Draughtsman Mechanical 2nd Year (Volume I of II) TT

DRAUGHTSMAN MECHANICAL
NSQF LEVEL - 5
2nd Year (Volume - I of II)
TRADE THEORY
SECTOR: Capital Goods and Manufacturing
DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING

MINISTRY OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT & ENTREPRENEURSHIP
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
NATIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL
MEDIA INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
Post Box No. 3142, CTI Campus, Guindy, Chennai - 600 032
(i)
Sector : Capital Goods and Manufacturing
Duration : 2 Years
Trade : Draughtsman Mechanical - 2nd year (Volume I of II) Trade theory -
NSQF (Level -5)
Developed & Printed by
National Instructional Media Institute

Post Box No.3142
Guindy, Chennai - 600032
INDIA
Email: chennai-nimi@nic.in
Website: www.nimi.gov.in
Offset Printed by
National Instructional Media Institute
Chennai - 600032
First Edition : January 2020 Copies: 500
Rs. 130/-
(ii)
FOREWORD
The Government of India has set an ambitious target of imparting skills to 30 crores people, one out of every
four Indians, by 2020 to help them secure jobs as part of the National Skills Development Policy. Industrial
Training Institutes (ITIs) play a vital role in this process especially in terms of providing skilled manpower.
Keeping this in mind, and for providing the current industry relevant skill training to Trainees, ITI syllabus
has been recently updated with the help of Mentor Councils comprising various stakeholder's viz. Industries,
Entrepreneurs, Academicians and representatives from ITIs.
The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI), Chennai, has now come up with instructional material to
suit the revised curriculum for Draughtsman Mechanical 2nd Year (Volume - I of II) Trade Theory NSQF
Level - 5 in Capital Goods and Manufacturing Sector under Semester Pattern. The NSQF Level - 5
Trade Theory will help the trainees to get an international equivalency standard where their skill proficiency
and competency will be duly recognized across the globe and this will also increase the scope of recognition
of prior learning. NSQF Level - 5 trainees will also get the opportunities to promote life long learning and skill
development. I have no doubt that with NSQF Level - 5 the trainers and trainees of ITIs, and all stakeholders
will derive maximum benefits from these IMPs and that NIMI's effort will go a long way in improving the
quality of Vocational training in the country.
The Executive Director & Staff of NIMI and members of Media Development Committee deserve appreciation
for their contribution in bringing out this publication.
Jai Hind
RAJESH AGGARWAL
Director General/ Addl. Secretary
Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship,
Government of India.
New Delhi - 110 001
(iii)
PREFACE
The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) was established in 1986 at Chennai by then Directorate
General of Employment and Training (D.G.E & T), Ministry of Labour and Employment, (now under Directorate
General of Training, Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship) Government of India, with technical
assistance from the Govt. of the Federal Republic of Germany. The prime objective of this institute is to
develop and provide instructional materials for various trades as per the prescribed syllabi (NSQF LEVEL -
5) under the Craftsman and Apprenticeship Training Schemes.
The instructional materials are created keeping in mind, the main objective of Vocational Training under
NCVT/NAC in India, which is to help an individual to master skills to do a job. The instructional materials are
generated in the form of Instructional Media Packages (IMPs). An IMP consists of Theory book, Practical
book, Test and Assignment book, Instructor Guide, Audio Visual Aid (Wall charts and Transparencies) and
other support materials.
The trade practical book consists of series of exercises to be completed by the trainees in the workshop.
These exercises are designed to ensure that all the skills in the prescribed syllabus are covered. The trade
theory book provides related theoretical knowledge required to enable the trainee to do a job. The test and
assignments will enable the instructor to give assignments for the evaluation of the performance of a trainee.
The wall charts and transparencies are unique, as they not only help the instructor to effectively present a
topic but also help him to assess the trainee's understanding. The instructor guide enables the instructor to
plan his schedule of instruction, plan the raw material requirements, day to day lessons and demonstrations.
In order to perform the skills in a productive manner instructional videos are embedded in QR code of the
exercise in this instructional material so as to integrate the skill learning with the procedural practical steps
given in the exercise. The instructional videos will improve the quality of standard on practical training and
will motivate the trainees to focus and perform the skill seamlessly.
IMPs also deals with the complex skills required to be developed for effective team work. Necessary care
has also been taken to include important skill areas of allied trades as prescribed in the syllabus.
The availability of a complete Instructional Media Package in an institute helps both the trainer and
management to impart effective training.
The IMPs are the outcome of collective efforts of the staff members of NIMI and the members of the Media
Development Committees specially drawn from Public and Private sector industries, various training institutes
under the Directorate General of Training (DGT), Government and Private ITIs.
NIMI would like to take this opportunity to convey sincere thanks to the Directors of Employment & Training
of various State Governments, Training Departments of Industries both in the Public and Private sectors,
Officers of DGT and DGT field institutes, proof readers, individual media developers and coordinators, but for
whose active support NIMI would not have been able to bring out this materials.
R. P. DHINGRA
Chennai - 600 032 EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
(iv)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) sincerely acknowledges with thanks for the co-operation and
contribution extended by the following Media Developers and their sponsoring organisations to bring out this
Instructional Material (Trade Theory) for the trade of Draughtsman Mechanical (NSQF LEVEL - 5) under
Capital Goods and Manufacturing Sector for ITIs.
MEDIA DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS
Shri. V. Dhanasekaran _ Assistant Director of Training (Retd.),

MDC Member,
NIMI, Chennai - 32
Shri. G. Jayaraman _ Assistant Training officer (Retd.),

MDC Member,
NIMI, Chennai - 32
NIMI - COORDINATORS
Shri. Nirmalya Nath _ Deputy Director

NIMI- Chennai - 32.
Shri. G. Michael johny _ Assistant Manager,

Co-ordinator,
NIMI, Chennai - 32
NIMI records its appreciation for the Data Entry, CAD, DTP operators for their excellent and devoted services
in the process of development of this Instructional Material.
NIMI also acknowledges with thanks the invaluable efforts rendered by all other NIMI staff who have contributed
towards the development of this Instructional Material.
NIMI is also grateful to everyone who has directly or indirectly helped in developing this Instructional Material.
(v)
INTRODUCTION
Trade Theory
The manual of trade theory consists of theoretical information for the first semester course of the Draughtsman
Mechanical under NSQF - Level 5. The contents are sequenced according to the practical exercise contained
in the manual on trade practical. Attempt has been made to relate the theoretical aspects with the skill covered
in each exercise to the extent possible. This correlation is maintained to help the trainees to develop the
perceptional capabilities for performing the skills.
Module 1 - Drawing and Editing on CAD 110 Hrs
Module 2 - Dimensioning on CAD 30 Hrs
Module 3 - Computer Aided Drafting 35 Hrs
Module 4 - Assembled and Detailed Drawings of pulleys 50 Hrs
Module 5 - Assembly and Detailed Drawings of Valves 50 Hrs
Module 6 - Assembly and Detailed Drawings 200 Hrs
Module 7 - 3D Using CAD Commands 50 Hrs
Total 525 Hrs
The trade theory has to be taught and learnt along with the corresponding exercise contained in the manual of
the trade practical. The indications about the corresponding practical exercises are given sheet of this manual.
It will be preferable to teach/learn trade theory connected to each exercise at least one class before performing
the related skill in the shop floor. The trade theory is to be treated as an integrated part of each exercise.
The material is not the purpose of self-learning and should be considered as supplementary to class room
instruction.
Trade Practical
The trade practical manual is intended to be used in practical workshop /Hall. It consists of a series of practical
exercises to be completed by the trainees during the second semester course of Draughtsman Mechanical
under NSQF Level - 5 Syllabus, which is supplemented and supported by instructions / informatics to assist
in performing the exercises. These exercises are designed to ensure that all the skills in prescribed syllabus
are covered.
The skill training in the shop floor is planned through a series of practical exercise centered around some
practical object. However, there are few instances where the individual exercise does not from a part of project.
(vi)
Lesson No. Title of the Lesson Page No.
Module 1 : Drawing and Editing on CAD
3.1.92 Drawing of line - polyline - ray - polygon - circle - rectangle - arc - ellipse -
using different options 1
Basic commands - ll 3
Other CAD commands 10
CAD basics 14
Drawing on AutoCAD with ISO environment 19
3.1.93 & 94 Break, offset, trim, chamfer, copy, explode commands (Modify commands) 21
Ellipse, hatch and move commands 22
Fillet and polar array commands 23
Rectangular array and area commands 23
Arc and mirror commands 24
3.1.95 About template on AutoCAD 25
About layers and block 25
Inserting drawing (Concept of external reference) 27
Module 2 : Dimensioning on CAD
3.2.96 Dimensioning on AutoCAD 29
Module 3 : Computer Aided Drafting
3.3.97 Knowledge of short cut key board commands 32

3.3.98 & 99 Model space - viewport 39
Module 4 : Assembled and Detailed Drawings of pulleys
3.4.100 - 102 Solid pulley 40

Belt drives - Creep & slip 41
Built up pulleys 42
Module 5 : Assembly and Detailed Drawings of Valves
3.5.103 - 106 Pipe fittings, CI flanged joint 45

Symbols & piping layout systems 46
Different types of pipe joints 49
Different types of valves 50
Ball valve 52
Non return valve, steam stop valve 55
Module 6 : Assembly and Detailed Drawings
3.6.107 & 108 Conventional representation of gears 57

Construction of base circle of spur gears 57
Construction of helical, bevel, worm and worm wheel 59
3.6.109 Cams by CAD 61
Different types of cams and their functions 61
(vii)
Lesson No. Title of the Lesson Page No.
3.6.110 Different types of followers and their functions 63

3.6.111 Working principle of eccentrics 64
Working principle of connecting rod 66
Stuffing boxes 66
Working principle of piston 68
History and development of automobiles 68
Classification of engines 70
Working principle of four stroke diesel engine 74
3.6.112 Air values in piping system 78
3.6.113 Knowledge of fuel injection system 82
Fuel injection system in petrol engine 86
Module 7: 3D Using CAD Commands
3.7.114 Introduction to 3D & Isometric 90

3D Co-ordinate systems & workspace 91
Gizmo and standard primitives 94
Creating 3D forms from 2D shapes 94
Booleans operations 97
Other solid editing operations 98
Understanding UCS 99
3D Coordinate systems to aid in the construction of 3D objects and
knowledge short cut key board commands 102
LEARNING/ ASSESSABLE OUTCOME
On completion of this book you shall be able to

• Construct projection views of geometrical figures with dimension
and annotation on CAD in model space and viewport in layout
space.
• Draw detail and assembly drawing of machine parts viz., Pulleys,
Pipe fittings, Gears and Cams applying range of cognitive and
practical skills.
• Construct drawing of engine parts with detailed and assembly in
template layout applying quality concept in CAD.
• Create 3D solid by switching to 3D modeling workspace in CAD,
generate views, Print Preview and Plotting.
(viii)
SYLLABUS
2nd Year (Volume - I of II) Duration: Six Month

Week Learning Outcome Professional Skills Professional Knowledge
No. (Trade Practical) (Trade Theory)
with Indicative hours
53 Construct projection 92. CAD: draw 2D object using line, Drawing of Line, polyline, ray,
views of geometrical figures polyline, ray, polygon, circle, polygon, circle, rectangle,
with dimension and rectangle, arc, ellipse commands. arc, ellipse using different options.
annotation on CAD in (28 hrs)
model space and viewport
in layout space.
54 -do- 93. CAD: modify 2D objects using Trim, Offset, Fillet, Chamfer, Arc
Break, Erase, Trim, Offset, Fillet, and Circle under modify commands.
Chamfer Commands. (28 hrs)
55 -do- 94. CAD: manage 2D objects using Move, Copy, Array, Insert Block,
Move, Copy, Array, Insert Block, Make Block, Scale, Rotate,
Make Block, Scale, Rotate, Hatch Hatch Commands.
Commands. (28 hrs)
56 -do- 95. CAD: Create templates, Insert Creating templates, Inserting
drawings. Create objects in different drawings, Layers, Modify
Layers and Modify Layer properties. Layers.
(28 hrs)
57 -do- 96. CAD: Provide dimension on object. Format dimension style, creating
Create dimension by customizing new dimension style, Modifying
dimension styles (lines, arrows, text, styles in dimensioning. Writing
unit and alignment) Put dimension text on dimension line and on
with scale factor. (28 hrs) leader.
Edit text dimension.
58 -do- 97. CAD: Construct orthographic Knowledge of shortcut keyboard
sectional view of a steel bracket with command. Customization of
dimension using shortcut keyboard keyboard command.
command.(10 hrs) Customization of drafting settings,
98. Construct isometric view of changing orthographic snap to
machine blocks. (10 hrs) isometric snap.
99. Create viewports in layout space Procedure to create viewport
and place views for model space in in layout space in zooming scale.
different scale. (08 hrs)
59-60 Draw in CAD detail and 100. Construct Pulleys: solid, stepped Belt-drive. Materials of belts, slip
assembly Drawing of and built up pulleys. (25 hrs) and creep, Velocity of belt. Arc
machine parts viz., Pulleys, 101. Construct pulley with different of contact. Simple exercise in
Pipe fittings, Gears and types of arms. (21hrs) calculation of belt speeds, nos.
Cams applying range of 102. Draw rope pulley and V-belt of belts needed in V-belt drive,
cognitive and practical pulley using CAD. (10 hrs) velocity, pulley ratio etc. Standard
skills. pulleys width of pulley face,
velocity ratio chain drive.
61-62 -do- 103. Draw pipe fittings: tee, elbow Knowledge of different pipe
(90° & 45°), flange, union and valve. materials and specifications
(15 hrs) of Steel, W.I. & PVC pipes.
104. Draw conventional symbols of Brief description of different
different types of valves and joints used types of pipe joints.
in pipe line diagram. (10 hrs) Pipe threads.
105. Draw a piping layout systems Pipe fittings (threaded, welded
from a sump to an overhead tank and pressed).
through a pump with possible fittings Specifications of pipe fittings.
and valves. (15 hrs) Different types of valves.
(ix)
106. Draw sectional views of
different types of pipe joints
using CAD. (16 hrs)
63-65 -do- 107. Draw: Gear drive- Different types of gears.
i) spur gear, (18 hrs) Cast gears and machined gears.
ii) helical gear, (18 hrs) Knowledge of profile of gears etc.
iii) bevel gear, (18 hrs)
iv) worm and worm wheel. (18hrs)
108. Construct involute tooth profile
of a gear (using CAD). (12 hrs)
66-67 -do- 109. Draw a symmetrical cam profile. Use of Cams in industry. Types of
(28 hrs) cam, kinds of motion in cam,
110. Draw different types of follower displacement diagrams. Terms used
(using CAD).(28 hrs) in cam. Types of follower.
68-70 Construct drawing of 111. Construct detailed and assembly Knowledge of engine mechanism.
engine parts with drawing (using CAD) of Transmission of motion from
detailed and i) Eccentrics (10 hrs), reciprocating to circular through
assembly in ii) Stuffing box (18 hrs) eccentric, crank and connecting rod.
template layout iii) Piston assembly of a petrol engine
applying quality (28 hrs),
concept in CAD. iv) IC engine connecting rod. (28 hrs)
71-72 -do- 112. Construct detailed drawing of an Knowledge of fuel injection system
air valve. (28 hrs) in petrol and diesel engine.
113. Construct detailed drawing of a
fuel injector of a diesel engine. (28 hrs)
(using CAD)
73-74 Create 3D solid by 114. 3D Modeling: Introduction to 3D modeling, 3D
switching to 3D i) Create 3D solid objects using primitives (viz. box, sphere, cylinder,
modeling workspace command from 3D primitive (viz. box, mesh and poly-solids), solid
in CAD, generate sphere, cylinder and poly-solids), from figure by extrude, revolve, sweep and
views, Print Preview solid (extrude, revolve, sweep and loft), loft command, solid editing: fillet,
and Plotting. from Boolean (union, subtract and offset, taper, shell and slice command.
intersect) (28 hrs) Setting of User co-ordinate Systems,
ii) Create 3D drawing using User Rotating, Print preview and Plotting.
co-ordinate systems. (15 hrs)
iii) Annotate and dimension of the 3D
model. (05 hrs)
iv) Generate views from model space
to layout space. (05 hrs)
v) Generate Print preview and Plotting.
(03 hrs)
75-76 In-plant training/ Project work (work in a team)

a. Prepare a chart showing details of a 4-stroke petrol engine.
b. Prepare a chart showing Valve timing diagram of a 4-stroke petrol engine.
c. Prepare models of different types of cams and followers.
d. Prepare a paper cutting chart showing different parts of a gate/globe/check valve.
77 Revision
78 Examination
(x)
CG & M Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.92
Draughtsman Mechanical - Drawing and Editing on CAD
Drawing of line - polyline - ray - polygon - circle - rectangle - arc - ellipse - using
different options
Objective(s): At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the use of line - polyline - ray - polygon
• state the methods of drawing circle - rectangle - arc- ellipse - using different options/commands
• set appropriate size of sheet - some commands.
Basic commands - I - When selecting a circle with a pick box, be sure to

select the circumference of the circle.
Introduction
The command line tells you what information AutoCAD
AutoCAD allows you to have across to a large number of
requires to continue.
commands, a general rule is that you use 20% of the
commands 80% of the time. I will start by introducing Your first drawing alignment will be to use the drawing
you to the most common drawing commands. When you commands in conjunction with the co-ordinate system it
combine these with the basic modify commands, you is very important to understand how to give the program
will be able to make elaborate drawings quite quickly. In accurate information. You will use the following
other words, most of the commands you will use while commands.
using Auto cad are taught in level1.
Drawing arcs and circles.
The important thing to remember is that AutoCAD will
CADD provides many ways to draw arcs and circles.
expect you give it information in a very particular order.
There are a number of advanced techniques available
The most frustrating thing when you begin using this
for drawing arcs and circles, which can simplify many
program is that you will try to do something, but auto cad
geometrical drawing problems. You can draw an arc by
will not work. In most cases, it means that you are trying
specifying circumference and radius, radius and rotation
to input information at the wrong time. This is why it is
angle, chord length and radius, etc.
very important to be in the habit of looking at the command
line.
Circles
Circle command (Fig 1,2, & 3)
1 Choose Draw, circle.
(or)
2 Click The Circle icon.
(or)
3 Type Circle at the command
prompt.
4 Type One of the following
options:
3P/2P/TTR/<<center
point>>:
(or)
5 Pick A center point
6 Type A radius or diameter.
(or)
7 Pick A radius or diameter
Diameter/<<radius>>:
TIPS
- To create circles that are the same size, press ENTER
when asked for the circle radius.
1
Arc command (Fig 4)
1 Choose Draw, arc.
(or)
2 Click The Arc icon.
(or)
3 Type Arc at the command
prompt command: ARC
4 Draw One of the arcs.
TIPS Fig 5
- Except for 3 point arcs, arcs are drawn in a counter

clock wise direction.
- While in the arc command, press the right mouse
button to select the following options for arcs: (Fig 5)
Arc examples (Fig 6) The following are two basic methods for drawing ellipses:
3 point arc - Length and width.
Start, centre, chord length - Axis and rotation angle.
Start, centre, end Ellipse.
Start, end, radius Creates an ellipse or an elliptical arc:
Start, centre, included angle
1 Choose Draw, Ellipse.
Start, end direction
(or)
2 Choose The ellipse or partial ellipse icon
(or)
3 Type Ellipse at the command prompt
Command: ellipse
4 Type One of the following options:
Arc/Center/Isocircle/<Axis endpoint1>:
Ellipse options
Axis endpoint 1: Defines the first axis by two specified
endpoints. The angle of the first axis determines the
angle of the ellipse. The first axis can define either the
major or the minor axis of the ellipse.
Ellipses options
Drawing ellipses and elliptical arcs Axis end point 2: <Other axis distance>/Rotation:
Ellipses are much easier to draw with CADD than on a Specify a point or enter a distance
drawing board. On a drawing board, you need to find Arc: Creates an elliptical arc. The angle of the first axis
the right size template or draw a series of arcs individually determines the angle of the elliptical arc. The first axis
to draw an ellipse. With CADD, all you need to do is can define either the major or the minor axis of the
specify the size of the ellipse. elliptical arc.
2 CG & M: Draughtsman Mechanical (NSQF Level-5) - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.92
Center : Creates the ellipse by a specified center point. Rotation : The major axis is now treated as the diameter
of a circle that will be rotated a specified amount around
Isocircle : Creates an isometric circle in the current
the axis. You enter an angle between 0 and 89.4 degrees.
isometric drawing plane.
Polygon (Fig 7)
1 Choose Draw, ploygon.
(or)
2 Click The polygon icon.
(or)
3 Type Polygon at the command
prompt.
4 Type The number of sides for the
polygon (3-1024).
5 Pick The center of the polygon.
Edge/<Center of polygon>:
pick.
(or)
6 Type E to define the polygon by two
edges.
(or)
7 Type I or C to place the polygon in
side or outside of an imaginary
(It should not displayed on
the screen) circle. Inscribed in
circle/ circumscribed about
circle (I/C)
Basic commands - ll
Objective(s) : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• express move, copy, offset, rotate, trim, on, fillet, array, straiten, lengthen.
The previous lesson dealt with drawing commands. This mands. Now that you know the basics, here's some
lesson will introduce some common modifying more commands to add to your collection. Three
commands. In AutoCAD, you may actually use commands, Trim, Extend and Offset are used often in
modifying commands more often than drawing com- 2D AutoCAD work.
Command Keystroke/Short cut Location Result
Rectangle RECTANGLE/REC Home>Draw>Rectangle Draws a rectangle after you enter one

corner and then the second.
Trim TRIM/TR Home>Modify>Trim Trims objects to a selected cutting edge.
Extend EXTEND/EX Home>Modify>Extend Extends objects to a selected boundary
edge.
Offset OFFSET/O Home>Modify>Offset Offsets an object (parallel) by a set
distance.
Object snaps OSNAP/OS/F3 Tools>Object Snap Settings Brings up the OSNAP dialog box.
Move Move/M Home>Modify>Move Moves an object or objects.
CG & M: Draughtsman Mechanical (NSQF Level-5) - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.92 3
Command Keystroke/Short cut Location Result
Copy Copy/CP Home>Modify>Copy Copies object(s) once or multiple times.

Stretch Stretch/S Home>Modify>Stretch Stretches an object after you have
selected a portion of it.
Mirror Mirror/MI Home>Modify>Mirror Creates a mirror image of an object or
selection set.
Rotate Rotate/RO Home>Modify>Rotate Rotates objects to a certain angle.
Fillet Fillet/F Home>Modify>Fillet Creates a round corner between two lines.
Chamfer Chamfer/CHA Home>Modify>Chamfer Creates an angled corner between two lines.
Array Array/AR Home>Modify>Array Creates a repeating pattern of the selected
objects.
Move command (Figs 1 & 2) Previous selection

1 Choose Modify, Move. Or Places selected objects in the previous selection set
2 Click The Move icon or 1 Choose Modify, move.
3 Type Move at the command prompt (or)
command: MOVE or M
2 Click The move icon.
4 Pick Objects to move select objects
(or
(select)
3 Type Move at the command prompt.
5 Pick A point to move from base point
of displacement: (Pick point) Command: Move or M
6 Pick A point to move to second point 4 Pick Objects to move.
of displacement: (pick point) Select objects : (P)
Previous selection set highlighted
TIP
AutoCAD requires that objects be selected in order to
be processed. The Select Objects prompt occurs after
many commands, including the SELECT command
itself.
Copying drawing objects (Fig 3)
TIP
CADD allows you to make quick and easy copies of
To move an object a specified distance, type a distance
existing drawing objects. You can copy individual drawing
at the second point of displacement prompt:@1<0
objects or the entire drawing all at once. You can even
Moving drawing objects make multiple copies of drawing objects within seconds.
CADD allows you to move drawing objects within a Using the copy function is quite similar to the way the
drawing in a convenient manner. Unlike on a drawing move function is used. First, you need to select objects
board, you don't need to first erase and then redraw in a using any of the methods described earlier. Then you
new place. You can simply rearrange the existing drawing need to indicate a base point and a relocation (or
objects, as you like. This is a very useful tool for destination) point. The copied objects are placed
analyzing design alternatives and making quick according to the relocation point.
adjustments to drawings.
Making multiple copies in a rectangular fashion 6 Pick A side to offset object to. Side to off
set: (pick side)
There are separate functions available in CADD that allow
you to make multiple copies in a linear or rectangular 7 Pick Another object to offset
fashion (commonly known as a rectangular array). You
Select object to offset: (Pick side)
can make hundreds of copies within seconds. You don't
need to enter a base point and a destination point. You (or)
just need to select the objects, specify how many rows 8 Press Enter to end the command.
and columns you need and the distance between them.
Offsetting objects by specifying a distance
Copy command
Offset through point (Fig 5)
1 Choose Modify, copy.
(or)
2 Click The copy icon
(or)
3 Type Copy at the command prompt.
4 Pick Objects to copy.
To offset through point
Select objects: (select)
1 Type Offset at the command prompt
5 Pick A point to move from.
Command: Offset
Base point or displacement /multiple:
(pick point). 2 Type T to specify a through point
6 Pick A point to copy to. Offset distance or <Through point>: (T)
Second point of displacement: (Pick 3 Pick A point to offset through (HINT: use
point) object snaps) Select object to offset:
(pick) through point: (select object)
(or)
Offset through a point
7 Type A point to copy to.
Rotate (Fig 6)
Second point of displacement: @1<0
TIP
To copy many objects in the same copy command, type
M for Multiple at the "Base point or displacement/Multiple"
option.
Offset command (Fig 4)
1 Choose Modify, rotate

(or)
2 Click The modify icon.
(or)
Offset distance 3 Type Rotate at the command prompt
To offset a specified distance: Command: Rotate
1 Choose Modify, Offset. 4 Pick Objects to rotate:
(or) Select objects: (select)
2 Choose The offset icon. 5 Pick A pivot point to rotate around
(or) Base point: (point)
3 Type OFFSET at the command prompt.
6 Type A rotation angle<Rotation angle>/
Command: OFFSET or O
Reference: (number)
4 Type The distance to offset. Offset distance
or <Through point>: (number) (or)
5 Pick The object to offset. Select object to 7 Pick A rotation angle<Rotation angle>/
offset: (select object) Reference: (point)
Rotating the drawings 7 Press ENTER when you are done choosing
objects
CADD drawing allows you to rotate selected drawing
objects to a specified angle. To rotate, you need to select Select object to trim/Undo: (press
the drawing objects, enter a reference point (or base enter)
point) and the rotation angle. The base point acts as a
TIP: Hold the shift key to interactively extend instead of
pivot point around which the objects are rotated. The
trim.
rotation angle determines by how much the objects will
be rotated and in which direction. Cutting drawing objects along an edge
Reference angle rotation CADD allows you to erase drawing objects along a
selected edge (this technique is often called
A positive angle causes counterclockwise rotation, and
trimming).When you use this function, you are prompted
a negative angle produces clockwise rotation. If you
to select the drawing object that is to be used as the
respond to the last prompt with r, you can specify the
cutting edge and then select the objects that are to be
current rotation and the new rotation you want. AutoCAD
erased along that edge.
prompts
Making sharp and rounded corners
1 Type R for a rotation angle<Rotation angle>/
Reference: (R) CADD allows you to make fine corners of any two lines
or arcs. This technique, often called filleting, is the quick-
2 Choose An existing rotation angle Rotation angle:
est way to join the missing corners of lines and arcs.
(number or points)
With this function active, to make a corner all you need
3 Choose A new rotation angle New angle: to do is select the lines or arcs that have missing cor-
ners. CAD automatically extends or shortens the selected
(number or points)
objects to form a corner. You can also specify whether
TIP (Fig 7) you want a sharp corner or a rounded corner.
You can show AutoCAD the reference angle (by point- Fillet (Fig 8)
ing to the two endpoints of a line to be rotated), and then
specify the new angle. You can specify the new angle
by pointing or by dragging the object.
1 Choose Modify, fillet.

