Welder Volume-II of II-TT

WELDER (PIPE)
(NSQF Level - 3)
Volume II of II
TRADE THEORY
Sector : Capital Goods & Manufacturing
DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING

MINISTRY OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT & ENTREPRENEURSHIP
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
NATIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL
MEDIA INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
Post Box No. 3142, CTI Campus, Guindy, Chennai þ 600 032-
(i)
Sector : Capital goods & manufacturing
Duration : 1 Year
Trade : Welder (Pipe) - Volume II of II - Trade Theory - (NSQF Level - 3)
Developed & Published by
National Instructional Media Institute

Post Box No.3142
Guindy, Chennai - 600 032
INDIA
Email: chennai-nimi@nic.in
Website: www.nimi.gov.in
Copyright © 2022 National Instructional Media Institute, Chennai

First Edition: : March 2022 Copies: 50
Rs.150/-
(ii)
FOREWORD
The Government of India has set an ambitious target of imparting skills to 30 crores people, one out of every
four Indians, by 2020 to help them secure jobs as part of the National Skills Development Policy. Industrial
Training Institutes (ITIs) play a vital role in this process especially in terms of providing skilled manpower.
Keeping this in mind, and for providing the current industry relevant skill training to Trainees, ITI syllabus
has been recently updated with the help of Media Development Committee members of various stakeholders
viz. Industries, Entrepreneurs, Academicians and representatives from ITIs.
The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI), Chennai, has now come up with
instructional material to suit the revised curriculum for Welder (Pipe) - Trade Theory - Volume II of II in
Capital Goods & Manufacturing Sector. The NSQF Level - 3. Trade Practical will help the trainees to get
an international equivalency standard where their skill proficiency and competency will be duly recognized
across the globe and this will also increase the scope of recognition of prior learning. NSQF Level - 3
trainees will also get the opportunities to promote life long learning and skill development. I have no doubt
that with NSQF Level - 3 the trainers and trainees of ITIs, and all stakeholders will derive maximum benefits
from these Instructional Media Packages IMPs and that NIMI's effort will go a long way in improving the
quality of Vocational training in the country.
The Executive Director & Staff of NIMI and members of Media Development Committee deserve appreciation
for their contribution in bringing out this publication.
Jai Hind
SHRI. ATUL KUMAR TIWARI., I.A.S.,

Director General / Additional Secretary
Directorate General of Training
Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneruship
Government of India.
New Delhi - 110 001
(iii)
PREFACE
The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) was established in 1986 at Chennai by then Directorate
General of Employment and Training (D.G.E & T), Ministry of Labour and Employment, (now under Directorate
General of Training, Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship) Government of India, with technical
assistance from the Govt. of Federal Republic of Germany. The prime objective of this Institute is to develop
and provide instructional materials for various trades as per the prescribed syllabi under the Craftsman and
Apprenticeship Training Schemes.
The instructional materials are created keeping in mind, the main objective of Vocational Training under
NCVT/NAC in India, which is to help an individual to master skills to do a job. The instructional materials are
generated in the form of Instructional Media Packages (IMPs). An IMP consists of Theory book, Practical
book, Test and Assignment book, Instructor Guide, Audio Visual Aid (Wall charts and Transparencies) and
other support materials.
The trade practical book consists of series of exercises to be completed by the trainees in the workshop.
These exercises are designed to ensure that all the skills in the prescribed syllabus are covered. The trade
theory book provides related theoretical knowledge required to enable the trainee to do a job. The test and
assignments will enable the instructor to give assignments for the evaluation of the performance of a trainee.
The wall charts and transparencies are unique, as they not only help the instructor to effectively present a
topic but also help him to assess the trainee's understanding. The instructor guide enables the instructor to
plan his schedule of instruction, plan the raw material requirements, day to day lessons and demonstrations.
IMPs also deals with the complex skills required to be developed for effective team work. Necessary care
has also been taken to include important skill areas of allied trades as prescribed in the syllabus.
The availability of a complete Instructional Media Package in an institute helps both the trainer and
management to impart effective training.
The IMPs are the outcome of collective efforts of the staff members of NIMI and the members of the Media
Development Committees specially drawn from Public and Private sector industries, various training institutes
under the Directorate General of Training (DGT), Government and Private ITIs.
NIMI would like to take this opportunity to convey sincere thanks to the Directors of Employment & Training
of various State Governments, Training Departments of Industries both in the Public and Private sectors,
Officers of DGT and DGT field institutes, proof readers, individual media developers and coordinators, but for
whose active support NIMI would not have been able to bring out this materials.
Chennai - 600 032 EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
(iv)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) sincerely acknowledges with thanks for the co-operation and
contribution extended by the following Media Developers and their sponsoring organisation to bring out this IMP
(Trade Theory) for the trade of Welder (Pipe) - Trade Theory - Volume II of II in Capital Goods &
Manufacturing Sector for ITIs.
MEDIA DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS
Shri. K. Rajasekaran _ ATO, Govt. ITI,

K.K. Nagar, Chennai.
Shri. A. Elamurugu _ ATO, Govt. ITI, Central Prison

Trichy - 20
NIMI - COORDINATORS
Shri.Nirmalya Nath _ Deputy Director of Trainning

NIMI- Chennai - 32.
Shri. V. Gopalakrishnan _ Assistant Manager,

NIMI, Chennai - 32
NIMI records its appreciation of the Data Entry, CAD, DTP Operators for their excellent and devoted services in
the process of development of this Instructional Material.
NIMI also acknowledges with thanks, the invaluable efforts rendered by all other staff who have contributed for the
development of this Instructional Material.
NIMI is grateful to all others who have directly or indirectly helped in developing this IMP.
(v)
INTRODUCTION
TRADE PRACTICAL
The trade practical manual is intented to be used in workshop . It consists of a series of practical exercises
to be completed by the trainees during the one year course of the Welder (Pipe) in Capital Goods &
Manufacturing trade supplemented and supported by instructions/ informations to assist in performing the
exercises. These exercises are designed to ensure that all the skills in compliance with NSQF LEVEL - 3
The manual is divided into nine modules. The distribution of time for the practical in the nine modules are given
below.
Module Name Hours
Module 1 SMAW - I 75 hrs
Module 2 SMAW - I 75 hrs
Module 3 SMAW - III 75 hrs
Module 4 GTAW - I 75 hrs
Module 5 GTAW - II 55 hrs
Module 6 GTAW - III 65 hrs
Module 7 GTAW & SMAW 50 hrs
Module 8 GTAW - IV 62 hrs
Module 9 GMAW 38 hrs
Total 570 hrs
The skill training in the shop floor is planned through a series of practical exercises centred around some
practical project. However, there are few instances where the individual exercise does not form a part of
project.
While developing the practical manual a sincere effort was made to prepare each exercise which will be easy
to understand and carry out even by below average trainee. However the development team accept that there
is a scope for further improvement. NIMI, looks forward to the suggestions from the experienced training faculty
for improving the manual.
TRADE THEORY
The manual of trade theory consists of theoretical information for the one year course of the Welder Pipe in
Capital Goods & Manufacturing Trade. The contents are sequenced according to the practical exercise
contained in the manual on Trade practical. Attempt has been made to relate the theoretical aspects with the
skill covered in each exercise to the extent possible. This co-relation is maintained to help the trainees to
develop the perceptional capabilities for performing the skills.
The Trade theory has to be taught and learnt along with the corresponding exercise contained in the manual
on trade practical. The indicating about the corresponding practical exercise are given in every sheet of this
manual.
It will be preferable to teach/learn the trade theory connected to each exercise atleast one class before
performing the related skills in the shop floor. The trade theory is to be treated as an integrated part of each
exercise.
The material is not the purpose of self learning and should be considered as supplementary to class room
instruction.
(vi)
CONTENTS
Learning
Lesson No. Title of the Lesson Outcome Page No.
Module 1 : SMAW - I
2.1.56 Gas cutting 1
2.1.57 Common defects in gas cutting 4
2.1.58 & 59 Gas cutting - Plasma arc cutting 1 6
2.1.60 Principles of shielded metal arc welding 9
2.1.61 Types of power source polarity type and arc length 11
2.1.62 Welding positions 18
2.1.63 & 64 Welding procedure & Edge preparation 2 20
2.1.65 Welding fixtures and clamps 24
Module 2 : SMAW - II
2.2.66 & 68 Electrodes - Types description and sepcification 29
2.2.69 Electrode storage and backing temperature 39
2.2.70 Types of metals and the characteristics 41

2
2.2.71 Classification of steel 42
Module 3 : SMAW - III

2&3
2.3.72 & 78 Pipe welding position 1G 2G 5G & 6G 44
Module 4 : GTAW - I
2.4.79 Selecion of electrode (SMAW) for root pass and cover

pass welding 54
2.4.80 Procedure for welding heavy wall pipes in 5G position welding 3 57
2.4.81 Procedure for welding heavy wall pipes in 6G position welding 58
2.4.82 & 83 Weld symbol and welding symbol - Description and uses 60
Module 5 : GTAW - II 4
2.5.84 & 86 Procedure for welding of thin wall pipes in down hill position 62
2.5.87 Development of a pipe "T" joint 64
2.5.88 & 90 Development of a pipe "Y" joint 67
Module 6 : GTAW - III
2.6.91 Introduction to GTAW welding - Advantages, equipment 68

4
electrode
2.6.92 & 94 GTAW Torches 77
2.6.95 & 96 Shielding gases used for GTAW 82
(vii)
Exercise No. Title of the Lesson Page No.
2.6.97 Importance of preheating and post heating and post weld

heat treatment 4 86
2.6.98 Welding metallurgy - weld stress 89
2.6.99 & 100 Distortion and its control connection of distorted section 93
Module 7 : GTAW & SMAW
2.7.101 Introduction to GMAW & Flow cored arc welding, equipment

accessories 99
2.7.102 & 105 Advantages, disadvantages of GMAW over SMAW process 5

and applications 103
2.7.106 Shielding gases for GMAW 107
2.7.107 & 109 Types of metal transfer awelding parameters in GMAW 110
Module 8 : GTAW - IV
2.8.110 & 113 Types of welding defects cause and remedies 5&6 114
2.8.114 & 118 TDifferent tests and inspection involved is qualification weld
ments and visual inspection kits and gauges 121
Module 9 : GMAW 7
2.9.119 & 122 Welding codes and standards 123
LEARNING / ASSESSABLE OUTCOME
On completion of this book you shall be able to

S.No. Learning Outcome Ref. Ex.No.
8 Perform Plasma cutting. 2.1.56 - 2.1.59
9 Carry out single V groove welds on MS plates by SMAW in 1G, 2G, 3G 2.1.61 - 2.2.71
and 4G positions.
10 Carry out single V groove welds on MS pipes by SMAW in 1G, 2G, 5G and 2.3.72 - 2.3.78
6G positions.
11 Perform Root pass welds in Weld single Vee butt joints on schedule 40 2.4.79 - 2.6.100
pipes in 1G, 2G and 5G positions by GTAW.
12 Perform Root pass welds in Weld single Vee butt joints on schedule 60
pipes and schedule 80 pipes in 6G positions by GTAW and intermediate
and cover pass weld by SMAW. 2.7.101 - 2.7.109
13 Perform single Vee butt joint welding on MS pipes by GMAW in 1G 2.8.110 - 2.7.118
position.
14 Carry out Dimensional inspection and testing of weldments. 2.9.119 - 2.9.122
(viii)
SYLLABUS FOR WELDER (PIPE)
VOLUME II OF II Duration: 6 Months
Duration Reference Learning Professional Skills Professional Knowledge

Outcome (Trade Practical) (Trade Theory)
with Indicative hours
Professional Perform Plasma cutting. 56.Familiarization with the - Outline of the subjects to be
Skill 25Hrs; machinery used in the trade. covered
Professional (6hrs.) - Importance of pressure vessels
Knowledge 57. Cutting practice on M.S. plates and pipe welding
07Hrs using gas cutting methods. - Gas cutting & plasma cutting
(6hrs.) - Safety in welding (07 hrs.)
58. Cutting practice of M.S. plates
using plasma cutting methods.
(8hrs.)
59. Gouging practice. (5hrs.)
Professional Carry out single V groove 60. Edge preparation for plate groove - Principles of Shielded Metal Arc
Skill 125Hrs; welds on MS plates by welding. (05hrs.) Welding (SMAW).
Professional SMAW in 1G, 2G, 3G and 61.Fit up of joints by tack welding - Types of power source.
Knowledge 4G positions. using simple fixtures. (05hrs.) - Polarity type and arc length.
35Hrs 62.Pipe and plate flange joint - Welding positions and
welding. (10hrs.) importance.
63. T and Y and pipe joint welding. - Edge preparation and tack
(15hrs.) welding procedure.
64. Groove welding on plate in 1G & - Welding fixtures and clamps.
2Gpositions. (10hrs.) (14 hrs.)
65. Inspection and clearance using
LPI testing during Root pass and
cover pass. (05hrs.)
66.Groove welding on plate in 3G - Electrodes - types - description

position. (10hrs.) and specification - BIS, AWS, etc.
67.Inspection and clearance using - Functions of flux and
LPI testing during Root pass and characteristic of flux. (07 hrs.)
68.Groove welding on plate in 3G - Selection of electrodes (Rutile /

position. (10hrs.) Cellulosic / Low hydrogen etc.)
69.Inspection and clearance using & coating factors.
LPI testing during Root pass and - Electrode storage and backing
cover pass. (15hrs.) temperature. (07 hrs.)
70. Groove welding on plate in 4G - Types of metals and their

position. (10hrs.) characteristics.
71. Inspection and clearance using - Classification of steels. (07 hrs.)
72.Groove welding on plate in 4G - Introduction to pipe welding.

