EUROCONFERENCE

Passenger Ship Design and Operation

Crete 2001

IMPROVING THE ROPAX CONCEPT

WITH HIGH TECH SOLUTIONS

Kai Levander
Kvaerner Masa-Yards Technology
1. FERRY DEVELOPMENT TRENDS

1.1 Capacity and Speed

Ferries are vessels carrying passengers, cars and cargo on short sea routes. The ferry business has
become an important business segment for ship designers, builders and operators. This ship type
started to develop during the 60’s in the Baltic and rapidly spread to the North Sea and to the
Mediterranean routes. A strong local market can also be found in Japan. The passenger car
ferries have been growing in size and capacity. A strong interest in high speed vessels started in
the 90’s : The “High Speed Light Craft” concept developed from the passenger-only segment to
high speed ferries with RoRo decks for cars, busses and trucks. The Australian designers and
builders have been very successful in this segment and their vessels run all over the world.

Figure 1: Ferry Development Trends

The rapid growth of the ferry industry also led to the development of several dedicated ferry
types, each tailored for a different mix of passengers, cars and cargo.

Kai Levander
Kvaerner Masa-Yards Technology 2
1.2 Ferry types
RoRo cargo is carried on many short sea
routes. If less than 12 passengers or lorry
drivers are carried onboard the vessel is a
RoRo ferry and can be built according to
cargo vessel rules (fig 2). Cargo is loaded
through the stern, mostly only at one level
to the main deck, with internal ramps to the
lower hold and upper deck. The upper deck
can be uncovered for the full length. Figure 2: RoRo Ferry

If the ferry carries more than 12 passengers

or drivers it is considered to be a passenger
vessel. If the RoRo decks are large and the
passenger facilities onboard are limited the
vessel is called a RoPax ferry. This type
often has a lower hold, main deck and
upper deck for RoRo cargo (fig 3). The
deckhouse is lengthened to accommodate
space for the passengers. The upper RoRo
deck is then partly covered. Most RoPax Figure 3: RoPax Ferry
ferries have both stern and bow ramps to
speed up the loading and unloading of the
RoRo decks.

Ferries with passenger facilities suitable for

longer routes are called passenger-car
ferries or PaxCar ferries (fig 4). They have
a full-length superstructure for the
passenger cabins and public spaces.
Hoistable car platforms are often installed
on the RoRo decks to increase the deck area
Figure 4: PaxCar Ferry
for private cars. The free height needed on
the RoRo decks for lorries and trailers is
4,4…4,8 m and the hoistable decks divide
the space into two private car decks with a
free height of 2,0…2,4 m.

Ferries with cabin space for all passengers

and large public spaces with restaurants,
lounges, bars, etc. are often called Cruise
Ferries. These ferries operate on over night
routes and some of the passengers travel
back with the ferry on the return trip (fig 5). Figure 5: Cruise Ferry
The RoRo decks are small and the
passenger cars occupy a large portion of the
RoRo space.

Kai Levander
Kvaerner Masa-Yards Technology 3
2. FERRY PAYLOAD
2.1 Passenger capacity
Passengers with or without cars are the
important target for ferries (fig 6). The large
seasonal variations in the number of
travellers demand flexibility from the ferry
operator. On many routes the capacity
needed during the summer vacation period
is much bigger than that during the low
winter season. The passenger capacity and
number of passenger cabins for ferries of
different type and size are shown in fig 7
and 8. Figure 6: Ferry Terminal
3 000

2 500
Cruise Ferry
Passenger Capacity

2 000

1 500 PaxCar
Short Route
1 000

RoPax
500

0
0 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000 60 000
GT
Figure 7: Passenger Capacity

1 200

1 000
Passenger Cabins

800

600
Cruise Ferry

400
PaxCar
200
RoPax
0
0 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000 60 000
GT

Figure 8: Passenger Cabins

Kai Levander
Kvaerner Masa-Yards Technology 4
2.2 Cars and cargo
Cars, trucks and trailers are typical cargo
carried by the ferries on the RoRo decks
(fig 9). There are a few ferry routes where
railway trains are carried, but fixed links
like the Channel Tunnel and the bridges
across the Danish Straits take more and
more of the rail cargo away from the
ferries. The RoRo cargo capacity for
different ferry types is shown in fig 10 and
11. Figure 9: RoRo Payload

1 600

1 400

1 200
Passenger Cars

1 000

800
PaxCar
600

400
Short Route Cruise Ferry
200 RoPax

0
0 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000 60 000
GT

Figure 10: Car Capacity

4 000

3 500
Cargo Capacity [lane-meters]