(or)
Trim 2 Click The fillet icon.
The trim command allows you to trim objects in a drawing (or)
so they end precisely at a cutting edge defined by
3 Type FILLET at the command
one or more other objects in the drawing.
prompt. Command: FILLET
1 Choose Modify, trim
4 Pick First object to fillet. Polyline/radius/
(or) trim<Select two objects>: Select first
2 Click The trim icon. object.
(or) 5 Pick Second object to fillet.
3 Type Trim at the command prompt Select second object: select second
Command: trim object.
Select cutting edge(s) (or)
4 Pick The cutting edge to extend to 6 Type One of the following options:
Select objects: ( select) P Fillets an entire Polyline
5 Press Enter to accept the cutting edge R Sets the fillet radius.
Select objects: (press enter) T Sets the trim mode (trim cuts the
6 Pick Objects to trim fillet corner and no trim keeps the
<Select object to trim>/Project/Edge/ fillet corner).
Undo: TIP
Select an object, enter an option, press
You can also fillet PARALLEL lines as well as PLINES
enter with LINES
Type a radius of Zero (0) to create a clean 90 degree 4 Pick The BOUNDARY edge to extend to
corner. select objects: (select)
Chamfer 5 Press ENTR to accept the boundary edge
select objects: (press enter)
1 Choose Modify, chamfer.
(or) 6 Pick The object to extend
2 Click The chamfer icon. <Select object to extend> / Project/

edge/ undo: Select an object, enter
(or) an option, or press enter: (select)
3 Type CHAMFER at the command
7 Press ENTER when you are done
prompt.
choosing objects.
Command: Chamfer
4 Pick First object to chamfer. Polyline/ Lines extended to an arc (Arc is boundary edge)
distance/angle/trim/
method<Select first line>: select
first object.
5 Pick Second object to chamfer.
Select second object: select
second object.
(or)
6 Type One of the following options:
P Chamfers entire Polyline. TIP
D Sets chamfer distances. - Use the object selection option FENCE to choose
A Uses a distance and angle method multiple objects.
instead of two distances. Extending drawing objects to an edge
T Sets the trim mode CADD allows you to extend lines to a selected drawing
M Sets the method to distance or angle. object. Often you need to extend lines to construct a
drawing and to fix any graphical errors. To extend lines,
Chamfer with equal distances (Fig 9)
you need to select an edge to which the lines should
Chamfer with different distances extend and then select the lines to be extended.
Dividing an object into equal parts
CADD allows you place dividing marks on a drawing
object such as a line, arc, ellipse or spline. To use this
command, you need to select an object and specify how
many divisions are required. This function places markers
at equal distances on the drawing object.
Break (Figs 11 & 12)
Making chamfered corners
CADD allows you to make a chamfered corner between
two lines. It works quite like the fillet command. When
you enter the chamfer command, you are prompted to
select the lines that are to be chamfered and enter a
chamfer distance. The chamfer distance determines the
size of the chamfer.
Extend (Fig 10)
1 Choose Modify, extend,
(or)
2 Click The extend icon.
(or)
3 Type EXTEND at the command prompt
command: EXTEND
Select boundary edge (s)...
1 Choose Modify, break. Mirroring drawings
(or) CADD allows you to create mirror images of drawings.
2 Click The break icon. This capability is very useful when you want to draw
something that is symmetrical on both sides. You need
(or) to draw only one half of the drawing; the rest of the
3 Type BREAK at the command prompt. drawing can be completed using the mirror function. To
Command: BREAK make a mirror image, you need to select the objects to
4 Pick Object to break. be mirrored and indicate a mirror axis. The mirror axis is
an imaginary line along which the diagram is mirrored.
Select object: (select one object)
Array
5 Pick A second break point. Enter second
point: (point) Rectangular array
6 Type F to choose a different break point To draw rectangular array
Enter second point (or F for first
1 Choose Modify, array.
point): (F)
7 Pick The first break point on the object (or)
Enter first point: (point) 2 Click The array icon.

8 Pick A second break point Or
TIP 3 Type ARRAY at the command prompt.
Command: ARRAY objects to array.
You can also type coordinates instead of picking a break Select
point. Enter second point (or F for first point): @3'<0
4 Pick Objects to array. Select Objects:
If you break a circle, it changes to an arc by deleting the (select)
portion from the first point to the second, going
counterclockwise. 5 Type The number of rows top to bottom.
Number of rows (----) <1>: (number)
Breaking a polyline with nonzero width will cause the
ends to be cut square. 6 Type The number of columns left to right.
Number of columns (III) <1>:
Mirror command (Fig 13) (number)
1 Choose Modify, mirror. 7 Type The unit cell distance between items
(or) in each row. Distance between rows:
(+number=up, number = down)
2 Click The mirror icon
(or) 8 Type The unit cell distance between items
in each column.
3 Type MIRROR at the command prompt.
Distance between columns:
Command: MIRROR (+ number = right, - number = left)
4 Pick Objects to mirror. Select objects: Creating an array of objects (Fig 14)
(Select)
The array command in AutoCAD is used to make multiple
5 Pick First point of mirror line: (point) copies of objects. Although you can use the copy
6 Pick Second point of mirror line: (Point) command to duplicate objects, the array command is
more flexible and precise. One advantage of using the
7 Type Yes to delete the original objects and
array command is that it allows you to copy objects in a
No to keep them.
defined angle and exact number of copies.
Delete old objects? Y or N
Fig 14
Therefore, you can create array in various pattern. For 4 Pick Objects to array. Select
example, you can show multiple objects in a row, column, Objects: (select)
or irregular pattern such as a spiral. Let's look at a few
examples below: (Fig 15 & 16) 5 Type P to draw a polar array. Rectangular or
Polar array (R/P):P
6 Pick A center point for the array. Center point
of array. Pick point
7 Type The total number of items in the array.
Number of items: number
8 Type The number of degrees to rotate the
objects. Degrees to fill (+=CCW, -+CW)
<360>:
Number
9 Type Yes No to rotate objects. Rotate objects
as they are copied? <y> Y or N
Stretch
1 Choose Modify, stretch
(or)
2 Click The stretch icon.
Polar array (Fig 16)
3 Type STRETCH at the command prompt.
Command: STRETCH select objects to
stretch by window.
4 Type C to choose CROSSING window Select
objects: C
5 Pick A first corner to stretch. First corner:
(point)
6 Pick The opposite corner to window the
objects to stretch.
Other corner: (point)
7 Press ENTER to accept objects to stretch
To draw a polar array: (Fig 17) 8 Pick A base point to stretch from Base point:
(point)
Fig 17
Stretching diagrams ( Fig 18)
1 Choose Modify, array. CADD allows you to quickly change the size of diagrams
by stretching lines, arcs, splines, etc. This function is
(or) very helpful to make quick alterations to drawings. To
2 Click The array icon. use the stretch function, you need to select the drawing
objects to be stretched and specify the distance and
(or)
direction of stretching.
3 Type Array at the command prompt.
Command: Array
9 Pick A point to stretch to New point: (point) Explode command (Fig 20)
10 Type A distance to stretch. New point: @ 1<0
TIP
The Stretch command must use a CROSSING window
or a CROSSING POLYGON window.
Lengthen (Fig 19)
1 Choose Modify, explode.

(or)
2 Pick The explode icon.
3 Type EXPLODE at the command prompt.
Command: EXPLODE (Fig 20)
1 Choose Modify, lengthen.
(or)
(or)
4 Pick The object to explode. Select objects:
2 Type Lengthen at the command prompt. (pick)
Command:_ lengthen (Fig 19)
OOPS commands
Select an object or [DElta/Percent/Total/ Reinserts the last erased set of objects or block even if it
Enter delta length or [Angle]<0.0000>:2 was not the last command issued. Otherwise oops acts
Select an object to change or [Undo]: pick like UNDO.
object 1 Type OOPS at the command prompt to
Object before lengthen reinsert erased objects
Object after lengthen Command: OOPS
Other CAD commands

• points, rectangle, polyline, spline, multilines, construction line
• adding patterns to drawings.
Introduction sculpture, contours of a landscape plan or roads and

boundaries of a map.
Drawing multiple parallel lines
To draw a flexible curve, you need to indicate the points
CADD allows you draw parallel lines simultaneously just through which the curve will pass. A uniform curve is
by indicating a starting point and an end point. These drawn passing through the indicated points. The sharp-
lines can be used to draw something with heavy lines or ness of the curves, the roughness of the lines and the
double lines. For example, they can be used to draw the thickness can be controlled through the use of related
walls of a building plan, roads of a site map, or for any commands.
other presentation that requires parallel lines.
Adding hatch patterns to drawings
Most programs allow you to define a style for multiple The look of CAD drawings can be enhanced with the
parallel lines. You can specify how many parallel lines hatch patterns available in CAD. The patterns can be
you need, at what distance and if they are to be filled used to emphasize portions of the drawing and to
with a pattern or solid fill. represent various materials, finishes, and spaces. Several
A number of add-on programs use multiple lines to ready-made patterns are available in CAD that can be
represent specific drawing features. For example, an instantly added to drawings.
architectural program has a special function called "wall". Hatch patterns are quite easy to draw. You don't need to
When you use this option, it automatically draws parallel draw each element of a pattern one by one. You just
lines representing walls or specified style and thickness. need to specify an area where the pattern is to be drawn
Drawing flexible curves by selecting all the drawing objects that surround the
area. The selected objects must enclose the area
CADD allows you to draw flexible curves (often called completely, like a closed polygon. When the area is
splines) that can be used to draw almost any shape. enclosed, a list of available patterns is displayed. Select
They can be used to create the smooth curves of a a pattern, and the specified area is filled.
Point command (Fig 1) 1 Choose Draw, rectangle.
(or)
2 Click The rectangle icon
(or)
3 Type Rectangle at the command prompt
Command: RECTANG chamfer
/Elevation/Fillet/Thickness/Width/
1 Choose Draw, point, single or multiple point <First corner>
(or) 4 Pick first corner
2 Click The point icon 5 Pick other corner or type coordinates
(i.e. @4,2)
(or)
Pline command (Fig 4)
3 Type Point at the command prompt
Command: Point
4 Pick A point on the drawing
Point (point)
Point styles (Fig 2)
Fig 2
A polyline is a connected sequence of line segments
created as a single object. You can create straight line
segments, arc segments, or a combination of the two.
1 Choose Draw, polyline.
(or)
2 Pick The pline icon.
3 Type PLINE at the command prompt
Command: PLINE or PL
4 Pick A point on the drawing to start the
polyline
Form point: (select)
5 Type One of the following options Arc/Close/
Half width/Length/Undo/Width/<endpoint
Changes the appearance of points and point sizes. of line>:
1 Choose Format, Point Style... (or)
(or) 6 Pick A point to continue drawing Arc/Close/
2 Type DDP type at the command prompt. Half width/Length/Undo/Width/<endpoint
of line>: (pick point)
Command: DDP type
PLINE options (Fig 5)
Rectangle (Fig 3)
Arc : Toggles to arc mode and you receive the following:
Angle/CEnter/CLose/Direction/Half width/Line/Radius/
Second Pt/Undo/Width/<enter of arc>:
Close : Closes a polyline as it does in the line command.
Halfwidth : Specifies the half width of the next polyline
segments. Can be tapered.
Length : Specifies the length to be added to the polyline
in the current direction.
Undo : Undoes the previous spline segment as with the 1 Choose Draws, spline.
line command.
(or)
Width :Specifies the width of the next polyline segments.
2 Click The spline icon
Can be tapered.
(or)
Polyline with arcs
3 Type Spline at the command prompt
Polyline with width 125
Command: Spline
Tapered width polyline
4 Pick A start point for the spline Object /
Tapered width arc polyline <Enter first point> (pick point)
5 Pick Points until you are done drawing
splines Enter point: (pick points)
6 Press Enter or close to complete the spline
7 Pick Starting tangent point for the spline
Enter start tangent (pick point)
8 Pick Ending tangent point for the spline
Enter end tangent (pick point)
Spline options (Fig 8)
Convert pline to spline (Fig 6)
Object: Converse 2D or 3D spline-fit polylines to

equivalent splines
Points: Points that defines the spline
Close: Closes a spline
Fit Tolerance: Allows you to set a tolerance value that
creates a smooth spline.
1 Draw A Pline
TIP: Refer to AutoCAD online help topic for more
2 Type PEDIT to edit the polyline as a information on spline options.
spline.
Editing splines
3 Choose Draw, Spline
1. Choose Modify, Object, Spline.
4 Type Object at the command prompt.
TIP
5 Click Once on the polyline to turn it into a
Drawings containing splines use less memory and disk
spline.
space than those containing spline-fit polylines of simi-
Spline (Fig 7) lar shape.
Multilines (Fig 9)
The spline command creates a particular type of spline

known as a non uniform rational B-spline (NURBS) curve.
A NURBS curve produces a smooth curve between
control points.
MLINE Command Editing multilines (Figs 12 & 13)
1 Choose Draw, multiline. Fig 12

(or)
2 Type MLINE at the command prompt
Command: MLINE
3 Pick A point to start the multiline.
Justification/Scale/Style/<From point>:
pick point
4 Pick A second point to continue the multiline.
<To point>: Pick point
5 Pick The next point to continue drawing
Multilines. Undo/<To point>: pick point
6 Press ENTER to end the multiline
Close/Undo/<To point>: press enter
(or)
7 Type C to close the multiline back to the first
point. Close/Undo/<To point:C
Multiline styles (Figs 10 & 11)
Fig 10
1 Choose Modify, Multiline

(or)
2 Type MLEDIT at the command prompt
Command: MLEDIT
3 Choose from one of the mledit options

Construction line
Creates an infinite line.
Fig 11 1 Choose Draw, Construction Line
(or)
2 Choose the XLINE icon.
(or)
3 Type XLINE at the command prompt.
Command: XLINE
Specify a point or [Hor/Ver/Ang/Bisect/
Offset]
XLINE options (Figs 14 & 15)
1 Choose Format, multiline style.
HOR: Creates a horizontal xline passing through a
2 Type Mlstyle at the command prompt. specified point
Command: Mlstyle VER: Creates a vertical xline passing through a
specified point
3 Rename The existing style called STANDARD to
ANG: Creates an xline at a specified angle.
your new style.
BISECT: Creates an xline that passes through the
4 Choose Element properties to change the
selected angle vertex and bisects the angle
appearance of the Multilines.
between the first and second line
5 Choose ADD to create the new multiline.
OFFSET:Creates an xline parallel to another object.
Figg 16
Pick points: Constructs a boundary from existing objects

that form an enclosed area.
Select objects: Selects specific objects for hatching.
Ray command The boundary hatch dialog box disappears and AutoCAD
prompts for object selection.
Creates an infinite line in one direction
Inherit properties: Applies the properties of an existing
1 Choose Draw, ray
associative hatch to the current pattern type and pattern
(or) properties options.
2 Type Ray at the command prompt. Command: Preview hatch: Displays the hatching before applying
Ray specify a point: (pick through it. AutoCAD removes the dialog box and hatches the
point) selected areas.
Hatch command (Fig 16) Associative: Controls associative hatching.
1 Choose Draw, hatch...
Apply: Crates the crosshatching in the boundary.
(or)
Annotative hatch
2 Click The hatch icon.
Hatching from the design center
(or)
1 Choose: A cross hatch pattern from the following
3 Type BHATCH at the command prompt AutoCAD directly\AutoCADxxxx\Support\acad.pat or
\AutoCADxxxx\Backup
Command: BHATCH
2 Drag: and drop a pattern into a drawing.
Bhatch options
TIP
Pattern type: Sets the current pattern type by using
AutoCAD's Predefined patterns or user defined patterns. Be sure the HPSCALE is set before dropping a hatch
pattern into a drawing.
Pattern properties: Sets the current pattern, scale,
angle, and spacing, Controls if hatch is double spaced
or exploded.
CAD basics
• explain user co-ordinate system
• enumerate Auto CAD commands
• express line & erase commands.
The CAD Database and the user coordinate system space is defined using a three-dimensional Cartesian
coordinate system. Three mutually perpendicular axes,
Designs and drawings created in a CAD system are
usually referred to as the X-, Y-, and Z-axes, define this
usually defined and stored using sets of points in what
system. The intersection of the three coordinate axes
is called world space. In most CAD systems, the world
forms a point called the origin. Any point in world space be the positive Y-axis. The picture above shows a point
can then be defined as the distance from the origin in located at (9,6). This means that the point is 9 units over
the X-, Y- and Z- directions. In most CAD systems, the in the X-axis and 6 units up in the Y-axis. When you are
directions of the arrows shown on the axes identify the working with points, X always comes first. The other point
positive sides of the coordinates.(Fig 1) shown is (-10-4). This means that the point is 10 units in
the negative X-axis (left) and 4 units in the negative
Yaxis(down) (Fig 3)
A CAD file, which is the electric version of the design,

contains data that describes the entities created in the
CAD system. Information such as the coordinate values
in world space for all endpoints, center points, etc., along
with the descriptions of the types of entities are all stored
in the file. Knowing that AutoCAD stores designs by
keeping coordinate data helps us understand the inputs
required to create entities.
The icon near the bottom left corner of the default
AutoCAD graphics window shows the positive X-direction
and positive Y-direction of the coordinate system that is
active. In AutoCAD, the coordinate system that is used A line has two points, a start point and an end point.
to create entities is called the user coordinate system AutoCAD works with the points to display the line on the
(UCS). By default, the user coordinate system is aligned screen. Move your cursor over the picture above and
to the world coordinate system (WCS). The world you will see line drawn from the absolute points of
coordinate system is a coordinate system used by (-10-4) to (9,6).
AutoCAD as the basis for defining all objects and other
Most of the time you will not have an indication of where
coordinate systems defined by the users. We can think
the origin is. You may need to draw a line from the endpoint
of the origin of the world coordinate system as a fixed
of an existing line. To do this you use relative points.
point being used as a reference for all measurements.
These work the same way, but you have to add the @
The default orientation of the Z-axis can be considered
symbol (shift+2) to tell AutoCAD that this next point is
as positive values in front of the monitor and negative
relative from the last point entered.
values inside the monitor. (Fig 2)
To review
Fig 2
Absolute points are exact points on the drawing space.
Relative points are relative to an object on the drawing
space.
its simple system, but mastering it is the key to working
with AutoCAD and is explained in more detail further
below. In order to work effectively with AutoCAD, you
have to work with this system. Until you are comfortable
and familiar with it, learning AutoCAD will be more of a
chore. My experience in teaching is that the better a
student is with coordinates, the faster they will learn.
Entering points in AutoCAD
You can enter points directly on the command line using
AutoCAD uses points to determine where an object is three different systems. The one you use will depend on
located. There is an origin where it begins counting from. which is more applicable for the situation. The first
This point is (0,0). Every object is located in relation to assignment will get you used to this. The three systems
the origin. If you were to draw a line straight out to the are as follows.
right from the origin, this would be considered the positive
X-axis. If you were to draw a line straight up, this would
Absolute co-ordinates: Using this method, you enter case, D is the distance and A is the angle. Example:
the points as they relate to the origin of the WCS. To @10<90 will draw a line 10 units straight up from the
enter a point just enter in the exact point as X,Y. first point.
Relative co-ordinates : This allows you to enter points The three ways of entering coordinates shown above
in relation to the first point you have entered. After you've are the ONlY way AutoCAD accepts keyboard input. First
entered one point, the next would be entered as @ X,Y. decide which style you need to use, and then enter as
This means that AutoCAD will draw a line from the first shown. Remember that X is always before Y
point to another point X units over and Y units up relative (alphabetical). Don't forget the '@' symbol when you are
to the previous point. entering relative points. Any typing error or omission will
give you results you don't want. If you make a mistake
Polar co-ordinates: You would use this system if you
and need to see what you typed, Press F2 to bring up
know that you want to draw a line a certain distance at a
the text screen and check your typing. (press F2 to get
particular angle. You would enter this as @ D<A. In this
back to your drawing.)
Key terms
Term Description
Absolute coordinates Distance measured from a fixed reference point.

Aperture Effective diameter of the cursor on the screen.
Cartesian coordinates A rectangular system of measurement to locate points in the drawing area.
Object snaps A method for indicating point locations using existing drawing objects as a
reference.
Origin point The 0,0 location of the coordinate system.
Polar coordinates A system to locate of the coordinate system.
Prototype drawing A template drawing that has a last location of the cursor.
Relative coordinates Distance measured from the last location of the cursor
User-defined co-ordinates A mode of measurement that allows the user to set up a customized coordinate
System system.
Angular measurement (Fig 4) AutoCAD measures angles in a particular way also. Look
at the diagram below and then place your mouse on it to
see how this is
Degrees are measured counterclockwise starting at
3 O'CLOCK
When drawing lines at an angle, you have to begin
measuring the angle from 0 degrees, Which is at the 3
O'clock position. If you drew a line at 90 degrees, it
would go straight up. The example above (When you
move your mouse over it) shows a line drawn at+300
degrees (270+30), or-60 degrees.
Your might not always have an obvious reference point
for 0 degrees. Look at the example below and place your
mouse on the image to find out the angle in question.
In this example, you are given information about the lines,
but not the angle AutoCAD needs to draw the line from
the start point. What you are given though, is (a) the
knowledge that 0°is at the 3 o'clock position (b) the
knowledge that180° is at the 9 o'clock position and (c)
the angle between 180° and the line you want to draw is
150°. With this information, you can figure out what angle
you need. Here is a fool-proof way of getting the angle
you need (Fig 5)
Fig 7
1 Start at the 0° position and measure counter-closkwise

(+) to 180°
2 From 180°, measure clockwise 150°(-)
3 Consider that you just went+180-150 and use that as
an equation:+180-150=30 (Fig 5)
4 Now you can draw your line using polar coordinates Another way is to Right-Click on the drawing space and
(discussed below) choose "Recent Input" from the menu. This will give a list
of the most recent command that you have used.
There are many ways to do things in most windows
programs. AutoCAD is no exception. Everyone will All three approaches will do the same thing: prepare
develop a way that works best for him or her. In this AutoCAD to draw a line where you tell it.
course, we will primarily be working with the keystroke AutoCAD is a popular program because it can be
commands. The reason for this is because they will customized to suit an individual's needs. The toolbars
work in most AutoCAD versions (including DOS versions), are a good example of this. You can have the toolbars
and in some other CAD programs. The icons work well, you use most often on the screen all the time. You can
but as you will see, icons can be placed anywhere on easily make them go away so that you have more drawing
the screen and can be difficult to find quickly. You may space. You can also customize them so you have the
be working on another employee's computer that is set most common commands on one toolbar. For example,
up differently than what you're used to. The pull down the dimensioning toolbar is one that you will not want
menus will access almost all commands, but are a slower taking up space on your screen while drawing, but is
way of doing things. Icons in AutoCAD 2010 are found very handy when you're dimensioning your drawing.
on the ribbon, divided into panels-just click on the
appropriate tab to open the panel you need. (Fig 6) To remove the ribbon and have the most drawing space
available, click on the "Clean Screen" icon in the bottom
Fig 6 right corner of the screen (or press CTRL+O[letter O].
To go back the to the standard display, click again on the
same icon. (Fig 8)
Fig 8
Line command (Fig 9)
Example: If you want to draw a line, you can do it a few

ways:
At the command line type: LINE (or) L and press the
ENTER key. (Fig 7)
Select the line icon from the DRAW Panel.
Create single straight line segments 9 TypeU to undo the last segment to point: U (undo)
1 Choose draw, line (or)
(or) 10 TypeC to create a closed polygon to point: C (close)
2 Click the line icon Erase and selection sets
(or) Erasing Objects (Fig 10)
3 Type line from the command prompt command: line
or L
4 Press enter
5 Pick from point: (point)
6 Pick specify next point or [Close/Undo]: (point)
7 Pick specify next point or [Close/Undo]: (point)
8 Press ENTER to end line sequence
(or)
Symbol Command Purpose
Erase Delete object
Move Move object one place to other place
Copy Create one or more copies of object
Stretch Stretch, shorten, or move object
Trim Shorten object using other object
Extend Lengthen object using object
Mirror Creates a mirror image of objects.
Rotate Rotate objects around a specified point.
Offset Create a new object at a specified distance from an existing

object or through a specified point.
Array Each object in an array can be manipulated independently.
Auto CAD Drawing Commands
Symbol Command Major option Toolbar button Draw men
Line Start, End Point Line Line
Mline Justification, Scale Style None Multiline
Pline Vertices Polyline Polyline
Polygon Number of sides, Inscribed / Polygon Polygon

Circumscribed
Rectangle Two Corner Rectangle Rectangle
Arc Various methods of definition Arc Arc, submenu for

definition methods
Circle Three point, two point, Circle Circle submenu for

Tangent definition methods
Donut Inside, Outside Diameters None Donut
Spline Convert polyline or Create new Spline Spline
Ellipse Arc, center, axis Ellipse Ellipse, submenu for

definition methods
Revcloud Arc Length Revcloud Revision cloud
1 Choose Modify, erase 4 Pick Object at the select object prompt.