position. (10hrs.) - Types of pipes and pipe schedule.
73.Inspection and clearance using - Preparation work before welding.
LPI testing during Root pass and (07 hrs.)
(ix)
Professional Carry out single V groove 74.Preparation of pipe joint for pipe - Basic pipe welding procedure
Skill 50Hrs; welds on MS pipes by welding (schedule 40). (10hrs.) uphill welding, downhill welding
Professional SMAW in 1G, 2G, 5G and 75.Prepare the edges, clean the and horizontal welding. (07 hrs.)
Knowledge 6G positions. joint surfaces, Fit up the pipes - Pipe welding position 1G, 2G, 5G
14Hrs and tack weld the pipes. (10hrs.) & 6G
76.Fit up inspection. (5hrs.) - Selection of electrode (SMAW) for

77. Welding of pipes (schedule 40) root pass and cover pass welding.
in 1G position. (08hrs.) - Procedure for welding heavy wall
78. Inspection and clearance using pipes in 5G position welding.
LPI testing during Root pass and (07 hrs.)
79. Welding of pipes (schedule 40)
in 2G position. (07hrs.)
Professional Perform Root pass welds 81.Root welding of pipes (schedule - Procedure for welding of thin wall
Skill 150Hrs; in Weld single Vee butt 40) in 5G position. (10hrs.) pipes in downhill position.
Professional joints on schedule 40 82.Intermediate and cover pass - Procedure for welding pipes in 2G
Knowledge pipes in 1G, 2G and 5G welding in 5G position. (10hrs.) position. (07 hrs.)
42Hrs positions by GTAW. 83.Inspection and clearance using LPI
testing. (5hrs.)
84.Root welding of pipes (schedule
40) in 5G position (10hrs.)
85.Intermediate and cover pass
welding in 5G position. (10hrs.)
86. Inspection and clearance using LPI
testing. (10hrs.)
87. Beading practice by TIG on MS - Welding procedure for

sheets. (8hrs.) complicated pipe joint, ‘T’ joints
88. Square butt joint on M.S. sheet with intersection.
in flat position. (8hrs.) - Top, Bottom and Side - ‘Y’ joint
89. Square butt joint on M.S. sheet etc. (07 hrs.)
in flat position. (6hrs.)
LPI testing. (3hrs.)
91. Square butt joint on M.S. sheet - Introduction to GTAWwelding -

in 2G position. (8hrs.) Advantages, Equipment –
92. Inspection and clearance using Electrode. (07 hrs.)
93. Square butt joint on M.S. sheet
in 3G position. (6hrs.)
95. Square butt joint on M.S. sheet - Shielding Gas and Advantage of
in 4G position. (12hrs.) root pass welding by GTAW.
96. Inspection and clearance using (07 hrs.)
(x)
97.Root pass welding of - Importance of preheating, post
pipes(schedule 40) 1G positions heating and post weld heat
by TIG. (10hrs.) treatment
98. Inspection and clearance using - Welding metallurgy - weld stress
LPI testing. (3hrs.) - Distortion and control.
99. Root pass welding of pipes - Correction of distorted section.
(schedule 40) 2G positions by (07 hrs.)
TIG. (9hrs.)
Professional Perform Root pass welds 101.Root pass welding of pipes - Introduction to GMAW & Flux
Skill 100Hrs; in Weld single Vee butt (schedule 60) 5G positions by cored arc welding - Equipment,
Professional joints on schedule 60 TIG. (8hrs.) accessories, Advantages and
Knowledge pipes and schedule 80 102.Inspection and clearance using Limitations. (07 hrs.)
28Hrs pipes in 6G positions by LPI testing. (2hrs.)
GTAW and intermediate 103.Root pass welding of pipes
and cover pass weld by (schedule 60) 6G positions by
SMAW. TIG. (8hrs.)
104.Inspection and clearance using
105.Pipe welding dia 50mm in 2G
position by GTAW. (5hrs.)
106.Root pass welding of pipes - Power source - Wire feeder -

(schedule 60) 6G positions by Electrode wires - shielding gases
TIG. (10hrs.) - Types of metal transfer and
107.Inspection and clearance using welding parameters (07 hrs.)
108.Cover pass Intermediate pass
by SMAW. (10hrs.)
110. Root pass welding of pipes - Types of welding defects, cause

(schedule 80) 6G positions by and remedy.
SMAW (by pipe welding - Non-destructive testing methods.
electrode) (10hrs.) (07hrs.)
112.Cover pass and Intermediate
passes by SMAW. (by low
hydrogen electrode) (10hrs.)
LP testing. (2hrs.)
114.Square butt joint on M.S. sheet - Requirement for qualification in

in flat position by GMAW. 12hrs.) different codes.
115.Single V joint on M.S. plate in flat - Qualification procedure under
position by GMAW. (10hrs.) various codes.
116.Inspection and clearance using - Different tests and inspection
LP testing. (3hrs.) involved in qualification. (07 hrs.)
(xi)
Professional Perform single Vee butt 117. Pipe (schedule 40) welding by - Inspection and testing of
Skill 25Hrs; joint welding on MS pipes GMAW in 1G position by weldments.
Professional by GMAW in 1G position. GMAW. (12hrs.) - Visual inspection kits and
Knowledge 118. Pipe (schedule 60) welding by Gauges. (06 hrs.)
07Hrs GMAW in 1G position by
GMAW. (13hrs.)
Professional Carry out Dimensional 119.Dimensional inspection of - Pressure welding codes and
Skill 25Hrs; inspection and testing of weldments. (6hrs.) standards (IBR, ASME etc.)
Professional weldments 120.Visual inspection of weldments. - Writing procedure for WPS and
Knowledge (6hrs.) PQR
07Hrs 121.Non-destructive testing of - Grouping of metals and filler rods
weldments(6hrs.) ( P& F number) (06 hrs.)
122.Bend Testing of specimen
according to codes and
standards. (7hrs.)
(xii)
CG & M Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.56
Welder (Pipe) - SMAW - I
Gas cutting
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain different types of gas cutting machines
• explain profile cutting using templates
• state gas cutting defects, their causes and remedies.
There are two types of cutting machines.

- Manually driven cutting machines
- Electrically driven cutting machines
Manually operated cutting machines
A manually driven cutting machine normally consists of:
- a crank or wheel to drive the cutter via a screw thread
and this machine can be used for straight line cutting
and bevel cutting
- a system of links or rods which are used with the
machines and by which simple circles, ellipses,
squares, etc. can also be cut. (Fig 1)
Provision is also made to enable full adjustment of the

cutting head to be carried out over the cutting area.
The electrical control unit fitted to the carriage is shown in
Fig 3.
The speed of the manually operated cutting machines is

liable to variation and the range of speed is also limited.
Electrically driven cutting machines
There are two types of machines available.
Portable machines
The speed of an electrically driven machine, when it, is
Static machines constant, and normally it is able to produce better cuts
than a manually driven machine. The speed range of an
PORTABLE MACHINES
electrically driven machine is greater than that of the manual
An electrically driven portable cutting machine generally type and the adjustment of speed helps to control more
consists of: accurately. Multiple cutting heads can be mounted to
- cutting instruments increase the volume of cutting, these cutting heads may
be mounted on an adjustable bar extending to either side
- carriage (Consisting of a variable speed motor) of the track at 90° to the direction of travel. (Fig 4)
- guide (to guide the carriage).
This machine can be used for straight line cutting, bevel
cutting, circular cutting and profile cutting. (Fig 2)
1
STATIC MACHINES
These machines are generally used to produce more
accurate work than what is possible with manually
operated or portable cutters.
Two types of templates are in use depending on their size.
These machines can be used with radial arm and cross
carriage arrangements. In general the work is required to - Outside template
be brought to the machine. With this machine straight - Inside template
line cutting, circle and profile cutting can be done.
(Fig 5) Outside template
The outline of the template will be the shape to be cut,
reduced in size by the radius of the follower wheel or roller
which is (Knurled) attached with the motor af the machine.
The size of the template is excluding the radius of the
tracing wheel (knurled wheel) - half of the kerf width.
(Fig 7)
Example
Profile cutting by using templates To cut a circle using an extermal template

Profile cutting can be done by static cutting machines as Radius of circle 100 mm
per the shape of the templates. (Fig 6) The templates are Radius tracing wheel 6.5 mm (a)
mainly used for reproducing the same shapes into a no. Half the kerf width 0.8 mm (b)
of pieces. The templates are made from wood, hardboard, Difference [(a) - (b)] 5.7 mm
aluminium or steel. So pre-radius of external
template 100-5.7 mm
= 94.3 mm
2 CG & M : Welder (Pipe) (NSQF Level - 3) Related Theory Exercise 2.1.56

NOTE:
Kerf width is variable according to the:
- nozzle size, type and condition
- plate thickness
- cutting speed
- pressure of cutting oxygen
- preheat flame size.
Internal template or inside template
The shape of the template will be the shape to be cut - Due to melting, the top edge has become rounded.
increased by the radius of the following roller (knurled Gouging is pronounced at the bottom edge, which is also
wheel) + half the kerf width. (Fig 8) rough. Scale on the cut face is difficult to remove.
To rectify: Traverse at recommended speed. Increase
the oxygen pressure. (Fig 10)
- The top edge may not be sharp; there is a possibility of

beading.
To rectify: slow down the traverse to the recommended
speed. Leave the oxygen pressure as set. (Fig 11)
Example
To cut a circle using an internal template:
Radius of circle - 100mm
Radius of tracing wheel
(knurled) - 6.5 mm (a)
Half the kerf width - 0.8 mm (b)
Sum of (a) + (b) = 6.5 + 0.8 mm
= 7.3 mm
The radius of the external
template = 100 + 7.3 mm
= 107.3 mm
GAS CUTTING DEFECTS
Recognition of cutting and gouging defects, their causes,
prevention and permissible methods of rectification
- In a correct cut the top of the cut is both sharp and
clean, the drag lines are almost invisible, producing a
smooth side. Oxide is easily removed, the cut is sharp
and bottom edge is clearly and sharply defined.
Drag lines should be vertical for profiles. A small amount
of drag is allowed on straight cuts. (Fig 9)
CG & M : Welder (Pipe) (NSQF Level - 3) Related Theory Exercise 2.1.56 3

Common defects in gas cutting

• explain the principle of gas cutting
• describe the cutting operation and its application.
Common faults in cutting

(Fig 1) The tip is too high off the steel. The top edge is
heated or rounded, the cut face is not smooth, and often
the face is slightly bevelled where preheat effectiveness is
partially lost due to the tip being held so high. The cutting
speed must be reduced because of the danger of losing
the cut.
(Fig 2) Extemely slow cutting speed. Pressure marks on

the cut face indicate too much oxygen for the cutting
conditions. Either the tip is too big, the cutting oxygen
pressure is too high, or the speed is too slow as shown by
the rounded or beaded top edge. On reducing the cutting
oxygen volume to the correct proportions for the thickness
of the cut, the pressure marks will recede toward the
bottom edge until they finally disappear.
(Fig 3) Tip too close to the steel. The cut shows grooves
and deep drag lines, caused an unstable cutting action.
Part of the preheat cones burned inside the kerf, where (Fig 6) Poor quality bevel cut. The most common fault is
normal gas expansion affected the oxygen cutting stream. gouging, caused by either excessive speed or inadequate
(Fig 4) Too much cutting oxygen. The cut shows pressure perheat flames. Another fault is a rounded top edge caused
marks caused by too much cutting oxygen. When more by too much preheat, indicating excessive gas
oxygen is supplied than can be consumed in oxidation, consumption.
the remainder flow around the slags, creating gouges or (FIg 7) Slightly too fast a cutting speed. The drag lines
pressure marks. on this cut incline backwards, but a ‘drop cut’ is still
(Fig 5) Too much preheating. The cut shows a rounded attained. The top edge is good; the cut face is smooth
top edge caused by too much preheat. Excess preheating and slag-free. This quality is satisfactory for most
does not increase the cutting speed, it only wastes gases. production work.
4
In a good cut, the edges are square, and the lines of cut
are vertical. (Fig 9)
(Fig 8) Slightly too slow a cutting speed. The cut is of

high quality although there is some surface roughness
caused by the vertical drag line. The top edge is usually
slightly beaded. This quality is generally acceptable, but
faster speeds are more desirable because the labour cost
for this cut is too high.
CG & M : Welder (Pipe) (NSQF Level - 3) Related Theory Exercise2.1.57 5

CG & M Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.58 & 59
Gas cutting - Plasma arc cutting

• state the principle of plasma arc cutting
• explain the process variable of plasma cutting
• state the advantages of plasma cutting.
Cutting processes - plasma arc cutting Equipment is available for both manual and mechanical
cutting. A basic plasma arc cutting circuit is shown in Fig
Plasma arc cutting process, was introduced in the industry
1. It employs direct current straight polarity (DCEN). The
in the mid 1950s. The process is used to cut all metals
nozzle surrounding the electrode is connected to the
and non-metals. The common oxy-fuel cutting process
workpiece (positive) through a current limiting reisitor and
(based on a chemical process) is suitable for cutting carbon
a pilot arc relay contact.
steel and low alloy steel cutting only. Materials such as
copper, aluminium and stainless steels were earlier The pilot arc between the electrode and nozzle is initiated
separated by sawing, drilling or sometimes by power flame by a high frequency generator connected between the
cutting. These materials are now cut using a plasma torch, electrode and nozzle. The orifice gas ionized by the pilot
at faster rates and more economically. The Plasma cutting arc is blown through the constricting nozzle orifice and
process is basically a thermal cutting process, free of any forms a low resistance path to ignite the main transferred
chemical reaction, that means, without oxidation. In plasma arc between the electrode and the workpiece when the
arc cutting an extremely high temperature and high velocity ON/OFF switch is closed. The pilot arc relay may be
constricted arc is utilized. opened automatically when the main arc ignites, to avoid
unnecessary heating of the constricting nozzle. The
Principle of operation
constricting nozzle is of copper and normally water cooled
Plasma arc cutting is a process resulting from ionizing a to withstand the high plasma flame temperature (about
column of gas (argon, nitrogen, helium, air, hydrogen or 20000°K) and to have longer life.
their mixtures) with extreme heat of an electric arc. The
In conventional gas plasma cutting, discussed above, the
ionized gas along with the arc is forced through a very
cutting gas can be argon, nitrogen, (argon + hydrogen), or
small nozzle orifice, resulting into a plasma stream of high
compressed air. For all the cutting gases other than
velocity (speed up to 600 m/sec) and high temperature
compressed air, the non-consumable electrode material
(up to 20000°K). When this high speed is reached, high
is 2% thoriated tungsten. In air plasma cutting (Fig 2)
temperature plasma stream and electric arc strike the
where dry, clean compressed air is used as the cutting
workpiece, and ions in the plasma recombine into gas
gas, the electrode of hafnium or zirconium. In used
atoms and liberate a great amount of latent heat. This
because tungsten is rapidly eroded in air. Wet and dirty
heat melts the workpiece, vaporizes part of the material
compressed air reduces the useful life of consumable parts
and the balance is blasted away in the form of molten
and produces poor quality.
metal through the heat (Fig 1).
Plasma cutting system (Fig 2,3,4) If the high-frequency circuit is weak:

Plasma cutting requires a cutting torch, a control unit, a 1 Check tightness of all leads in the external weld-
power supply, one or more cutting gases and a supply of ing circuit.
clean cooling water (in case water-cooled torch is used). 2 Increase high-frequency rheostat to maximum.
6
3 Maximum recommended welding cable length is iv Distance between nozzle and job.
exceeded. Have the machine as close to work as
v Cutting speed.
possible.
4 Welding cables should lie in a straight line from vi Plasma cutting current.
the machine to the work for maximum high fre- vii Power used during cutting.
quency. Avoid having work and electrode cables
touch each other and avoid having them in con- viii Manual/machine cutting.
tact with metallic objects or lying on metal. ix Material to be cut and its thickness.
5 Check spark gaps adjust if required. x Quality of cut required - rough or smooth.
6 Make certain that the shielding gas is flowing.
xi The bevel angle and round off corner etc.
7 If the checks above are of no help, run checks
listed under “If the high-frequency current does Advantages of plasma cutting
not start”. i All metals and non-metals can be cut due to the high
Several process variations are used to improve the cut temperature and high velocity plasma flame.
quality for particular applications. Auxiliary shielding in ii Cuts are of very clear form with little or no dross.
the form of gas or water is used (Fig 3) to improve the cut
quality and to improve the nozzle life. Water injection iii High speed piercing is achieved.
plasma cutting (Fig 4) uses a symmetrical impinging wa- iv Cutting of piled plates is possible, even with different
ter jet near the constricting nozzle orifice to further con- materials.
strict the plasma flame and to increase the nozzle life.
Good quality cut with sharp and clear edges with little or v Cutting cost is quite low as compared to other
no dross is possible in water injection plasma cutting. processes, especially for stainless steels.
vi Cutting speed is high.
vii Cutting is possible in all positions and locations
(underwater also).
Application of plasma cutting

i Straight and sharp cutting of all metals and non-metals.
ii Cutting of risers and gates for forging and casting.
iii Stack cutting of several sheets of 1.5 to 6 mm thickness.
iv For making holes in thick sheets (by piercing
operation).
v For gouging, rough machining etc.
Process variables (Fig 5 & 6)
vi For sizing the scarp.
i Torch design - constricting nozzle shape and size.
ii Process variation - dual gas flow, water injection, air
plasma.
iii Cutting gas type and its flow rate.
CG & M : Welder (Pipe) (NSQF Level - 3) Related Theory Exercise 2.1.58 & 59 7
Gases for Plasma cutting
• no need to promote oxidation & no preheat
• works by melting and blowing and/or vaporisation
• “gases : air, Ar, N2, O2, mix of Ar + H2, N2 + H2
• air plasma promotes oxidation and increased speed
but special electrodes need
• shielding gas - optional
• applications : stainless steels, aluminium and thin
sheet carbon steel. (Fig 7)
Safety precautions in plasma cutting

The operator and persons in the vicinity of plasma cutting
operation must be protected from:
i arc radiation and spatter - protect body and eyes
ii metal fumes and gases - use breathing mask, proper
ventilation
iii noise - up to 115 dB - use ear plugs
iv electrical shocks - high operating voltage (180-400V)
and both anode and cathode in torch; input supply is
to be switched off before attending to the torch etc.
8 CG & M : Welder (Pipe) (NSQF Level - 3) Related Theory Exercise 2.1.58 & 59
Principles of shielded metal arc welding

• state the fundamentals of shielded metal arc welding
• state the entry level skills in SMAW.
Introduction Welding procedure

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is also known as A suitable electrode diameter is chosen depending on
manual metal arc welding (MMAW) and stick electrode the thickness of the material to be welded, type of joint,
welding. Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) process position of welding, groove design and, finally, the
uses an electrical circuit that supports a welding arc to experience of the welder.
convert electric line power or fuel into heat. The heat from
A suitable power supply is chosen. Depending on the
the welding arc is intense, extremely concentrated, and
electrode, the amperage to be used is selected and set
immediately melts a portion of the workpiece and the end
on the equipment. During welding, the welder maintains
of the electrode. The welder maintains the arc length by
a normal arc length by uniformly moving the electrode
holding a consistent space between the electrode and
toward the work as the electrode melts. At the same time,
the weld pool that forms on the workpiece. As the arc is
the electrode is moved uniformly along the joint in the
removed, the liquid fuses and the metal solidifies into
direction of welding to form the bead. After welding, the
continuous metal.
slag should be completely removed before the next layer
Figure,1 shows the power source connected into a circuit is deposited. Proper grounding is required to avoid arc
with the electrode and workpiece in series. The welding blows.
cable used in the circuit, the electrode holder, and the
Weld quality
connection between the cable and the workpiece are also
important elements of the circuit. The power source has Discontinuities are, sometimes, encountered in welds
two distinct output terminals. From one terminal, a made by SMAW process that include porosity, slag
connection is made to the workpiece and from the other, inclusions, incomplete fusion, incomplete penetration,
a connection is made to the electrode. (Fig 2) undercut, cracking, etc.
Metals welded Process advantages
The SMAW process is used in joining and surfacing 1 The equipment is relatively simple, inexpensive and
applications on a variety of base metals. Electrodes are portable.
also available for the application of wear impact or 2 The process is less sensitive to wind and draft than
corrosion resistant surfaces on the same base metals. the gas shielded arc welding processes.
Fig 1
3 The process is suitable for most of the commonly used
metals and alloys.
4 The process is flexible and can be applied to a variety
of joint configurations and welding positions.
Process limitations
1 Metals with low melting temperatures such as lead,
tin, zinc and their alloys are not welded with SMAW.
2 The SMAW process yields lower deposition rates
than the gas metal arc and flux cored arc welding
processes because the maximum used current is
limited.
Fig 2
3 Another drawback is stub loss. The stub is the grip
end of the electrode that is discarded. Longer stub
losses translate directly into lower deposition
efficiency.
4 The operator factor (arc time as a percentage of the
welder’s total labour time) for SMAW is usually lower
than that for a continuous electrode process.
5 The weld cost is relatively high. (Fig 3, 4, 5 & 6)
9
Types of power source polarity type and arc length

• explain about basic general terms in power sources
• describe the power source selection criteria for SMAW MIG/MAG
• state the function of inverters.
Some General Terms to Understand Power source selection criteria MIG/MAG:

Insulation class- The temperature withstanding capability Maximum & minimum electrode wire diameter. Welding
of the insulation materials. job thickness. welding position joining materials, Circularity
Power factor- Ratio of active power used to the total power of joints - Pulsed/non-pulsed, preciseness of parameter
drawn from the system. control-step-controlled or step less. Dip tranfer/spray
transfer, shielding Gas Inductance level required
Efficiency- Power utility factor of the machine expressed
as a % output to input. It accounts for losses in the system Inverter its concept and application
particularly transformer losses. In welding power sources Inverters: Mains voltage is recitifed to DC. The inverter
‘no load’ loss is a very important criteria because power converts to the high frequency AC. The transformer
source arc-on time is hardly 25% in a shopfloor situation. changes the HF AC to suitable welding voltage. The AC is
Ip classes define the degree of protection provided by the rectified. Various filters remove the disturbing frequencies
closure and is indicated by various 2-digit numbers such and ripples in the DC current. The entire process is
as 22,23,54 etc. monitored by a control circuit. This gives the machine
ideal static and dynamic characteristic. A CDC voltage is
The first digit defines the degree of protection with respect
availabe for welding purpose through a microprocessor
to person and solid ingress.
based real time adaptive process control.
The degrees range from, 0-6 where 0 means no protection
Why inverters: Traditional power sources have the
& 6 means Dust proof.
following disadvantages:
The second digit defines the degree of protection with
Higher weight due to low frequency of operation (50Hz)
respect to harmful ingress of water. The degrees range
larger volume occupying more workspace. Features of,
from 0-8 where 0 means no special protection & 8 means
inverter power sources,
protection against submersion (Hermetically sealed).
Power Source Selection Criteria General: • Very light and compact-portable.
Copper or Aluminum conductors-A total non-issue class • Power consumption reduced by 40-50%
of insulation. • Can quickly modify static, and dynamic output
Input power - 3phase or 2line of 3phase Duty cycle. characteristics for multi-process capability.
pertaining, IP class, power factor, Efficiency.
• Excellent arc stability.
Power source selection criteria SMAW:
• TIG welding can be done at 1ampere.
Type of welding current-AC or DC or both amperage range
determined by size & type of electrode. • Hot start and adjustable arc force for SMAW,GMAW-
Open circuit voltage (Ocv) - high OCV desirable from the pulse and synergic MIG welding.
stand point of arc initiation & arc maintenance. But • Possible to achieve spray transfer at lower currents.
electrical hazard factors & high cost are to be considered.
Welding positions - If vertical & overhead welding are • High switching frequencies of 50,000 hertz facilitates
planned, slope adjustment of the V-A curve is desirable. microproessor based real time adaptive process control.
A.C welding transformer and its construction

• identify the features of an AC welding transformer, DC welding generator and welding rectifier
• explain the working principle of the above welding machines
• compare the advantages and disadvntages of an Ac and a DC welding machine
• explain the care and maintenance of welding machines.
AC welding transformer: This is a type of AC welding AC main supply has high voltage-low ampere.
machine which converts AC main supply into AC welding AC welding supply has high ampere-low
supply. (Fig 1) voltage.
11
Advantages
- Less initial cost
- Less maintenance cost
- Freedom from arc blow
- NO noise
The magnetic effect of DC disturbs the arc, the
effect of which is called ‘arc blow’.
Disadvantages
Not suitable for:
- welding of non-ferrous metals
- bare wire electrodes
- fine current setting in welding special jobs.
It is a step down transformer, which:
AC cannot be used without special precautions
- reduces the main supply voltage (220 or 440 volts) to of safety.
welding supply open circuit voltage (OCV), between
40 and 100 volts Care and maintenance
- increases the main supply low current to the required Transformer body must be properly earthed.
high output welding current in hundreds of amperes. Transformer oil must be changed after recommended
An Ac welding transformer cannot be operated without AC period, in the oil cooled transformers.
main supply. Always follow the operating instruction manual to run and
Constructional features: It consists of an iron core made install the machine.
out of a special alloy thin iron sheet stampings. Two coils Do not run the machine continuously on its maximum
of wire are wound over the iron core without any capacity.
interconnection between them.
Switch off the main supply of the machine while cleaning
One coil, called primary winding, consists of a thin internally or externally.
conductor and has more turns which receive energy from
Do not change the current when welding is going on.
the mains. The second coil, called secondary winding
consists of a thick conductor and less turns which supply Always keep and install the machine on dry floor.
energy for welding.
Give proper protection to the machine while working outside
A current regulator is attached to the secondary output in rain or dust.
supply to adjust the amperes for welding suitable to the
D.C welding generator
various sizes of electrodes.
Necessity of DC welding generator
Two welding cables are attached with the output terminals.
DC welding generators are used to:
One is for the electrode and the other is for earth or job.
- generate DC welding supply with the help of AC main
The transformer may be air-cooled or oil-cooled.
supply
Working principle: The AC main supply (220-440 volts)
- generate welding supply where electricity (main supply)
is connected to the primary winding which produces a
is not available, with the help of engine driven sets
magnetic lines of force in the iron core.
- get relative advantages of polarity i.e. heat distribution
The magnetic lines of force affects the secondary winding
between the electrode and the base metal and welding
and induces high ampere-low voltage welding supply in it.
of non-ferrous metals.
This action is called the principle of mutual
Constructional features of DC welding generator
induction.
(Fig 2)
The voltage at the primary coil is reduced in the secondary
A DC welding generator (Fig 2) consists of the following
coil depending on the ratio of the No. of turns in the primary
parts.
to that of the secondary.
Main poles: These are connected to the body or yoke to
Voltage at secondary coil =
produce magnetic lines of force, also called FIELD COILS.
Voltage at primary coil × No. of turns in the secondary Body or yoke: It is the body of the generator which covers
all the parts and helps in completing the magnetic circuit
No.of turns in the primary
to generate electricity.
used as a prime mover. For field work or where main
supply is not available, petrol or diesel engine may be
used as a prime mover.
care and maintenance of arc welding generators
To make the best use of the arc welding generator and to
ensure its longer life the following checkpoints are to be
observed.
Checkpoints for engine of an engine driven
generator.
Check the water level in the radiator and the oil level in the
engine daily.
Change the engine oil after running for 250 hrs.
Lubricate the fan bearing once in a week.
Armature: It is a laminated steel drum with longitudinal
stole which accommodate copper conductors. Check fan belts daily for their proper tightness.
It is mounted on a shaft which rotates in suitable bearing Check petrol or diesel pipe unions leakage daily.
arranged at its ends. Checkpoints for motor driven generator
It is also mounted on the shaft along with the armature Blow out the dust from the inside of the generator with dry
and is connected to the armature conductors. compressed air at 1.5 to 2.0 kg/cm2 pressure after every
Carbon brushes: These are mounted on the body to three months.
have contact with the rotating commutator and are Check every week the contact of the carbon brushes with
connected to the output terminals. the commutaor to ensure it is in good condition without
Fan: It is meant for cooling the generator. sparking.
Prime mover: It is the driving source as motor or engine AC/DC welding rectifier its construction
used to rotate the armature in the generator. (Fig 3)
Constructional features of AC/DC welding rectifier:
A welding rectifier set is used to convert AC welding supply
into DC welding supply. It consists of a step down
transformer and welding current rectifier cell with a cooling
fan. (Fig 4) The rectifier cell consists of a supporting
plate made of steel or aluminium (Fig 5) which is plated
with a thin layer of nickel or bismith, sparyed with
SELENIUM or SILICON. It is finally covered with an alloyed
film of CADMIUM, BISMITH and TIN.
Fig 4
Working principle of DC welding genertor: The

armature is made to rotate with the help of a prime mover
between the main poles, where a strong magnetic field
exists
The armture cuts the magnetic lines of force, generating
emf in its conductors. The commutator, being connected
to the armature conductors, changes the generated
alternating current into DC. The generated DC is then taken
to the generator terminals through the carbon brushes.
Where the main supply electricity is availble; a motor is