3 000
RoPax
2 500

2 000

1 500 PaxCar

1 000
Short Route Cruise Ferry
500

0
0 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000 60 000
GT

Figure 11: Cargo Capacity

Kai Levander
Kvaerner Masa-Yards Technology 5
2.3 RoRo deck arrangement
The RoRo capacity of the ferries has grown significantly during the 90’s. The number of car
decks has increased from initially only one to two or even three full height trailer decks. Many
ferries have also a lower hold to further increase the cargo capacity (fig 12). For trucks and
trailers the slope angle of the shore ramps and the ramps between the decks must be kept below
8-9 degrees and the loading-unloading arrangement must be carefully considered. If double level
linkspans can be built in the port, the loading of the upper cargo decks is much easier and the
port time can be reduced.

Figure 12: RoRo deck arrangement

The access for the passengers from the car decks to the public spaces must also be considered. If
a centre casing is used the arranging of stairs and lift is often easier than when side casings are
used. A centre casing also divides the length of the deck beams and reduces the vibration level
on the passenger decks above.

Kai Levander
Kvaerner Masa-Yards Technology 6
3. FERRY DESIGN
3.1 Technical possibilities
A lifting force must carry the weight of the vessel. Ferries are the only commercial vessel type,
where all different ways to generate lift has been tried (fig 13). The static lift from the displaced
water is used in both mono- and multihull ferries. The dynamic lift force from submerged wings
is used in hydrofoil vessels and powered lifts in air cushion vehicles. In hybrid type vessels, like
the SES, both static lift from the side hulls and powered lift from the air cushion are used. The
dominating solution for ferries is, however, the use of static lift from a displacement type hull
form (fig 14).

∆=X+Y+Z
X = STATIC LIFT
Y = POWERED LIFT
Z = DYNAMIC LIFT
Y Z

Figure 13: The lift triangle

Figure 14: Displacement type hull form

Kai Levander
Kvaerner Masa-Yards Technology 7
3.2 System based design
Performance
Economics
• Hull Structure
• Building cost
• Machinery
• Operating cost
• Outfitting
• Required
• Seakeeping
freight rate
• Profitability
FINAL • Safety
DESIGN

Mission Function
• Transport logistics • Payload systems
• Route • Ship systems Form
• Capacity • DWT / ∆ • Geometric definition
• Speed • Power - Speed • Space balance
• Weight balance
Figure 15: The system based design process

The starting point is the mission and the functions of the ship (fig 15). All systems needed to
perform the defined tasks are first listed. The ship functions can be divided into two main
categories, payload systems and ship systems (fig 16). The areas and volumes demanded in the
ship to accommodate all systems are calculated. This design method does not need pre-selected
main dimensions, hull lines or standard layouts. System based design is like a checklist that
reminds the designer of all the factors that affect the design and record his choices. It gives the
possibility to compare the selections with statistical data derived from existing, successful
designs. The result is a complete system description for the new ship, which will act as the base
for further design work
Cargo RoRo decks
Spaces Private car decks

Cargo Ramps, doors

Handling Lashing equipment

Cargo Ventilation
Payload Treatment Heating and cooling
Function Passenger cabins
Passenger
Public spaces , Stairways and halls
Facilities Outdoor spaces
Crew cabins
Crew
Common spaces
Facilities Stairs and corridors
Passenger services
Service
Catering and stores
RoPax Facilities Hotel services

Function Hull
Structure Poop, forecastle
Superstructure
Main and aux engines
Machinery Casing and funnel
Steering gear, thrusters
Air conditioning
Comfort
Ship Systems
Water and sewage
Fire safety, Stores etc
Function
Fuel and Lub Oil
Tanks and
Water and Sewage
Voids Ballast and Void

Outdoor Anchoring and Mooring

Decks Life saving equipment

Figure 16: RoPax functions

Kai Levander
Kvaerner Masa-Yards Technology 8
3.3 Design criteria for successful ships
There are three main factors affecting the technical feasibility and the profitability of ship design.
The deadweight / displacement ratio indicates the carrying capacity in relation to the total
displacement. The deadweight is low for ferries with large passenger facilities, like cruise ferries
(fig 17). The speed and power should be judged in relation to the displacement of the vessel (fig
18). The ferry hull forms can be far from optimal, due to length- and draught restrictions in the
ports. The third ratio is the lightweight density, which is an important indicator for an advanced
design, like the use of high tensile steel or aluminium in ferries built according to the “High
Speed Light Craft” rules (fig 19).