(or) 5 Press ENTER when you are done choosing
objects. Select objects: ENTER
2 Click The Erase icon
(or)
3 Type Erase at the command prompt.
Command: Erase or E
Drawing on AutoCAD with ISO environment
• state the ISO environment, to set an appropriate size of sheet and to familiar with some of the fundamental
commands.
acadiso.dwt Fig 1
When you create a new file in AutoCAD, you're actually
opening a copy of a template file. A template file is a blank
file that is set up for specific drawing types. The acad.dwt
file is a generic template set up for Imperial measurements.
Another template file,called acadiso.dwt, is a generic
template useful for metric measurements. We generally
use the acadiso template as we follow metric standard.
Limits
You'll start by opening a new drawing and setting the size
of the work area, known as the drawing limits. These limits
aren't fixed in any way, and you aren't forced to stay within
the bounds of the drawing limits unless the Limits command's
ON/OFF option is turned on. But limits can help to establish
a starting area from which you can expand your drawing.
You currently have a new blank file, but it's a little difficult
to tell the size of your drawing area. Let's set up the work Polar tracking
area so you have a better idea of the space with which
Move the cursor to a location directly to the left or right of
you're working
the point you clicked, and you'll see a dashed horizontal
Zoom line appear along with a different message at the cursor.
In the last step, the All option of the Zoom command uses This action also occurs when you point directly up or
the limits you set up in to determine the display area. In down. Your cursor seems to jump to a horizontal or vertical
a drawing that contains objects, the Zoom tool's All option position (Fig 2). This feature is called Polar Tracking. Like
displays the limits plus the area occupied by the objects a T square or triangle, it helps to restrict your line to an
in the drawing if they happen to fall outside the limits. exact horizontal or vertical direction. You can turn polar
tracking on or off by clicking the polar tracking tool in the
Unique filename
status bar.
Choose Save As from the Application menu or type Save
as (Ctrl+Shift+S) to open the Save Drawing As dialog box. Fig 2
Type filename. As you type, the name appears in the File
Name text box. Save your file in the My Documents folder,
or if you prefer, save it in another folder of your choice.
Just remember where you put it because you'll use it later.
Click Save. You now have a file called filename.dwg,
located in the My Documents folder.
Line
Click the Line tool on the Home tab's Draw panel, or type Ortho Mode
L. You've just issued the Line command. AutoCAD responds Besides using Polar Tracking mode, you can constrain
in two ways. First, you see the message the cursor to a vertical or horizontal direction by using
Specify first point (Fig 1) Ortho mode. To use Ortho mode, hold down the Shift key
while drawing. You can also press F8 or click Ortho Mode
In the Command prompt, asking you to select a point to
in the status bar to keep Ortho mode on while you draw.
begin your line. Also, the cursor changes its appearance;
When you move the cursor around the drawing objects,
it no longer has a square in the crosshairs. This is a clue
the rubber-banding line moves only vertically or horizontally.
telling you to pick a point to start a line. Using the left mouse
With Ortho mode turned on, Polar Tracking is
button, select a point on the screen just a little to the left and
automatically turned off.
below the center of the drawing area. After you select the
point, AutoCAD changes the prompt to this. Methods to activate “orthomode”
Specify next point or [Undo] - Drawing the outlines keeping the shift key pressed
enables ortho mode.
Now, as you move the mouse around, notice the line with
- Pressing F8 key enables ortho mode.
one end fixed on the point you just selected and the other
end following the cursor in a rubber-banding motion You - Clicking on ORTHO option located on the status bar
also see a message asking you to Specify next point. enables ortho mode.
CG & M Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.93 & 94
Break, offset, trim, chamfer, copy, explode commands (Modify commands)

Objective: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the use of rectangle, Explode, Osnap, Circle, Offset, Break, Trim, Extend, Erase, Chamfer, Copy and
Polygon commands.
Rectangle (REC) (Fig 1) CEN CENter of arc or circle

To create a rectangle you must specify two diagonal END closest ENDpoint of arc or line
corners or Length and Width.
INS INSertion point of Text or Block
The rectangle can be any size and the sides are always
INT INTersection of line, arc, or circle
drawn horizontal and vertical.
MID MIDpoint of line, arc, rectangle side, or polygon
A Rectangle is one object (Poly line) , not four separate
side
lines.
NEA NEArest point selected by aperture on line, polyline,
Explode (D)
arc, or circle
Separates a Polygon, block, dimension or hatch pattern
NOD NODe (another name for a Point)
into its constituent entities or makes a polyline into a
series of straight lines. In the case of a block that is PER PERpendicular
exploded, if it was originally drawn on the 0 layer, it returns QUA QUAdrant point of arc or circle (top, bottom, right
to that layer, regardless of the layer it was inserted on, or left side)
and it loses its referential connection to the original block.
In the case of a dimension or hatch pattern that has TAN TANgent point to arc
been exploded, their parts go back to the 0 layer, and Are some of the Osnap Options
are assigned the logical color (BYBLOCK) regardless of
the layer they were drawn on. In the case of an exploded Break (BR)
polyline, it loses any width it had. Erases part of a line, arc or circle, or splits it into two
Circle (C) lines or arcs.
Draws a circle of any size. The default method is to pick ERASE(E)
a center point and pick a point on the radius or type the Erases selected entities from the drawing.
radius dimension, but other methods can be selected.
Trim(TR)
2P Specifies circle by picking 2 points on the diameter
3P Specifies circle by picking 3 points through which Erases a portion of selected entities that cross a specified
the circle will pass D Allows entering the diameter "cutting edge"
dimension instead of radius dimension TTR Specifies Extend(EX)

circle by picking two lines, arcs or circles for the circle Lengthens a line, arc, or polyline to meet a specified
to be tangent to, and entering the dimension of the radius "boundary edge"
<RET> Enters radius of circle (the default)
Polygon You can extend the lines with trim command
by the combination of Shift key and vice versa
Draws regular polygons with a specified number of sides.
Polygons are Polyline entities. Linetype (P)
E Specifies size and rotation of polygon by picking A linetype is a series of lines and spaces ...... dots and
endpoints of one edge C Circumscribes polygon around dashes ---- Sets the current line type to be used for all
a circle I Inscribes polygon within a circle subsequent entities to be drawn, allows creation of new
Copy (CP,CO) linetype definitions, and allows loading of previously
created linetypes (Fig 1). Lists a line type library , or
Allowing the copying of a selected objects in to number named linetypes which are Loaded. C Creates a line
of identical objects. M Allows multiple copies to be made type definition L Loads a previously created line type
of an object. definition S Set current line type - note that the current
Osnap(F3) line type should always be set to the logical line type
Enables points to be precisely located on reference points

of existing objects.
21
Fig 1 It is a useful tool used for copying the whole properties
of an object to several objects.
Click the source hatch pattern you want to copy. Click
the target hatch pattern you want to change. The target
pattern changes to match the source pattern.
After selecting the source object enter S for getting
property setting dialog box where you can set the
properties to be transferred (Fig 2).
Fig 2
"BYLAYER"
Chamfer (CHA)
Creates a chamfer (a angled line connection) at the
intersection of two lines D Sets chamfer distances P
Chamfers an entire polyline
Matchprop (MA)
Ellipse, hatch and move commands

• state the use the commands such as ellipse, hatch and move.
Ellipse (EL) If you press Enter at the Specify Second Point prompt,
the first point is interpreted as a relative X,Y,Z
ELLIPSE Draws ellipses C Allows specification of Center
displacement. For example, if you specify 2,3 for the
point of ellipse rather than first axis endpoint.
base point and press Enter at the next prompt, the objects
R Allows specification of eccentricity rotation rather than move 2 units in the X direction and 3 units in the Y
length of second axis. direction from their current position. Displacement Enter
I draws Isometric circle in current isoplane coordinates to represent a vector
Move (M) The coordinate values that you enter specify a relative
distance and direction.
Moves selected entities to another location.
Hatch (H)
The following prompts are displayed.
Allows drawing of cross-hatching and pattern filling
Select objects <pattern-name> uses hatch pattern name from library
Specify base point or [Displacement] file to fill designated area with a pseudo-block hatch
entity - can be reduced to individual lines and points by
Specify second point or <use first point as displacement>: EXPLODEing it. <*pattern-name> uses hatch pattern
The two points you specify define a vector that indicates name from library file to fill designated area with individual
how far the selected objects are to be moved and in what lines and points, not a block U "User-defined" hatch
direction. pattern drawn of parallel lines with a specified distance
between, at a specified angle, and either single-hatching
or double (cross) - hatching (Fig 1).
22 CG & M: Draughtsman Mechanical (NSQF Level-5) - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.93 & 94
Fig 1 Pick the internal point of the boundary to be hatched
after choosing the add: pick point button in the hatch
dialog box or select objects of the boundary after choosing
add : select object button
Select required hatch pattern from swatch/pattern option
Alter Angle and scale of pattern if necessary.
Watch preview before applying hatch.
User defined hatch pattern can also be made.
Fillet and polar array commands

• state the use polar array, fillet and arc commands.
Array (AR) Polar array
Makes multiple copies of selected objects in a rectangular To make multiple copies of an object in circular pattern.
(parallel with the snap rotation) or circular pattern R Check the option button Polar in the array dialog box.
rectangular array type P "polar" array type in circular Select object to array after choosing select object button
pattern (Fig 1). in the dialog box. Enter number of items required and
Fig 1
pick for the center of array after choosing the center
point button in the dialog box. Supply the angle of array.
Finally check the check box for rotating the object with
respect to array center.
Fillet (F)
Constructs an arc of specified radius between two lines,
arcs, circles, or will create arcs of the specified radius
at the vertices of a polyline. Radius of the arc to be
constructed may be set to 0, which will make a sharp
corner P Fillets an entire Polyline at the vertices R Allows
setting of the fillet radius. Default value is 0. Radius
remains set until changed again.
Rectangular array and area commands

• state the use polyline, and rectangular array commands.
Polyline (PL) sets the half-width of the polyline segments U Undoes

PLINE Draws a 2D polyline, which are connected line or previous segment W sets the width of polyline segments
arc segments with user-determined width and taper H <RET> Exits the Pline command The following options
CG & M: Draughtsman Mechanical (NSQF Level-5) - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.93 & 94 23
are available only as long as you are drawing in Line To make multiple copies of an object in Rectangular attend
mode: A Switches to the Arc mode to allow integration of ie. In rows and columns. Check the option button
arcs into the polyline C Closes the polyline with straight rectangular in the array dialog box. Select object to array
segment L Segment length (continues previous segment) after choosing select object button in the dialog box.
Enter number of rows and columns required and row
The following options are available only as long as
offset (distance) and column offset (distance) in the
you are in the Arc mode: A Included angle CE Center
dialog box. Supply the angle of array if any. Watch
Point CL Closes with arc segment D Starting direction.
preview before apply the array to the drawing.
Rectangular Array (Fig 1)
Fig 1
Arc and mirror commands

• state the use commands arc, mirror.
Mirror (MI) Select objects: prompt, pick the long arc on the left
Reflects designated entities about a user-specified axis side of the tub to highlight the arc. Press m to indicate
that you've finished your selection.
Click the Mirror tool on the Home tab's Modify panel.
You can also enter MI at the Command prompt (Fig 1). Specify first point of mirror line: prompt, pick the
midpoint of the top horizontal line. By now, you should
Fig 1 know how to use the automatic osnap modes you set up
earlier.
Specify second point of mirror line: prompt, use Polar
Tracking mode to pick a point directly below the last point
selected.
Erase source objects? [Yes/No] <N>: prompt, press
m to accept the Mirror command's. Default Erase source
objects option (No) and exit the Mirror command.
Arc (A) (Fig 2)
Draws an arc : The default method of drawing arcs is
selecting three points (so-called "3 point arc"), which
are the two endpoints of the arc and some other point
along its locus. Other methods of drawing an arc can be
specified by three letters, such as SEA, which means
"Start Point, End Point, and Included Angle.
24 CG & M: Draughtsman Mechanical (NSQF Level-5) - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.93 & 94
Fig 2
The following letters used to select the described
option.
- Included angle
- Center point of arc
- Direction angle of a line tangent to the arc
- End point of arc
- Length of chord passing through both end points of
the arc
- Radius
- Start point of arc
< RET> uses the end of the last line or arc as the
start point for the arc.
CG & M: Draughtsman Mechanical (NSQF Level-5) - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.93 & 94 25
About template on AutoCAD

• state what is a template on Auto Cad
• list the steps involved in creating and using templates
• state the different methods of inserting templates and drawings
• describe the layers and changing their properties
• create and use layers and blocks.
Templates Steps for using existing templates stored in

AutoCAD.
A template is a file that is already set up for a specific
application. For example, in your word processor you - Start AutoCAD in the usual way.
might want to set up a document with a logo, a return - Click "FILE" pull down menu and click "NEW".
address, and a date so you don't have to add these
elements each time you create a letter. You might also - Select the template file from the list displayed on the
want to format invoices in a slightly different way. You screen and…
can set up a template for the needs of each type of - Press "OPEN"
document. That way, you don't have to spend time re-
- Prepare the drawing on that template
formatting each new document you create.
- Press "SAVE" once the drawing is completed.
Similarly, AutoCAD offers templates, which are drawing
files that contain custom settings designed for a particular Steps for creating a new template file:
function. Out of the box, AutoCAD has templates for ISO, - Start AutoCAD in the usual way.
ANSI, DIN, GB, and JIS standard drawing formats that
include generic title blocks. You can create your own - Make the desired settings in "FORMAT" pull down
templates for your particular style and method of drawing. menu.
You can setup all the layers, styles(dimension, text etc.) - Press "FILE" pull down menu and select "SAVE AS".
title blocks and blocks of repeating parts in all the - Select destination folder, type the file name and select
drawings. If you find that you use a particular drawing "AutoCAD drawing template (.dwt) in file of type
setup frequently, you can turn one or more of your typical option.
drawings into a template. For example, you might want
to create a set of drawings with the same scale and sheet - Close the template file.
size as an existing drawing. By turning a frequently used
drawing into a template, you can save a lot of setup time The above saved template file can be retrieved
for subsequent drawings. while preparing a new drawing.
About layers and block

• state the use if layers, blocks.
Layers and Blocks (Fig 1) Organize information with layers

Imagine a filing system that has only one category into Control layer visibility
which you put all your records. For only a handful of Keep track of blocks and layers
documents, such a filing system might work. However,
as soon as you start to accumulate more documents, Organizing Information with Layers (Fig 2)
you would want to start separating them into meaningful You can think of layers as overlays on which you keep
categories, perhaps alphabetically or by their use, so various types of information. In a floor plan of a building,
you could find them more easily. The same is true for for example, you want to keep the walls, ceiling, plumbing
drawings. If you have a simple drawing with only a few fixtures, wiring, and furniture separate so that you can
objects, you can get by without using layers. But as soon display or plot them individually or combine them in
as your drawing gets the least bit complicated, you'll want different ways. It's also a good idea to keep notes and
to start sorting your objects into layers to keep track of reference symbols, as well as the drawing's dimensions,
what's what. Layers don't restrict you when you're editing on their own layers. As your drawing becomes more
objects such as blocks or groups, and you can set up complex, you can turn the various layers on and off to
layers so that you can easily identify which object belongs allow easier display and modification.
to which layer. In this, you will learn to:
26
For example, one of your customer might need a plot of A carefully planned layering scheme helps you produce
just the dimensions and walls, without all the other a document that combines the types of information
information; another customer might need only a furniture needed in each case. Using layers also lets you modify
layout. In the days of manual drafting, you would have your drawings more easily. For example, suppose you
had to redraw your plan for each customer or use overlay have an architectural drawing with separate layers for
drafting techniques, which could be cumbersome. With the walls, the ceiling plan, and the floor plan. If any change
the AutoCAD software, you can turn off the layers you occurs in the wall locations, you can turn on the ceiling
don't need and plot a drawing containing only the required plan layer to see where the new wall locations will affect
information. the ceiling, make the proper adjustments, and then turn
it off again to see the walls more clearly.
AutoCAD allows an unlimited number of layers, and you
can name each layer anything you
want, using any characters, with the exception of these:
< > / \ " : ; ? * | , = '.
Layer properties manager dialog box can be get using
layer(LA) command
Blocks
AutoCAD block holds important role in productivity.
However, it's often overlooked by many users. Remember,
creating a drawing is not just how fast you can finish it.
You need to be able to modify it easily in the design
process. And it should be able to give information that
you need.
Turns on/off the layer turned off layers become invisible on the screen
but geometric information is still in the drawing
Makes the selected layer current

Freeze side freezes the layer frozen layers are
invisible and geometric information is unavailable
Deletes the selected layer
Locks from locks the layer locked layers
Make a New layer are visible but objects are not modified
Fig 2
Indicated current
layer
You can select layer

colors by click here
Changes layer
line type (dotted,
dashed etc.,) You
have to load the
line type in a
different window
to be able to use in
the drawing
Changes line weight
Turn on/off on the

plot. Def joints
layer cannot be
plotted by default
Reduce repetitive tasks Fig 3
The basic use of block is as reusable contents. You can
define a block once, then use it repeatedly without redraw
it in new drawings or in the same drawing. You can
choose to copy the objects. But when the drawing gets
complicated, this can be a difficult task. If you draw it
more than once, you may want to consider create a
block from it. When you need to do modification, block
definition will make it easy. There are two possible case
here. Imagine you placed a door in elevation view. When
you want to change the door, you may want to replace
the model with other model. It means the door name and
type are different. You can do it easily by replace that
door with other door type from your library. There is a
replace block tool in express tools.
Another possibility is the door model itself need to change.
The door type and name in bill of quantity remain the
same, but you need to change the drawing. You can
modify the block in block editor. When you finished, all
block instances will be updated.
This is much more faster than copying objects. If they Inserting A Block (Fig 4)
are not blocks, when you need to modify it, you need to
change them all. For inserting a block we use insert (I) command. When
we use this command we get an insert dialog box.
Reduce file size
Fig 4
When you use block, AutoCAD will use the definition to
all instances. I'm not pretty sure if there is a documentation
about this, but it seems like when you insert another
block instance AutoCAD will only need to remember less
data. AutoCAD doesn't have to keep all geometries data.
Maintain company standard
By defining block libraries, it means you don't have to
redraw your common objects and annotations. It will make
your drawing consistent. The elevation symbol in one
drawing will not be different in your other drawings. The
title block is consistent between all AutoCAD users,
because they use standard title block. Not creating their
own. It holds not only geometry, but also attributes location
and format. So the font type and location also consistent.
Block (B) command (Fig 3)
After making the required objects to make block the block
(B) command is used. To create the block, the block
definition dialog box will be appeared.
According to the steps of the dialog box you can create
and save blocks.
Inserting drawing (Concept of external reference)

• state the concept of external reference in AutoCAD.
External References changes made to the source file, will show up in the
destination file as well. An Xref is a graphic image of an
External references (XREF) are one of the most important
external file that appears, and prints, inside your drawing
concepts to understand in a CAD environment. The idea
just as if it were drawn inside that file.
is simple enough link one file to another so that any
How to make an use Xrefs (Fig 1) - Create a new drawing (this is your sources file)
- Draw whatever items you want to reference in model
Fig 1 space of the new file and save it.
- Open any other file (this is your destination file)
- Execute the Xref command and browse to the location
where you saved your source file
- Insert the reference at a coordinate location of 0,0,0
(a common point to all files)
That is all there is to it. Everything you drew in the source,
now displays in the destination files(s) and any change
you make to the source drawing is automatically displayed
in every file that references it.
Command : Xref
Draughtsman Mechanical - Dimensioning on CAD
Dimensioning on AutoCAD
• know dimensioning in AutoCAD.
Dimensioning Dimlinear
Dimensioning can be crucial to how well a design works Draws a linear dimension with the dimension either
and how quickly it develops. horizontal or vertical.
The dimensions answer questions about tolerances, fit, Dimaligned
and interference if you're involved in mechanical
Draws a linear dimension with the dimension line parallel
applications.
to the selected dimension origin points. This lets you
After you and your design team reach a design on a align a dimension with an angled line that is not either
schematic level, communicating even tentative exactly horizontal or vertical.
dimensions to others on the team can accelerate design
Dimradius
development. Dimensions represent a point from which
you can develop your ideas further. To draw dimensions of radius circles or arcs
With the AutoCAD software, you can easily add tentative Dimdiameter
or final dimensions to any drawing. AutoCAD gives you
To draw dimensions of diameter circles
an accurate dimension without having to take
measurements. You pick the two points to be dimensioned Dimcontinue
and the dimension line location, and AutoCAD does the Allows continued or series dimensioning.
rest. The associative dimensioning capability of AutoCAD
automatically updates dimensions whenever the size or Dimbaseline
shape of the dimensioned object changes. These Allows baseline or series dimensioning.
dimensioning features can save you valuable time and
reduce the number of dimensional errors in your Qleader
drawings. Draws a line or series of lines with an arrow head
Components of a Dimension (Fig 1) (commonly called a "leader") to point to an object to notate
it. This command will also prompt you for the note at the
Before you start the exercises in this chapter, it will help end of the leader line, but it will allow only one line of text.
to know the names of the parts of a dimension. Figure The most useful method of using this command is to
shows a sample of a dimension with the parts labeled. simply draw leaders between the object to be notated
The dimension line is the line that represents the distance and text that you create with the DTEXT command.
being dimensioned. It's the horizontal line with the diagonal
tick marks on either end. The extension lines are the Dimedit
lines that originate from the object being dimensioned. Editing the dimension object. Adjusts the obliquing angle
They show you the exact location from which the of a linear associative dimensions and extension lines.
dimension is taken. The dimension text is the dimension Useful in dimensioning isometric drawings.
value, usually shown inside or above the dimension line.
They show you the exact location from which the Dimangular
dimension is taken. The dimension text is the dimension Allows the dimensioning of angles.
value, usually shown inside or above the dimension line.
Adjusting Dimension Styles
Here Describe few Dimensioning commands
Dimstyle (D) (Figs 2 & 3)
From the dialog box You can create your own dimension
styles after keeping the base as any one of the default
styles namely Annotative, ISO-25, Standard. Click New.
30
Line tab in dialog box is activated now. You can Change
Fig 2 the dimension line and extension line features in this
tab. (Fig 5)
Fig 5
Fig 3
In the symbol arrow tab you can change arrow head

size, shape and some other features. (Fig 6)
Fig 6
After saving you can click on modify button to edit your

dimension style. (Fig 4)
Fig 4
With Text tab you can redefine the properties of

dimension text ie; size, color, alignment, font etc.
With fit Tab we can select the best fit for the dimension
text in the dimension object. (Fig 7)
AutoCAD allows primary and alternate unit for a drawing.
In this tab we can adjust primary unit features such as
precision round off, Decimal separator symbol, angular
measurement unit and its precision. (Figs 8,9 & 10).
Fig 9
Fig 7
Fig 8 Fig 10
Draughtsman Mechanical - Computer Aided Drafting
Knowledge of short cut key board commands

• describe the features of key board commands in detail.
Toggle general features Manage screen
Ctrl + d Toggle coordinate display Ctrl + o(zero) Clean screen
Ctrl + g Toggle grid Ctrl + 1 Property palette
Ctrl + e Cycle isometric planes Ctrl + 2 Design center palette
Ctrl + f Toggle running object snaps Ctrl + 3 Tool palette
Ctrl +h Toggle pick style Ctrl + 4 Sheet set palette
Ctrl + Shift + h Toggle hide pallets Ctrl + 6 DB connect manager
Ctrl + I Toggle cords Ctrl + 7 Markup set manager palette
Ctrl + Shift + I Toggle infer Constraints Ctrl + 8 Quick calc

Ctrl + 9 Command line
Toggle drawing modes
F1 Display Help Manage workflow
F2 Toggle text screen Ctrl + c Copy object
F3 Toggle object snap mode Ctrl + x Cut object
F4 Toggle 3DO snap Ctrl + v Paste object
F5 Toggle Iso plane Ctrl + Shift + C Copy to clipboard with

base point
F6 Toggle Dynamic UCS
Ctrl + Shift + V Paste data as block
F7 Toggle grid mode
Ctrl + Z Undo last action
F8 Toggle ortho mode
Ctrl + Y Redo last action
F9 Toggle snap mode
Ctrl + [ Cancel current
F10 Toggle polar mode Command (or+ Ctrl +\)
F11 Toggle object snap tracking ESC Cancel current command
F12 Toggle dynamic input mode
33
Manage Drawings BO _BOUNDARY / Creates a region or a poly line
from an enclosed area.
Ctrl + n New drawing
BR _BREAK / Breaks the selected object between two
Ctrl + s Save drawing
points.
Ctrl +o Open drawing
BS _BSAVE / Saves the current block definition.
Ctrl + p Plot dialog box
BVS _BVSTATE / Creates , sets, or deletes a visibility
Ctrl + Tab Switch to next state in a dynamic block.
Ctrl+shift+Tab Switch to previous drawing
C
Ctrl +page up _Switch to next
C _CIRCLE /Creates a circle.
Tab in current drawing
CAM _CAMERA /Sets a camera and target location to
Ctrl + Q Exit
create and save a 3D perspective view of objects.
Ctrl + a Select all objects
CBAR _CONSTRAINTBAR / A toolbar-like UI element that
A displays the available geometric constraints on an
object.
A Arc/Creates an arc.
CH _PROPERTIES / Control Properties of existing
AA _AREA / Calculates the area and objects.
Perimeter of objects or of defined areas. CHA _CHAMFER / Bevels the edges of objects.
ADC ADCENTER / Manages and inserts CHK _CHECKSTANDARDS / Checks the current
Content such as blocks, xrefs, and hatch drawing for standards violations.
patterns. CLI _COLOR / Sets the color for new objects.
AL ALIGN/Aligns objects with other objects in 2D CO _ COPY / Copies objects a specified Distance in
and 3D a specified direction
AP _APPLOAD / Load Application. CT _CTABLESTYLE / Sets the name of the current
AR _ARRAY / Creates multiple copies of objects table style.
in a pattern. CUBE _NAVVCUBE / Controls the visibility and display
ARR _ACTRECORD / Starts the Action Recorder. properties of the View Cube tool.
ARM _ACTUSERMESSAGE / Insert a user message CYL _CYLINDER / Creates a 3D solid cylinder.
into an action macro.
D
ARU _ACTUSERINPUR / Pauses for user input
D _DIMSTYLE / Creates and modifies dimension
In an action macro.
styles.
ARS _ACTSTOP / Stops the Action Recorder and
DAN _DIMANGULAR / Creates an angular dimension
provides the option of saving the recorded
actions to an action macro file. DAR _DIMARC / Creates an arc length dimension.
ATI _ATTIPEDIT / Change the textual content of DBA -DIMBASELINE / Creates a linear, angular, or
am attribute within a block. ordinate dimension from the baseline of the
previous or selected dimension.
ATT _ATTDEF / Redefines a block and updates
associated attributes. DBC _DBCONNECT / Provides an interface to external
database tables.
ATE _ATTEDIR / changes attribute information in a
block DCE _DIMCENTER / Creates the center mark or the
center lines of circles and arcs.
B
DCO _DIMCONTINUE / Creates a dimension that starts
B _BLOCK / Creates a block definition from selected from an extension line of a previously created
objects. dimension
BC _BCLOSE / Closes the Block Editor. DCON_DIMCONSTRAINT / Applies dimension that starts
BE _BEDLT / Opens the block definition In the Block from an extension line of a previously created
Editor. dimension.
BH DCON_DIMCONSTRAIN / Applies dimensional