Working principle: The output of the step down
Fig 5
transformer is connected to the rectifier unit, which converts
AC to DC. The DC output is connected to positive and
negative terminals, from where it is taken for welding
purposes through welding cables. It can be designed to
provide either AC or DC welding supply by operating a
switch provided on the machine.
Care and maintenance of rectifier welding set
Keep all the connections in tight condition.
Lubricate the fan shaft once in 3 months.
Do not adjust the current or operate the AC/DC switch
when the welding arc is ‘on’.
The coating of nickel or bismuth over the supporting plate Keep the rectifier plates clean.
serves as one electrode (ANODE) of the rectifying cell.
The alloyed film (of cadmium, bismuth and tin) serves as Check and clean the set atleast once in a
another electrode (CATHODE) of the rectifying cell. month.
The rectifier acts as a non-return valve and allows current
to flow one side of it as it offers very little resistance and Keep the air ventilation system in good order.
on the other side it offers very high resistance to the flow
Never run the machine without the fan.
of the current. Hence the current can flow in one direction
only.
Inverters
• describe the inverters
• state the advantage & disadvantage of inverter
Inverters 4 The AC is rectified

Basic principle 5 Various filters remove the disturbing frequencies and
inverter basically converts DC to AC ripples in the DC current. There is also a filter which
protects against exterior high frequency disturbances.
DC derived by rectification of AC voltage with high value
6 The entire process is monitored by a control circuit.
electrolytic capacitors as filters
This gives the machine an ideal static and dynamic
These DC is converted to AC by high frequency solid state characteristics.
switching (in KHz)
7 A DC voltage is available for welding purpose
A small ferrite core is suffcient for converting several
Advantage
kilowatts of power
Output of this ferrite transformer is rectified by high • Compact and light weight
frequency diodes and smoothened by a DC choke • easy to set
The output is controlled with Sensors & suitable closed • precise setting
loop electronic circuitry.
Disadvantage
Working principle
• expensive
1 Main voltage is rectified to DC
• difficult to repair
2 The inverter converts the Dc to high frequency AC
• sensitive to high currents
3 The transformer changes the HF AC to suitable welding
current.

Advantages and disadvantages of AC and DC welding
• compare the advantages and disadvantages of AC welding
• compare the advantages and disadvantages of DC welding.
Advantages of AC welding Bare wires and light coated electrodes can be easily used.
A welding transformer has: Positional welding is easy due to polarity advantage.
- a low initial cost due to simple and easy construction It can be run with the help of diesel or petrol engine where
electrical mains supply is not available.
- a low operating cost due ot less power consumption
It can be used for welding thin sheet metal, cast iron and
- no effect of arc blow during welding due to AC
non-ferrous metals successfully due to polarity advantage.
- low maintenance cost due to the absence of rotating
It has less possibility for electrical shock because of less
parts
open circuit voltage.
- higher working effeiciency
It is easy to strike and maintain a stable arc.
- noiseless operation.
Remote control of current adjustment is possible.
Disadvantages of AC welding
Disadvantages of DC welding
It is not suitable for bare and light coated electrodes.
DC welding power source has:
It has more possiblility for electrical shock because of
- a higher initial cost
higher open circuit voltage.
- a higher operating cost
Welding of thin gauge sheets, cast iron and non-ferrous
metals (in certain cases) will be difficult. - a higher maintenance cost
it can only be used where electrical mains supply is - trouble of arc blow during welding
available.
- a lower working efficiency
Advantages of DC welding
- noisy operation in the case of a welding generator
Required heat distribution is possible between the electrode
- occupies more space.
and the base metal due to the change of polarity (positive
2/3 and negative 1/3).
It can be used sucessfully to weld both ferrous and non-
ferrous metals.

Arc length and its effects
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define and identify the different types of arc lengths
• explain the effects and uses of different arc lengths.
Arc length (Fig 1): It is the straight distance between the

electrode tip and the job surface when the arc is formed.
There are three of arc lengths.
- Medium or normal
- Long
- Short
Medium, normal arc (Fig 2): The correct arc length or

normal arc length is approximately equal to the diameter
of the core wire of the electrode.
Effects of different arc length

Long arc
Long arc (Fig 3): If the distance between the tip of the It makes a humming sound causing:
electrode and the base metal is more than the diameter of - Unstable arc
the core wire it is called a long arc.
- Oxidation of weld metal
Short arc (Fig 4): If the distance between the tip of the
electrode and the base metal is less than the dia. of the - Poor fusion and penetration
core wire it is called a Short arc. - Poor control of molten metal
- more spatters, indicating wastage of electrode metal.

Effects of different arc length Normal arc: This is a stable arc producing steady sharp
crackling sound and causing:
Long arc
- even burning of the electrode
It makes a humming sound causing:
- reduction in spatters
- Unstable arc
- correct fusion and penetration
- Oxidation of weld metal
- correct metal deposition.
- Poor fusion and penetration
Uses of different arc lengths
- Poor control of molten metal
Medium or normal arc: It is used to weld mild steel
- more spatters, indicating wastage of electrode metal.
using a medium coated electrode. It can be used for the
Short arc: It makes a popping sound causing: final covering run to avoid undercut and excessive convex
- the electrode melting fastly and trying to freeze with fillet/reinforcement.
the job Long arc: It is used in plug and slot welding. for restarting
the arc and while withdrawing the electrode at the end of a
- higher metal with narrow width bead
bead after filling the crater. Generally long arc is to be
- less spatters avoided as it will give a defective weld.
- more fusion and penetration. Short arc: It is used for root runs to get good root
penetration, for positional welding and while using a heavy
coated electrode, low hydrogen, iron, powder and deep
penetration electrode.

Welding positions
• name and illustrate the basic welding positions.
Basic welding positions - Overhead position (Fig 4)

- Flat or downhand position (Fig 1)
- Horizontal position (Fig 2) All welding action takes place in the molten pool, formed
in the welding joint/welding line.
The position of the welding joint line and the weld face in
respect of ground axis indicates the welding position.
All joints may be welded in all positions.
Plate welding position:
EN ASME
Welding position
Groove Fillet Groove fillet
Flat PA PA 1G 1F
Horizontal PC PB 2G 2F
- Vertical position (Vertical up and down) (Fig 3) Vertical PG/PF PG/PF 3G 3F
Overhead PE PD 4G 4F
Pipe welding position:

Welding position
Groove Groove
Flat PA 1G
Horizontal PC 2G
Multiple postion PF/PG 5G
Inclined (All position) H-LO45 6G
Weld slope and rotation

• define and explain weld slope and weld rotation with respect to butt and fillet joint
• illustrate the various weld positions with respect to slope and rotation as per I.S.
Welding position: All welding is to be done in one of the Each of these positions can be decided by the angle formed
four positions mentioned below. by the axis of the weld and the weld face with the horizontal
and vertical plane respectively.
1 Flat or downhand 2 Horizontal
Axis of weld: The imaginary line passing through the
3 Vertical 4 Overhead
weld centre lengthwise is known as axis of the weld.
(Fig 1)
18
Face of weld: Face of weld is the exposed surface of a Weld in flat position. (Fig 5)
weld made in a welding process on the side from which
the welding is done. (Fig 1)
Weld slope (Fig 2): It is the angle formed between the Weld in horizontal and vertical position. (Fig 6 & 7)
upper portion of the vertical reference
Weld rotation (Fig 3): It is the angle formed between the

upper portion of the vertical reference plane passing through
the line of the weld root and that part of the plane passing
through the weld root and a point on the face of the weld
equidistant from both the edges of the weld.
Weld in overhead position. (Fig 8)

Weld slope and weld rotation in respect of all the four
positions are shown above.
Definitions of welding positions with respect to their slope
and rotation angles a Table is given below.
Slope and rotation (Fig 4)
Definition of welding position

Position Symbol Slope Rotation
Flat or F Not exceeding Not exceeding
downhand 10° 10°
Horizontal H Not exceeding Exceeding 10°
10° but not
beyond 90°
Vertical V Exceeding 45° Any.
Overhead O Not exceeding Exceeding
45°. 90°.
Welding procedure & Edge preparation

• state the different types of welding positions in GMAW
• state and explain the different weaving patterns and torch motions.
GMA Welding Procedure Welding in the flat position is the most simple technique
and the most convenient. The highest deposition rates
Welded joints are carried out in the formation of different can be provided and it can be adopted easily to
types of joints (the configurations for some of which are mechanised or automated welding techniques. In these
shown in following pages). Some of them, such as the positions, the most difficult position is the overhead that
groove weld and the fillet weld, are used for making welded needs special skills for the welding application. In industrial
plate products. The different types of welds are: applications the manipulators and positioners have been
- The groove weld (several types) developed and used for holding a joint in as flat a position
as possible.
- The fillet weld
Flat Position
- The backing weld
The recommended weaving patterns, the welding gun
- The plug or slot weld motions and the bead sequences in flat position are
- The flange weld illustrated in the following illustrations. In MIG welding light
gauge materials in a single pass, a slight back stepping
- The surfacing weld
technique is used in butt joints. Root passes are performed
- The tack weld with small, pendulum-like weaves. Cover passes are also
carried out in the same manner but with wider weaving in
The groove welds are used in producing butt joints. The
order to adjust the preset weld width. The welder must
fillet welds are used in overlap, T, and corner joints. The
take care of pausing at the side walls to obtain an adequate
backing welds are applied to back or root side of the joint.
tie-in to the base metal. In the flat position, the inclination
The plug or slot welds are used for prepared holes of
of the work surface with the horizontal strongly affects the
overlap joints. Surfacing welds are used for filling the worn
weld bead shape and penetration. (Fig 1 & 2)
surfaces of machine parts with stringer or weave beads.
Tack welds are often used to assist assembly or to maintain
edge alignment during welding.
Welding Positions
In application, there are only four basic welding positions.
Often, welding must be done on the ceiling, in the
corner, or on the floor. In view of this, some techniques
were developed to allow welding in any position.
Different welding positions are:
• Flat position: In this position, the filler metal is
deposited from the upper side of the joint and the face
of the weld is approximately horizontal. In welding
terminology this is also called the down-hand position
for both groove welds and fillet welds.
• Horizontal position: The position of welding in which
the weld is performed on the upper side on a horizontal
surface and against an approximately vertical surface. Horizontal Position
• Overhead position: The weld is deposited from the The recommended weaving patterns, the welding gun
underside of the joint and the face of the weld is motions and bead sequences in horizontal position are
horizontal. illustrated in the two illustrations below. For butt weld root
• Vertical position: The weld axis is approximately passes and fill passes, a zig-zag motion like a saw tooth
vertical. The welding direction can be changed up and is used with bead width adjustment as required.
down. The operator must take care of pausing at the side walls
to obtain an adequate tie-in to the base metal or to the
20
previous weld bead. In the horizontal position for fillet welds Connect the welding ground or work cable to the base
a circular motion of the electrode tip is recommended. metal.
(Fig 3 & 4) Make all necessary control settings.
Position the gun to strike an arc, and start welding.
Strike the arc by pressing the gun trigger, and at the same
time, touching the tip of the electrode wire to the work.
Hold the gun 15 mm to 18 mm above the work, tilt it about
200 off vertical in the direction of welding. Move the gun
along the seam uniformly by either the forehand or backhand
technique. (Fig 6)
Vertical Position
In the vertical position, a back and forth weave is
recommended for the weaving patterns, the welding gun
motions and the bead sequences for light gauge material
with a square edge butt joint. In a bevelled multi-pass joint,
root passes are performed with small weaving in a U pattern
like a pendulum, cover passes are carried out by using a
side weave with a backstep in the size of the wire diameter
at the walls. For vertical up fillet weld a Christmas tree
pattern is recommended with pauses at the side walls. In
the vertical down welding, an upside down U pattern with Fillet welds are made with the same 20° tilt off the vertical
pauses at the side walls is used. but the gun nozzle should bisect the included angle of the
plates.
In vertical down welding the weld puddle tends to flow down
ahead of the electrode tip and therefore the travel speed Keep the arc in the pool of the molten metal and adjust the
must be high enough so that the molten metal flowing welding speed to provide the desired penetration.
down does not take place between the electrode tip and A slight weaving motion is recommended when welding
the base metal. In this case it is possibile that the arc can from thin material to thick material. The arc is directed
not melt the base metal to obtain adequate binding to the towards the thicker material and the weaving motion
base metal. carries the puddle to the thinner material.
The welder must take care of pausing at the side walls to Stop welding by releasing the trigger. This shuts off the
obtain adequate tie-in to the base metal. For vertical up welding current, wire feed and gas flow.
fillet weld a Christmas tree pattern is recommended with
pauses at the side wall. (Fig 5) Shut off the power source, gas flow and cooling water.
Clean the weldment and inspect for defects.
Fig 5
Base metal preparation: For GMAW/Co2 welding the
edges and the plate surfaces for welding of ferrous and non-
ferrous metals are cleaned similar to Shielded Metal Arc
Welding process. The groove angle for single V butt joint in
case of Co2 welding is 400 to 450 only when compared to 600
used for shielded metal arc welding (Fig. 7, 8 & 9). The edge
preparation required for the various types of welding process
Welding procedure is given in the figure 8 & 9.
Prepare and position the workpiece for welding.
Open the gas cylinder valve, adjust the regulator pressure
and gas flow rate.
Set the wire feed speed control to the desired rate.
Fig 8
Fig 9
Fabrication Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.65
Welding fixtures and clamps

