TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Transportation Modes

Civil Engineering International Program

U n i v e r s i t a s At m a J a y a Y o g y a k ar t a

J. Dwijoko Ansusanto
Topic 2 – Transportation Modes

A. A Diversity of Modes
B. Intermodal Transportation
C. Passengers or Freight?
1. Air Transport
• Context
– Air routes are practically unlimited:
• North Atlantic.
• Inside North America and Europe.
• Over the North Pacific.
• Inside Asia.
– Multidimensional constraints:
• Site (a commercial plane needs about 3,300 meters of track for
landing and take off).
• Climate, fog and aerial currents.
– Air activities are linked to the tertiary and quaternary sectors:
• Finance and tourism that require movements of people.
– Accommodating growing quantities of high value freight.
1. Air Transport
• Air Space
– Segment of the atmosphere that is under the jurisdiction of a
nation or under an international agreement for its use.
– Two major components:
• Land-based; takeoffs and landings.
• Air-based; composed of air corridors.
– Air corridors can superimpose themselves to altitudes up to 22,500
meters.
– Limited to the use of predetermined corridors.
• Air space use
– Air space exclusively belongs to the country under it.
– Access to the land and air-based components is dependent on
agreements between nations and airline companies.
– Air freedom rights.
Air Freedom
First
RightsSecond Third

Home
Country B

Country A

Fourth Fifth Sixth

Seventh Eight Ninth

1. Air Transport
• Development of air transportation
– Technical improvements:
• Jet engine considerably reduced distances, namely because of
greater speeds and improved ranges.
• Almost every part of the world can be serviced in less than 24 hours.
– Rising affluence:
• Linked with income and economic output growth.
• Disposable income available for leisure.
• International tourism and air transportation are mutually
interdependent.
– Globalization:
• Trade networks established by multinational corporations.
• About 40% of the value of global manufactured exports.
• About 50% of the value of American overseas - non-NAFTA - exports.
Main Commercial Passenger Aircraft, 1935-2006

Aircraft Year of First Speed Maximum Range Seating

Commercial (km/hr) at Full Payload Capacity
Service (km)

Douglas DC-3 1935 346 563 30

Douglas DC-7 1953 555 5,810 52
Boeing 707-100 1958 897 6,820 110
Boeing 727-100 1963 917 5,000 94
Boeing 747-100 1970 907 9,045 385
McDonnell Douglas DC-10 1971 908 7,415 260

Airbus A300 1974 847 3,420 269

Boeing 767-200 1982 954 5,855 216
Boeing 747-400 1989 939 13,444 416
Boeing 777-200ER 1995 905 13,420 305
Airbus A340-500 2003 886 15,800 313
Airbus A380 2006 930 14,800 555
Early Intercontinental Air Routes,
1930s Eyeries London
Amsterdam
Paris
Botwood Toulouse
Lisbon Marseilles
New York
Azores
Alexandria Gaza
Cairo
Wadi Halfa
Khartoum
Juba

Nairobi
Mbeya

Harare

Johannesburg

Cape Town
Imperial Airways African Route (c1933)
Imperial Airways/Quantas Australian Route (c1934)
Aeropostale (1930)
KLM Amsterdam – Jakarta (1935)
Pan American Transatlantic Route (1939)
Flight Times by Piston and Jet Engines from Chicago
Piston Engine

10 hours
15 hours
20 hours
24 hours
30 hours

Jet Engine

10 hours
Average Airfare (roundtrip)
between New York and London,
1946-2004
$7,000
$6,500
$6,000
$5,000
$4,000 $4,100

$3,000
$2,600
$2,000
$1,000
$600
$0
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Range from New York of Different
Modern Commercial Jet Planes
World Air Travel and World Air Freight Carried, 1950-2002

3500 120
Passengers
3000 Freight 100
Billions of passengers-k m

2500

Billions of tons-km
80
2000
60
1500
40
1000

500 20

0 0
50
53
56
59
62
65
68
71
74
77
80
83
86
89
92
95
98
01
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
1. Air Transport
• Airline companies
– Highly capital intensive segment of transport services.
– Labor intensive, with limited room to lessen those labor
requirements.
– Around 900 airlines operating 11,600 commercial aircrafts.
– Average number of 200 seats per plane.
– Dominant share of the traffic is assumed by large passengers and
freight carriers.
• Strategic alliances
– Joint booking systems, exchange of shares, and a reorganization
of their services in order to minimize redundancy.
– Increased market dominance but also increased competition
between major markets.
World’s 10 Largest Passengers Airlines, 2000 (in 1,000
passengers)