_HATCH / Fills an enclosed area or selected objects
with a hatch pattern, solid fill, or gradient fill. constraints to selected objects or points on
objects.
DDA -DIMDISASSOCIATE / Removes associatively EXIT _QUIT / Exits the program.
from selected dimensions.
EXP -EXPORT / Saves the objects in a drawing o a
DDI _DIMDIAMETER / Creates a diameter dimension different file format.
for a circle or an arc.
EXT _EXTRUDE / extends the dimensions of a 2D object
DED _DIMEDIT / Edits dimension text and extension or 3D face into 3D space.
lines.
F fillet / Rounds and fillets the edges of objects.
DI _DIST / Measures the distance and angle between
FI _FILTER / Creates a list of requirements that an
two points.
object must meet to be included in a selection
DIV _DIVIDE / Creates evenly spaced point objects or set.
blocks along the length or perimeter of an object.
FS _FSMODE / Creates a selection set of all objects
DJL _DIMJOGLINE / Adds or removes a jog line on a that touch the selected object.
linear or aligned dimension.
FSHOT _FLATSHOT / Creates a 2 D representation of
DJO _DIMJOGGED / Creates jogged dimensions for all 3D objects based on the current view.
circles and arcs.
G-H
DL _DATALINK / The Data link dialog box is displayed.
G _GROUP / Creates and manages saved sets of
DLU _DATALINK /Updates data to or from an objects called groups.
established external data link.
GCON_GEOCONSTRAINT / Applies of persists geometric
DO _DONUT /Creates a filled circle or a wide ring. relationships between objects or points on
DOR _DIMORDINATE / Creates ordinate dimensions. objects.
DOV _DIMOVERRIDE /Controls overrides of system GD _GRADIENT / Fills an enclosed area or selected
variables used in selected dimensions. objects with a gradient fill.
DR _DRAWORDER / Changes the draw order of GEO _GEOGRAPHICLOCATION / Specifies the
images and other objects. geographic location information for a drawing
file.
DRA _DIMRASSOCIATE / Associates or re -associates
selected dimensions to objects or points on H _HATCH / Fills an enclosed area or selected objects
objects, with a hatch pattern, solid fill, or gradient fill.
DRM -DRAWINGRECOVERY / Displays a list of drawing HE _HATCHEDIT / Modifies an existing hatch or fill.
files that can be recovered after a program or HI _HIDE/Regenerates a 3D wireframe model with
system failure. hidden lines suppressed.
DS _DSETTINGS / Sets grid and snap, polar and object
snap tracking, object snap modes, Dynamic I-K
input, and Quick properties. I _INSERT / Inserts a block or drawing into the
DT _TEXT/Creates a single-line text object. current drawing.
DV _DVIEW / Defines parallel projection or IAD _IMAGEADJUST / Controls the image display of
perspective views by using a camera and target. the brightness, contrast, and fade values of
images.
DX _DATAEXTRACTION / Extracts drawing data and
merges data from an external source to a data IAT -IMAGEATTACH / Inserts a reference to an image
extraction table or external file. file.
ICL _IMAGECLIP / Crops the display of a selected
E-F image to a specified boundary.
E _ERASE / Removes objects from a drawing. ID _ID / Displays the UCS coordinate values of a
ED _DDEDIT / Edits single-line text, dimension text, specified location.
attribute definitions, and feature control frames. IM _IMAGE / Displays the External References
EL _ELLIPSE / Creates an ellipse or an elliptical arc. palette.
EPDF _EXPORTPDF / Exports drawing to PDF IMP _IMPORT / Imports files of different formats into
the current drawing
ER _EXTERNALREFERENCES / Opens the External
References palette IN _INTERSECT / Creates a 3D solid, surface, or
2D region from overlapping solids surfaces, or
EX _EXTEND / Extends objects to meet the edges of
regions.
other objects.
INF _INTERFERE / Creates a temporary 3D solid from MLD _MLEADER / Creates a multileader object.
the interferences between two sets of selected
MLE _MLEADEREDIT / Adds leader lines to, or removes
3D solids.
leader lines from, a multileader object.
IO _INSERTOBJ / Inserts a linked or embedded
MLS _MLEADERSTYLE / Creates and modifies
object.
multileader styles.
J _JOIN / Joins similar objects to form a single,
MO _PROPERTIES / Controls properties of existing
unbroken object,
objects.
JOG _DIMJOGGED / Creates jogged dimensions for
MORE_MESHSMOOTHMORE / Increases the level of
circles and arcs.
smoothness for mesh objects by one level.
L-M MS _MSPACE/ Switches from paper space to a model
L _LINE / Creates straight line segments. space viewport.
LA _LAYER / Manages layers and layer properties. MSM _MARKUP / Opens the markup set manager.
LAS _LAYERSTATE / Saves, restores, and manages MT _MTEXT / Creates a multiline text object.
named layer states. MV _MVIEW / Creates and controls layout view ports
LE _QLEADER / Creates a leader and leader N-O
annotation.
NORTH _GEOGRAPHICLOCATION / Specifies the
LEN _LENGTHEN / Changes the length of objects and
geographic location information for a drawing
the included angle of arcs.
file.
LESS _MESHSMOOTH;ESS /Decreases the level of
NSHOT _NEWSHOT / Creates a named view with motion
smoothness for mesh objects by one level.
that is played back when viewed with Show
LI _LIST / Displays property data for selected objects. motion.
LO -LAYOUT / Creates and modifies drawing layout NVIEW _NEW VIEW / Creates a named view with no
tabs. motion.
LT _LINETYPE / Loads, sets, and modifies line types. O _OFFSET / Creates concentric circles, parallel
lines, and parallel curves.
LTS _LTSCALE / Changes the scale factor of line types
for all objects in a drawing. OP _OPTIONS / Customizes the program settings.
LW _LWELGHT / Sets the current line weight, display ORBIT _3DORBIT / Rotates the view in 3D space, but
options, and line weight units. constrained to horizontal and vertical orbit only.
M _MOVE / Moves objects a specified distance in a OS _OSNAP / Sets running object snap modes.
specified direction.
P
MA -MATCHPROP / Applies the properties of a selected
object to other objects. P _PAN / Adds a parameter with grips to a dynamic
block definition.
MAI _MATERIALS / Shows or hides the Materials
window. PA _PASTESPEC/Pastes objects from the Clipboard
into the current drawing and controls the format
ME _MEASURE / Creates point objects or blocks at of the data.
measured intervals along the length or perimeter
of an object. PAR _PARAMETERS / Controls the associative
parameters used in the drawing.
MEA _MEASUREGEOM / Measures the distance,
radius, angle, area, and volume of selected PARAM _PARAMETER / Adds a parameter with grips to
objects or sequence of points. a dynamic block definition.
MI -MIRROR / Creates a mirrored copy of selected PATCH _SURFPATCH / Creates a new surface by fitting
objects. a cap over a surface edge that forms a closed
loop
ML -MLINE / Creates multiple parallel lines.
PC _POINTCLOUD / Provides options to create and
MLA _MLEADERALIGN / Aligns and spaces selected attach point cloud files.
multilayer objects.
PCATTACH _ POINTCLOUDATTACH / Inserts an
MLC _MLEADERCOLLECT / organizes selected indexed point cloud file into the current
multileaders that contain blocks into rows or drawing.
columns, and displays the result with a single
leader.
PCINDEX _POINTCLOUDINDEX / Creates an indexed RE _REGEN / Regenerates the entire drawing from
point cloud (PCG or ISD)file from a scan file. the current viewport.
PE _PEDIT/ Edits poly lines and 3D polygon meshes. REA _REGENALL / Regenerates the drawing and
refreshes all viewports.
PL _PLINE/Creates a 2D poly line.
REC _RECTANG / Creates a rectangular poly line.
PO _POINT / Creates a point object.
REG _REGION / Converts an object that encloses an
POFF -HIDEPALETTES /Hides currently displayed
area into a region object.
palettes (including the command line)
REN _RENAME / Changes the names assigned to items
POL _POLYGON / Creates an equilateral closed poly
such as layers and dimension styles.
line.
REV _REVOLVE / Creates a 3D solid or surface by
PON _SHOWPALETTES / Restores the display of
sweeping a 2D object around an axis
hidden palettes
RO _ROTATE / Rotates objects around a base point.
PR _PROPERTIES / Displays properties palette.
RP _RENDERPRESETS / Specifies render presets,
PRE _PREVIEW / Displays the drawing as it will be
reusable rendering parameters, for rendering an
plotted.
image.
PRINT_PLOT/Plots a drawing to a plotter, printer, or file.
RPR _RPREF / Displays or hides the Advanced render
PS _PSPACE/Switches from a model space viewport settings palette for access to advance rendering
to paper space. settings.
PSOLID _POLYSOLID / Creates a 3D wall -like RP _RENDER/ Creates a photorealistic or realistically
poly solid. shaded image of a 3D solid or surface model.
PTW _PUBLISHTOWEB / Creates HTML pages that RW _REDERWIN / Displays the Render window without
include images or selected drawings starting a rendering operation.
PU _PURGE / Removes unused items, such as block S
definitions and layers, from the drawing
S _STRETCH / Stretches objects crossed by a
PYR _PYRAMID / Creates a 3D solid pyramid.
selection window or polygon.
Q SC _SCALE / Enlarges or reduces selected objects,
QC _QUICKCALC / Opens the Quick calc calculator. keeping the proportions of the object the same
after scaling.
QCUI _OUICKCUI / Displays the customize User
Interface editor in a collapsed state. SCR _SCRIPT /Executes a sequence of commands
from a script file
QP _QUICKPROPERTIES / Displays open drawing
and layouts in drawing in preview images. SEC _SECTION / Uses the intersection of a plane and
solids, surfaces, or mesh to create a region.
QSAVE _QSAVE / Saves the current drawing.
SET _SETVAR / Lists or changes the values of system
QVD _QVDRAWING / Displays open drawings and Variables.
layouts in drawing using preview images.
SHA _SHADEMODE / Starts the VSCURRENT
QVDC_QVDRAWINGCLOSE / Closes preview images command.
of open drawings and lay outs in a drawing.
SL _SLICE / Creates new 3D solids and surfaces by
QVL _QVLAYOUT / Displays preview images of model slicing, or dividing, existing objects.
spaces and layouts in a drawing.
SN _SNAP / Restricts cursor movement to specified
QVLC _QVLAYOUTCLOSE / Closes preview images of intervals.
model space and layouts in the current drawing.
SO _SOLID / Creates solid-filled triangles and
R quadrilaterals.
R _REDRAW /Refreshes the display in the current SP _SPELL / Checks spelling in a drawing
viewport. SPE _SPLINEDIT / Edits a spine or spline-fit poly line.
RA _REDRAWALL / Refreshes the display in all SPL _SPLINE / Creates a smooth curve that passes
viewports. through or near specified points.
RC _RENDERCROP / Renders a specified SPLANE_SECTIONPLANE / Creates a section object
rectangular area, called a crop window, within a that acts as a cutting plane through 3D objects.
viewport.
SPLAY _SEQUENCEPLAY / Play s named views in one UNHIDE _UNISOLATEOBJECTS / Displays UNIOLATE
category objects previously hidden with the
SPLIT _MESHSPLIT / Splits a mesh face into two faces. ISOLATEOBJECTS or HIDEOBJECTS command.
SPE _SPLINEDIT / Edits a spline or spline-fit poly line. UNI _UNION / Unions two solid or two region objects.
SSM _SHEETSET / Opens the sheet set Manager. V _VIEW / Saves and restores named views, camera
views , layout views, and preset views.
ST _STYLE / Creates. Modifies. Or specifies text
styles. VGO _VIEWGO / Restores a named view.
STA _STANDARDS / Manages the association of VP _DVPOINT / Sets the 3D viewing direction.
standards files with drawings.
VPLAY _VIEWPLAY / Plays the animation associated
SU _SUBTRACT / Combines selected 3D solids, to a named view.
surfaces, or 2D regions by subtraction.
VS _VSCURRENT / Sets the visual style in the current
T viewport.
T _MTEXT / Creates a multiline text object. VSM _VISUALSTYLES / Creates and modifies visual
styles and applies a visual style to a viewport.
TA _TABLET / Calibrates, configures, and turns on
and off an attached digitizing tablet. W _WEDGE / Creates a 3D solid wedge.
TB _TABLE / Creates an empty table object. WHEEL_NAVSWHEEL / Displays a wheel that contains
a collection of view navigation tools.
TEDIT_TEXTEDIT / Edits a dimensional constraint,
dimension, or text object. X- Z
TH _THICKNESS / Sets the default 3D thickness X _EXPLODE / Breaks a compound object into its
property when creating 2D geometric objects. component objects.
TI _TILEMODE / Controls whether paper space can XA _XATTAC H / Inserts a DWG file as an external
be accessed. reference (xref).
TO _TOOLBAR / Displays, hides , and customizes XB _XBIND / Binds one or more definitions of named
toolbars. objects in an xref to the current drawing.
TOL _TOLERANCE / Creates geometric tolerances XC _XCLIP / Crops the display of a selected external
contained in a feature control frame. reference or block reference to a specified
boundary.
TOR _TORUS / Creates a donut-shaped 3D solid
XL _XLINE/Creates a line of infinite length
TP _TOOLPALETTES / Opens the Tool palettes
window. XR _XREF / Starts the EXTERNALREFERENCES
command.
TR _TRIM / Trims objects to meet the edges of other
objects. Z _ZOOM / Increases or decreases the magnification
of the view in the current viewport.
TS _TABLESTYLE / Creates modifies, or specifies
table styles. ZEBRA _ANLYSISZEBRA / Projects stripes onto a 3D
model to analyze surface continuity.
U-W
ZIP _ETRANSMIT / Creates a self -extracting or Zipped
UC _UCSMAN / Manages defined user coordinate Transmittal package.
systems.
UN _UNITS / Controls coordinate and angle display
formats and precision.
Draughtsman Mechanical - Computer Aided Drafting
Model space - viewport

• drafting setting - changing orthographic snap to isometric snap
• describe the features of key board commands in detail.
At first, you need to change your snap settings to

isometric. Type DS on the command line and press enter.
Drafting settings window will pop up from this window
select snap and grid tab and make sure Isometric snap
radio button is checked.
1 Click view tab - Viewports panel - New
2 In the viewports dialog box, New viewports tab, under
standard viewports, select single.
3 Click to specify one corner of the new layout viewport.
4 Click to specify the opposite corner.
A new layout viewport object is available and displays a
default view. To adjust the view, double-click within the
layout viewport to access model space
Related Tasks
Related concepts
• To create a new layout viewport
• About layout viewports
• To create a nonrectangular layout viewport
Related reference
• To automatically set up multiple viewports on a layout
• Commands for working with layout viewports
• To place a named viewport configuration into a layout
You can create a single layout viewport that fits the entire
• To modify layout viewport properties using the
layout or create multiple layout viewports in the layout.
properties palette
Once you create the viewports, you can change their
size, their properties, and also scale and move them as • To deactivate a layout viewport
needed.
With MVIEW, you have several options for creating one
or more layout viewports. You can also use COPY create
multiple layout viewports. (Fig 1)
Note: It is important to create layout viewports

on their own layer. When you are ready to
output your drawing, you can turn off the layer
and output the layout without the boundaries
of the layout viewports.
40
CG & M Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.100 - 102
Draughtsman Mechanical - Assembled and Detailed Drawings of Pulleys
Solid pulley
• state the purpose of pulleys
• explain the types of pulleys.
Pulleys and gears are used for transmission of power C.I. belt pulleys
from one shaft to another by means of belts or direct
The rim of a cast iron belt pulley is generally made
contact. They are made of cast - iron, wrought-iron,
convex. The curvature tends to keep the belt in the
steel or wood or plastics.
middle of the rim due to there stresses, straight arms
A pulley may be cast in one piece or may be built - up very often crack at or near their junctions with rim.
from separate parts (Fig 1). The three parts of a belt Curved arms conveniently yield to these stresses by
pulley are - hub or boss, arms and rim as shown in straightening. Arms are therefore made curved
Fig. 2, three methods of mounting a pulley rigidly on a particularly in case of large size pulley and are so shaped
shaft, viz. by means of (i) a key, (ii) cone keys and (iii) a as to avoid sharp corners. (Fig 3)
set -screw. (Fig 2)
Speed cones or stepped pulleys

These are made of cast - iron and are secured to shafts
by means of keys or set - screws ( Fig 4) A machine -
spindle can be driven at different speeds, by fixing
stepped pulleys on the spindle and on the counter -shaft
in reverse positions as shown in Fig 4. The speed of the
machine - spindle will be (i) greater than, (ii) equal to
and (iii) less than of the counter - shaft.
Types of pulleys
- C.I. belt pulleys
- Stepped pulleys
- Built up pulleys
- Rope pulleys
- 'V' belt pulleys
41
Belt drives - Creep & slip
• state different types of belt drives
• distinguish between creep and slip
• state the effect of creep and slip.
Belt drives
The belt drive is the most common method of power
transmission. The belts are made from leather, cotton,
rubber and synthetic materials. A flat belt drive is
shown in Fig 1.
Types of belt drives (Flat belts)
Open belt drive (Fig 1)
An open belt drive is used between parallel shafts in which
the direction of rotation of driving and driven shafts is
the same.
Stepped drives (Fig 4)

Stepped drives are used to obtain different speed ratios.
Pulleys of different sizes are employed.
Three different speeds can be obtained by changing the
belt position from one step to another.
Jockey or idler pulley (Fig 2)

If the centre distance between the pulleys exceeds 3
times the larger pulley diameter and the ratio of the pulley
diameters exceeds 6 to 1, a jockey or idler pulley is
fitted near the driver pulley on the slack side of the belt
to increase the arc of contact. This increases the
wrapping angle and tension on the belt, necessary
for the transmission of the torque.
Right angled drive (Fig 5)

This drive is employed between shafts at right angles
Cross - belt drive (Fig 3) using guide pulleys. In this the horizontal drive is
converted vertical drive with the help of the guide pulleys.
A cross -belt drive is shown in Fig 3 in which the direction
of rotation of driving and driven shafts is opposite.
42 CG & M: Draughtsman Mechanical (NSQF Level-5) - Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.100 - 102
Slip is the actual difference caused between the surface
speed of the belt and pulley. The effect of slip may be
reduced by decreasing the pulley ratio and maintaining
proper alignment. Creep, being the physical
characteristic of the belt, cannot itself be controlled. Slip
and creep jointly cause power loss.
Belt dressing
Creep and slip of belt (Fig 6)
Due to the continuous rubbing of the belt on the surface
As the belt turns on a pulley it tends to stretch on the of the pulley the belt gets dried up due to friction, and
contact area of the driving pulley and shorten on the heat is generated. This causes the belt to slip.
driven pulley. This localised movement of the belt is a
direct result of the elastic stretch and is known as creep. To keep the belt supple and free from cracks, belt dressing
Greater the load more will be the creep. The Figure shows is applied. Tallow or powdered resin are good dressing
the condition of belt as a result of creep. materials which are applied on the inner face of the belt.
This improves the gripping property of the belt.
Built up pulleys
• built up pulleys, rope pulleys ‘V’ belt pulley.
Built - up pulleys the inner ends of which are shrunk inside the holes in the
outer surface of the hub. Their outer ends are riveted to
In this type of pulleys (Fig 1) the hub is made of cast-iron
the rim and are provide with collars pressing against the
and in two halves. The rim, which is also made in two
inner side of the rim. The two halves of the rim are fastened
halves, and the arms are of wrought-iron or steel. The two
together by two butt - strap riveted to one half and bolted
halves of the hub are bolted together and fixed to the shaft
to the other, alternately. The rivet heads and the bolt heads
by a sunk key. The arms are of circular cross - section,
are counter sink inside the rim.
CG & M: Draughtsman Mechanical (NSQF Level-5) - Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.100 - 102 43
Rope pulleys V- belt pulleys
Rope pulleys are grooved to carry one or more ropes by These pulleys have one or more V-grooves to carry V-belts
means of which power is transmitted to shafts at different which are made of rubber and fiber and moulded as
heights and it varying distances. Ropes made of cotton endless loops. This form of transmission is very widely
or hemp are usually of 25 mm to 50 mm in diameter. The used in modern times. Fig 4 shows two views of a V-belt
diameter of the pulley is keep at least 30 times the diameter pulley having three grooves. Details of a V-groove along
of the rope Fig 2. shows two views of a rope pulley to carry with the belt - section are shown in Fig 5.
two ropes. The view, in detail, of only the rim is shown fully
V-belts are available in standard belt section designated
dimensioned in Fig 3.
by A, B,C, D and E. Table 1 shows details of various
When ropes made of steel wire are used, the pulley is cross-section of V- belts.
generally built - up and is not less than 2 meters in
Machine drawing
diameter. The hub and the rim are cast in two halves, while
the arms are made of steel. Unlike the cotton ropes, the Table 1
steel rope rests on the bottom of the groove, which is Cross section Nominal top Nominal
packed with soft material such as leather or gutta -percha symbol width mm thickness mm
to minimize slipping. This method of transmitting power by
means of ropes is very rarely used these days. A 13 8
B 17 11
C 22 14
D 32 19
E 38 23
A V-belt of cross -section A and nominal inside length

of 1212 mm shall be designated as A-1212 IS : 2494
(1974)
44 CG & M: Draughtsman Mechanical (NSQF Level-5) - Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.100 - 102
The calculations of a V-belt drive are confined to (i) the given power. The number of belts should not exceed 8
selection of a belt of standard profile and length, and (ii) to12; if it exceeds then the next larger belt section should
number of belts are determined for the transmission of be used. Table 2 shows the useful data for V-belt drives.
Table 2
Width of belt (mm) 5 6 8 10 13 17 20 22 32 38
Height of belt (mm) 3 4 5 6 8 11 12.5 14 19 23
Length of belt (mm) From 150 212 296 420 585 832 1100 1650 2303 3230
To 1860 1262 1916 2820 4275 6332 9540 14050 18063 18080
V- betls
Advantages of V-belts drive
‘V’ - belt drives are generally used when the distance
between the shafts is too short for flat belt drives.
Owing to the wedge action between the belt and the sides
of the groove in the pulley, the V belt is less likely to
slip, hence more power can be transmitted.
The endless V belt is shaped roughly like a trapezium in
cross - section, and is made of cord and fabric, and is
treated with rubber and moulded together in a uniform
manner and shape. The cross - sectional symbol of a
V- belt is shown in Fig 6.
- It is compact, so installation is possible in limited
space.
- It is used when the centre distance between the driver
and the driven pulleys is short.
- Less vibration and noise.
- Cushions the motor and bearing against load
fluctuation
- Easy replacement and maintenance.
Classification of ‘V’ belts
The ‘V’ belts are classified into 5 groups as per IS.2494-
1974 namely A, B, C, D and E. The nominal included Designation of V-belt as per IS. 2494
angle of the V- belt shall be 40°.
The V belts conforming to this standard shall be
Table 3 gives lists the standard sizes of V - belts from designated by the cross - section symbol, nominal inside
section A to E. length and the number of IS : standard.
Table 3 Example
Cross -section Nominal top Nominal C 3048 IS : 2494

Symbol width W (mm) Thickness (T) C = V - belt cross section
A 13 8 3048 = Nominal inside length in mm
B 17 11 (untensioned state)
C 22 14 Belt length calculation - (flat belts)
D 32 19 The best way to determine the correct length of a belt is

by wrapping a steel tape around the pulleys and recording
E 38 23 the measurement. If the belts are to be spliced and
cemented, an additional amount of belt length must be
Individual manufacturer’s belts may deviate provided for making the lap.
slightly from these dimensions for various
constructional reasons. Crowning, if any, in
belts should be disregarded for the
measurement of thickness.
CG & M: Draughtsman Mechanical (NSQF Level-5) - Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.100 - 102 45
CG & M Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.103 - 106
Draughtsman Mechanical - Assembly and Detailed Drawings of Valves
Pipe fittings, CI flanged joint

• types of pipe fittings
• types of pipe joint
• piping drawing valves.
Pipe fittings of fine size pitch and slightly different from the standard
threads for nuts and bolts. The size values are available
To connect two pipes together and to make branches,
in engineering tables.
reduction or increase of diameter, etc, different parts of
a pipe line called pipe fittings or specials are used. Depending on the shape and purpose, the joints commonly
Screwed pipe specials commonly used in plumping are used are classified into the following categories.
shown in Fig 1. The screw threads used on pipe fittings are
46
- Cast iron flanged joint Union joint (Fig 3)
- Union joint It is used for pipes of small sizes. The nut A which is
threaded on its outside also, is screwed on the end of the
- Socket and spigot joint
one pipe. Another nut B is screwed on the end of the other
- Hydraulic pipe joint pipe. The two nuts, together with pipes, are drawn together
- Expansion joints by a coupler nut C. A packing ring, inserted between the
ends of the two pipes, prevents leakages.
Cast iron flanged joint
Flanges are cast at the ends - integral with the pipes. Their
faces are machined at right angle, to the axis of the pipes
so that when joined together the pipe, are in perfect
alignment. A packing ring or gasket of soft material such
as a rubber, canvas lead etc. coated with lead is placed
between the faces of the two flanges which are joined
together by means of blots (Fig 2).
Symbols & piping layout systems

• symbols and piping layout system.
Isometric and orthographic symbols for pipe fittings
S.No. Description Isometric symbol (right face) Orthographic symbol

Screwed Flanged Screwed Flanged
1 Joint/Coupling
2 Reducer
3 90° Elbow
(i) Turned up
(ii) Turned down
CG & M: Draughtsman Mechanical (NSQF Level-5) - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.103-106 47
S.No. Description Isometric symbol (right face) Orthographic symbol
Screwed Flanged Screwed Flanged
4 Tee
(i) Turned up
(ii) Turned down
5 Cross
6 Bend
7 Plug (female)
/(dead end)
8 Plug (male)
9 Union
10 Hose nipple
Isometric and orthographic symbols for pipe fittings
11 Gate valve (Ele.)