• state the advantages of using jigs and fixtures
• distinguish between the functions of jigs and fixtures
• name the operations which can be performed on drill jigs
• name the different operations for which fixtures are used.
A great deal of importance is placed today on improving Jigs

productivity in manufacturing processes. Application of
A jig is a special device which holds, supports, locates and
jigs and fixtures has contributed a lot towards this
also guides the cutting tool during operation. Jigs are
direction. Jigs and fixtures (Figs 1 and 2) are devices used
designed to accommodate one or more components at a
in manufactur-ing or assembling. They also facilitate in
time. Jigs are available for drilling or boring. Drilling jigs are
carrying out special operations accurately.
used to drill, ream, tap and to perform other allied
operations. (Fig 3) Boring jigs are used to bore holes which
are either too large to drill or of odd size. (Fig 4)
Fixtures
A fixture is a production tool that locates and holds the
workpiece. It does not guide the cutting tools, but the
tools can be positioned before cutting with the help of
Advantages of using jigs and fixtures
setting blocks and feeler gauges etc. (Fig 5)
- Faster rate of production.
Fixtures of different types are made for:
- Easy to perform the operations even by unskilled
workers. - milling - turning
- Layout and marking on individual parts eliminated. - grinding - welding
- assembly - bending etc. (Fig 6)
24
Cam clamp (Fig 8)
Trunnion jig
This can be used when large or awkwardly shaped
workpieces are to be drilled from different directions. This
is a further modification of the box jig which is carried on
trunnions and rotated from station to station and posi-
tioned, using an indexing device. (Fig 9)
Clamps
Clamps in jigs are meant for holding the component in
position against the cutting force. They also help in rapid
loading and unloading of the components. Clamps are
fitted in such a way that they do not interfere with the cutting
operation.
The commonly used typed of clamps are:
Starp clamp (Fig 7)
Latch or leaf jig
This type of jig will have a hinged cover with the latch
clamps for easy loading and unloading of components.
The cover with latch must be positively located and
clamped so that the bushes are accurately located with
respect to the component. (Fig 10)

Bending metals to an angle
• state the methods of bending rods and pipes in a bench vice
• state the methods of bending rods and pipes with a fixture.
Bending is a process of shaping materials without cutting. Bending using bending jaw or bending block
(Fig 1)
To form bends to a required radius on workpieces, bending
Different methods are used for bending rods, sheets and jaws or bending blocks are used. (Figs 5 and 6)
pipes.
Bending on vice
Work is held in the vice and bent with hand force or with
a hammer according to the diameter of the rod or the
thickness of the sheet. (Fig 2) A hammering block
(Figs 3 and 4) is used to prevent hammer marks and also
to direct the force at the correct place.
Round rods are also used sometimes for forming radius on

sheets or rods. (Fig 7)
Bending with fixtures

A bending fixture can be prepared and used when a large
number of workpieces is required to be bent.
(Figs 8a and 8b)
Bending with bending die
A simple die can be made and used with a hand press
(fly press) (Figs 9, 10, 11) for bending sheets and plates.

Screw clapms (Fig 12)
Latch clamp (Fig 13)
Wedge clamp (Fig 14)

Toggle clamp (Fig 15) Hook clamp (Figs 16)

CG & M Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.66 - 68
Welder (Pipe) - SMAW - II
Electrodes - Types description and sepcification

• state the different types of welding positions in GMAW
• state and explain the different weaving patterns and torch motions.
Introduction: An electrode is a metallic wire of standard

size and length, generally coated with flux (may be bare
or without flux coating also) used to complete the welding
circuit and provide filler material to the joint by an arc,
maintained between its tip and the work. (Fig 1)
It is 1.25 to 1.3 for light coated,

1.4 to 1.5 for medium coated,
1.6 to 2.2 for heavy coated, and above 2.2 for super heavy
coated electrodes.
Types of flux coating
– Cellulosic (Pipe welding electrode e.g. E6010)
– Rutile (General purpose electrode e.g. E6013)
Different types of electrodes used are given in the Electrode – Iron powder (e.g. E7018)
chart.
– Basic coated (Low hydrogen electrode e.g. E7018)
Method of flux coating:
Cellulosic electrode: Cellulosic electrode coatings are
– Dipping mainly made of materials containing cellulose, such as
– Extrusion wood pulp and flour. The coating on these electrodes is
very thin and the slag is difficult to remove from deposited
Dipping method: The core wire is dipped in a container welds. The coating produces high levels of hydrogen and
carrying flux paste. The coating obtained on the core wire is therefore not suitable for high-strength steels. This type
is not uniform resulting in non-uniform melting; hence this of electrode is usually used on DC+ and suited to root
method is not popular. pass welding of high pressure pipes.
Extrusion method: A straightened wire is fed into an Rutile electrodes: Rutile electrodes, are general-purpose
extrusion press where the coating is applied under electrodes have coatings based on titanium dioxide. These
pressure. The coating thus obtained on the core wire is electrodes are widely used in the fabrication industry as
uniform and concentric, resulting in uniform melting of the they produce acceptable weld shape and the slag on
electrode. (Fig 2) This method is used by all the electrode deposited welds is easily removed. Strength of deposited
manufacturers. welds is acceptable for most low-carbon steels and the
majority of the electrodes in this group are suitable for
general purpose fabrication.
Basic or hydrogen-controlled electrodes: Basic or
hydrogen controlled electrode coatings are based on
calcium fluoride or calcium carbonate. This type of
electrode is suitable for welding high-strength steels
without weld cracks and the coating have to be dried. This
drying is achieved by backing at 450°C holding at 300°C
and storing at 150°C until the time of use. By maintaining
these conditions it is possible to achieve high strength
weld deposits on carbon, carbon manganese and low
alloyed steels. Most electrodes in this group deposit welds
with easily removable slags, producing acceptable weld
Coating factor (Fig 3): The ratio of the coating diameter shape in all positions. Fumes given off by this electrode
to the core wire diameter is called the coating factor. are greater than with other types of electrodes.
29
Iron powder electrodes: Iron powder electrodes get their – It helps to give good appearance to the weld and
name from the addition of iron powders to the coating which controls penetration.
tend to increase efficiency of the electrode. For example, – It makes the welding in all positions easy.
if the electrode efficiency is 120%, 100% is obtained from
the core wire and 20% from the coating. Deposited welds – Both AC and DC can be used for the welding.
are very smooth with an easily removable slag; welding – Removes oxide, scale etc. and cleans the surfaces to
positions are limited to horizontal, vertical fillet welds and be welded.
flat or gravity position fillet and butt welds. – It increases metal deposition rate by melting the
Composition/characteristics flux: The coating of the additional iron powder available in the flux coating.
welding electrodes consists of a mixture of the following Types of electrodes for ferrous and alloy metals
substances.
Mild steel electrode: Mild steel is characterized by carbon
Alloying substances: These substances compensate for content not exceeding 0.3%. Mild steel electrode core
the burning of manganese, ferro-silicon. The alloying wire contains various alloying elements.
substances are:
Carbon 0.1 to 0.3%
– ferro-manganese
(Strengthening agent)
– ferro-silicon
Keep carbon as low as possible.
– ferro-titanium.
Silicon above 0.5%
Arc stabilizing substances: These are carbonates known
as chalk and marble. These are used for the stabilisation (Deoxidizes, prevents weld metal porosity.)
of the arc. Manganese 1.65%
Deoxidizers: These substances prevent porosity and (Increases strength and hardness.)
make the welds stronger. The deoxidising substances are Nickel
iron oxide, lamitite, magnetite.
(Increases strength and notch toughness.)
Slag forming substances: These substances melt and
float over the molten metal and protect the hot deposited Chromium
weld metal from the atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen. (Increases tensile strength and hardness. Lowers the
Also due to the slag covering, the weld metal is prevented ductility.)
from fast cooling. The slag forming substances are clay,
Molybdenum 0.5%
limestone.
(Increases hardness and strength.)
Fluxing/cleaning substances: These substances remove
oxides from the edges to be welded and controls the fluidity Indian Standard System laid down in IS:814-1991 a
of the molten metal. The cleaning substances are lime classification and coding of covered electrodes for metal
stone, chlorides, fluorides. arc welding of mild steel, and low alloy high tensile steel.
Mild steel and low alloy high tensile steel electrodes are
Gas forming substances: These substances form gases
classified into seven recognised groups, depending upon
which aid the transfer of metal. They also shield the welding
the chemical composition of the flux coating.
arc and weld pool. The substances are: wood flour dixtorine
and cellulose. Stainless steel electrodes: Selecting proper electrodes
depends primarily on the composition of the base metal
Binding and plasticizing substances: These sub-
to be welded.
stances help the applied coating to grip firmly around the
core wire of the electrode. These electrodes are available with either lime or titanium
coatings. The lime coated electrode is used only with DC
These are: sodium and potassium silicates.
reverse polarity. Titanium coated electrodes can be used
Purpose or function of flux coating: During welding, in AC and DC reverse polarity, and will produce smoother
with the heat of the arc, the electrode coating melts and and stable arc.
performs the following functions.
The coding system for stainless steel electrodes differs
– It stabilizes the arc. somewhat from that for the M.S. electrode. The I.S.
– It forms a gaseous shield around the arc which protects 5206-1969 specification for corrosion-resisting chromium
the molten weld pool from atmospheric contamination. and chromium-nickel steel covered electrodes will give full
details.
– It compensates the losses of certain elements which
are burnt out during welding. During welding, the electrode will tend to get red hot quickly.
To avoid this, a 20 to 30% lower current than what is used
– It retards the rate of cooling of the deposited metal by for ordinary M.S. electrode is recommended.
covering with slags and improves its mechanical
properties.
Sizes of Mild Steel Electrodes
• state the size, length and current setting of M.S. electrodes
• explain the functions of electrode
• state the BIS coding for M.S. electrode.
The electrode size refers to the diameter of its core wire.

Each electrode has a certain current range. The welding
current increases with the electrode size (diameter).
Electrode sizes
Metric
1.6mm 2.0mm 2.5mm 3.15mm
4.0mm 5.0mm 6.0mm 6.3mm
8.0mm 10.0mm
Standard length of electrodes: The electrodes are
manufactured in two different lengths, 350 or 450mm.
Functions of an electrode in shielded metal arc
welding: The two main functions of an electrode in SMAW Normally the carbon arc has very little use of welding. Its
are: (Fig 1) main application is in cutting and gouging operations.
Bare electrodes are also used in some arc welding
processes (Fig 3). An inert gas is used to shield the molten
weld metal and prevent it from absorbing oxygen and
nitrogen. Filler metal is separately added through a filler
rod. Usually tungsten is used as one of the bare wire
electrode. In Co2 welding and submerged arc welding
processes the mild steel bare wire electrode is also used
as a filler wire.
– The core wire conducts the electric current from the

electrode holder to the base metal through the arc.
– It deposits weld metal across the arc onto the base
metal.
Flux coated electrodes are used in the manual metal arc
The flux covering melts at a slower rate than the metal welding process for welding ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
core and a cup is formed at the tip of the electrode which (Fig 4)
helps to direct the molten metal to the required spot.
The composition of the coating provides the flux, the
For easy identification and selection of a suitable arc protective shield around the arc and a protective slag which
welding electrode for welding mild steel plates, the forms over the deposited weld metal during cooling.
electrodes are coded by Bureau of Indian Standards (B.I.S).
According to this B.I.S., the electrodes to be used for
welding mild steel for training a beginner is coded as
ER4211.
Types of electrodes: Electric arc welding electrodes are
of three general types. They are:
Carbon electrodes Bare electrodes
Flux coated electrodes
Carbon electrodes are used in the carbon arc welding
process (Fig 2). The arc is created between the carbon
electrode and the job. The arc melts a small pool in the
job and filler metal is added by using a separate rod.
Chart
Types of Arc welding and cutting/gouging electrodes
Consumable electrode Non consumable electrode
Coated electrode Barewire electrode Carbon electrode Barewire metal electrode
Copper coated mild steel
Factors Solid Flux cored Tungsten
Dipping process
Methods of flux Welding Cutting
coating Extrusion process
Light coated
Medium coated Pure tungsten Thoriated tung- Zirconium based