Figure 17: DWT / Displacement

80 0,25
Stena Explorer
40 knots
70
40 knots 0,20
35 knots
60
LWT / Volume [ ton / m³ ]
Propulsion Power [ MW ]

30 knots
50 0,15
Displacement Type Ferries
Superfast III
40 28 knots

25 knots 0,10
30
Fast Monohull Ferries
Ulysses
20 22 knots
20 knots 0,05

10
Fast Catamaran Ferries

0 0,00
0 5 000 10 000 15 000 20 000 25 000 30 000 0 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000 60 000
Displacement [ ton ] GT

Figure 18: Speed & Power Figure 19: Lightweight density

Kai Levander
Kvaerner Masa-Yards Technology 9
3.4 Selecting the main dimensions
The main dimensions follow similar trends for all ferries with displacement type hull forms, but
the selected values show large variances. The variation in the selected length is due to large
differences in the service speed of the vessels (fig 20).
The breadth should depend on the number of lanes selected for the RoRo decks. There seems to
be many ferries with 6 truck & trailer lanes, which leads to a breadth of 24...26 m (fig 21). All
ferries built or on order have main dimensions that allow transit trough the Panama canal.
250 40

35
Panamax
200
30

25

Breadth [m]
Lenght [m]

150

20

100
15

10
50
5

0 0
0 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000 60 000 0 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000 60 000
GT GT

Fig 20: Length Fig 21: Breadth

The draught of the ferries is small compared to other types of cargo vessels. The depth to the
main deck indicates the freeboard needed to satisfy the safety rules for passenger vessels. If the
Stockholm-agreement shall be followed the minimum freeboard is roughly 10% of the breadth.
The depth to the upper deck depends on the free height wanted for the RoRo vehicles on the
main deck (fig 22)
20

18

16
Depth to Upper Deck
Draught & Depth [m]

14

12

10 Depth to Main Deck

8
Draught
6

0
0 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000 60 000
GT

Fig 22: Draught & Depth

Kai Levander
Kvaerner Masa-Yards Technology 10
4. HULL FORM AND PROPULSION
4.1 Speed is relative
50
Fn =1,00 Fast Cat
Fn =0,60
40
Fast Mono
Fn =0,35
Speed [knots]

30
Displacement Fn =0,25
Type Ferries

20

10

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Length WL [m]
Figure 23: Speed – length ratio

Displacement type hull forms are used for speeds corresponding to Froude numbers below 0,35.
This means that a ferry operating at 30 knots should have a water line length of more than 200
m. The speed and length selected for most traditional ferries give Froude numbers between
0,25...0,35. The “High Speed Light Craft” ferries have Froude numbers between 0,5...1,0 and
operate in the semi-planning mode (fig 23). But for large, fast RoPax ferries operating at up to
30-knot speed, the displacement type hull form has proven the best choice. The mono hull vessel
has a simple hull structure and can be built of steel. Medium speed diesels, running on heavy fuel
oil are used for propulsion. It is, however, important to carefully select the main dimensions and
hull coefficient to reduce the resistance and power demand. The block coefficient used in ships
built during the last 10 years is shown in fig 24. The selected values vary considerably, but a
trend line based on the Froude number can be proposed.

1,0

0,9
Cm

0,8
Cb, Cm, Cp, Cw

Cw
RoPax
0,7
Other Ship Ferries
types
Fast Cat
0,6
Cp

0,5

Cb Fast Mono
0,4

0,3
0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9
Fn
Figure 24: Hull coefficients

Kai Levander
Kvaerner Masa-Yards Technology 11
4.2 Propulsion alternatives
Twin-screw propulsion with CP propellers and twin rudders has been the dominating solution for
displacement type ferries (fig 25). The demand for high speed combined with draught
restrictions in the ports often require that the propulsion power is split on two propellers, which
also improve the manoeuvrability. In cruise ships podded propellers are now the preferred
solution. Podded propulsion is also very suitable for ferries (fig 26). The electric power
transmission makes it possible to locate the machinery even in the bow of the vessel, which
improves the access to the RoRo decks (fig 27). The high cost of the electric drive system has,
however, restricted the use of this advanced solution in ferries.

Figure 25: Traditional twin screw arrangement Figure 26: Podded propulsion

Figure 27: Diesel-electric machinery arrangement

The electric pod unit makes it possible to

arrange contra rotating propellers without
complicated mechanical drive gears and
concentric shaft lines. The pod is placed
behind the conventional propeller, where
the rudder normally is located (fig 28). This
arrangement has been model tested for
some fast ferries and shows very high
propulsion efficiency.