Plan
48 CG & M: Draughtsman Mechanical (NSQF Level-5) - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.103-106
12 Globe valve (Ele)
Plan
13 Water tap
14 Angle valve (Ele)

Plan
Piping drawings projections or oblique projections. In most installations,

some pipes are vertical and some are horizontal. If the
The piping drawings are required for erecting petro -
vertical pipes are assumed to be revolved in the horizontal
chemicals, fertilizers and the other processing plants.
plane or the horizontal pipes are assumed to be rotated in
Piping drawings are drawn by double line method as
the vertical plane, the entire plant can be shown in drawing
shown in Fig 1 or single line method as shown in Fig 2
in one plane. Such a drawing is known as a developed
In a single line method the pipes, valves, pumps, etc are piping drawing. See Fig 3.
represented by standard symbols. Either type of drawing
may be made of as multiview projections using axonometric
Fig 3 (A,B,C) show dimetric drawing and the orthographic conventionally on drawing with their specification as
projections respectively. Various fittings are represented shown in Fig 4.
Different types of pipe joints

• different types of pipe joints.
Pipes are used for carrying fluids, such as water, steam, - Screwed pipe joint
oil, gas, etc from one place to another. Circular pipes
- Welded pipe joint
made of cast iron, steel, copper, aluminium, plastic,
etc, are used for this purpose. Joining of pipes and their - Flanged pipe joint
fittings for making a required layout can be made by (i) Integral flanges
different methods and the process is named plumbing.
Commonly used pipe joints. (ii) Screwed flanges
Pipe joints - Glued or cemented pipe joint
A pipe is a tube and generally considered as circular in - Soldered pipe joint
cross section . In engineering practice, pipes are assumed
to be straight and stiff, and are available in standard
lengths. At the same time, a tube is assumed as flexible
pipe and available in coil form. The size of a pipe is
designated by its inner diameter and thickness. Pipes are
joined by many methods and they are named as
shown in Fig 1
Different types of valves
• different types of valves.
Valves - Globe valves

Fluid flow in pipe lines in controlled by different types of - Ball valves
valves. These pipe lines are operated manually but in some
- Non return valves
cases this is done by the pressure of the fluid itself or by
some outside mechanism. Valves are commonly used to - Valve for steam flow
regulate the flow of pressurized liquids steam gases or air - Non return valves for steam
and they have some common features. The opening or
closing of the passage for the fluid is happened by - Steam stop valves
movement of a part called valves. - Feed check valves
Classification of valves - Safety valves
- Valves used for liquid flow - Blow off cock
- Gate valves
Gate valve (Figs 1 & 2) Globe valves (Figs 3 & 4)
A gate valve is an ON or OFF type valve used commonly Globe valves are used to regulate flow of liquid through
in liquid flow through pipe lines Fig 1 shows the parts and pipe lines. Part detail are shown in Fig 3 the assembly
Fig 2 show the assembly of gate valve for 22 mm water is shown in Fig 4.
pipe line.
Ball valve
• explain ball valve assembly.
Ball valve (Figs 1 & 2)

A ball valve is a spherical shaped rotating part with a hole
at the centre to keep the flow in ON or OFF position through
the pipe lines, Fig 1 shows the parts and Fig 2 shows the
assembly.
Steam stop valve (Figs 3 & 4) asbestos packing form a stuffing box arrangement to stop
the leakage of steam through the side of spindle. The gland
Part detail of a steam stop valve is given in Fig 3 and its
bush it tightened by screwing the gland nut. If the valve
assembly is shown in Fig 4. The main function of a steam
is to be operated frequently, a valve seat of gun metal is
stop valve is to start, regulate and stop steam flow along a
also added instead of directly placing the disc valve inside
pipe line. If the valve is fitted nearby a boiler, it is called
the machined hole of the body.
junction valve. The gunmetal disc valve is attached to the
spindle by a collar and a taper pin. The gland bush and the
Non return valve, steam stop valve
• non return valve steam stop valve.
Non return valve (Figs 1 & 2)

A non return valve used in steam pipe lines assembly is
shown in Fig 2 and parts are shown in Fig 1.
The disc valve at the centre is the lifted when the pressure
of steam below it is greater than that of the above side,
allowing the forward flow. The vertical movement of the
valve is guided by the feathers inside the valve seat, at
the same time the maximum lift is controlled by the metal
projecting downward on the cover. When the pressure
above the valve exceeds that of inlet, the valve closes
automatically.
Draughtsman Mechanical - Assembly and Detailed Drawings
Conventional representation of gears

• explain types of gears.
Imagine two plain wheels A and B (Fig 1) fixed rigidly to

two parallel shafts and pressed tightly in contact with
each other. If the wheel A is rotated about its axis, the
wheel B will also rotate due to the friction between them.
The rotary motion is thus transmitted from one shaft to
another. The surfaces of the two wheels will move at the
same speed if there is no slipping. It is obvious that
with increase in load to be transmitted, the wheels will
begin to slip on each other. To prevent slipping, grooves
may be cut on the cylindrical surfaces of the wheels
and projections added between them. These grooves and
projections form the teeth, and wheels with such teeth
become toothed wheels or gears (Fig 2)
Toothed gears can be classified according to

- The mutual position of shafts,
- The relative motion of the shafts and
- Forms of teeth
The details classification is depicted as under :
Gear

Position of axes of shafts Forms of teeth
Relative Motion

Involute Cycloid
Low Medium High

Parallel Axes spur Intersecting axes Non - Intersecting axes
and helical bevel bevel worm and worm wheel
58
Construction of base circle of spur gears
• explain the terminology of spur gear
• state the relationship between the pitches.
Spur gear
Gears which transmit motion between two parallel shafts
are called spur gears
Spur gear terminology
Pitch circle : In every pair of gears in mesh, the two
imaginary circles representing the two plain wheels in
contact are always assumed to exit. Each of these circles
is called a pitch circle. Its diameter is the pitch circle
diameter.
Pitch surface : The cylindrical surface which the pitch
circle represents is the pitch surface.
Pitch point : It is the point of contact between the pitch
circles of two gears in mesh. It lies on the line joining
their centres.
Centre distance: It is the distance between the centres
of a pair of mating gears and is equal to the sum of the
radial of the pitch circles of the two gears.
Refer to Fig 1 for the following
Clearance: It is the difference between the addendum

and the dedendum.
Whole depth: It is the sum of the addendum and
dedendum of a tooth.
Working depth: it is the distance by which a tooth
extends into the space of a mating gear. It is equal to the
whole depth minus the clearance, or twice the addendum.
Addendum circle: It is the circle which contains the
crests of the teeth. Its diameter is called the outside or
Tooth face: It is the side - surface of the tooth above the blank diameter.
pitch circle, perpendicular to the plane of the gear.
Dedendum circle: It is the circle which contains the
Tooth flank: It is the side - surface of the tooth below bottoms of the tooth spaces. It is also called a root circle.
the pitch circle, perpendicular to the plane of the gear. Its diameter is the root diameter.
Crest of tooth: It is the outside surface of the tooth, Fillet radius: It is the radius of the curve at the root of
perpendicular to the plane of the gear. the tooth.
Root of tooth: It is the junction of the tooth with the Pinion: It is the smaller of the two unequal gears in
material at the bottom of the tooth space. engagement.
Tooth thickens: It is the thickness of the tooth, Rack: It is a gear having a pitch circle of infinitely large
measured along the pitch circle. radius i.e the pitch circle is a straight line.
Refer to Fig 2 for the following: Pitch: The pitch of the teeth is expressed in the following
Addendum: It is the radial height of a tooth above the four ways :
pitch circle. Circular pitch: C.P Fig 2: It is the distance, measured
Dedendum: It is the radial depth of a tooth below the along the pitch circle, from a point on one tooth to a
pitch circle. corresponding point on the adjacent tooth.
CG & M: Draughtsman Mechanical (NSQF Level-5) - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.107&108 59
Diametral pitch: D.P: It is the number of teeth per unit
length of a pitch circle diameter. It is a ratio and not a
dimension as in the case of circular pitch.
Module pitch: It is the number of units (cm or mm) of = π = constant
pitch circle diameter per tooth. It is thus, the reciprocal
of the diametral pitch and is obtained by dividing the
pitch circle diameter by the number of teeth. This
expression is generally used in metric system.
Chordal pitch: It is the shortest distance or the length
of the chord of the pitch circle between a point on one
tooth and a corresponding point on the adjacent tooth,
both on the pitch circle.
Relationship between the pitches
pitch circle diameter x π

Circular pitch =
number of teeth
Tooth Proportions
P.C.D x π
C.P = = πm The proportions of the standard gear tooth are given in
N
terms of module in Table 1.
Table 1
S.No. Description 14.5° Full depth involute 20° Full depth involute
1 Addendum m m
2 Dedendum 1.157 m 1.157 m
3 Whole depth 2.157 m 2.157 m
4 Clearance 0.157 m 0.157 m
5 Tooth thickness 1.157 m 1.157 m
6 Circular pitch pm pm
To keep the velocity ratio constant, teeth profiles of mating Standard module in mm :
gears should be so shaped that the common normal to
1, 1.125, 1.25, 1.375, 1.5, 1.75, 2, 2.25, 2.5, 2.75, 3,
the profiles at the point of contact always passes through
3.25, 3.5, 3.75, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12,
the pitch point. This is possible when teeth have profiles
13, 14, 16, 18, 20.
of either involute or cycloidal form.
The module of gear can be selected from the following
table published by B.I.S. Students are advised to consult
IS 2535:1978 (Revised 19191) for further details.
Construction of helical, bevel, worm and worm wheel

• explain the applications of helical gear, bevel gear, worm and worm wheel.
Helical gear (Fig 1) the shaft bearings are subjected to thrust loads which
may be resisted by using a double helical gear (herring-
Helical gears have teeth inclined to the axis of rotation at
bone gear). This is equivalent to two helical gears of
an angle, known as helix angle. These are also used to
opposite hand, mounted side by side on the same shaft.
connect parallel shafts. When helical gears are used,
60 CG & M: Draughtsman Mechanical (NSQF Level-5) - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.107&108
This arrangement, develops opposite thrust reactions and Worm and worm gear (wheel) (Figs 3 & 4)
thus cancel each other.
Helical gearing
Two helical gears in mesh is known as helical gearing.
Out of the two gears in mesh, one gear must have a right
hand helix and the other, a left hand helix as shown in
Fig 1. Helical gearing is noiseless in operation because
of the more gradual engagement of the teeth during
meshing.
Bevel gear (Fig 2)
Worm and worm gear in combination, i.e., in meshing is

known as worm gearing and is used in speed reducers
requiring large reductions. In worm gearing, the driving
member is the worm, which is in the form of a screw,
having trapezoidal thread. The worm may have single
or multiple start threads which are left or right hand in
nature. The driven member is known as the worm gear
or worm wheel. In one of the designs, the worm gear is
In bevel gear, the teeth are formed on conical surfaces in the form of a helical gear, with teeth cut on a concave
and are used for transmitting power between intersecting shaped periphery and thus enveloping the worm. Fig 3
shafts. shows the worm and worm gear indicates separately
Bevel gears may be classified as straight teeth bevel and Fig 4 in the same mesh.
gears and spiral bevel gears. Hypoid gears are similar
to spiral bevel gears, except that the shafts are offset
and non - intersecting. Bevel gears may be used to
connect shafts at practically any angle, 90° being the
common one. Fig 2 shows the views of a bevel gear.
CG & M: Draughtsman Mechanical (NSQF Level-5) - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.107&108 61
Cams by CAD
• state what is a cam
• state the cam mechanism.
Cam Cam Mechanisms

Introduction The transformation of one of the simple motions, such
as rotation, into any other motions is often conveniently
A simple experiment: What is a Cam? (Fig 1)
accomplished by means of a cam mechanism. A cam
Take a pencil and a book to do an experiment as shown mechanism usually consists of two moving elements, the
above. Make the book an inclined plane and use the cam and the follower, mounted on a fixed frame. Cam
pencil as a slider (use your hand as a guide). When devices are versatile, and almost any arbitrarily -
you move the book smoothly upward, what happens to specified motion can be obtained. In some instances,
the pencil? It will be pushed up along the guide. By this they offer the simplest and most compact way to transform
method, you have transformed one motion into another motions.
motion by a very simple device. This is the basic idea
A cam may be defined as a machine element having a
of a cam. By rotating the cams in the Fig 1 below, the
curved outline or a curved groove, which, by its
bars will have either translation or oscillatory motion.
oscillation or rotation motion, gives a predetermined
specified motion to another element called the follower.
The cam has a very important function in the operation
of many classes of machines, especially those of the
automatic type, such as printing presses, shoe
machinery, textile machinery, gear - cutting machines,
and screw machines. In any class of machinery in which
automatic control and accurate timing are paramount,
the cam is an indispensable part of mechanism. The
possible applications of cams are unlimited, and their
shapes occur in great variety.
Different types of cams and their functions

• know different functions of different cam.
There are mainly four types of cams (Fig 1)

- Plate or disk cam
- Grooved cam
- Cylindrical cam or barrel cam
- End cam
The transformation of one of the simple motions, such
as rotation, into any other motions is often conveniently
accomplished by means of a cam mechanism.
In auto motion and to change rotational motion to
linear motion cam is very useful mechanism. In
automatic machine cam's function are essential.
62
Working circle Rotation (Fig 4)
The working circle is considered the distance equal to The rotation of the cam is either clockwise or counter
the distance from the center of the cam shaft to the clockwise.
highest point on the cam.
Cam Profile (Fig 4)
Base circle (Fig 2)
The cam profile is the actual working surface contour
The base circle is a circle with a radius equal to the of the cam
distance from the center of the shaft to the center of the
follower wheel at its lowest position.
Motion events (Fig 5)

When the cam turns through one motion cycle, the
follower executes a series of events consisting of rises,
dwells and returns. Rise is the motion of the follower
away from the cam center, dwell is the motion during
Follower displacement (Fig 3)
which the follower is at rest; and return is the motion of
The follower displacement is the position of the follower the follower toward the cam center.
from a specific zero or rest position in relation to time or
There are many follower motions that can be used for
distance measured in inches or degrees.
the rises and the returns. In this chapter, we describe a
number of basic curves.
Different types of followers and their functions

• state the function of follower.
Modes of Input / Output Motion

Rotating cam - translating follower (Fig 1)
Rotating follower
The follower arm swings or oscillates in a circular are
with respect to the follower pivot
Translating cam - translating follower (Fig 2)
Stationary cam - rotating follower
In end cam followers reciprocates or oscillates in a

direction vertically upward and down warder (Fig 5).
In disk cam follower reciprocates towards axis of shaft
perpendicularly.
The follower system revolves with respect to the center

line of the vertical shaft.
Types of followers
- Knife edge follower (Fig 3A)
- Roller follower (Fig 3B)
- Flat faced follower (Fig 3C)
- Spherical follower (Fig 3D)
In cylindrical cams, the follower reciprocates or oscillates
in a direction parallel to the cams axis (Fig 4 )
64
Working principle of eccentrics

• explain working principle of eccentrics.
• working principles of connecting rod.
Eccentric is used to provided a short reciprocating easy understanding of their shapes. Rotary motion can
motion, actuated by the rotation of a shaft eccentrics be converted into a reciprocating motion with an
are used for operating steam valves small pump plungers, eccentric but the reverse conversion is not possible due
shaking screens etc. The components parts and to, excessive friction between the sheave and the strap.
assembly of an eccentric are shown in Figs 1 & 2 for
65
Working principle of connecting rod
• details of connecting rod.
Connecting - rods (Fig 1) A large bearing area is provided to take the load, heat
and wear. The split halves are usually fitted with babbitt.
It is fitted in between the piston and crankshaft. It
In the upper end of the connecting rod a bronze bush
converts the reciprocating motion of the piston to the
is fixed. The small end of the connecting rod is connected
rotary motion in the crankshaft. It must be light and
to the piston by means of a piston pin.
strong enough to withstand stress and twisting forces.
In some engines a hole is drilled in the connecting rods
The connecting rod is made of high grade alloy steel.
from the big end to the small end. It allows oil to flow
It is drop-forged to ‘I’ shape. In some engines aluminium
alloy connecting rods are also used. The upper end of from the big end to the small end bush.
the connecting rod has a hole for the piston pin. The
lower end of the connecting rod is split, so that the
connecting rod can be installed on the crankshaft. The
top and bottom halves of the lower end of the connecting
rod are bolted together on the crankshaft big end journal
by bolt and nut.
Stuffing boxes
• explain stuffing boxes.
Stuffing Boxes (Figs 1,2 & 3) stuffing box, has a shoulder at the bottom or “throat”
(inboard end closest to impeller) and is fitted with a follower,
When you hear stuffing it usually means stuffing for
called the gland, on the outboard end, which compresses
turkeys, it may also suggest some misconceptions about
the packing into the inner sides of the stuffing box against
stuffing boxes for pumps.
the shoulder in the bottom of the box, and against the
When centrifugal pumps were developed there was a need rotating pump shaft. This effectively limits the leakage out
to prevent the pumpage from pouring out thru the open of the pump. It will not completely prevent leakage. A small
clearance between the pump casing back and the rotating amount of pumpage must leak out of the pump in order to
shaft, which turns the impeller. This was accomplished by cool and lubricate the packing.
stuffing rope like material, called packing, into a cylindrical
As leakage increases, the gland bolts are tightened up,
opening in the rear of the casing where the shaft passes
crushing the packing further down into the box. If a stuffing
through it. Packing is usually 1/4”, 3/8”, or 1/2” square
box contains all packing, it’s called “packed solid”. Packing
cross sectional, the size to match the annular section
solid is usually reserved for clean, cool liquids with relatively
between the shaft OD and the stuffing box ID. It comes in
good lubricity.
coils, and is cut to fit around the shaft OD. It is a soft
material and usually has a lubricant in it. The opening, the
SHAFT
More often, a lantern ring (or sometimes called a seal cage) This is in effect a very simple way to operate a packed
is used to separate two sets of packing. An external liquid centrifugal pump with minimum maintenance.
or grease can be used to lubricate and cool the packing or Packing glands are usually of a two piece (split) design with
to “seal” the box from air entering (if operating on a vacuum two bolts holding them to the casing back so that they can
or a suction lift). This is injected into the stuffing box thru be removed from around the shaft to make it easy to remove
a tapped opening on the side of the box. Some will leak to old packing and to install new packing. If handling liquids
the outboard while some will mix with the pumpage, so the near their vapor point (such as boiler feed water service),
“sealing” liquid or grease must be compatible with the special glands called “smothering, or quenching” are used
pumpage. to direct an external liquid (usually water) around the shaft
where is exits the gland to condense vapors coming out of
the gland for good housekeeping and to help prevent
vapors from getting into the nearby pump bearing housing.
Usually there is a drain in the bottom of such glands which
allow the quenching liquid to be piped or drained away.
Most pumps have a “flinger” on the shaft between the
stuffing box and the bearing housing to prevent stuffing box
leak off from getting into the bearing housing and causing
bearing failures. In addition, pump bearing housings are
equipped with lip seals, as a minimum, to prevent this and
other air bourn contamination
Almost all pumps are designed to have the bearing bracket
The disadvantage of this configuration is that as the act as a sump for stuffing box leak off. This sump usually
packing wears, the lantern ring moves beyond the area for has a drain to allow the leak off to be piped off or drained
which it is designed and sealing water or lubricant can no to the pump base plate. Don’t defeat it by allowing rags,
longer enter the stuffing box. The unit needs to be taken out debris or gunk to prevent its draining, since some pump
of service and re-packed with new packing. designs will allow the backed up leakage to flood the
Harry LaBour, the inventor of the Self Priming pump, was bearings, bringing your pump to a sudden stop.
very proud of the stuffing box design (below) that has Since the packing “grips” the shaft to limit leakage, even
proven to be trouble-free with a minimum of maintenance. though the pump shaft is rotating and the packing is
A very deep double compartment gland is provided, which stationary, this can cause wear to the pump shaft at this
has room for six rings of packing in the main part of the point. For this reason, most pumps have a sleeve which
stuffing box, followed by a gland collar which incorporates covers the shaft, protecting it where the shaft passes
an annular space close to the shaft which can be greased through the stuffing box. This way, if the packing was too
or liquid sealed to prevent air entering the pump or liquid tight, lacked lubricity, or had dirt, and scored something…it
leaking from the pump. will be a less expensive shaft sleeve which needs
replacement, not an expensive shaft.
The gland collar is in effect an external lantern ring. Two
rings of packing in the outer part of the gland collar and a Packing is an inexpensive method of sealing centrifugal
gland follower with 2 sets of compression springs complete pumps, and if properly installed and maintained, can offer
the seal. A conventional internal lantern ring has the trouble free, reliable service.
disadvantage that over time it will move deeper into the
stuffing box and eventually block the grease or liquid port
in the stuffing box, resulting in packing and/or shaft failure.
The function of the springs and the adjusting nut is to keep
the packing adjusted correctly without the requirement for
weekly or monthly adjustments.
Working principle of piston
• state the working principle of piston connecting rod.
Pistons (Fig 1) steam through the small gaps between the ends of the
rings, they ( the gaps) are kept as far as possible from
A piston is cylindrical in form and moves forwards and
each other.
backwards in a hollow cylinder.
The piston may be attached to the piston - rod end in
various ways. A small piston is generally screwed on the
threaded end of a piston rod, as shown in Fig 1 shows
the method of connecting very commonly used. The
tapered part of the rod fits accurately inside a similar
hole in the piston, while a nut is screwed on its threaded
end. A locking arrangement for the nut is invariably
provided . The taper of the rod ranges from 1 in 5 to
1 in 15.
The piston is made slightly smaller in diameter than the
diameter of the bore of the cylinder. Two or more, square
or rectangular grooves are cut in its periphery to
accommodate the piston rings of similar cross - section.
The rings are cut out of a tough - grained, cast - iron,
hollow cylinder, the outside diameter of which is larger
than that of the engine cylinder. A small piece is then cut
out from each ring, and the ends are filed at an angle of
about 45°. The rings are then sprung over the and placed
inside the grooves. When the piston is placed inside the
cylinder these rings press against the wall of the cylinder,
thus making a steam - tight joint. To reduce leakage of
History and development of automobiles

• state the history of internal combustion engines
• state the various types of internal combustion engines.
Automobile engines 1885: BENZ used benzine vapour in his engine for
combustion.
In a motor vehicle the engine develops power to propel
the vehicle. It converts the heat energy of the fuel into 1892:Rodolph Diesel invented the compression ignition
mechanical energy. Various types of engines are used engine in which diesel was used as a fuel.
in present day vehicles. The history of engine-propelled
1909:BENZ built a huge petrol engine vehicle with a speed
vehicles dates back to 1770 when the first vehicle propelled
of 40 kmph which replaced the steam engine.
by an engine rolled out on the road. Further development
of the engine is as follows. 1930:PERKINS built the famous P series engines using
diesel as fuel.
1770:The first engine propelled road vehicle built by
FRANCHLION - NICHOLAS - JOSEPH - CUGNOT. Types of heat engines
It started to roll under its own power. It used a steam External Combustion Engine
engine.
Steam Engine
1789:The first three wheeler self propelled vehicle started Internal Combustion Engine
to roll on the road with a maximum speed of about 30
kmph.
1805:The first four wheeler self-propelled vehicle was Spark ignition Compression ignition
made by one EVEN and was driven by a steam
engine.
Reciprocating Rotary Two stroke Four stroke
1876:A German engineer OTTO developed a four stroke
engine using gas and air for combustion. engine
1880:The two-stroke engine was invented by DUGALD-

Four stroke Two stroke
CLERK.
Types of engines as per cylinder arrangement
In-line engines (Fig 1)
Radial engines (Fig 4)
In this type, the cylinders are arranged in one line. The

length of the crankshaft is longer than that of the other
types of engines, and hence a limited number of
cylinders is used. Better balancing and more uniform
torque is obtained in this type.
V Engines (Fig 2)
In this type, the cylinders are arranged in V shape at an
angle, of usually 60°. This engine is more economical
and compact. For multi-cylinder engines, the length of
the crankshaft is much shorter than that of the in-line
engine. In this type, the engine height is also lower than
the one in the in-line engine.
In this type, the cylinders are arranged radially. This

type of engine is shorter, lighter and more rigid. Since it
is rigid, a higher engine speed is possible and a higher
combustion pressure can be obtained. This leads to
high fuel efficiency. The radial type engines are used
mostly in aeroplanes.
Types of engines as per number of cylinders
Single cylinder engine
An engine which has only one cylinder is called a single
cylinder engine. Since it is a single cylinder engine it
cannot develop more power. It is normally used only in
two wheelers like scooters and motor cycles.
Multi-cylinder engines
These engines have more than one cylinder. Two-
Opposed engines (Fig 3) cylinder engines are usually used in tractors. Three or
In this type the cylinders are arranged horizontally four-cylinder engines are used in cars, jeeps and other
opposite to each other. This provides better mechanical vehicles. In heavy vehicles six-cylinder engines are
balance. This type of engine can run smoothly even at a used. A greater number of cylinders gives smoother
much higher speed. It also gives higher outputs. The engine operation.
length of the engine increases too much, and the engine
has to be placed in the transverse direction in the vehicle.
Classification of engines
• state the classification of engines
• state the technical terms used in relation to engines
• state the technical specification of an internal combustion engine
• state a four-stroke cycle
• state a two-stroke cycle
• differentiate between four and two-stroke engines
• state the operation of a spark ignition engine
• state the operation of a compression ignition engine
• compare compression ignition and spark ignition engines.
Engines are classified according to the following factors. B.D.C.(Bottom dead centre)
Number of cylinders It is the position of the piston at the bottom of the cylinder
where the piston changes its direction of motion from
- Single cylinder
the bottom to the top.
- Multi-cylinder
Stroke
Arrangement of cylinders
The distance travelled by the piston from TDC to BDC or
- In-line engine BDC to TDC.
- ‘V’ shape engine Cycle
- Opposed engine A set of operations performed in sequence by the motion
- Horizontal engine of the piston in an engine to produce power.
- Radial engine Swept volume (VS)
- Vertical engine Displacement volume of a piston.
Type of fuel used Clearance volume (VC)
- Petrol engine Volume of the space above the piston when it is at TDC.
- Diesel engine Compression ratio (CR)
Type of valve arrangements Ratio of compression volumes before the stroke and after.
- ‘ I’ head engine VS + VC
CR =
- ‘ F’ head engine VC
- ‘ L’ head engine where VS = swept volume
- ‘ H’ head engine VC = clearance volume
- ‘ T’ head engine VS+VC = total volume at BDC.
Application of engine Power
- Constant speed engine Power is the rate at which work is done in a specific
- Variable speed engine time.
Cooling system
Power =
(Force × Dis tan ce moved)
- Air cooled engine
Time
- Water cooled engine
Horsepower (HP)
Strokes of engine
It is the measurement of power in SAE. One HP is the
- Four-stroke engine power required to lift a load of 33000 lbs, through one
- Two-stroke engine foot in one minute.
- Rotary engine Thermal efficiency
Basic technical terms used in relation to engines It is the ratio of work output to the fuel energy burnt in
the engine. This relationship is expressed in percentage.
T.D.C. (Top dead centre)
Brake horse power (BHP)
It is the position of the piston at the top of a cylinder,
where the piston changes its direction of motion from It is the power output of an engine, available at the
the top to the bottom. flywheel.
2πNT Air cleaner (type)
BHP =
4500 Oil filter (type)
where N is r.p.m. of the crankshaft, and T is the torque Fuel filter
produced. Fuel injection pump
Indicated horse power (IHP) Weight of engine
It is the power developed in the engine cylinder. Cooling system (type)
PmLAN Type of fuel
IHP = ×K
4500 Four-stroke engines
2
where Pm is the mean effective pressure in kg./cm , To produce power in a four-stroke engine the following
L is the length of the stroke in metres operations take place in the sequence given.
A is the area of the piston in cm2 Suction stroke (Fig 1)
N is the No. of power strokes per minute