Coating flux sten tungsten
Heavy coated
Super heavy coated
Cellulosic coated
Rutile coated
Type of flux
coating Iron powder coated
Basic coated
Shallow penetration
Deep penetration
Purpose of flux
All positive welding
coating
Flat/downhand position only
Hard facing
Gouging
Mild steel
Ferrous Alloy steel
Stainless steel
Cast iron
Core wire Phosphor bronze
Non ferrous
material
Nickel alloy
Aluminium
Hard facing
Coding of Electrodes as per BIS, AWS and BS
• explain the necessity of coding electrodes
• describe the electrode coding as per BIS, AWS and BS.
Necessity of coding electrodes: Electrodes with different Different standards used in coding of electrodes
flux covering gives different properties to the weld metal.
They are:
Also electrodes are manufactured suitable for welding with
AC or DC machines and in different positions. These 1 I.S. (814 - 1991)
conditions and properties of the weld metal can be
2 A.W.S.
interpreted by the coding of electrodes as per Indian
Standards. 3 B.S.
The chart shown at the end of this lesson gives the INDIAN SYSTEM OF CODING OF ELECTRODES
specification of a particular electrode and also shows what ACCORDING TO IS: 814-1991
each digit and letter in the code represents. By referring Type of covering: The type of covering shall be indicated
to this chart any one can know whether an electrode with by the following letters.
a given specification can be used for welding a particular
job or not. A - Acid
Classification of electrodes shall be indicated by the IS: B - Basic
814-1991 coding system of letters and numerals to indicate C - Cellulosic
the specified properties or characteristics of the electrode.
R - Rutile
Main coding: It consists of the following letters and
numerals and shall be followed in the order stated: RR - Rutile, heavy coated
a) a prefix letter 'E' shall indicate a covered electrode for S - Any other type not mentioned above
manual metal arc welding, manufactured by extrusion Strength characteristics: The combination of the ultimate
process; tensile strength and the yield strength of the weld metal
b) a letter indicating the type of covering; deposited shall be indicated by the digits 4 and 5.
(See Table 1)
c) first digit indicating the ultimate tensile strength in
combination with the yield stress of the weld metal Table 1
deposit;
Designation of strength characteristics
d) second digit indicating the percentage elongation in
combination with the impact values of the weld metal (Clauses 5.2 and 5.3)
deposited; Designating Ultimate tensile Yield strength
e) third digit indicating welding position(s) in which the digit strength Min
electrode may be used and
N/mm2 N/mm2
f) fourth digit indicating the current condition in which the
electrode is to be used. 4 410-510 330
Additional coding: The following letters indicating the 5 510-610 360

additional properties of the electrodes may be used, if Elongation and impact properties: The combination of
required: percentage elongation and impact properties of all weld
a) letters H 1, H2, H 3 indicating hydrogen controlled metal deposited for the two tensile ranges (See Table 1)
electrodes. shall be as given in Table 2.
b) letters J, K and L indicating increased metal recovery

as 'Effective Electrode Efficiency' as per IS: 13043:91.
Table 2
J = 110 - 129 percent;
Combination of percentage elongation and impact
K = 130 - 149 percent; and strength
L = 150 percent and above. (Clause 5.3)
c) letter 'X' indicating the radiographic quality. Designation Percentage elon- Impact strength
digit gation (Min) on in joules
5.65/So (Min)/at °C
(For tensile range 410-510 N/mm2) Hydrogen controlled electrodes: The letters H1, H2 and
H3 shall be included in the classification as a suffix for
0 No elongation and impact requirements
those electrodes which will give diffusible hydrogen per
1 20 47J/+27°C 100 gm when determined in accordance with the reference
2 22 47J/+0°C method given in IS:1806:1986 as given below.
3 24 47J/-20°C H1 - up to 15 ml diffusible hydrogen
4 24 27J/-30°C H2 - up to 10 ml diffusible hydrogen
(For tensile range 510-610 N/mm2) H3 - up to 5 ml diffusible hydrogen
0 No elongation and impact requirements Table 3
1 18 47J/+27°C Welding current and voltage conditions
2 18 47J/+0°C (Clause 5.5)

Digit Direct current: recommended Alternating
3 20 47J/-20°C
electrode polarity current: open
4 20 27J/-30°C
circuit voltage,
5 20 27J/-40°C
V, Min
6 20 27J/-46°C
0 – Not
Welding position: The welding position or positions on recommended
which the electrodes can be used as recommended by
the manufacturer shall be indicated by the appropriate 1 + or – 50
designating digits as follows. 2 – 50
1 All positions 3 + 50
2 All positions except vertical down 4 + or – 70
3 Flat butt weld, flat fillet weld and horizontal/vertical fillet 5 – 70
weld
6 + 70
4 Flat butt weld and flat fillet weld
7 + or – 90
5 Vertical down, flat butt, flat fillet and horizontal and
vertical fillet weld 8 – 90
6 Any other position or combination of positions nit 9 + 90

classified above 1 Symbol 0 reserved for electrodes used exclusively on
Where an electrode is coded as suitable for vertical and direct current,
overhead position it may be considered that sizes larger 2 Positive polarity +, Negative polarity –.
than 4 mm are not normally used for welding in these
positions. The frequency of the alternating current is
assumed to be 50 or 60 Hz. The open circuit
An electrode shall not be coated as suitable for particular
voltage necessary when electrode are used on
welding position unless it is possible to use it satisfactorily
direct current is closely related to the dynamic
in the position to comply with test requirements of this
characteristics of the welding power source.
code.
Consequently no indication of the minimum
Welding current and voltage conditions: The welding open circuit voltage for direct current is given.
current and open circuit voltage conditions on which the
electrodes can be operated as recommended by the Increased metal recovery: The letters J, K and L shall
manufacturer shall be indicated by the appropriate be included in the classification as a suffix for those
designating digits as given in Table 3. electrodes which have appreciable quantities of metal
powder in their coating and give increased metal recovery
For the purpose of coating an electrode, for any of the
with respect to that of core wire melted, in accordance to
current conditions under 5.5 shall be size 4 mm or 5 mm
the range given in 5.0.2 (b).
and shall be capable of being operated at the condition
satisfactorily within the current range recommended by The metal recovery shall be determined as 'Effective
the manufacturer. Electrode Efficiency (EE) as per the method given in
IS 13043:1991.
Radiographic quality electrodes: The letter 'X' shall be
included in the classification as a suffix for those electrodes
which deposit radiographic quality welds.
Example 1
The classification for the electrode EB 5426H1JX
E B 5 4 2 6 H1 J X
Covered electrode
Type of covering (Basic)
Strength characteristics (UTS = 510–610 N/mm2 and
YS = 360 N/mm2 min.)
Elongation and impact properties (Elongation = 20% min. and
IMPACT = 27 J min. at – 30°C)
Welding position (all positions except vertical down)
Welding current and voltage condition (D + and A 70)
Hydrogen controlled electrodes (15 ml max.)
Increased metal recovery (110 – 129%)
Radiographic quality electrode
Example 2
The classification for the electrode ER 4211
E R 4 2 1 1
Covered electrode
Type of covering (Rutile)
Strength characteristics (UTS = 410 – 510 N/mm2
and YS = 330 N/mm2 min.)
Elongation and impact properties (Eongation = 22% min. and
impact = 47 J min. at 0°C)
Welding position (all positions)
Welding current and voltage conditions (D ± and A 50)
AWS codification of carbon and low alloy steel coated BS codification of carbon steel and low alloy steel
electrodes covered electrodes (BS 639 : 1976 equivalent to ISO
2560)
Chart - 1 shows details of AWS coding of an electrode.
In the chart, E stands for electrode. It means that it is a As shown chart 2, E stands for covered MMA electrodes.
stick electrode.
The first two digit indicated tensile strength and yield stress.
The first two digits are very important. They designate the
minimum tensile strength of the weld metal that the The next two digits indicate elongation and impact strength.
electrode will produce.
The third digit indicates the welding positions. The letter after the first 4 digits indicates the type of
covering.
The last digit the code indicates the kind of flux coating
used. The first 3 digits after the letter indicating the type of covering
shows electrode efficiency.
The fourth digit after the letter indicating type of covering In the case of rutile covered electrodes, the digits indicating
shows the welding position. the electrode efficiency after the letter indicating type of
covering will not be given as shown in chart 1.
The fifth digit after the letter indicating type of covering
indicates current and voltage. Chart 2 shows an electrode coding with electrode efficiency.
CHART 1
AWS CODIFICATION OF CARBON STEEL AND LOW-ALLOY STEEL COATED ELECTRODES
Electrode
E First
digit
Second
digit
Third
digit
Fourth
digit
First two digits indicate

Fourth digit (0 to 8) indicate
tensile strength of the
the type of flux coating.
deposited weld metal
0 Cellulose sodium, or iron oxide mineral
in 1000 PSI
1 Cellulose potassium
2 Titania sodium
3 Titania potassium
4 Iron powder titania
5 Low hydrogen lime - sodium
Third digit indicates 6 Low hydrogen lime - potassium
the welding 7 Iron oxide plus iron powder
positions for electrodes. 8 Low hydrogen lime plus iron powder
1 All position 9 A number left over for peculiar coating.
2 Flat & horizontal This number is rarely used.
3 Flat & down hand
Electrode 
Electrode  E E
Tensile strength 1
110,000 psi.  1
Tensile strength 6
60,000 psi
 0 0
All position 
electrode 1
All position  1
electrode
Low hydrogen lime 
plus iron powder 8
Titania potassium  3
*To get the tensile strength of the weld in p.s.i., the number given here should be multiplied by 1000.
CHART 2 (BS 639 : 1976 equivalent to ISO 2560)
COVERING 4 ELECTRODE
EFFICIENCY
A Acid (iron oxide) 5
AR Acid (rutile)
B Basic % recovery
C Cellulosic to nearest
STRENGTH 2
O Oxidising 10% (> 110)
Electrode Tensile Minimum yield R Rutile (medium coated)
designation strength stress. N/mm2 RR Rutile (heavy coated) (H) 8
N/mm2 S Other types Indicates
E43 430.550 330 hydrogen
E51 510.650 360 controlled
(> 15mg/100g)
PROCESS
1
Covered WELDING POSITION 6

MMA 1 All positions
electrode 2 All positions except vertical down
3 Flat and, for fillet welds, horizontal vertical
4 Flat
5 Flat, vertical down and, flat fillet welds, horizontal
vertical
6 Any position or combination of positions not
classified above.
ELONGATION 3
First Minimum Temperature for

Digit elongation, % impact value of
E43 E51 28J, °C CURRENT / VOLTAGE 7
0 Not specified Not specified Code Direct current Alternating current

1 20 18 +20
2 22 18 0 Recommended Minimum open
3 24 20 -20 electrode circuit voltage,
4 24 20 -30 polarity V.
5 24 20 -40 Polarity as
recommended Not suitable
by manu- for use on A C
IMPACT 3 0 facturer
Second Minimum Impact properties 1 + or - 50
2 - 50
Digit elongation, % Impact value, J Tempera-
3 + 50
E43 E51 E43 E51 ture °C 4 + or - 70
0 Not specified Not specified 5 - 70
1 22 22 47 47 +20 6 + 70
2 22 22 47 47 0 7 + or - 90
3 22 22 47 47 -20 8 - 90
4 Not 18 Not 41 -30 9 + 90
6 relevant 18 relevant 47 -50
Example (1) Covered electrode for manual metal arc welding having a rutile covering of medium thickness and depositing
weld metal with the following minimum mechanical properties. (BS 639)
Tensile Strength : 500 N/mm2
Elongation: 23 %
Impact strength: 71 J at + 20°C, 37 J at 0°C, 20 J at -20°C.
It may be used for welding in all positions. It welds satisfactorily on alternating current with a minimum open-circuit
voltage of 50 V and on direct current with positive polarity.
The complete classification for the electrode would therefore E 43 21 R 1 3

and the compulsory part would be E 43 21R 13.
Covered electrode for manual metal arc welding
Tensile strength
Elongation and impact strength
Covering
Welding positions
Current and voltage
Example (2) An electrode for manual metal arc welding having a basic covering, with a high efficiency and depositing
weld metal containing 8 ml of diffusible hydrogen per 100 g of deposited weld metal with the following
minimum mechanical properties.
Yield stress: 380 N/mm2
Tensile strength: 560 N/mm2
Elongation: 22%
Impact strength: 47 J at -20°C

} Also a minimum elongation of 20%
with an impact value of 28 J at -20°C
Nominal efficiency: 158%
It may be used for welding in all positions except vertical down, direct current only.
The complete classification for the electrode would, therefore, be E 51 33 B 160 2 0 (H)
and the compulsory part would be E 51 33 B 16020(H)
Covered electrode for manual metal arc welding

Tensile strength and yield stress
Elongation and impact strength
Covering
Efficiency
Welding positions
Current and voltage
Hydrogen controlled
Electrode storage and backing temperature

• explain about special purpose electrodes and their application
• state the necessity of baking a coated electrode.
Storage of electrodes: The efficiency of an electrode is – Porosity in the weld

affected if the covering becomes damp.
– Cracking in the weld.
– Keep electrodes in unopened packets in a dry store.
Indications of electrodes affected by moisture are:
– Place packages on a duckboard or pallet, not directly
– White layer on covering.
on the floor.
– Swelling of covering during welding.
– Store so that air can circulate around and through the
stack. – Disintegration of covering during welding.
– Do not allow packages to be in contact with walls or – Excessive spatter
other wet surfaces.
– Excessive rusting of the core wire.
– The temperature of the store should be about 5°C higher Electrodes affected by moisture may be baked before use
than the outside shade temperature to prevent by putting them in a controlled drying oven for approximately
condensation of moisture. one hour at a temperature around 110 - 150°C. This should
– Free air circulation in the store is as important as not be done without reference to the conditions laid down
heating. Avoid wide fluctuations in the store by the manufacturer. It is important that hydrogen controlled
temperature. electrodes are stored in dry, heated conditions at all times.
− Where electrodes cannot be stored in ideal conditions Warning: Special drying procedures apply to
place a moisture-absorbent material (e.g. silica-gel) hydrogen controlled electrodes. Follow the
inside each storage container. manufacturer’s instructions.
Store and keep the electrodes (air tight) in a dry place. Remember a moisture-affected electrode:
Bake the moisture affected/prone electrodes in an electrode – has rusty stub end
drying oven at 110-150°C for one hour before using. – has white powder appearance in coating
(Fig 1).
– produces porous weld.
Always pick up the right electrode that will

provide:
– good arc stability
– smooth weld bead
– fast deposition
– minimum spatters
– maximum weld strength
– easy slag removal.
Electrode coating can pick up moisture if exposed to

atmosphere.
Baking electrodes: Water in electrode covering is a
potential source of hydrogen in the deposited metal and
thus may cause:
39
Special purpose electrodes and their applications
• state the types of special purpose electrodes
• explain the applications of special purpose electrodes.
– Deep penetration electrodes Cutting and gouging electrodes: The cutting electrodes
are of a tubular type. While cutting, air is sent through the
– Contact electrodes or iron powder electrodes
centre at high pressure to cut ferrous metals. The gouging
– Cutting and gouging electrodes electrode can make 'U' grooves on the ferrous metals.
– Underwater welding and cutting electrodes Underwater welding and cutting electrodes: These
– Low hydrogen electrodes electrodes are used to cut and weld metals under the
water. The coating having an external coating of varnish
Deep penetration electrodes: These electrodes are used by 'lacquer' polishing or 'celluloid' helps to insulate and
to get deep penetration in the joints. Deep penetration protect the electrode when immersed in water for welding
occurs because of the very strong stream of gas produced or cutting purpose.
by the burning of the cellulosic materials in the flux coating.
Low hydrogen electrodes: hydrogen controlled
Butt joints on heavy sections are welded without edge electrodes shall be such that the diffusible hydrogen content
preparation using these electrodes. of the deposited metal will be low. This electrode is used
The depth of the penetration will be more than to the core with DC reverse polarity and can be used in all welding
wire diameter of the electrode used. positions. These electrodes help to get a weld without
cracks.
Contact electrodes (Iron powder): These electrodes
contain a large amount of iron powder in their coatings.
Therefore the arc ignites very easily. These electrodes are
also called 'touch type' electrode. While using this type of
electrode a large amount of weld metal is deposited per
unit time.