Figure 28: Contra rotating pod

Kai Levander
Kvaerner Masa-Yards Technology 12
5. MACHINERY ARRANGEMENT
5.1 Propulsion drive alternatives
RoPax ferries are almost exclusively equipped with medium speed diesel engines. This engine
type has the advantage of compact size and low weight, but still can operate on heavy fuel oil.
Three different propulsion drives have been studied for a fast RoPax vessel. Environmental
friendliness is achieved by adding SCR exhaust cleaning units on both main and auxiliary
engines and NOx emissions will be minimal.

ME G AE
• Mechanical Propulsion 50 MW
G AE
G ME • Auxiliary Generators 6 MW
G AE
G
• Total 56 MW
ME

ME

Figure 29: Diesel-mechanical drive with twin CP propellers

G ME
• Electric Power Plant 55 MW
G ME

G ME • Total 55 MW

G ME

Figure 30: Diesel-electric drive with twin pods

G AE • Mechanical Propulsion 28 MW
ME
G AE • Electric Power Plant 25 MW
ME • Total 53 MW
G AE

Figure 31: Diesel-mechanical CP propeller with contra rotating pod

Kai Levander
Kvaerner Masa-Yards Technology 13
5.2 Machinery comparison
In a study a RoPax ferry is assumed to operate on a 250 nm route with many hours of high speed
at sea. The initial cost of the major machinery components is lowest for the diesel-mechanical
drive. The twin pod diesel-electric alternative is about 25 % more expensive and the diesel-
mechanical with a contra rotating pod is in between (fig 32) There is no big difference in the
machinery weight. The pod propulsion has about 8% lower shaft power than the traditional twin-
screw ship with long exposed shaft lines, brackets and rudders. But due to the electrical
transmission losses of the variable speed pod drive the fuel consumption is almost the same. The
contra rotating pod arrangement, however, gives a considerable saving due to the much
improved propulsion efficiency. Model tests indicates saving of more than 12% for the CRP and
the total annual cost is lowest for this alternative (fig 33). The machinery layouts for the contra
rotating version is shown in Fig 34.

35 000 000 14 000 000

30 000 000 12 000 000

25 000 000 10 000 000

20 000 000 8 000 000

USD

USD

Urea
15 000 000 6 000 000 Fuel Oil and lubricants
Capital

10 000 000 4 000 000

Catalytic converter
Auxiliaries
5 000 000 Propulsion 2 000 000
Engines and Generators

0 0
Diesel Diesel Mech. + DE Diesel Diesel Mech. + DE
Mechanical Electric CRP Mechanical Electric CRP

Figure 32: Initial cost Figure 33: Annual cost

Figure 34 Diesel-mechanical CP propeller with contra rotating pod

Kai Levander
Kvaerner Masa-Yards Technology 14
6. CONCEPT DESIGN
6.1 Lay out alternatives

A: Short route - Trucks and cars, doors in stern and at bow

B: Long route - Trailers and cars, doors in stern

C: Short route - Increased trailer capacity, diesel-electric

Figure 35: Lay out alternatives for 30 knots RoPax ferry

Lightweight / Displacement Building Cost

Ramps and gates Design

Hull Structure Ramps and gates
Superstructure Hull Structure
Interior Outfitting Superstructure

Machinery Interior Outfitting

Machinery
Ship Outfitting
Ship Outfitting
Deadweight
Tests, trials

Figure 36: Weight distribution Figure37: Cost distribution

Kai Levander
Kvaerner Masa-Yards Technology 15
6.2 Design evaluation

The proposed design concept should now be evaluated against the design objectives agreed
upon. The technical feasibility, like speed and power, weight distribution and available payload
capacity are important criteria for all ferry design work (fig 36). The main factors affecting the
building cost indicate where the designer should concentrate the development work to further
improve the design (fig 37). Social values, like passenger safety and environmental
considerations must not be forgotten. If the design does not fulfil these requirements it cannot be
used at all (fig 38). Economical profitability is, however, the main criterion for selecting the
design and construction of the next generation of RoPax vessels.

Design Objectives

Technical Commercial Social Environmental

Feasibility Profitability Values Impact
Capacity

Health Risks
Availability

Safety

Pollution

Recycling
Performance

Required Freight Rate

Operating Net Income

Cash Flow

Level of Service

Natural Resources used

Return of Investment

Aesthetic Considerations

Figure 38: Design objectives

Kai Levander
Kvaerner Masa-Yards Technology 16