K is the No. of cylinders.
Frictional horsepower
It is the horse power lost in the engine due to friction.
FHP = IHP - BHP
Mechanical efficiency
It is the ratio of power delivered (BHP) and the power
available in the engine (IHP). It is expressed in
percentage (%) .
BHP
Mechanical efficiency = × 100
IHP
Volumetric efficiency
It is the ratio between the mixture drawn in the cylinder
during the suction stroke and the volume of the cylinder.
Throw
The piston moves from TDC to BDC. A vacuum is created
It is the distance between the centre of the crankpin to
inside the cylinder. The inlet valve opens while the exhaust
the centre of the main journal. The piston stroke is double
valve remains closed. The charge (air/air-fuel mixture)
the throw.
enters the cylinder.
Firing order
Compression stroke (Fig 2)
The firing order is the sequence in which the power stroke
takes place in each cylinder in a multi-cylinder engine.
Technical specification of an engine
Engines are specified as per the following.
Type
Number of cylinders
Bore diameter
Stroke length
Capacity in cu.cm or cu.inch
Maximum engine output at specified r.p.m.
Maximum torque
Compression ratio
Firing order
Idling speed
The inlet valve closes. The exhaust valve remains closed. Two stroke engines (Fig 5)
The piston moves from BDC to TDC. The charge (air/
air-fuel mixture) is compressed. The pressure and
temperature rise.
Power stroke (Fig 3)
First stroke (suction and compression)

As the piston moves up from BDC, it closes the inlet port
(1), the exhaust port (3) and the transfer port (2). Further
The charge is ignited and pressure develops inside the upward movement of the piston results in compressing
cylinder. The gas expands and the piston is forced down the mixture in the cylinder and opening of the inlet port
from TDC to BDC. Both the valves remain closed. Power (1). The upward motion of the piston creates a partial
is supplied to the flywheel. vacuum inside the crank case below the piston and the
Exhaust stroke (Fig 4) air/fuel mixture is drawn into the crank case through the
inlet port (1). The exhaust and transfer ports remain
closed during the operation of the upward stroke and the
charge is compressed which reached above the piston
during the previous stroke.
At the end of this stroke the mixture is ignited by an
electric spark (4). This causes the pressure to rise.
Second stroke (power and exhaust) (Figs 6 & 7)
The inlet valve remains in the closed position. The exhaust

valve opens, the piston moves from BDC to TDC due to
the energy stored in the flywheel. The burnt gases
inside the cylinder go out through the exhaust valves. At
the end of the stroke the exhaust valve closes.
The cycle of suction, compression power and exhaust
are repeated. In this type of engine one power stroke is
obtained in two revolutions of the crankshaft.
exhaust port. This process is called scavenging. Once
the flywheel has completed one revolution, the cycle is
repeated. In this engine one power stroke is obtained in
each revolution of the crankshaft.
Spark ignition engine
In a spark ignition (SI) engine, petrol is used as fuel.
During the suction stroke the air and fuel mixture is
sucked into the cylinder. The quantity of the mixture is
metered by the carburettor according to the load and
speed. The ratio of air/fuel mixture is also metered by
the carburettor. During the compression stroke, this air/
fuel mixture is ignited by the spark and the mixture is
burnt. It raises the pressure of the gas above the piston.
The piston is forced down and this power is supplied to
the flywheel. During the exhaust stroke burnt gases
escape through the exhaust port/valve.
In this type of engine the compression ratio is low.
Compression ignition engine (CI engine)
In a CI engine air alone is sucked into the cylinder during
the suction stroke and it is compressed to a high
The piston is forced downward from the TDC. During pressure. It develops a very high temperature. At the
this stroke the exhaust port opens and burnt gases escape end of the compression stroke, fuel is injected with the
into the atmosphere. help of a fuel injection pump and atomizer. The injected
fuel is self- ignited due to the high temperature created
Further downward movement of the piston opens the
during the compression stroke.
transfer port and allows the partially compressed mixture,
received during the previous stroke, to reach the The ignited gas expands, forces down the piston, and
combustion chamber from the crankcase. power is produced. In this engine, the compression
ratio is higher compared to the petrol engine.
The piston head has a special shape. It deflects a fresh
charge of fuel mixture up into the cylinder. The mixture
flows down and pushes the burnt gas out, through the
Comparison between four-stroke engine and two stroke engines
S. Four-stroke engine Two-stroke engine

No.
1 Four operations (suction, compression, power and The four operations take place in two strokes of the
exhaust) take place in the four strokes of the piston. piston.
2 It gives one power stroke in four strokes, i.e in The power stroke takes place in every two strokes i.e.
two revolutions of the crankshaft. As such 3 strokes one power stroke for one revolution of the crankshaft.
are idle strokes.
The engine has more uniform load as every time the
3 Due to more idle strokes and non-uniform load on piston comes down it is the power stroke. As such a
the crankshaft, a heavier flywheel is required. lighter flywheel is used.
4 The engine has more parts such as valves and its The engine has no valves and valve operating
operating mechanism. Therefore the engine is mechanism. Therefore it is lighter in weight.
heavier.
The engine is less expensive as it has a lesser number
5 The engine is costlier as it has more parts. of parts.
6 The engine efficiency is more as the charge gets The efficiency is less. A portion of the charge escapes
completely burnt out. Consequently the fuel through the exhaust port and because of this, the fuel
efficiency is more. efficiency is less.
Two stroke diesel engine: The working principle of two
stroke compression ignition (diesel) engine is described
as follows.
First stroke: Piston at BDC the scavenging port and outlet
valve open (Fig 8). A root blower sucks in pure air and
presses it through the scavenging port into the cylinder.
The tangential layout of the scavenging port brings the air
into a turbulent motion. The cylinder is completely flushed
out in the direct current and filled with fresh air. The exhaust
gases flow out towards the outlet valve.
As the piston moves up from BDC the scavenging port and
outlet valve closed. The piston compresses the fresh air to
the compression chamber. The air temperature increases
intensively.
Second stroke: Piston at TDC (Fig 9), scavenging port
and outlet valve closed. The fuel is directly injected into the
cylinder with the help of a fuel injection pump and an
injector fitted in the cylinder head. The fuel gets vaporised
into an ignitable fuel air mixture by the hot air. After attaining
the ignition temperature the mixture gets automatically
ignited and burns. The heat increases the pressure in the
combustion chamber. The gases get expanded and push
the piston to the bottom dead centre.
Scavenging port and outlet valve open. The gases get
released. The cylinder is filled for the next working cycle.
Camshaft located above actuates the outlet valve and
individual injection pump (pump jet).
Working principle of four stroke diesel engine

• explain air compressor, exhauster and turbo charger
• compare the spark ignition and compression ignition engines.
Working principle of four stroke diesel engine: The

engines of heavy motor vehicles (like buses, trucks)
stationary power plants, big industrial units and ships
operates on diesel cycle. It is introduced by Dr.Rudolph
Diesel in 1892. In diesel cycle engines only air is compressed
in the cylinder to a high pressure (35-55 Kg/cm2), the
temperature of this compressed air becomes sufficiently
high (600 - 9000C) to ignite fuel. Diesel is injected in the
cylinder at the end of the compression stroke which itself
ignites due to the high temperature of the compressed air.
The compression ratio of diesel engine is 14-22:1.
To produce power in four stroke diesel-cycle, compression
ignition engine, the following operations take place in the
sequence listed below:
Suction stroke (Fig 1): The piston moves from TDC to
BDC. A vacuum is created inside the cylinder. The inlet
valve opens while the exhaust valve remains closed. Air
enter the cylinder due to the pressure variation above the
piston in the cylinder and the atmosphere.
Compression stroke (Fig 2): The inlet valve closes. The
exhaust valve remain closed. The piston moves from BDC
to TDC. The charge air gets compressed. The air is finally
compressed to a pressure as high as 35-55 Kg/cm2 at
which its temperature 600 - 9000C, enough to ignite the fuel
(Self ignition temperature of the diesel fuel 4000C).
The cycle of suction, compression, power and exhaust

are repeated. In this type of engines one power stroke is
obtained in two revolution of the crankshaft.
Air compressor, exhauster and turbo charger
Air Compressor: An air compressor is part of an engine.
Power stroke (Fig 3): At the end of the compression
It is driven either from the timing gear or from the camshaft
stroke the fuel (diesel) in injected with the help of a fuel
to maintain air pressure for different purposes.
injection pump and injector into the hot compressed air
under a pressure of 100 - 200 Kg/cm2, the diesel ignites. Normally, it is of a single cylinder type consisting of a piston
The gas expands and the piston is forced down from TDC assembly, connected to the crankshaft by means of a
to BDC. Both the valves remain closed. Power is supplied connecting rod. It has an inlet valve and a delivery valve.
to the flywheel. An air compressor is having an inbuilt air cooling system
with fins on its head. Valves are automatic in action and
consist of hardened and lapped spring loaded steel discs
against removable seats. Engine lubricating oil is circulated
to lubricate the parts of air compressor
Operation: During the downward stroke of piston partial
vacuum is created in cylinder which opens the inlet valve,
air to enter into the cylinder. During the upward stroke, the
pressure closes the inlet valve. So air is compressed in the
cylinder which opens the delivery valve sending compressed
air to the reservoir.
Exhauster
Vane type exhauster: Exhausters are fitted on diesel
engine to develop vacuum to assist the pneumatic governor
of F.I.P. A vane type exhauster is held by bolt over an
opening in the engine and consists of a rotor, keyed to a
shaft. The rotor is mounted eccentrically to the barrel
(body) of the exhauster. Vanes are fitted with sliding fit in
the slots of the rotor. A shift valve fitted on the exhauster,
limits the vacuum to a predetermined pressure.
Exhaust stroke (Fig 4): The inlet valve remains in the
Impeller type exhauster: The impeller type exhauster has
closed position. The exhaust valve opens, the piston moves
two spindles. One has an impeller. It is driven by auxiliary
from BDC to TDC due to the energy stored in the flywheel.
driving shaft and the other spindle has rotor whose vanes
The burnt gases from the cylinder go out through the
engage with those on the driven rotor.
exhaust valve. At the end of the stroke the exhaust valve
closes.
Operation of exhauster: The vane type exhauster unit
works on the principle of centrifugal force. When the
engine is running due to centrifugal action, the vanes which
have a sliding fit, fit into the slots in the rotor, which come
out to the interior surface of the body (barrel). Air is thus
evacuated through out the section and is discharged into
the crank case. Lubrication for vanes is provided by splash
of oil from the crank case.
Turbo charger (Fig 5): Turbo charger is mounted on the
engine. It increases the amount of air delivered to the
engine cylinder, thereby more fuel can be burnt which
increases engine power. Whenever the density of air is A turbo charger is mounted on the exhaust manifold. It has
less than the density at atmospheric pressure specially at a turbine wheel (1) and a compressor wheel (2) on the same
higher altitudes, turbo charges helps the engine to get the shaft (3). Exhaust gases enter in turbine housing (4) and
sufficient air. An engine may have one or more turbo rotate the turbine wheel (1). Compressor housing’s (5) inlet
chargers. is connected to the air cleaner and compressed air is
discharged to inlet manifold through the outlet (6).
Comparison between S.I. and C.I. engines

S.
No. SI engine CI engine
1 Petrol is used as fuel. Diesel is used as fuel.
2 During the suction stroke air and fuel mixture is During the suction stroke air alone is sucked in.
sucked in.
Compression ratio is high. (Max. 24:1)
3 Compression ratio is low. (Max. 10:1)
Compression pressure is high. (400 to 550 PSI)
4 Compression pressure is low. (90 to 150 PSI)
Compression temperature is high.
5 Compression temperature is low.
It operates under constant pressure cycle (diesel cycle).
6 It operates under constant volume cycle (Otto
Fuel is ignited due to the heat of the highly compressed
cycle).
air.
7 Fuel is ignited by means of an electric spark.
Combustion takes place at constant pressure.
8 A carburettor is used to atomize, vapourise and
Fuel injection pumps and atomizers are used to inject
meter the correct amount of fuel according to the
metered quantities of fuel at high pressure according
requirement.
to the requirement.
9 Less vibration, and hence, smooth running.
More vibration, and hence, rough running and more
10 Engine weight is less. noisy.
11 It emits carbon monoxide. (CO) Engine weight is more.
It emits carbon dioxide. (CO2)
Air values in piping system

• explain types of air values and their construction and functions.
Liquid piping systems are prone to collecting air from AWWA air valves are constructed of iron or stainless-steel
incoming fluids, pumps and connections. This air can bodies with corrosion-resistant trim for water and wastewater
cause inefficiencies and serious operating problems. service. An important point here is that these air valves
Last year, VALVE Magazine published "Why Air Valves have a different function than pressure and vacuum relief
are Needed in Water Applications," which outlined the valves, which are installed on the top of gas or steam
sources and effects of air in pipelines. This article explains pressure vessels and liquid storage tanks to provide
how the various types of air valves operate in liquid piping overpressure protection. Relief valves have set points
systems. designed to provide overpressure protection and are
beyond the scope of this discussion. The air valves
Air release valves, which expel trapped air in a pipeline,
presented in this article automatically control the flow of air
are familiar to most people, but many other types of air
or gases in and out of liquid piping systems at all operating
valves are out there that have special functions, unique
conditions.
construction for wastewater and sizes up to NPS 20.
Safeguarding piping systems from air-related problems Air release valves (Fig 3)
Fig 1
requires knowing how to select and install the right air

valves. (Fig 1)
Types of air valves
Three basic types of air valves are defined in American
Water Works Association (AWWA) Standard C512 for
use in water and wastewater, including: Air release valves are probably the most widely used type
• Air-Release (Figs 2 & 3) of air valve and are characterized by small orifices,
weighted floats and leverage mechanisms. The combination
• Air/Vacuum (Fig 4) of these three features allow air release valves to expel air
• Combination (Fig 5) or gas at full operating pressure. Since air release valves
have orifices that range in diameter from 1/16 of an inch
Fig 2 to 1 inch, they have a limited capacity for admitting and
exhausting air. In other words, a typical piping system will
not be filled or drained using just an air release valve; such
an action would take weeks. Air release valves automatically
vent small pockets of accumulated air or gases as those
pockets accumulate in a liquid piping system. For example,
an air release valve mounted on the top of the pipe could
automatically release trapped air that accumulates in the
top of the piping system.
When installed, air release valves are "normally open" and
expel air (Fig 3). It is only when liquid enters the valve that
the float rises because of its buoyancy and seals off the
valve's orifice. Conversely, as air accumulates in the valve
79
body, the float will drop because of its weight and reopen throttling device is used to slow down the exhaust of air,
the valve. To reopen an air release valve under operating preventing the water from rising too fast, slamming into the
pressure requires a mechanical linkage for magnifying downstream check valve and causing water hammer in the
the weight of the float and breaking the pressurized seal pump column. (Fig 5)
on the orifice. Even a quarter-inch orifice will require 3.9
Fig 5
pounds of force to break the seal when operating at 80
psig, and a typical 3-inch diameter air release valve float
only displaces about half a pound of water. Because of
this, mechanical linkage is needed to multiply the weight
of the float, and the orifice diameter on air release valves
is limited in size to reduce the breaking force needed.
Air/Vacuum valves (Fig 4)
Another optional device for an air/vacuum valve is a slow-

closing device. This device is commonly used for pipeline
applications where column separation may occur. One
An air/vacuum valve has a full-size orifice ranging from purpose of this device is to close when high exhaust rates
half an inch to 20 inches. Because of this, the valves can might occur. It's also to regulate the exhaust rate of the air
exhaust large volumes of air. The valves also will admit valve so that the water column does not slam into the air
large volumes of air to prevent a vacuum condition from valve and cause water hammer or damage to the air valve.
occurring in the pipeline and to allow for draining. Air/ The slow-closing device can be mounted on the inlet of
vacuum valves are normally open (Fig 4) and a float in the clean water valves and on the outlet of wastewater air
valve rises with the water level to seal the large orifice after valves when column separation or vacuum conditions
the air has been exhausted. Conversely, when system might occur.
pressure is lost because of draining, line break or column
The slow-closing device has a disc that closes automatically
separation, the float drops and allows air to re-enter the
when high air exhaust rates occur (Fig 6). The disc
pipeline. It is important to note that under normal operation,
contains reduced ports that are typically 5-10% of the full
the float is held closed by the line pressure and will not
orifice size. This is important when the valve is subjected
relieve accumulated air. These valves do not have
to column separation or vacuum conditions in a pipeline.
mechanical linkage and because of the large diameter
If the air valve location is subjected to a sudden vacuum
orifice, have no ability to open while the system is
pressure after a power outage and pump stoppage, the air
pressurized. Therefore, an air release valve is needed to
valve will admit a large volume of air into the pipeline to
relieve air and gas during system operation.
prevent a vacuum. When the pipeline pressure returns, or
A common application for air/vacuum valves is for the a pump is started, the slow-closing device controls the
discharge of vertical turbine pumps. This is because after exhaust rate of the air so that the water column slowly
shutdown, the piping between the pump and the check enters the air valve to prevent air valve damage and water
valve fill with air. When the vertical turbine pump is started, hammer in the pipeline. (Fig 6)
it rapidly lifts the column of water, and the trapped air must
Combination air valves
be expelled before the water opens the check valve. An air/
vacuum valve is the right fit for this application because it The third type of air valve is the combination air valve,
can rapidly expel large volumes of air and close when fluid which contains the functions of both the air/vacuum and
fills the air valve. air release valves. A combination air valve can be
furnished either as a single-body design, where a single
An air/vacuum valve can be piped to the top of the pump
body contains both air release and air/vacuum components,
column so that when the pump is started, the air trapped
or as a dual-body design (Fig 7), where an air release valve
in the pump column is expelled through the air/vacuum
is piped to the side of an air/vacuum valve. The two
valve (Fig 5). The valve in this case is equipped with a
configurations perform the same functions. However, the
throttling device, which is an adjustable device mounted on
single-body design can be more economical while the
the outlet of an air valve to control the exhaust flow rate.
dual-body design can provide design flexibility when
Since the pump can reach full speed in a few seconds, a
sizing the orifices. (Figs 7 & 8)
Some piping designers use only combination air valves on
a pipeline because all air valve functions are included; a
mistake in field installation will not leave the pipeline
unprotected. Other applications for combination air valves
include pump discharge headers and use upstream for
flow measurement devices (Fig 8). The combination air
valve automatically releases air to improve the accuracy
of the flow measurement device.
Locations along a pipeline
Air valves are generally installed on liquid piping systems
to exhaust air or gases and admit air to prevent vacuum
conditions and air-related surges. The AWWA Air Valve
Manual recommends air valves at various locations
including high points, long runs, adjacent to mainline
valves, downstream of pumps and where there are changes
in pipe slope. Valve manufacturers provide online computer
software to assist in locating and sizing air valves.
Installation (Fig 9)
Fig 7
Fig 8
Installation methods for air valves are important to ensure

their proper function (AWWA, 2016). The best results are
achieved when the air valve is mounted directly on top of
the pipe. Unfortunately, some pipelines are located under
roadways, which requires the air valve be mounted in a
separate vault. In these cases, it is important that the
connecting pipe be sized for the flow conditions and slope
upward to the air valve. Furthermore, extended air valve
piping can have a multiplying effect on surges, so a
transient analysis may be needed to evaluate this piping.
For maintenance purposes, all installations should include
a shutoff valve under the air valve. Also, to help in collecting
the air that travels along a pipeline, a riser pipe larger than
the air valve inlet is recommended (Fig 9). A drain valve
can be used to annually check the function of the air valve.
If the drain valve expels air, the air release portion of the
air valve may require maintenance or repair. Otherwise,
the air valve should be observed during a pump operation
to verify it is exhausting air and closing without excessive
leakage.
Caution is needed when inspecting or performing
maintenance on an air valve. This is because when the
system is functioning, an air valve can release large
quantities of air under pressure or admit large quantities
of air under vacuum conditions. Both can cause bodily
harm. Any maintenance on an air valve requires closing
the shutoff valve under the air valve. But even with the
shutoff valve closed, pressurized air can be trapped in the
air valve. This is why care is needed when venting the air
through a drain valve or pipe plug before removing the air
valve cover.
Wastewater air valves can be subject to clogging from the
collection of greases, grit and solids in the valve. For best
performance, these valves should be equipped with
elongated bodies, sloped bottoms, a minimum of a 2-inch Conclusion
inlet and smooth coatings. Depending on the service, a When air is allowed to accumulate in pressurized pipelines,
backwash kit can be added to the valve to facilitate efficiency is sacrificed, and serious system damage can
maintenance. Also, a backwash operation (Fig 10) can be occur. By having an understanding of the various types
performed by 1) closing the isolation valve, 2) connecting of air valves, system designers can better select and install
the blow off valve to a drain opening and 3) supplying water air valves to protect liquid piping systems.
for several minutes using the water hose to flush out the
valve. Some air valves may have a 2-inch cleanout for large
debris or multiple ports on the top of the valve to flush.
(Fig 10)
Knowledge of fuel injection system