British Airways
Air France
All Nippon Airways
Continental Airlines
Lufthansa
US Airways
Northwest Airlines
United Airlines
American Airlines
Delta Air Lines

0 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000 120,000

World’s 10 Largest Freight Airlines, 2000 (in 1,000 tons)

Air France
British Airways
Northwest Airlines
Cathay Pacific
Singapore Airlines
Japan Airlines
Lufthansa
Korean Air Lines
United Parcel Service
Federal Express

0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000

Market Share of World Airline Traffic, 2003
Oneworld
American Airlines, British Airways, Aer Lingus,
SkyTeam
Cathay Pacific, Finnair, Iberia, LanChile, Quantas 21%

Star
United Airlines, Lufthansa, Air Canada, Air New
Zealand, ANA, Asiana, Austrian, bmi british
midland, LOT Polish Airlines, Mexicana, SAS, Others
Star 38%
Singapore, Spanair, Thai Airways, Varig, US 24%
Airways, TAM

SkyTeam
Oneworld
Air France, Delta Airlines, Aeromexico, Alitalia, CSA 17%
Czech Airlines, Korean Air, Northwest, Continental,
KLM
1. Air Transport
• Flows
– 1.4 billion passengers traveled by air transport (2000).
– 2.8 billion departures and arrivals supported by airports.
– Equivalent of 23% of the global population.
– 30 million tons of freight were transported.
– Air traffic is globally highly imbalanced:
• Distribution of the population.
• Unequal levels of development.
• Concentration of traffic in a limited number of hubs.
– 80% of the global population lives in the Northern Hemisphere:
• Air traffic is much denser north of the equator.
– North America and Europe accounted for 70.4% of all passenger
movements in 2000.
Major Air Traffic Flows Between Regions, 2000 (% of
IATA Scheduled Passengers)

North America 3.9 Europe

1.7 23.2 1.7
35.5 1.9
15.9
1.8 1.3
1.5
Central America Middle East Asia
1.3 1.1
South America 1.7
Africa
Southwest Pacific
3.2
2.6
2. Modal Competition
• Integrated transportation systems
– Requires maximum flexibility.
– Modal competition exists at various degrees
and takes several dimensions.
– Modes can compete or complement each
other:
• Cost, speed, accessibility, frequency, safety,
comfort, etc.
– Intermodal transportation:
• Opened many opportunities for complementarity.
• Intense competition over many modes in the
transport chain.
Four Travel Options between New York and
Boston, 2004

Mode Price (one Time

way)
LimoLiner (luxury $69 4 hours
bus)
Acela (Amtrak $99 3 hours
train)
Greyhound bus $30 4 hours

Air Shuttle $128 1 hour (plus check in)

2. Modal Competition
• Three dimensions of modal competition
– Modal usage:
• Comparative advantage of using a specific or a combination of
modes.
• Distance remains one of the basic determinant of modal usage.
• The basic determinants of modal usage for passengers
transportation.
• For a similar distance, costs, speed and comfort can be
significant factors.
– Infrastructure usage:
• Competition resulting from the presence of freight and
passenger traffic on the same itineraries linking the same
nodes.
– Market area:
• Competition being experienced between transport terminals for
allocating new space or capturing new markets.
Modal Competition
Mode Infrastructure / Route Market Area

B B B B B

1
2 4 5
3

A A A A A
Passenger Transport by Mode,
Japan, 1950-1999
1400
Airline
1200 Railway
Billions of Passenger Kilometers

Bus
1000
Auto
800

600

400

200

0
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1999
B – Intermodal Transportation
• 1. Intermodalism
• 2. Containerization
• 3. Modal Choice and Intermodal Transport
Costs
1. Intermodalism
• Integrated transport systems
– Use of at least two different modes in a trip
from origin to destination through an intermodal
transport chain.
– Brought about in part by technology.
– Techniques for transferring freight from one
mode to another have facilitated intermodal
transfers.
– The container has been the major
development:
• Becoming a privileged mode of shipping for rail and
maritime transportation.
Intermodal Transport Chain

