural frequencies can help to reduce the excessive contribution of the fundamental
mode, and hence, to reduce the excessive vibrations of the mechanical structure.
0.2 Future works
The research discussed in this dissertation can be extended in various directions.
It would certainly be interesting to study other types of such electromechanical
pendulum-like systems with piezoelectric actuators, in which a material expands or

contracts in response to an applied voltage. Furthermore, an interesting point will be
to consider the flux leakage and magnetic hysteresis within the energy transfer unit
leading to energy loss, in order to have a more real life device to simulate.
94
Interesting results from the realization and experimental study of the model 2
were observed in our laboratory, with the support of the Academy of Sciences for
the Developing World (TWAS). These results could confirm and complement the
theoretical study of the single device. But, the deep gap between frequencies of
the electrical and the mechanical ports, still drawback an adequate sensor to record
mechanical deflection. For eventual technological exploitation in electromechanical
engineering, experimental investigations are necessary. This is one of the challenges
we are tackling.
95
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List of Publications
1- J. B. MOGO and P. WOAFO., Dynamics of a Nonlinear Electromechan-

ical Device with a Pendulum Arm, J. Comp. Nonl. Dynamics 2, 374 (2007) .
2- J. B. MOGO and P. WOAFO., Dynamics of a flexible Pendulum Arm Ac-

tuated by a Nonlinear Electrical Circuit, Journal of Vibration and Acoustics, in press .
104

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University of Yaoundé I

MODELING AND DYNAMICS OF PENDULUM

Mogo Jules Bonaventure

Submitted to the Faculty of Science

Prof. Paul Woafo

Laboratory of Modeling and Simulation

Yaoundé, January 2010

Dean : BITJONG NDOMBOL (Professor)

DEPARTMENT NUMBER OF LECTURERS

So a total of: 265 with

In loving memory of my Daddy, Mogo Bonaventure

It was a great experience working with all my colleagues in the Laboratory of

Special thanks are extended to Professor Timoléon Crépin KOFANE, Pro-

List of the Permanent Teaching Staff i

List of Figures xvii

Chapter 1 Literature Review and Problem Statement 5

Chapter 2 Methodology: Modeling of Pendulum arms, Mathemati-

Chapter 3 Results and Discussions 53

List of Publications 104

Figure 1 Moving-coil transducer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Figure 3 Rigid pendulum robot arm coupled to RL moving-coil transducer. 24

natural phenomena. In the framework of nonlinear dynamics, there is no doubt that

superconducting junctions [13,14], modeling of structural and electronic properties in

reference, which is basically dedicated to many phenomena associated to pendula,

introduced with the help of the simple pendulum (see [18]).

ing vibrations of mechanical structures still cannot be well-understood or explained.

area would contribute significantly to robotics, and in particular, automation, as well

ing, control and applications of strongly nonlinear electromechanical pendulum robot

requirements in terms of performance, design and operating environment. Based on

these requirements, we have designed electromechanical devices with three types of

and their applications to electromechanical systems. Some technological applications

model is governed by a set of ordinary differential equations or partial differential

spatial dependence in the solution of the partial differential equation is eliminated

experience geometric and capacitive nonlinearities.

models have been done to validate the numerical simulations.

Literature Review and Problem

1.1 Generalities on Electromechanical Systems

accordance with these general definitions, an electromechanical transducer converts

An electromechanical system refers to a mechanical element coupled to electrical

actuators operate on various basic principles. The most common electromechanical

system actuation methods include piezoelectric, thermal expansion, electrostatic, and

temperature sensitivity, nonlinear working zones and hysteresis prevent physicists

actuation in microscopy [20,21].

nization condition in a network of piezoelectric micro-beam. Nowadays, capacitive

The force is generated by coulombic attraction between two structures charged to

die, are expensive to fabricate, or are voltage-incompatible with standard electronic

transducer is common in macrosystems, in the form of electric motors and solenoids.

arm manipulators leave Electromagnetic actuation as a really desirable method for

Figure 1: Moving-coil transducer.

A moving-coil transducer is an energy transformer which converts electrical power

by motion of the coil is

~ = ~rdθ of one turn of the coil [B,

tutive equations of the movable-coil transducer.

Notice that the transducer constant T appearing in Faraday’s law expressed in

(1.8), one gets

transducer cannot store energy, and behaves as a perfect electromechanical converter.

can be written equivalently in terms of flux linkage

Wm∗ (x, i) = λi − Wm (x, λ) = T i(x − x0 ). (1.11)

In chapter 2 of this thesis, models of real transducers which involve additional

be focused on. Before that, we shall examine nonlinearity sources in electromechanical

1.2.1 Nonlinearity and effects

Any physically realistic system involves nonlinearities. Indeed, interesting phys-