• explain fuel injection system
• describe slow plugs
• explain the future of diesel injection system
• the related questions and answers
• explain fuel injection system of petrol.
Diesel Fuel Injection System cycle engine system. A self-igniting system, the diesel
relies on the heat generated by highly compressed air to
Both engines convert fuel into energy via a series of minor
fire the fuel-air mix without the need of spark plug. Because
explosions or combustions. However, the way the
diesel fuel tends to be less refined than gasoline, it also
combustion happens is different in both engines. In
contains anti-fouling and special misting chemicals so the
gasoline engine, the air is mixed with fuel and the combined
engine will work correctly.
substance gets compressed by pistons. The explosion is
ignited by a spark. On the other hand, in a diesel engine, How Often Should Diesel Engine Injectors Be Replaced?
air is compressed first which causes the air to heat up.
Depending on the type of driving one does, the average life
Then the fuel is injected, which ignites the explosion.
of diesel engine injectors should be about two years before
This is probably the way diesel fuel injection systems they need a major tear-down and cleaning. This is because
differs from gasoline injection systems. In the gasoline the diesel injector puts fuel directly into an already
injection system, all the chemicals are injected first, then compressed air mixture and it self-ignites (a true diesel
compressed. The problem with this system is getting the cycle engine). The problem with diesel fuel injectors is not
right amount of compression pressure. If the mixture is so much the service they are used for but the type of diesel
compressed too much, what will happen is that the mixture fuel used. If it is high in gums, laws, and paraffin, you will
explodes together at the same time, causing knocking. find that the diesel fuel injector may need replacement
Knocking can damage the engine. more often than you would think.
On the other hand, the diesel fuel injector system directly What is the Most Common Diesel Injector Pump
injects fuel into the system. The injector is a very complicated Repair?
part, and massive research has been done to improve it.
The most common diesel injector pump repair is replacement
The injector can withstand high pressure and deliver the
of the pump rotor. The rotor will typically seize due to lack
fuel in a fine mist form. Some diesel engines employ
of lubrication. In the majority of cases, this is caused by
induction valves, so that the fuel can get circulated in the
a clog or restriction that prevents diesel fuel flow from
engine.
reaching the rotor. Because diesel fuel is similar to oil, it
Glow Plugs is used as a lubricant for the diesel fuel pump. Another type
of problem common to diesel pumps is corroded computer
Some engines contain glow plugs. The function of the glow
connectors. Because computer control was not part of the
plug is to raise air temperature so that ignition can occur
original design, the circuit board is sometimes not sealed
in the car engine. Sometimes when compression occurs,
from the effects of the environment. This is usually the case
no ignition might happen. The glow plugs will then raise the
if the board is mounted below the pump.
temperature high enough to ignite the fuel.
What is a Diesel LPG Injection System?
The Future of Diesel Injection System
Diesel LPG injection allows the engine to operate on diesel
In the past, scientists experimented with diesel for fuel
fuel exclusively or a mixture of LPG (Liquid Propane Gas)
energy. The results were disappointing. Burning diesel in
and diesel fuel. Some vehicles come from the factory
a car often gives out a lot of black smoke and the engines
equipped to run LPG, while others may need a conversion
were giving out loud noises. However, in modern times, an
kit in order to use LPG. Some of the benefits of LPG use
increase in technological advancement has made diesel
are reduced fuel cost, improved emissions, and improved
burning a lot more efficient and cleaner. Direct injections
engine power. The LPG is a secondary fuel, almost like a
are now controlled by computers.
fuel additive. The main fuel delivery system of the vehicle
Related Questions and Answers remains unchanged, and the engine can burn diesel fuel
as normal. However, when the LPG is mixed with the diesel,
How Does Direct Injection Work on Diesel Engines?
it allows the diesel fuel to be completely burned, providing
In a direct injection engines system the fuel is injected the aforementioned benefits.
directly into the cylinder in a diesel engine. The injection
of fuel occurs when the air is compressed to its hottest and
the fuel will work most efficiently. This is the prototype diesel
83
Will a High Performance Fuel Pump Make My Car One solution is to fit twin-carburettors, but these are difficult
Faster? to tune correctly. Instead, many cars are now being fitted
with fuel-injected engines where the fuel is delivered in
The high performance fuel pump is typically a modification
precise bursts. Engines so equipped are usually more
that is made as an aftermarket part. However, high
efficient and more powerful than carburetted ones, and
performance vehicles come from the factory with these
they can also be more economical, as well as having less
types of pumps as standard equipment. Of course, a high
poisonous emissions.
performance fuel pump will be electric, and will be mounted
within the fuel tank or engine compartment. However, a Diesel fuel injection
high performance fuel pump will not make a vehicle go
The fuel injection system in petrol engined cars is always
faster all by itself. Larger fuel delivery lines, heftier fuel
indirect, petrol being injected into the inlet manifold or inlet
rails, high flow fuel filter, and high flow fuel injectors are
port rather than directly into the combustion chambers.
needed in order to send more fuel into the cylinders,
This ensures that the fuel is well mixed with the air before
thereby producing more power and speed.
it enters the chamber.
What Do I Need to Adjust the Diesel Injection Pump
Many diesel engines, however, use direct injection in
Timing?
which the diesel is injected directly into the cylinder filled
Diesel injection pump timing alterations are made by with compressed air. Others use indirect injection in which
making cam follower adjustments. For most do-it-yourself the diesel fuel is injected into the specially shaped pre-
operations, and for those not intimately knowledgeable combustion chamber which has a narrow passage
about diesel engines, a diesel injector timing tool set is the connecting it to the cylinder head.
way to go. Unfortunately, these tool sets can be very
Only air is drawn into the cylinder. It is heated so much by
expensive. If you do not do this type of work for a living, you
compression that atomized fuel injected at the end of the
may want to consider renting or borrowing the tools. The
compression stroke self-ignites.
kit allows you to measure static timing, determine the
injector push-tube travel within the cylinder, and will Basic injection
accurately indicate when the cylinder has reached top All modern petrol injection systems use indirect injection.
dead center (TDC). A special pump sends the fuel under pressure from the fuel
How a fuel injection system works (Fig 1) tank to the engine bay where, still under pressure, it is
distributed individually to each cylinder.
For the engine to run smoothly and efficiently it needs to
be provided with the right quantity of fuel/air mixture Depending on the particular system, the fuel is fired into
according to its wide range of demands. either the inlet manifold or the inlet port via an injector. This
works much like the spray nozzle of a hose, ensuring that
the fuel comes out as a fine mist. The fuel mixes with the
air passing through the inlet manifold or port and the fuel/
air mixture enters the combustion chamber.
Some cars have multi-point fuel injection where each
cylinder is fed by its own injector. This is complex and can
be expensive. It's more common to have single-point
injection where a single injector feeds all the cylinders, or
to have one injector to every two cylinders.
Injectors
The injectors through which the fuel is sprayed are
screwed, nozzle-first, into either the inlet manifold or the
cylinder head and are angled so that the spray of fuel is
fired towards the inlet valve.
Petrol-engined cars use indirect fuel injection. A fuel pump The injectors are one of two types, depending on the
sends the petrol to the engine bay, and it is then injected injection system. The first system uses continuous injection
into the inlet manifold by an injector. There is either a where the fuel is squirted into the inlet port all the time the
separate injector for each cylinder or one or two injectors engine is running. The injector simply acts as a spray
into the inlet manifold. nozzle to break up the fuel into a fine spray - it doesn't
actually control the fuel flow. The amount of fuel sprayed
Traditionally, the fuel/air mixture is controlled by the is increased or decreased by a mechanical or electrical
carburettor, an instrument that is by no means perfect. control unit - in other words, it is just like turning a tap on
Its major disadvantage is that a single carburettor supplying and off.
a four-cylinder engine cannot give each cylinder precisely
the same fuel/air mixture because some of the cylinders
are further away from the carburettor than others.
The other popular system is timed injection (pulsed injection) as the engine temperature, the throttle position and the
where the fuel is delivered in bursts to coincide with the engine speed to compute the fuel/air mixture required by
induction stroke of the cylinder. As with continuous injection, the engine and its timing to the injectors.
timed injection can also be controlled either mechanically
or electronically.
The earliest systems were mechanically controlled. They
are often called petrol injection (PI for short) and the fuel
flow is controlled by a mechanical regulator assembly.
These systems suffer from the drawbacks of being
mechanically complex and having poor response to backing
off the throttle.
Mechanical systems have now been largely superseded by
electronic fuel injection(known as EFi for short). This is
thanks to the increasing reliability and decreasing costs of
electronic control systems.
Types of fuel injector
A mechanical fuel injector
Two main types of injector can be fitted, depending on
whether the injection system is mechanically or electronically
controlled.
In a mechanical system, the injector is spring-loaded into
the closed position and is opened by fuel pressure.
An electronic injector
The injector in an electronic system is also held closed by
a spring, but is opened by an electromagnet built into the
injector body. The electronic control unit determines how
long the injector stays open.
Mechanical fuel injector (Fig 2)
Electronic injector (Fig 3)
Mechanical fuel injection
Bosch electronic fuel injection (Fig 4)
An electronic system is operated entirely by a
microprocessor control unit. This measures factors such
The main difference between electronic injection and called an electronic control unit or ECU), which is basically
mechanical injection is that an electronic system is controlled a miniature computer. (Fig 5)
by a complex microprocessor control unit (sometimes
This computer is fed with information from sensors mounted from normal, it can adjust both the ignition timing and the
on the engine. These measure factors such as the air fuel delivery to bring the engine back to tune.
pressure and temperature in the air intake, the engine This ensures that pollution levels are cut to a minimum as
temperature, accelerator position and engine speed. All well as providing the best combination of performance and
this information allows an electronic system to meter the fuel economy.
fuel far more accurately than the simple mechanical
Fuel-injected engine bay (Fig 6)
system, which relies on sensing the airflow alone.
The under bonnet layout of a fuel-injected car tends to have
The computer compares the input signals from the sensors
a lot of pipework. This Audi 100 engine bay clearly shows
with information already programmed into it at the factory,
the reinforced braided fuel-injection-system pipes running
and works out exactly how much fuel should be delivered
over the top of the inlet manifold, and branching off to an
to the engine. It then signals the on-off valve in the injector
injector at each manifold tract. This car has a five-cylinder
to open and squirt fuel into the inlet port. All this happens
engine and so has five injectors. (Fig 7)
in a fraction of a second, the control unit responding
instantly to changes in accelerator position, temperature Fig 6
and air pressure.
As well as improved control over fuel flow, the electronic
system also operates at lower pressure than a mechanical
system - usually at around 25-30psi. This makes it run more
quietly than a mechanical system does.
A typical system is the Bosch LJetronic, which is fitted to
a wide range of European cars. In this system, fuel is drawn
from the tank by an electric pump. It is then fed straight up
pipes to the injectors. The system pumps more fuel than is
needed for injection - a loop circuit returns the excess to
the fuel tank via a pressure regulator which keeps the
pressure in the pipes constant.
Fig 7
The injector valves are held closed by springs, and opened
by solenoids(electromagnets) when signalled to do so by
the control unit. The amount of fuel injected depends on
how long the solenoid holds the injector open.
Engine management
Some combined systems, known as engine management
systems, can take into account many more factors than an
electronic fuel injection system.
One type, the Bosch Motronic, monitors the level of oxygen
in the engine's exhaust gases. When there is a deviation
Fuel injection system in petrol engine
MPFi is a fuel injection technique used in gasoline throttle valve open (with the help of Mass airflow
engines. Multi port fuel injection injects fuel into the intake sensor) and increases the fuel rate in anticipation of
ports of each cylinder's intake valve, rather than at a more air entering the engine.
central point within an intake manifold like in spark plugs.
It can be sequential, in which injection is timed to coincide
with each cylinder's intake stroke. (Fig 1)
• A separate injector supplies the correct quantity of • It is important to increase the fuel rate as soon as the
fuel to each of the engine cylinders by a fuel-rail throttle valve opens; otherwise, when the gas pedal is
according to the firing order or in a 'particular first pressed, there may be a hesitation as some air
sequence'. This system provides further precision by reaches the cylinders without enough fuel in it.
varying the fuel quantity and injection timing by • Sensors monitor the mass of air entering the engine,
governing the each injector separately and thereby as well as the amount of oxygen in the exhaust. The
improving the performance and controlling the ECU uses this information to fine-tune the fuel delivery
emissions. so that the air-to-fuel ratio is just right.
• The return valve returns fuel in case the fuel is Key parts of MPFI
oversupplied. Also the pressure regulator regulates
the pressure of the intake fuel. Fuel filter contains Fuel Injector
small sized membranes which filters and absorbs the A fuel injector is nothing but an electronically controlled
undesirable matters of size 30 to 40 microns. valve. It is supplied with pressurized fuel by the fuel pump
• The fuel and air are mixed in intake manifold and in your car, and it is capable of opening and closing
each manifold is controlled by an ECU(Electronic many times per second.
Control Unit). fuel pressure runs between 3 to 5 bars. Engine Sensors
Multi Port/Point Fuel Injection system or Sequential In order to provide the correct amount of fuel for every
Fuel Injection system . operating condition, the engine control unit (ECU) has
Need for MPFI to monitor a huge number of input sensors. Here are just
a few-
Due to ever increasing stricter environmental regulations
automobile industry is required to meet very strict emission • Mass airflow sensor - Tells the ECU the mass of air
norms. Catalytic converters were introduced for this entering the engine.
purpose. Now for catalytic converter to be effective very • Oxygen sensor(s) - Monitors the amount of oxygen
careful control of the air-fuel was required. Oxygen sensor in the exhaust so the ECU can determine how rich or
monitors the amount of oxygen in exhaust, and the ECU lean the fuel mixture is and make adjustments
(engine/electronic control unit) uses this information to accordingly
adjust A-F ratio in real time. It was not feasible to achieve
• Throttle position sensor - Monitors the throttle valve
this type of close loop control with carburetors.
position (which determines how much air goes into
Gradually new engines are equipped with MPFI system. the engine) so the ECU can respond quickly to
MPFI have a fuel injector for each cylinder. MPFI spray changes, increasing or decreasing the fuel rate as
right at the intake valve and provide more accurate fuel necessary.
metering and quicker response.
• Coolant temperature sensor - Allows the ECU to
Working of MPFI (Fig 2) determine when the engine has reached its proper
• When you step on the gas pedal, the throttle valve operating temperature Voltage sensor - Monitors the
opens up more, letting in more air. The engine control system voltage in the car so the ECU can raise the
unit (ECU, the computer that controls all of the idle speed if voltage is dropping (which would indicate
electronic components on your engine) "sees" the a high electrical load).
• Monitors engine speed, which is one of the factors • Sequential
used to calculate the pulse width • Simultaneous
Advantage of Electronic Fuel injection over • Thus it can be noted that the cars of today are truly
carburettor:- intelligent.
Advantages of MPFI
• Better atomization of fuel
The advantages of MPFI engine are as follows:
• Lower emission of pollutant
• Each cylinder or the air-fuel mixing chamber is
• Better flow due to elimination of venture
supplied with the precise and uniform quantity of the
• Rapid response time with respect to the changes air-fuel mixture.
• Improved fuel efficiency • Engine crank is not necessary in cold climatic
conditions.
Principle behind MPFI
• Good engine response to the throttle applied.
The power is produced in a petrol engine is by burning • Accurate supply of the air-fuel mixture.
the fuel. In petrol engine, the petrol is ignited. At first, the
• ECM technique is used to control the engine.
petrol is allowed to mix with air. It is then ignited in a
• High fuel efficiency or mileage.
cylinder called as the combustion chamber. This
combustion of the petrol produces a sufficient energy to In petrol engine fuel supply during suction stroke. First
run the engine. The Carburettor is being used in the way using carburettor where atomization of fuel and
earlier days before the invention of MPFI engine. It is mixing of air and fuel done by carburettor.
the duty of the carburettor to mix the fuel and air in a In multi point fuel injection system fuel supply and atomize
fixed air-fuel ratio. The fuel thus mixed in the carburettor without using carburettor.
is then given to the combustion chamber where this In MPFI fuel injector supply fuel during suction stroke.
mixture gets ignited. The power thus obtained from the
ignition of gas is used to drive the engine. The main The system is electronically control.
disadvantage of the Carburettor is that the mixing of fuel Control parameters are speed of engine, torque on
and air is not in the proper ratio which leads to the engine, temperature of engine. By sensing these
wastage of fuel and the pollution is high. Since the parameters fuel rate will control.
emission rate is high in carburettor engine, the MPFI For different operating condition different air-fuel ratio
engine is being introduced. required. For that many systems are connected with
Working of MPFI engine simple carburettor. Like idling jet, power enrichment
device, auxiliary port, accelerating plunger all this device
The MPFI is an advanced version of carburettor engine. increase size and manufacturing difficulty of carburettor.
As we said earlier that the MPFI engine is having a fuel
In MPFI system all system are not required as fuel rate
injector for each cylinder. A computer is used to control
control using computerized system. Complexity of system
each and every fuel injector individually. The computerized
reduced.
system of the car consists of a microcontroller.
This microcontroller monitors each fuel injectors and There are different types of injection system are use. 1)
keeps on telling each injector about the amount of fuel to single point or throttle injection 2) port injection or multi
be injected to the cylinder so that the fuel wastage can point injection 3) gasoline direct injection.
be reduced. Since there is a controlled fuel usage, the In single point injection system all cylinders connected
engine is known for its fuel efficiency. with common air input and common throttle valve. Before
Even though the working of MPFI engine is somewhat throttle valve injector is placed.
similar to the carburettor engine, each cylinder is treated In multi point injection each cylinder has one injector,
individually. An input is fed to the computerized system placed in intake manifold. All injector connected with
in order to calculate the amount of air and fuel is to be common input has higher pressure.
mixed and send to the combustion chamber. A several In direct injection system injector placed directly inside
stages of calculations are to be made in order to judge cylinders and supply fuel during suction stroke.
the right amount of fuel to be mixed. After this calculation,
the proper fuel is delivered at the proper instance. In a multi point fuel injection system, a computerised
system regulates the amount of petrol to be injected in
The amount of fuel to be injected into the combustion the cylinder and monitors the engine parameters like load,
chamber is decided by analyzing the inputs given to the RPM, engine speed etc. . This computerised system or
computerized system of the MPFI engine. In modern electronic control unit receives signals from a number of
MPFI engines, a memory unit is additionally installed. sensors which provide information about engine load,
This will make the MPFI engine capable of storing the engine temperature, crankshaft RPM, intake air
user settings so that it can operate easily. The driving temperature etc. Based on this information the control
habits of a driver can also be detected by this system so unit triggers the fuel injector to release proper amount of
that the MPFI system itself can change the predefined fuel.
settings which suit the user. There are namely two types You might be thinking that how can an electronic control
of MPFI engines namely: unit be so smart?
88 CG & M: Draughtsman Mechanical (NSQF Level-5)- Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.113
The answer is actually the whole world is smart chamber is determined and the necessary amount of
nowadays\U0001f609 fuel to be injected will be calculated by the EFI system
Just kidding.. based on the Target AFR.
The control unit is pre-calibrated by the designers after Fuel System

tons of calculations and performance testing. Let's not The fuel from the fuel tank is feed into the rail with an
go in further depth. adequate pressure of around 4 to 6 BAR based on the
So this pre-calibrated control unit, based on its inputs injector flow rate, boost pressure. The port injection
regulates the fuel release from the injectors to each gasoline engines doesn't alter its pressure of the fuel in
particular cylinder. Also an electronic timing device is rail simultaneously. Based on the amount of fuel to be
used to trigger the injector at specific and precise time. injected, fuel rail pressure, injector flow rate, the
necessary pulse width is determined for the injectors.
Nowadays a memory unit is also installed to keep a record
The pulse width of the injectors is nothing but the amount
of the driving habits of the driving person. This helps to
of time the injector is actuated by the ECM to open in
tune the control unit according to the driving habits of
order to inject fuel in the intake manifold. Mostly in
the person. In this way the system is transforming into a
sequential injection, the injection of the fuel takes place
smarter one.
in the intake stroke at the back of the intake valves.
In a petrol engine, fuel mixes with air in carburetor which
is supplied to engine. In place of carburetor fuel injector In multi port fuel injection fuel is pumped in the separate
is used. It injects petrol in required amount according to cylinder via fuel injector from fuel pump rather than a
speed and power. centralized rail (pipe) like in CRDI engines hence
achieving better air fuel ratio.
Taking the case of multi-cylinder engine. We place this
injector in manifold. First it was placed in the starting The earliest mass MPFI engined cars were the VW type
section of manifold. Later on it was placed near each 3. To simplify the injector computer and system, two
cylinder in manifold. Placing multiple fuel injector in injectors were fired at a time, rather that firing all four in
manifold is known as multipoint fuel injection. the timing order. We called it a piss and hope system.
So only two cylinders got fuel fired into the open intake
Multi point fuel injection system is an electronic system valve, the other two got a puddle on the back of the intake
in petrol engine which aims to have efficient combustion valve. The puddle did get heated up by the time the intake
with reduction in emmisions. valve opened so though not atomized by being injected
Electronic system senses the parameters of engine like thru an open valve, it was broken up well by the in-rushing
speed, load, temperature rpm to calculate the amount of air flow and burned.
fuel which is to be injected and the pressure at which the
MPFI supplies a proper ratio of petrol and air into the
air fuel mixture is to be injected. The timing of injection is
various cylinders of engine.There are basically two
also taken in account by sensing the crank angle.
arrangements.
Multi Point Fuel Injection
1 Port Injection System
Arrival of MPFI technology made a great impact on the
gasoline engines, since it gave a better control over the In this every cylinder with an injector at it's intake manifold.
fuel injection which made manufacturers to meet the 2 Throttle Body Injection System
emission norms. This provided the manufacturers to
remove the less accurate carburettor with an efficient Throttle body like carburettor is used in single point
electronic fuel injection. injector.The charge passes to the cylinder by this throttle
valve.
Working
Both systems can pulsed system or continues system.
Mass Airflow Air metering
• How does fuel injection work?
In mass airflow type of air metering system the intake air
mass is measured by an MAF sensor. By the Intake air • Why is the fuel injection of a bullet as good as a
temperature sensor a density correction is made and carburettor engine?
the accurate mass airflow into the combustion chamber • How does a two stroke petrol engine work?
is obtained. With the measured mass airflow and the • How can a fuel injection engine change to a
predetermined target AFR, the ECU determines the carburettor?
amount of fuel to be injected in the intake stream.
• What is the difference between a fuel injectcion engine
Speed - Density System and a simple engine?
In this type of air metering system the engine load and • Does a 3M diesel fuel cleaning system really work?
the engine RPM is made into account. A volumetric • What are the different types of multi point injection
efficiency table is made w.r.t. Engine RPM in one axis system available?
and Engine Load on other axis. Based on the volumetric • How much pressure is developed by the fuel injection
efficiency and actual cubic capacity of the engine, the of petrol engine and a diesel engine.
amount of air which will be present on the combustion
Draughtsman Mechanical - 3D Using CAD Commands
Introduction to 3D & Isometric

• state the concept 3D drawing & Isometric in AutoCAD.
Introduction Press OK and you'll see that the grid is set up for
Viewing an object in three dimensions gives you a sense isometric drawing for the left isoplane in 0.5 increments.
of its true shape and form. It also helps you conceptualize Your cross hairs are now angled to show you which
your design, which results in better design decisions. In isoplane you are currently on and the Grid is laid out
addition, using three-dimensional objects helps you differently from what you may be used (Fig 2).
communicate your ideas to those who may not be familiar Fig 2
with the plans, sections, and side views of your design.
A further advantage to drawing in three dimensions is
that you can derive 2D drawings from your 3D models,
which may take considerably less time than creating them
with standard 2Ddrawing methods. For example, you can
model a mechanical part in 3D and then quickly derive
its 2D top, front, and side views easily.
Isometric Drawing (Fig 1)
Using Isometric commands is one of the simplest ways
to give a 3-D representation while using only 2-D
commands. This has been the usual way of doing things
before CAD allowed true 3-D work to be done. Many
times an isometric drawing is used to compliment or give
more information to a 3 view orthographic drawing. See
the sample below.
Begin by drawing the left side of the box using the line
command. You will want to use the Direct Distance Entry
System for this exercise and make sure that you have
Ortho (F8) and Osnaps (F3) turned on.
Switch to your proper isoplane (F5) and draw each side
of the object
You can draw isocircle with the ELLIPSE command in
required isoplane. At the command prompt, press I for
isocircle. This will allow you to create an ellipse at the
correct angle based on the radius of the circle in the
orthographic drawing. Use the Osnap to pick the correct
center point.
To dimension an isometric drawing, you have to do a
few things first. Create a text style called Left, and give it
You can see that it is a very simple drawing. This basic a 30° oblique angle, then create another called right with
isometric drawing of the object gives a very good idea of a -30° oblique angle. Then create a new dimension style
what it looks like. If this is all that is needed then isometric that has the text aligned with the dimension line. After
works well. Unfortunately, as soon as you change you have placed a dimension, use the DIMEDIT
anything, like the block's height, you'll need to redraw all command to change the oblique angle of the dimension
four views. + or - 30 degrees. You may also need to use the properties
to change the text in the dimension to left or right
AutoCAD has a command called ISOPLANE which allows depending upon the orientation of the dimension. Aligned
you to easily draw at a 30 degree angle as needed for dimensions are to be used for dimensioning isometric
an isometric drawing. You can switch between the three drawing. Isocircle can be dimensioned using leader
'isoplanes' (top, right, left) by using this command or by line.
pressing the F5 key.
Keep in mind that this is still only 2D. Remember that in
Type in DDRMODES to bring up the Drawing Aids dialog some instances, it may be quicker and easier to use this
box. Make your settings the same as what you see below method rather than the more complex 3-D methods you'll
(just turn on Isometric Snap). be learning in the following lessons.
90
3D Co-ordinate systems & workspace
• state the concept standard primitives and Gizmo.
3-D Co - ordinate system Fig 13

Fig
By now you should be very comfortable working your
way around the X-Y coordinate system. Anyway, here is
a quick review. Looking from the plan (top view), this is
what you see to (Fig 1) out where is positive X and
positive Y.
Notice that the line is actually 5.3852" long. If you were

to look at it from the plan view, it would look exactly like a
If you were to look at the same picture, but at a slight line drawn from 0,0 to 4,3 Draw a line from 0,0 to 4,3
angle, you would see the third axis (Fig 2). This new axis and then compare the properties. (Fig 3)
is called the Z-axis. Imagine that the positive Z-axis is The diagrams below, show (Fig 4) this line from 4 different
coming towards you out of the monitor. views to illustrate how things can look different in 3D.
Look at each one carefully, and see if it makes sense to
you.
This is the usual view you have seen when using AutoCAD
in 2D. You are looking straight down the Z axis (positive
Z is pointing at you). It looks like any other line you have
drawn, going from 0,0 to 4,3 - but there is a difference...
The Z-axis has always been there, lurking in the

background, waiting for you.
When you entered points previously, you would enter
them in the format: X,Y. By doing this, you let AutoCAD
know that in these cases, Z was equal to zero (Fig 3).
Entering 4,3 would be the same as entering 4,3,0. Now
if you draw a line from the origin (0,0,0) to a point at
4,3,2, you would get a line that goes 4 inches to the
right, 3 inches up and 2 inches towards you. The
properties of this line would be this:
If you were to look at the line from the front, instead of What the above images show you is that you will have to
the top (as shown above) you would be able to notice the get used to looking at a 3D world on a 2D monitor. In
elevation of 2 units in the Z axis. This is the same line as each image, the black line looks flat, but you have to use
above, only viewed from a different angle. In this view, your reference points to determine where it truly is. If
you are looking straight down the -Y axis(Fig 5). you don't understand this perfectly right now, don't worry.
It's just an exercise to expose you to 3D viewing. As the
lessons progress, you will get much more familiar to this.
3D Rotation (Fig 8)
Now for the confusing part. You already know how to
rotate 2D objects, but you also have to know how AutoCAD
measures angles of rotation in 3-D. There is a somewhat
simple rule for this called "The Right Hand Rule" (Fig 8).
To figure out which is the positive rotation angle, imagine
that you are wrapping your right hand around the axis
with your thumb pointing towards the positive end. The
direction that your fingers are wrapped is the positive
direction. This applies to all three axes.
Just for fun, here is the same line but viewed from the
left. This would be looking down the -X axis (Fig 6).
Direction of positive rotation

The main point of this lesson is to tell you that objects
can trick you in 3D space. Shortcuts don't always work,
you have to be careful with Osnaps and your drawing
can turn into a mess very quickly if you're not paying
attention. Trust me, I've seen enough students take the
easy route and have to start over. If you want to learn
3D, review each lesson before progressing. Make sure
you know the concepts inside and out. This is just an
introduction to the concepts, you will learn more in the
following lessons. You may still want to refer back to this
tutorial, though.
3D Modeling Workspace
Finally, here is the line as viewed in 3D space from the Most of this book is devoted to show you how to work in
Southeast view (Fig 7). This is where viewing 3D objects the Drafting & Annotation workspace. This workspace is
on a 2D monitor gets tricky. You need to visualize the Z basically a 2D drawing environment, although you can
Axis. certainly work in 3D also (Fig 9).
The AutoCAD program offers the 3D Modeling and 3D
Basics workspaces, which give you a set of tools to help
ease your way into 3D modeling. The 3D Modeling
workspace gives AutoCAD a different set of Ribbon
panels, but don't worry. AutoCAD behaves in the same
basic way, and the AutoCAD files produced are the same
regardless of whether they're 2D or 3D drawings.
The 3D Basics workspace contains the minimum 3D tools
needed to perform 3D functions. To get to the 3D
Modeling workspace, you need to click the Workspace
tool in the Quick Access toolbar and then select 3D
Modeling.
Fig 9
If you're starting a new 3D model, you'll also want to Template dialog box. Select acad3D.dwt (if you are using
create a new file using a 3D template. Try the following metric, select the acadiso3D.dwt template file) and click
to get started with 3D modeling: Open. Your screen will look similar to the (Fig 11)
- Start AutoCAD, and then click the Workspace tool in Ribbon tabs and panels of the 3D Modeling workspace.
the Quick Access toolbar and select 3D Modeling.
You'll see a new set of panels appear (Fig 10).
- To create a new 3D modeling file, click New in the
Quick Access toolbar to open the Select (Fig 11).
Fig 10
Fig 11
Gizmo and standard primitives

• know the concept standard primitives and Gizmo.
Creating 3D objects with standard primitives Constraining Motion with the Gizmo
First, you clicked one corner to establish a location for You can move individual edges by using a Ctrl+click.
the box. Then, you click another corner to establish the This will activate the gizmo. The gizmo is an icon that
base size. Finally, you select height. Use similar set of looks like the UCS icon and appears whenever you select
steps to create any of the other 3D solid primitives found a 3D solid or any part of a 3D solid. Try the next exercise
in the Solids flyout of the Home tab's Modeling panel. to see how it works:
For example, for a cylinder, you select the center, then
- Hold down the Ctrl key and move the cursor over
the radius, and finally the height. For a wedge, you select
different surfaces and edges of the box. They will be
two corners as you did with the box, and then you select
highlighted as you do this. Ctrl+click the top-front edge
the height (Fig 1).
of the box to expose the edge's grip. The gizmo will
Fig 1 appear.
- The gizmo has three legs pointing in the x-, y-, and z-
axes. It also has a grip at the base of the three legs.
If your Ctrl+click doesn't work as described, you may
need to change the setting for the Legacy ctrl pick
system variable. At the Type A Command prompt, enter
legacy ctrlpick , and then enter 0. Place the cursor
on the blue z-axis of the gizmo, but don't click. A blue
line appears that extends across the drawing area,
and the z-axis of the gizmo changes color, as shown
in Fig 2.
Fig 2 - Click the z-axis. Now as you move the cursor, the
grip motion is constrained in the z-axis.
- Click again to fix the location of the grip.
- Press the Esc key to clear your grip selection.
Creating 3D forms from 2D shapes