Interchange

Connection
Composition Decomposition

Local / Regional Distribution

National / International Distribution
Transport Terminal
40-Foot Containers Doublestacked on a Rail Car
Multimodal and Intermodal
Transportation
Multimodal Point-to-Point Network Intermodal Integrated Network
C C
A A
B B Transshipment

Rail

Road

D D Transshipment
F F
E E
2. Containerization
• Container
– Load unit that can be used by several transport
modes.
– Usable by maritime, railway and road modes.
– Foremost expression on intermodal
transportation.
– Rectangular shape that can easily be handled.
– Reference size is the Twenty-foot Equivalent
Unit (TEU).
– The most common container is the 40 footer
(12 meters)
2. Containerization
• Advantages of containers
– Standard transport product:
• Can be manipulated anywhere in the world (ISO
standard).
• All segments of the industry have access to the
standard.
• Specialized ships, trucks and wagons.
– Flexibility of usage:
• Transport a wide variety of goods ranging.
• Raw materials, manufactured goods, cars to frozen
products.
• Liquids (oil and chemical products).
2. Containerization
– Costs:
• Low transport costs,
– Speed:
• Transshipment operations are minimal and rapid.
• Containerships are on average 35% (19 knots
versus 14 knots) faster than regular freighter ships.
– Warehousing:
• Its own warehouse.
• Simpler and less expensive packaging.
• Stacking capacity on ships, trains (doublestacking)
and on the ground.
– Security:
Five Generations of
First Generation (1956-1970) Length Draft TEU
Containerships Converted Cargo Vessel 135 m
<9 m
500

Converted Tanker 200 m 800

Second Generation (1970-1980)

1,000 –
Cellular Containership 215 m 10 m 2,500
Third Generation (1980-1988)

250 m 3,000
Panamax Class 11-12 m

290 m 4,000

Fourth Generation (1988-2000)

Post Panamax 275 – 4,000 –
305 m 11-13 m 5,000

Fifth Generation (2000-?)

Post Panamax Plus
5,000 –
335 m 13-14 m
8,000
Stacked 40-Foot Containers
20-Foot Container on Truck
20-Foot Tank Containers
40’ Reefer
“Kegger”
4th Generation Containership
2. Containerization
• Disadvantages
– Consumption of space.
– Infrastructure costs:
• Container handling infrastructures, such as giant cranes,
warehousing facilities and inland road and rail access,
represent important investments for port authorities and load
centers.
– Stacking.
– Management logistics:
• Requires management and tracking of every container.
– Empty travel.
– Illicit trade:
• Common instrument used in the illicit trade of drug and
weapons, as well as for illegal immigration.
• Worries about the usage of containers for terrorism.
3. Modal Choice and Intermodal
Transport Costs
• Modal choice
– Relationship between transport costs, distance
and modal choice:
• Road transport is usually used for short distances
(from 500 to 750 km).
• Railway transport for average distances.
• Maritime transport for long distances (about 750
km).
– Intermodalism:
• The opportunity to combine modes.
• Find a less costly alternative than an unimodal
solution.
Distance, Modal Choice and
Transport Costs
C1 C2
Road
Transport costs per unit

C3

Rail Maritime

D1 D2 Distance
Intermodal Transportation Cost
Function
C(T)
Local / Regional Distribution Cost Decomposition C(dc)
National / International Distribution Cost
Connection C(cn)
Costs

C(I) Interchange

C(cn) Connection

Composition C(cp)
Origin Transshipment Destination
Task –1

Make a short article describing:

“Intermodality of Transportation in Indonesia”
(i.e. Train, Bus, Plane, Ship)
- What advantages/disadvantages of each mode
- Competition beetwen modes (Train and AeroPlane,
Train and Intercity Bus, Ship and AeroPlane, etc.)
- Complementary of intermode

1. Must be presenting in the next session.

2. In group or individualy.
(Maturnuwun)