Types of Metal
CG & M
Name of Metal Characteristics Positives Negatives Common Uses

Most common metal used, Mass-produced because Oxidized with exposure to Skyscrapers, bulldozers,
made mostly form iron, very it can be made cheaply, water (Rusts if left hammers, trains, railroads,
STEEL strong, does not bend easily, very strong unprotected) stadiums
does not bend easily, dark
gray color
Same as steel, but chromium Will not rust, very strong, Expensive to make Post & pans, forks & knives,
is added to make it corrosion clean surface does not surgical instruments,
STAINLESS STEEL dental instruments (plus
resistant (wont’ rust), silver hold germs
color the St. Louis Arch!)
• state the different kinds of metals
Cheap to make, will not Solt, melts at low Aluminum foil, baseball
Soft, bendable, lightweight, temperature

strong, non-corroding, lignt rust, lightweight, easily bats, airplanes, street light
ALUMINUM recyclable poles, gutters
silver color
• explain the characteristics of the metals.
Very soft, bendable, very high Best material to conduct Soft, very expensive, Electrical wires, plumbing
electrical and heat heat or electricity oxidizes in air lines (plus the outside of
conductivity, reddish-brown the Statue of Liberty!)
COPPER color, oxidzes with exposure
to air (making it green!)
Expensive to make, slightly Sculptures, bells, Olympic

Types of metals and the characteristics
Mixture of copper and Very low metal-to metal medals, cymbals

aluminum (and tin), slightly friction soft
STONZE bendable, gold/yellow color
Very expensive to make, Jet engines, missiles,

Very strong, hard, non Will not rust, the highest implants, prostheses,
magnetic, doesn’t corrode, strength-to weight ratio unstable
aircraft carriers,
TITANIUM dark silver in color, poor of any metal submarines
conductor of heat and
electricity
Combination of the above Super strong or strong Make for a particular use,
which might make it Space shuttle, rockets,
ALLOYS (many types) metals that take the best and won’t rust or strong tanks
characteristics of each metal and conducts heat expensive
to make an even stronger
metal
PLASTIC (not metal) Blended polymers, ranges Easily moldable into Not as strong as metal
from soft to hard, generally various shapes, cheap Toys, bottles, food
doesn’t conduct heat; to make, easily packagind tires, gutters
includes nylon, rubber, recyclable, won’t rust,
plastic, Teflon, etc. lasts forever
41
Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.70
Classification of steel
• state the main classification of steels
• explain the effect of carbon content in steel
• describe the uses of various types of carbon steel.
Classification of steel: The classification of steel is mainly combined state. The carbon content is a very important
based on the chemical composition of various elements factor to get the desired properties of steel.
like traces of sulphur, phosphorus, silicon, manganese
Carbon: Carbon is a very important constituent of steel.
with a percentage of less than 1% carbon content in steel.
The addition of carbon at varying proportions modifies the
Thus, the steel is classified as follows,
characteristics of iron and makes it harder, stronger and
1 Carbon steel of greater use in the engineering industry. Slight variations
in the carbon content of steel lead to great differences in
2 Alloy steel
the properties of steel. Depending upon the properties it is
Effects of carbon content in steel: Steel can be defined put to different uses. (Table 1)
as an alloy of carbon and iron, in which carbon is in a
Table 1
Name Group Carbon content % Examples of uses
Wrought iron Wrought iron Less than 0.05 Chain for lifting tackle, crane hooks, architectural
iron work.
Dead mild steel Plain carbon steel 0.1 to 0.15 Sheet for pressing out such shapes as motor car
body panels. Thin wire, rod, and drawn tubes.
Mild steel Plain carbon steel 0.15 to 0.3 General purpose workshop bars, boiler plates,
girders.
Medium carbon Plain carbon steel 0.3 to 0.5 Crankshaft forgings, axles. Leaf springs, cold
steel 0.5 to 0.8 chisels.
High carbon Plain carbon 0.8 to 1.0 Coil springs, chisels used in woodwork.
steel steel 1.0 to 1.2 Files, drills, taps and dies.
1.2 to 1.4 Fine edge tools (knives etc).
Ferrite is a very weak solid solution of carbon and iron At room temperature in the annealed condition plain carbon
with about 0.006% carbon. This is a very soft and ductile steel contains three main constituents.
constituent. (Fig 1) Pearlite contains alternate layers of
– Ferrite – Cementite – Pearlite
ferrite and cementite. This laminated structure makes
pearlite stronger. As the carbon content increases, the
pearlitic structure formation is also increased, and this 19 IS Standard tee ISST
increases the tensile strength and hardness.
20
It may be noted from the figure that addition of carbon IS Light WT tee ISLT
beyond 0.83% cementite will not exist in the combined
21 IS Junior tee ISJT
form but appear around the crystal boundaries. Carbon,
existing in this form, reduces in tensile strength and ductility IS Rolled plate
but the hardness continues to increase even beyond 0.83%
of carbon.
It may be said that plain steel will have a maximum strength IS Strip
at 0.83% carbon - i.e. when the constituent of steel is fully
pearlite.
Mild steel flat
Addition beyond 0.83% reduces its strength and ductility.
Hardness of carbon of plain carbon steel increases IS Round bar ISRQ
proportionately even beyond 0.83% carbon content.
42
INDIAN STANDARD (IS) ROLLED AND SLIT STEEL SECTION FOR STRUCTURAL USES
SI. Example Weight(kg) important dimension (mm)

No per merer
1 IS Junior beam ISJB 225 12.8 225 80 5.0 3.7 40
2 100 8.8 5.8 55

IS Light beam ISLB 225 23.5 225
3
IS Medium WT beam ISMB 225 31.2 225 110 11.8 6.5 60
4
IS Wide flange beam ISMB 225 33.9 225 150 9.9 6.4 60
5
ISHB 225 43.1 225 225 9.1 6.5 140
6 IS Junior channel ISJC 200 13.9 200 70 7.1 4.1 40
7 IS Light channel ISLC 250 28.0 250 100 10.7 6.1 90
8
IS Medium WT channel ISMC 250 30.4 250 80 14.1 7.1 45
9 IS Equal angle ISA 100100 9.2 A-100 B-100 t-60 Cxx=Cyy 2.67
10 Do Do 12.1 100 100 80 Do 2.76
Do Do 14.9 100 100 10.0 Do 2.84

11
Do Do 17.7 100 100 12.0 Do 2.96
12
13 IS Unequal angle ISA 100 75 8.0 A-100 B-75 t=6.0 Cxx=3.01 Cyy=1.78
14 Do Do 10.5 100 75 80 3.10 1.87
15 Do Do 13.0 100 75 10.0 3.19 1.95
Do Do 15.4 100 75 12.0 3.27 2.03

16
IS Normal tee ISNT 150 22.8 150 150 10.0 10.00 Cxx-3.95
17
IS Tee from ISHB ISHT 125 27.4 125 250 9.7 8.8 2.37
18
19 IS Standard tee ISST 150 15.7 150 75 11.6 8.0 4.75
20
IS Light WT tee ISLT 100 12.7 100 100 10.8 5.7 2.13
21 IS Junior tee ISJT 100 5.0 100 60 5.0 3.4 2.81
IS Rolled plate W-900-2500mmt-5.63mm Length 2-12.5m
IS Strip W=10-400mm t=3-40mm
Mild steel flat W=10-400mm t=3-40mm
IS Round bar ISRQ d=5-200mm
IS Square bar ISSQ s=5-100mm

CG & M Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.72 - 2.3.78
Welder (Pipe) - SMAW - III
Pipe welding position 1G 2G 5G & 6G

• explain the different pipe welding position.
Welded pipe joints During the welding of butt joints the pipe may be
Pipes of all types and sizes are used in great deal today 1 rolled or rotated (1G position)
in transporting oil, gas, water etc. They are also used
2 fixed (2G, 5G and 6G position).
extensively for piping systems in building, refineries and
industrial plants. Welding of pipe butt joints by arc can be done in
1G position by (a) continuous rotation method and
1G - Pipe weld in flat (roll) position i.e. pipe axis is parallel
(b) Segmental method.
to the ground.
1a Pipe welding by arc (in 1G position) by continuous
2G - Pipe weld in horizontal position i.e. pipe axis is
rotation method: Satisfactory welding of butt joints
perpendicular to the ground. (Fig 1)
in pipes depends upon the correct preparation of pipe
ends and careful assembly of the joint to be welded.
Ensure that the bores and root faces are in correct
alignment and that the gap is correct.
Clean the edges. Prepare an angle of bevel 35° by gas
cutting and filing. A root face 1.5 to 2.5 mm is to be provided.
Setting the pipes for welding: Tack weld together with
4 small equally spaced tacks. The gap should be equal to
the root face dimension plus 0.75 mm. Support the tacked
assembly on V blocks or rollers so that the assembly can
be rolled or rotated with the free hand.
Select a 2.5 mm rutile electrode for 1st run and a
3.15 mm rutile electrode for 2nd run.
Set a current of 70-80A for 1st run and 100-110 for the
2nd run.
Rotate the assembly as welding proceeds. (Fig 3) keeping
the welding arc within an area between vertical and 10°
from the vertical in the direction of welding Fig 4.
(Use a helmet type screen).
5G - Pipe weld in flat (fixed) position i.e. pipe axis is parallel
to the ground.
6G - Pipe weld in including (fixed) position i.e. pipe axis is
including to both horizontal and vertical planes. (Fig 2)
– Direct the electrode centrally at the root of the joint

and in line with the radius of the pipe at the point of
welding.
– Strike the arc near the top dead centre and hold the
arc length as short as possible. Continue to weld as
the pipe is rotated manually at steady speed.
44
– When a segment equivalent to 60° has been welded,
terminate/stop the weld run. Avoid the formation of a
crater.
– Deposit first run by weaving the electrode very slightly

from root face to root face.
– Adjust the speed of rotation to obtain full fusion of the
root faces without excessive penetration. – Move the pipe until the end of the segment is at 10°
before TDC.
– Chip out tack weld as they are approached. Do not
weld over tacks otherwise loss of penetration at the – Strike the arc on the end of the previous weld run and
tacking points may occur. establish a weld pool.
– Complete the weld with the second run. Adjust the – Weld a further 60° segment. (Fig 7)
speed of rotation to secure fusion to the outer edge of – Continue welding in segments until the root run has
each fusion face. The amount of reinforcement should been completed.
be even around the edge of the joint.
– Move the pipe until the mid point of the segments is at
1b Welding of a pipe butt (IG position i.e. by rotation) TDC.
by segmental welding.
– Strike the arc and deposit the second (filling) run, use
– The edges of the pipe are bevelled to 35 to 40° angle a side-to-side weaving position to fill the preparation
with a root gap of 2.5 mm. and to achieve fusion of the pipe edges.
– Tack the pipe as before and support the assembly on – Complete the filling run in 60° segments.
two vee blocks. (Fig 5)
– Strike the arc at 10° from Top Dead Centre (TDC) and
deposit the root run. Use a small weaving motion to
achieve fusion of the root faces. Adjust travel speed to
control root penetration. (Fig 6)
Pipe welding by arc in fixed positions

• state different fixed pipe welding positions
• explain different methods of pipe welding in 5G position
• explain the welding producer of M.S. pipe butt joint by arc in fixed (5G) position.
Whenever the pipes to be welded cannot be rotated or worksite, then they are welded in fixed position. If the fixed
whenever the pipes are to be welded in the field i.e. at pipe axis is horizontal, then the welding position is called
5G position.
CG & M : Welder (Pipe) (NSQF Level - 3) Related Theory Exercise 2.3.72 - 78 45
The other pipe welding positions in which the pipes are
fixed during welding are 2G and 6G positions. If the axis of
the fixed pipes to be welded are vertical then this position
is called 2G position. If the axis of the fixed pipes in inclined
at 45° to both horizontal and vertical planes, then the
welding position is called 6G position.
In 5G position, a pipe butt joint can be welded by the
following method.
Method 1: The pipe joint circumference is divided into
four positions as A, B, C and D. First portion 'A' is welded
from 1 to 2 in more or less in flat position. Then portion B
is welded from 3 to 4 in overhead position. Next portion C
from 3 to 2 and then portion D from 4 to 1 are welded in
vertical up position. (Fig 1)
Welding in 2G and 6G positions are done based on the

position of the pipe axis.
In the 2G position, the horizontal pipe welding with its
It is important that a key hole is maintained throughout axis being vertical, the weld joint connecting the two pipes
the welding operation to ensure proper root penetration. is in the horizontal position. The weld must be made around
Also the electrode position is continuously changed as the pipe. (Fig 5)
the joint surface is curved. In addition, the starting and
ending of each weld portion i.e. A, B, C and D properly
done so that they merge with the previous portion.
Method 2: The pipe outer circumference is divided into
12 equal divisions as in a clock.
The top of the pipe is 12 O'clock position and the bottom
is in 6 O'clock position. (Fig 2)
In the 6G position welding is usually done by using one of

the methods i.e. uphill or downhill welding. (Fig 6)
The weld is started from 12 O'clock position to 6 O'clock

position on the right side vertically downwards. Then welding
is done again from 12 O'clock to 6 O'clock position on the
left side (Fig 3). This method is called down hill method
and is normally used for thin walled pipes with wall
thickness of 3 to 4 mm.
Method 3: The weld is started from 6 O'clock to 12 O'clock
position on the right side first and then again from the
6 O'clock to 12 O'clock position on the left side (Fig4).
This method is called uphill method or vertical up method.
This uphill method is used to weld pipes of 5 mm and
above wall thickness.
46 CG & M : Welder (Pipe) (NSQF Level - 3) Related Theory Exercise 2.3.72 - 78
Use electrodes specially manufactured for pipe welding to
get good penetration, appearance and strength, (low
hydrogen electrodes, deep penetration electrodes etc.)
Welding procedure of M.S. pipe butt joint by arc in
fixed (5G) position.
Edge preparation and cleaning: If the wall thickness is
3 mm and below the edges of the pipe end is filed square
i.e. perpendicular to the pipe axis. The welding of the joint
is complete in one pass using the down hill method or by
segmental method i.e. welding the top quarter in flat, bottom
quarter in overhead and the two side quarter portion in
vertical up position. The electrode has to be held at angles
as shown in Fig 14 for welding the root pass of a thicker
pipe explained later in this lesson.
For welding pipes with higher wall thickness the following
procedure is to be followed.
Edge preparation: The pipe ends are bevelled by flame
cutting or machining in the shop (Figs 7 and 8) The
including angle is 75° the root face and root gap are
2.5 mm to 3 mm. All traces of oxide from and other
contaminations must be removed before starting the weld.
(Fig 9)
Tacking: Place a 2.5 mm bend wire between the edges.