• state the concept creating 3D from 2D shapes.
Extrude (Fig 1) Mode

Controls whether the extruded object is a solid or a
surface.
Surfaces are extruded as either NURBS surfaces or
procedural surfaces, depending on the
SURFACEMODELINGMODE system variable.
Height of extrusion (Fig 3)
Using polyline command you can draw any closed figure

and can make 3D model using Extrude command.
Extrusions can extend in the Z direction or be set to
taper or follow a path.
You can extrude an open or closed object to create a 3D

surface or solid.
The DELOBJ system variable controls whether the
object(s) and path (if selected) are automatically deleted Extrudes selected objects along the positive or negative
when the solid or surface is created or whether you are Z axis. The direction is based on the UCS that was current
prompted to delete the object(s) and path. when the object was created, or (for multiple selections)
on the original UCS of the most recently created object.
Objects to Extrude
Direction
Specifies the objects to extrude (Fig 2).
Specifies the length and direction of the extrusion with
two specified points. (The direction cannot be parallel to
the plane of the sweep curve created by the extrusion.)
Path
Specifies the extrusion path based on a selected object.
The path is moved to the centroid of the profile. Then the
profile of the selected object is extruded along the chosen
path to create solids or surfaces.
C G & M: Draughtsman Mechanical (NSQF Level-5) - Related Theory for Exercise 3.7.114 95
Select face and edge sub objects by pressing
Ctrl while you select them.
The path should not lie on the same plane as the object,
nor should the path have areas of high curvature.
The extrusion starts from the plane of the object and
maintains its orientation relative to the path (Fig 4).
When an arc is part of a tapered extrusion, the angle of

the arc remains constant, and the radius of the arc
changes.
Angle of taper: Specifies the taper between -90 and
+90 degrees.
Specify two points: Specifies the taper angle based on
two specified points. The taper angle is the distance
between the two specified points.
Drag the cursor horizontally to specify and preview the
taper angle. You can also drag the cursor to adjust and
If the path contains segments that are not tangent, the
preview the height of the extrusion. The dynamic input
program extrudes the object along each segment and
origin should be placed on the extruded shape, on the
then miters the joint along the plane bisecting the angle
projection of the point to the shape.
formed by the segments. If the path is closed, the object
should lie on the miter plane. This allows the start and When you select the extruded object, the position of the
end sections of the solid to match up. If the object is not taper grip is the correspondent point of the dynamic input
on the miter plane, the object is rotated until it is on the origin on the top face of the extrusion.
miter plane. Lofting (Fig 6)
Objects with multiple loops are extruded so that all of the
loops appear on the same plane at the end section of the
extruded solid.
Taper angle
Specifies the taper angler for the extrusion.
Positive angles taper in from the base object. Negative
angles taper out. The default angle, 0, extrudes a 2D
object perpendicular to its 2D plane. All selected objects
and loops are tapered to the same value (Fig 5).
Specifying a large taper angle or a long extrusion height
can cause the object or portions of the object to taper to
a point before reaching the extrusion height.
Individual loops of a region are always extruded to the
same height.
The loft command is similar to the extrude command, but - A single region (to extrude multiple regions, convert
much more versatile. Instead of extruding a single shape, them to a single object with the REGION command)
the loft command allows you to extrude several shapes
and make one continuous object. Select face and edge sub objects by pressing
Ctrl while you select them. You cannot revolve
Revolve
objects contained within a block or objects that
So far you've only worked with very basic blocks. will self-intersect. REVOLVE ignores the width
Suppose that you need to draw something other than a of a polyline and revolves from the center of
rectangular cube. You did some new shapes in the the path of the polyline. The right-hand rule
previous lesson while extruding and lofting. AutoCAD determines the positive direction of rotation.
gives you the command for such times when you need For more information, see Understand the UCS
to draw cylindrical objects. The other (revolve) will give in 3D.
you a solid object.
Button List of Prompts
Toolbar: Modeling tool set ® Solids - Create tool group The following prompts are displayed.
® Solid Creation flyout ® Revolve Objects to Revolve : Specifies the objects to be revolved
Menu: Draw ? 3D Modeling ? Revolve about an axis.
Revolve path and profile curves can be: Axis Start Point: Specifies the first point of the axis of
revolution. The positive axis direction is from the first to
- Open or closed the second point.
- Planar or non-planar Axis Endpoint: Sets the endpoint for the axis of
- Solid and surface edges (Fig 7) revolution.
Start Angle : Specifies an offset for the revolution from
the plane of the object being revolved.
Drag your cursor to specify and preview the start angle
of the object.
Angle of Revolution: Specifies how far the selected
object revolves about the axis. A positive angle revolves
the objects in a counterclockwise direction. A negative
angle revolves the objects in a clockwise direction. You
can also drag the cursor to specify and preview the angle
of revolution.
Object: Specifies an existing object to be used as an
axis. The positive axis direction is from the closest to the
- A single object (to extrude multiple lines, convert them farthest endpoint of this object.
to a single object with the JOIN)
Booleans operations
• state the concept of boolean operations.
Union Using the Union Command with Solids and Regions
Combines selected 3D solids, surfaces, or 2D regions (Fig 1)
by addition. List of Prompts
Access Methods The following prompt is displayed.
Button Select objects Select the 3D solids, surfaces, or regions
Ribbon: to be combined.
Toolbar: Modeling tool set ? Solids - Edit tool group ? Intersect

Booleans flyout This command creates a new solid from the intersecting
• Union volume of two or more solids or regions. AutoCAD will
find where the two objects have an volume of interference
Summary and retain that area and discard the rest. Here is an
You can combine two or more 3D solids, surfaces, or example of this command shown below: The INTERSECT
2D regions into a single, composite 3D solid, surface, or command combines the volume of one or more solid
region. You must select the same type of objects to objects at the areas of interference to create one solid
combine. object.SUBTRACT (Fig 2).
The subtract command is used to cut away, or remove
the volume of one object from another. It is important to
check the command line when using this command.
Remember that AutoCAD always asks for the object that
you are subtracting FROM first, then it asks for the objects
to subtract (Fig 3).
Other solid editing operations

• state the concept of other solid editing operations.
Extrude faces Move faces

Extrudes selected planer faces of a 3D solid by a Moves a face on 3D solids in a specified distance and
specified distance or along a path (Fig 1). direction (Fig 2).
Entering a positive value extrudes the face outward; You can change the shape of the object by moving its
entering a positive taper angle bevels the edges to the faces. This option is recommended for major adjustments.
face. The path option extrudes the face along a selected
line or curve. For major changes along a curve, consider
using the sweep command.
Offset faces Rounds and fillets the edges of solid objects.
Offset selected faces of a 3D solid by a specified You can select more than one edge. Enter a value for
distance, changing its shape. the fillet radius or click and drag the fillet grip.
A positive value increases the size of the 3D solid, a Chamfer edges (Fig 5)
negative value decreases the size. Adjacent faces are
stretched but maintain their angles relative to the offset
face.
Delete faces
Deletes faces, including fillets or chamfers, on a 3D solid.
Use this option to remove and later modify filleted and
chamfered edges. the face is not deleted if the change
results in a non - valid 3D solid.
Rotate faces
Rotates selected faces on a 3D solid around a specified
axis. Bevels the edges of solid objects
You can change the shape of the object by rotating its You can select more than one edge at a time, as long as
faces. This option is recommended for major adjustments. they belong to the same face. Enter a value for the
chamfer distance or click and drag the chamfer grips.
Taper faces (Fig 3)
Slice
This command does exactly what the name implies. You
can slice a 3D solid just like you were using knife.
Start with the basic block and cylinder shape you used
in the examples above. Three points are shown through
which the slice plane is passing (Fig 6).
Tapers a face on a 3D solid at a specified angle.

A positive angles tapers the face in, and a negative angle
tapers the face out. The default angle 0, extrudes the
face perpendicular to its plane. All selected faces in the
selection set are tapered to the same value.
Copy faces
3D Align
Copies faces from a 3D solid resulting in regions or solid
bodies. Sometimes, you may find it faster or easier to draw
something separately and then move and align it into
Creates a new object with the original orientation and place. The command to use this in 3D is 3D align. This
profile of the face. The result can be used as a reference is a simple example, but will show you the method
to create a new 3D solid. (Fig 7).
Fillet edges (Fig 4)
The goal will be to align the cylinder on the front face of
the box where the dotted line is. Turn on your quadrant
Osnaps. Start the 3DALIGN command. You will first be
asked to select the objects - select the cylinder and press
enter.
Now you will be asked to select the 3 points as indicated
below: the center and 2 quadrants. Now the cylinder will
be "stuck" to your cursor as AutoCAD asks where it needs
to go.
Line the cylinder up with the box by using object tracking
to locate the center of the face on the box first. Then
pick on the midpoints to line up the cylinder to the box.
After you pick the 3rd point, the cylinder should move
into place and end the command (Fig 8).
Here's a view of the points that were picked in case you
had trouble.
The finished 'alignment job' should look like this after
using the hide command (Fig 9).
Understanding UCS
• state the concept of UCS.
Setting and Using the UCS There are several ways of doing this, and we'll look at an
example here.
When working in 3D, it sometimes necessary to change
the plane that you are drawing on. For example, if you This is a simple shape drawn on the WCS with one corner
need to add some detail to the side of a wall, you would located at 0,0,0.
want to draw on that plane. It's like taking a sheet of
Here is the same object shown a new UCS based on the
paper up off the floor (WCS) and taping it onto the wall
side of the object in Fig 2, so that you are enabled to
(UCS).
draw on the side of the building - maybe to put a door
The WCS is the World Co-ordinate System. This is the in? Note the direction that the X and Y axes are now
way that the standard X,Y and Z axis are directed when pointing.
you begin a new drawing (X to the right, Y pointing up
and Z pointing towards you). The UCS is the User Co-
ordinate System. This is a 'redirection' of the WCS based
on parameters set by the AutoCAD user (Fig 1).
Notice that the positive X Axis is now pointing along side Object
of the structure (Fig 3).
Command: UCS
Origin/ZAxis/3point/OBject/View/X/Y/Z/Prev/Restore/
Save/Del/?/<World>: OB
Select object to align UCS: <SELECT AN OBJECT>
Using this method, you have to pick on a 2D object that
is lying on a particular drawing plane. This gets tricky,
as you have to be aware how your positive X and Y axes
end up.
View
Command: UCS
Save/Del/?/<World>: V
Here's how it was changed: You first choose the 3 point By choosing the view option, AutoCAD will automatically
option by typing 3 at the prompt. Next you have to pick reset the UCS to be aligned with your current view,
three points to define the plane. The first point is the new keeping the origin where it was previously located.
origin. The second point is where you want the positive X / Y / Z:
X-axis to be positioned. The last point is for the positive
Y-Axis. Command: UCS
This is the '3-Point' option of the UCS Command. It is Origin/ZAxis/3point/OBject/View/X/Y/Z/Prev/Restore/

one of the most useful, because you control exactly where Save/Del/?/<World>: X
the new drawing plane will be. You must also be extremely Rotation angle about X axis <0>: -90
careful when picking the 3 points, or your plane can be
shifted and cause some major problems. I would By selecting either the X, Y or Z options, you need to
recommend using this method for most of your UCS work first pick a point along the axis you have chosen, then
- or at least get very comfortable with it before moving on provide a rotation angle based on the right hand rule
to other methods. mentioned earlier. This example shows how you would
rotate the UCS -90 around the positive X axis.
Pressing enter immediately after entering the Previous
UCS command accepts the default of returning
to the WCS. Command: UCS
Here are the other options of the UCS command. Save/Del/?/<World>: P
Origin This option returns you to the last setting you had for the
Command: UCS UCS. You'll use this one a lot in 3D. You might need to
change your UCS to draw one object, then go back to
Origin/ZAxis/3point/OBject/View/X/Y/Z/Prev/Restore/ what you had it set at before.
Save/Del/?/<World>: O
Restore/Save/Del/?/
Origin point <0,0,0>: <PICK A POINT>
The next options are used in conjunction with each other.
This option moves the UCS based on a newly picked You have the option of saving a particular UCS with a
origin point. It does not shift the drawing plane at all as name. You can then restore that named UCS or delete if
you only pick one point. you no longer will be using it. Here are examples of these
Z-Axis options:
Command: UCS Command:UCS
Origin/ZAxis/3point/OBject/View/X/Y/Z/Prev/Restore/ Origin/ZAxis/3point/OBject/View/X/Y/Z/Prev/Restore/
Save/Del/?/<World>: ZA Save/Del/?/<World>: S
Origin point <0,0,0>: <PICK A POINT> ?/Desired UCS name: VIEW1
Point on positive portion of Z-axis <- Command:UCS

8.0000,0.0000,1.0000>: <PICK A POINT> Origin/ZAxis/3point/OBject/View/X/Y/Z/Prev/Restore/
This choice allows you to pick two points. First you pick Save/Del/?/<World>: R
the new origin, then you pick a point for the positive Z- ?/Name of UCS to restore: VIEW1
Axis. Make sure you type ZA to choose this option.
Command: UCS draw a rectangle or box on the roof without manually
setting a new UCS. The key is to look and see which
face is highlighted as you move your cursor on the screen.
Save/Del/?/<World>: ?
In the images below, you can see how this works. The
UCS name(s) to list <*>:
left side shows the 'roof' face is highlighted and the cursor
Current UCS: VIEW1 has changed to reflect the new UCS. The right shows
Saved coordinate systems: how this looks when the right side face is active. Not the
change in the colored cursor while the UCS Icon remains
VIEW1 the same.
Origin = <0.0000,0.0000,0.0000>, X Axis = Other notes about the UCS
<1.0000,0.0000,0.0000>
Be careful when choosing a UCS. Look to the UCS icon
Y Axis = <0.0000,1.0000,0.0000>, Z Axis = and see that it is aligned the way you want it to be. Look
<0.0000,0.0000,1.0000> for a clean vertical lines if it should be aligned along a
Origin/ZAxis/3point/OBject/View/X/Y/Z/Prev/Restore/ vertical plane. Most of the time I will use the 3 Point UCS
Save/Del/?/<World>: D option and then Previous to return and then back to a
different 3 point option and so on. 3 Point gives me a lot
UCS name(s) to delete <none>: VIEW1 of versatility without having to think about it too much
Deleted 1 UCS name. and concentrate on how I'm going to draw the project.
This was a series where a view named VIEW1 was saved, Always be aware of where your UCS is located. Make
restored, listed, and then deleted. sure that positive X is where you expect it to be (Fig 5).
Dynamic UCS (Fig 4)
Fig 4
Another option to try is using Dynamic UCS, but I don't

recommend this technique for new users. Here it is
anyway. Down on the status bar, you have an icon that
turns this setting on or off.
With Dynamic UCS turned on, you can easily draw on
any surface you want. If you have a drawing like the
basic building shown at the top of the page, you can
3D Coordinate systems to aid in the construction of 3D objects and knowledge

short cut key board commands
• describe solid modeling
• describe surface modeling
• describe mesh modeling
• describe construction plane commands
• describe computer keyboard short cut.
Introduction Solid modeling (Fig 1)

Auto CAD 3D modeling allows you to create drawings Fig 1
using solid, surface, and mesh objects.
Solid, surface, and mesh objects offer different
functionality, that, when used together, offer a powerful
suite of 3D modeling tools. For example, you can convert
a primitive solid to a mesh to take advantage of mesh
creasing and smoothing. You can then convert the model
to a surface to take advantage of associatively and
NURBS modeling.
A solid model is a volume that represents a 3D object, Mesh modeling (Fig 4)
and has properties such as mass, center of gravity, and
moments of inertia. You can create 3D solids from Fig 4
primitive solids such as cones boxes, cylinders, and
pyramids, or by extruding, revolving, sweeping, or lofting
closed 2D objects as shown.
You can also combine 3D solids using Boolean operations
such as union, subtract, and intersect, The illustration
below shows two solids that were extruded from closed
polylines, and then combined by intersecting them.
(Fig 2)
Fig 2
A mesh model consists of vertices, edges, and faces

that use polygonal representation (including triangles and
quads) to define a 3D shape.
Unlike solid models, mesh has no mass properties.
However, as with 3D solids, you can create primitive mesh
forms such as boxes, cones and pyramids, starting with
Auto Cad-based products 2010 or later. You can modify
mesh models in ways that are not available for 3D solids
or surfaces. For example you can apply creases, splits,
and increasing levels of smoothness . You can drag mesh
Surface modeling (Fig 3) sub objects (faces, edges, and vertices) to shape the
object. To achieve more granular results, you can refine
Fig 3 the mesh in specific areas before modifying it. (Fig 5)
Fig 5
A surface model is a thin shell that does not have mass

or volume. Auto CAD offers two types of surfaces:
procedural and NURBS, Use procedural surfaces to take Use mesh models to provide the hiding, shading, and
advantage of associative modeling, and use NURBS rendering capabilities of a solid model without the physical
surfaces to take advantage of sculpting with control properties such as mass, moments of inertia, and so on.
vertices. (Fig 6)
A typical modeling workflow is to create basic models Fig 6
using mesh, solids, and procedural surfaces, and then
convert them to nurbs surfaces. This allows you to utilize
not only the unique tools and primitive shapes offered by
solids and meshes, but also the shaping capabilities
provided by surface - associative modeling and nurbs
modeling.
You create surface models using some of the same tools
that you use for solid models: sweeping, lofting, extruding,
and revolving. You can also create surfaces by blending,
patching, offsetting, filleting , and extending other
surfaces.
A construction plane is like a tabletop that the cursor Fig 8
normally moves on. The construction plane has an origin,
X-and y-axes, and a grid. The construction plane can
be set to any orientation, and each viewport's construction
plane is independent of those in other viewports. (Fig 7)
Fig 7
• Custom construction planes can be named and saved

in the 3dm document, They can be restored in any
viewport using the Named CPlane command.
Construction plane commands
C Plane
The construction plane represents the local coordinate Set the construction plane in the active viewport.
system for the viewport and can be different from the Copy C plane settings to all
world coordinate system.
Match all viewports' grid and snap settings to the specified
Rhino's standard viewports come with construction planes viewport.
that correspond to the viewport. The default perspective Copy C plane to all
viewport, however, uses the world Top construction plane.
Which is the same construction plane that Is used in the Match all viewports, construction planes to the specified
top viewport. viewport.
M Plane
The construction plane grid lies on the construction plane.
The dark red line represents the construction plane Y Set up a relationship between a construction plane and
axis. The red and green lines meet at the construction an object.
plane origin. The color of these lines can be changed.
Shortcut PC Mac
To change the direction and origin of a construction plane,
from the menu, use the C plane command. Preset Bold Ctrl +B Command + B
construction planes: world Top, right, and Front give you Italic Ctrl + I Command + I
quick access to common.
Underline Ctrl +U Command +U
Construction planes: In addition, you can save and Select All Ctrl + A Command + A
restore named construction planes and import named
construction planes from another rhino file. Redo Ctrl + Y Command + Y
Coordinate input, elevator mode, object snaps, and other Ctrl+Shift+Z (Command+
cursor constraints allow the cursor to move away from Shift+Z)
the construction plane. Undo Ctrl + Z Command + Z
Notes Header 1 Alt+shift+1 Ctrl + Alt + 1
• Construction plane behavior in the viewports is Header 2 Alt+shift+2 Ctrl + Alt + 2
controlled by the standard and universal options. With Header 3 Alt+shift+3 Ctrl + Alt + 3
the standard option, the construction plane of each
Header 4 Alt+shift+4 Ctrl + Alt + 4
viewport is independent from all of the other
constructions planes. With the Universal option, the Header 5 Alt+shift+5 Ctrl + Alt + 5
behavior of the construction planes in the viewports Header 6 Alt+shift+6 Ctrl + Alt + 6
is linked. Set these in Modeling Aids Options. (Fig 8)
Paragraph Alt+shift+7 Ctrl + Alt + 7
• The construction plane is infinite. The array of lines Div Alt+shift+8 Ctrl + Alt + 8
lying on a specified portion of the construction plane
in the viewport is the grid. The grid is a visual Address Alt+shift+9 Ctrl + Alt + 9
reference only. The size, spacing, and color of the Focus to menu bar Alt+F9 Alt+F9
grid lines can be changed.
Focus to toolbar Alt+F10 Alt+F10
• The x- and Y-axes of the construction plane are shown Focus to (element Alt+F11 Alt+F11
on the grid in color by default. The visibility and color
of the grid axes can be changed. path)
Named C plane. Shortcut keys ABCs
Manage the named construction planes list. Shortcut keys help provide an easier and usually quicker
method of navigating and executing commands in
Universal construction plane.
computer software programs. Shortcut keys are
Link the viewport origin and position. (Fig 9) commonly accessed by using the alt key (On IBM
compatible computers), command key (on Apple
Fig 9 computers), Ctrl key, or shift key in conjunction with
another key. The de facto standard for listing a shortcut
is listing the modifier key, a plus symbol, and another
key. In other words, "Ctrl +S" is telling you to press and
hole the Ctrl key, and then press the S key too.
You can also find the shortcut keys to their most popular
program by looking for underlined letters in their menus.
For example, the image to the right has an underline on
the "F' in file, which menus. You can press the Alt key
and then the "F" key to access the File menu. Some
programs require the user to press and hold Alt to see
the underlined
Computer Key board shortcut
Characters: In the same image above, you can see that
< keys some of the common features, such as open (Ctrl+ O)
and save (Ctrl + S), have shortcut keys assigned to them.
Updated: 09/15/2017 by computer Hope
As you begin to memorize shortcut keys, you'll notice
• Shortcut keys ABCs that many applications share the same shortcut keys.
We have a list of the most commonly shared ones in the
• Basic Pc shortcut keys
basic PC shortcut keys section.
• PC shortcut keys for special characters
Tip: Users outside the United states or who have a foreign
• Microsoft windows shortcut keys copy of Microsoft Windows or a Microsoft application
• Apple shortcut keys may not be able to use all of the below shortcut keys.
• Linux and unix shortcut keys Basic PC shortcut keys
• F1 - F12 function keys Below is a list of some of the most commonly used basic
shortcut keys that work with almost all IBM compatible
• Top 10 keyboard shortcuts computers and software programs. It is highly
• Microsoft excel shortcut keys recommended that all users keep a good reference of
these shortcut keys or try to memorize them. Doing so
• Microsoft word shortcut keys will dramatically increase your productivity.
• Google chrome shortcut keys Tip: Besides the special character shortcuts listed here,
• Internet explorer shortcut keys some special characters are also located on the number
keys (below the F1-F12 Keys). You can enter these
• Microsoft front page shortcut keys special characters by pressing the Shift key and the
• Microsoft outlook shortcut keys number key that has the special. Character listed on it.
• Mozilla fire fox keyboard shortcuts PC shortcut keys for special characters
• YouTube keyboard shortcuts Many special characters can be created using keyboard
shortcuts, Below are some of the more common and
• Keyboard terms popular special characters and the keyboard shortcuts
• How do I create a windows shortcut key? to create them.
Shortcut Description Shortcut keys Description
keys
Alt + 0224 à
Alt + F File menu options in current program Alt + 0232 è
Alt + E Edit options in current program Alt + 0236 ì
Alt + Tab Switch between open programs Alt + 0242 ò
F1 Universal help in almost every Windows Alt + 0241 ñ
program
Alt + 0228 ä
F2 Rename a selected file
Alt + 0246 ö
F5 Refresh the current program window
Alt + 0252 ü
Ctrl + N Create a new, blank document in some
software programs Alt + 0248 ø
Ctrl + O Open a file in current software program Alt + 0223 ß
Ctrl + A Select all text. Alt + 0198 Æ
Ctrl + B Change selected text to be bold Alt + 0231 ç
Ctrl +I Change selected text to be in Italics Alt + 0191 ¿
Ctrl + U Change selected text to be underlined Alt + 0176 ° (degree symbol)
Ctrl + F Open find window for current document Alt + 0177 ± (plus/minus symbol)
or window. Alt + 0153 ™
Ctrl + S Save current document file. Alt + 0169 ©
Ctrl + X Cut selected item Alt + 0174 ®
Shift + Del Cut selected item. Alt + 0128 • (Euro currency)
Ctrl + C Copy selected item. Alt + 0162 ¢ (Cent symbol)
Ctrl + Ins Copy selected item Alt+0163 £ (British pound currency)
Ctrl + Y Redo last action Alt+ 0165 ¥ (Japanese yen currency)
Ctrl + K Insert hyperlink for selected text Focus to
Ctrl + P Print the current page or document contextual Ctrl + Shift + E
toolbar Ctrl + Shift + E
Home Goes to beginning of current line
Ctrl + Shift + P
Ctrl + Home Goes to beginning of document
Ctrl + Shift + P
End Goes to end of current line
Insert Link Ctrl + K
Ctrl + End Goes to end of document. Command + K
Shift + Home Highlights from current position to Toggle Full screen Ctrl + Shift + F
beginning of line. Ctrl + Shift + F
Shift + End Highlights from current position to end Save Ctrl + S
of line Command + S
Ctrl + Left Moves one word to the left at a time Find Ctrl + F+ Query
Command + F+ Query
Arrow
Ctrl + Right Moves one word to the right at time
Arrow
Ctrl + Esc Opens the START menu
Ctrl + Shift Opens windows task manager
+ Esc
Alt + F4 Close the currently active program
Alt + Enter Open the properties for the selected
item (file, folder, shortcut, etc,)

Draughtsman Mechanical 2nd Year (Volume I of II) TT

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DRAUGHTSMAN MECHANICAL

2nd Year (Volume - I of II)

SECTOR: Capital Goods and Manufacturing

DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING

Developed & Printed by

National Instructional Media Institute

First Edition : January 2020 Copies: 500

New Delhi - 110 001

MEDIA DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS

Shri. V. Dhanasekaran _ Assistant Director of Training (Retd.),

Shri. G. Jayaraman _ Assistant Training officer (Retd.),

Shri. Nirmalya Nath _ Deputy Director

Shri. G. Michael johny _ Assistant Manager,

Module 1 - Drawing and Editing on CAD 110 Hrs

Module 2 - Dimensioning on CAD 30 Hrs

Module 3 - Computer Aided Drafting 35 Hrs

Module 4 - Assembled and Detailed Drawings of pulleys 50 Hrs

Module 5 - Assembly and Detailed Drawings of Valves 50 Hrs

Module 6 - Assembly and Detailed Drawings 200 Hrs

Module 7 - 3D Using CAD Commands 50 Hrs

Total 525 Hrs

Module 1 : Drawing and Editing on CAD

Module 2 : Dimensioning on CAD

3.2.96 Dimensioning on AutoCAD 29

Module 3 : Computer Aided Drafting

3.3.97 Knowledge of short cut key board commands 32

Module 4 : Assembled and Detailed Drawings of pulleys

3.4.100 - 102 Solid pulley 40

Module 5 : Assembly and Detailed Drawings of Valves

3.5.103 - 106 Pipe fittings, CI flanged joint 45

Module 6 : Assembly and Detailed Drawings

3.6.107 & 108 Conventional representation of gears 57

3.6.110 Different types of followers and their functions 63

Module 7: 3D Using CAD Commands

3.7.114 Introduction to 3D & Isometric 90

LEARNING/ ASSESSABLE OUTCOME

On completion of this book you shall be able to

2nd Year (Volume - I of II) Duration: Six Month

75-76 In-plant training/ Project work (work in a team)

Basic commands - I - When selecting a circle with a pick box, be sure to

- Except for 3 point arcs, arcs are drawn in a counter

Command Keystroke/Short cut Location Result

Rectangle RECTANGLE/REC Home>Draw>Rectangle Draws a rectangle after you enter one

Copy Copy/CP Home>Modify>Copy Copies object(s) once or multiple times.

Move command (Figs 1 & 2) Previous selection

6 Pick A point to copy to. Offset distance or <Through point>: (T)

1 Choose Modify, rotate

1 Choose Modify, fillet.

2 Click The chamfer icon. <Select object to extend> / Project/

Enter first point: (point) 2 Click The array icon.

1 Choose Modify, explode.

Other CAD commands

Introduction sculpture, contours of a landscape plan or roads and

Convert pline to spline (Fig 6)

Object: Converse 2D or 3D spline-fit polylines to

The spline command creates a particular type of spline

1 Choose Draw, multiline. Fig 12

1 Choose Modify, Multiline

3 Choose from one of the mledit options

Pick points: Constructs a boundary from existing objects

A CAD file, which is the electric version of the design,

Absolute coordinates Distance measured from a fixed reference point.

1 Start at the 0° position and measure counter-closkwise