The tack length should be 3 times the metal thickness.
Put the first tack at the root side and the second tack at
the opposite side of the first tack. Arrange the third and
fourth tacks at 90° from the first and second tacks.
(Fig 11)
Setting of pipe: Pipe to be joined together must be

accurately aligned prior to welding. The inside surface of
the pipe must be blended together smoothly as in the
outer surface. Maintain the root opening 2.5 mm, use a
M.S. angle and strength bar for checking the alignment of
the pipe. (Fig 10)

Root pass: Fix the job in the clamp and adjust the height
1
to a position convenient to you. The position of tack weld about 1 of the diameter of the electrode. Maintain the
should be fixed as in Fig 12. The keyhole is an essential 3
part in the welding of the root pass. (Fig 13) It should be electrode angle as shown in Fig 14 Weld the root pass on
side 2 of the pipe joint. (Fig 14)
The side 1 of the root pass is started at 6½ hrs position
and stopped at 11½ hrs position. The side 2 is started at
5½ hrs position and stopped at 12½ hrs position.
The weld beads on side 1 and side 2 will overlap for a
short distance at the start and at the stop positions.
After completing the root pass, depending on the wall
thickness of the pipe there will be further weld deposits
either 2 or 3 or more passes. These passes can be a
mixture of stringer beads and weaved beads by vertical
up/uphill method.
The names of each pass is given in Fig 15. Usually the
second weld bead after the root pass is deposited keeping
the joint hot. So it is called hot pass.
For hot pass and cover pass maintain the electrode angle
as shown in the Fig 14. Each pass should start at a different
place of the joint. The second pass should fill the groove
by using side-to-side movement. The final cover pass
should be made wider than the second pass. The third
pass should be smooth and of uniform appearance, and
must have minimum reinforcement. (Fig 15)
Advantages of H/P pipe welding
– The joint is permanent.

– Saving of material.
– Reduction of joint weight.
– Less expensive.
– Multiple lines grouped together more closely.
– Repair and maintenance cost is less.
Welding of M.S. pipe

• classify and specify mild steel pipes
• state and explain different methods of welding M.S. pipes
• state the method of edge preparation, tacking and necessary of key hole maintenance
• explain the pipe welding procedure by gas welding.
Welding of M.S. pipe: Mild steel pipes are classified into 1 Seamless pipes manufactured by piercing a hot solid
two groups. round billets/rods. (Fig 1)

In the actual usage of pipes in various applications like
transmitting water, oil, chemical, air, gases, etc. it is
necessary to weld them as a butt, elbow and Tee joints as
well as branch pipe joints at various angles.
The welding of smaller diameter pipes and bigger diameter

pipes inside a welding shop can be done by rotating the
pipes on roller or manually by a helper using an angle iron
and tongs. (Fig 4 and Fig 5)
2 Resistance welded pipes manuactured by continuously

feeding a strip of metal through a machine which rolls
the strip into cylindrical shape and the seam is
electrically resistance welded. (Fig 2)
Based on the wall thickness, these pipes are further

categorised as "Standard pipes", "Extra Strong pipes" and
"Double extra strong pipes". Also the pipes are specified
by first the material then by the diameter followed by the
wall thickness. (Fig 3) For example a M.S. pipe 100 mm
long with 50 mm inside diameter and 3 mm wall thickness
is specified as M.S. ø 50 WT3 × 100 mm.

If the pipes are larger and are to be welded in the field/
work site or if the pipes cannot be rotated, then in such
cases, the pipes are welded in fixed position i.e. the pipe
will not ne rotated, but the welder has to move the blowpipe
and filler rod along the curved line of the joint around the
pipe to complete the weld.
The edges of the pipe joints are prepared depending on
the type of joint and the wall thickness of the pipe. For a
pipe flange joint and for pipe butt joint with 1.5 to 3 mm
wall thickness, the pipe edges are filed or ground square
(Fig 6) for pipe butt joints above 3 mm wall thickness, the
pipe edges are bevelled as shown in Fig 7 with 1.5 mm
root face.
Weld defects like incomplete or lack of root penetration
cannot be rectified from inside small diameter pipes. Hence
slightly larger root gaps are given while welding pipe butt
joints to ensure proper root penetration. (Table 1) Fig 6
and Fig 7 gives the details of edge preparation.
For pipes with wall thickness 3 mm and below, the edges

are prepared by a file. If the wall thickness is more than
3 mm then the bevelling is done by gas cutting (Fig 8) and
the root face is prepared by filing/grinding. (Fig 9)
As welding of pipes is done either by rotating the pipe or
by the fixed method, the pipe welding procedure also
differs accordingly.
The different positions used to weld pipe butt joints are
named as 1G, 2G, 5G and 6G as shown in Fig 10 to
Fig 13. These positions are decided based on the position
of the pipe axis and whether the welding is done by rotating
the pipe or by keeping the pipe fixed.
But in gas welding only 1G, 2G and 5G position are used.
The 6G position welding is done by arc welding and it is
usually used to test the skill/ability of a welder in pipe
welding.

Pipe welding by rotation method (Position 1G): The
method of welding pipes using pipe rotation is shown in
the Fig 14. The two pipes after cleaning and preparing the
edges, are set with proper root gap on an angle iron or
channel so that the axes of the pipes are properly aligned.
Then tack weld them at 3 places at 120° intervals.
(Fig 14A)
Table 1
Wall thickness (t) Pipe and preparation Welding technique Root gap (g)
3 mm or less Square Leftward 2.5 - 3 mm
5 mm or less Square Rightward or all-positional rightward 2.5 - 3 mm
3 - 5 mm Bevelled Leftward 1.5 - 2.5 mm
5 - 7 mm Bevelled Rightward or all-positional rightward 3 - 4 mm
Start the weld at 3 O'clock position and finish at 12 O'clock Fig 14G. It is very important to continuously maintain a
position. Now the first ¼ portion of the pipe joint, marked key hole both while tacking Fig 15 and during welding
as 1 in Fig 14B is welded. Rotate the pipe joint by 90° in (Fig 16).
clockwise direction so that the 12 O'clock position on the
In this method leftward technique is used and the metal
pipe comes to 3 O'clock position. Weld the portion marked
deposition starts in vertical at 3 O'clock position and ends
as 2 in Fig 14C as done in welding portion 1 already.
with flat position at 12 O'clock position. Care should be
Now rotate the pipe by 90° and weld portion 3 (Fig 14D).
taken to properly overlap the previous weld deposit while
On completing welding of portion 3 rotate the pipe again
starting the 2nd, 3rd and 4th segments.
by 90° so that the portion 4 can be welded (Fig 14E). The
position of blowpipe/torch and filler rods is shown in Pipe welding in fixed position (position 5G): The
Fig 14F and the blowpipe weaving motion is shown in welding of the pipeline without rotating the pipe during

welding is called fixed position welding. (5G) In this position
the welder has to move according to the condition of the
pipeline in different positions, such as vertical, down hand
and overhead positions.
In fixed position pipe welding, the welder has to weld
according to the conditions of the pipeline.
In this system, the welding should be started from
6 O'clock position and move to 12 O'clock position on either
side by moving the blowpipe and the filler rod from bottom in
the upward direction as shown in Fig 17a, 17b, 17c.
This also can be welded by the four quarter method, first
by welding two quarter distance (opposite to each other)
by moving the blowpipe in the upward vertical direction.
(Fig 18a and Fig 18b) Then weld the top quarter distance
in the down hand position. Finally weld the bottom quarter
distance in the overhead position. The clock face and its
relationship to pipe welding and various blowpipe and filler
rod positions are illustrated in Fig 19.
Pipe welding in 2G position (Pipe axis is vertical): In a
pipe butt joint if the axis of the pipes is vertical and the
weld joint is in the horizontal plane then it is called pipe
welding in 2G position. (Fig 20) It is a fixed position welding
and the blowpipe and filler rod are to be moved around the
pipe surface. The position of blowpipe and the filler rod are
given in Fig 20. To avoid sagging of weld metal the blowpipe
is given a motion as shown in Fig 21 and the filler rod is
fed at the top half of the molten pool.

Welder (Pipe) - GTAW - I
Selecion of electrode (SMAW) for root pass and cover pass welding
• explain the necessity of coding electrodes
• describe the electrode coding as per AWS.
Introduction position, mechanical properties of the weld metal in the

welded condition. (Figs 1,2 & 3)
The primary element of the shielded metal arc welding
(SMAW) process is the electrode itself. It is made of a
solid metal core wire covered with a layer of granular flux
held in place by a bonding agent. Since the electrode is
an important feature of the process, it is necessary to
understand how various types are classified and identified.
AWS specifications
American Welding Society (AWS) specifications A5.1 to
A 5-34 describe the requirements for various electrodes,
filler wires, flux, gas. They describe the various
classifications and characteristics of these electrodes.
Most of the industrial countries issue filler metal
specifications. In the United States, the AWS provides
filler metal specifications. They are approved by ANSI
(American National Standards Institute) and have become
an American national standard.
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
in its “Boiler and pressure vessel code” issues filler metal
specifications that are identical to AWS specifications.
ASME adds the prefix letters SF to the specification
number.
ASW A 5.1/ASME SFA 5.1
Many countries use specifications of the industrialized The AWS classification such as E 6010, E 7018 is printed
countries (American, European, Canada) All welding on the flux coating near the end of the electrode. It
consumables (filler metals and fluxes) shall conform to indicates that the electrode manufacturer has qualified
one of the following specifications: the electrode to the AWS specification for mechanical
AWS and chemical properties. The identification consists of
an ‘E’, which stands for electrode, followed by four or five
A 5.1, A 5.20, A 5.2, A 5.23, A 5.5, A 5.28, A 5.17, A 5.29, digits.
A 5.18
The first two or three digits refer to the minimum tensile
Consumable that do not conform to the specification above strength of the deposited weld metal. These numbers
may be used provided the welding procedure state the tensile strength in thousands of pounds per
specifications involving their use are qualified and approved. square inch. For example, ‘70’ means that the tensile
AWS Codification (Classification) strength of the deposited weld metal in at least 70,000
psi. The next digit refers to the positions in which the
The American Welding Society has a classification
electrode can be used. A ‘1’ denotes that the electrode is
system to identify SMAW electrodes for mild steel, low
suitable for use in any (all) positions. A ‘2’ means that the
alloy steel, stainless steel and cast iron. AWS
electrode can be used only in the flat or horizontal fillet
classifications for filler metals provide valuable information
positions. The last digit describes the usability of the
to welders about their usability. It includes what the
electrode by the type of flux coating and recommended
materials are best suited for and how to use them
current conditions (AC, DCEP or DCEN). The electrodes
maximizes performance. They also offer insight into the
ending in ‘8’ are classified as low hydrogen types and are
mechanical properties that a given filler metal will provide.
used in AC or DCEP. The electrodes ending in ‘O (Zero)’
A simple numbering system is used for electrode are classified as cellulose coating, deep penetration used
classification. The welding electrodes are classified in DCEP (E6010). (Figs 4,5,6 & 7)
according to: type of current, type of covering, and welding
54
Deposition of Root Pass
The root pass is the most important weld that must be
made in completing this joint. Start the root pass at
either the 5 o’clock or 7 o’clock position and proceed
across the bottom to the top of the pipe joint. Stop either
at the 11 o’clock or 1 o’clock position.
When welding a root pass, the keyhole is necessary in
order to obtain the required weld penetration. While welding
the root pass, the welder must pay careful attention to
the keyhole and watch for changes in size.
The same sequence is followed on the other side.
Remove the external line up clamp after 50% completion
of root bead equally distributed around the joint. After the
entire root bead has been completed, it should be
thoroughly inspected for visible welding defects.
T. Thickness, A 60° 70°, B ±5mm, C 1 5 ± 0.75mm
(Figs 8,9 & 10)
Electrode identification
The electrode classification number is imprinted or stamped
on the electrode covering filler wire within 65 mm of the
grip end of the electrode.
All manual electrodes shall be properly

identifiable upto the time of usage, each
electrode being distinguishable by a coding
marked near the grip end. Electrodes without
a code marking shall not be used.
Second (HOT) Pass
Electrode storage Second pass is also called “ hot pass” Select 3.20 mm
electrode and a current setting of 100 - 120 amperes.
Electrodes, filler wires and fluxes shall be stored in a dry
storage room in accordance with the manufacturer’s Deposit the second (hot) pass in the same sequence as
instructions. Basic low hydrogen electrodes, after in root pass.
removal from the containers, shall be baked in ovens.
Time lapse between completion of root and
The baking ovens and the holding ovens shall have
commencement of second pass is to be maximum 5
automatic heat controls and a temperature read-out
minutes.
display.
Inspect the root side for any burn through defect which and overhead) pipe is fixed, groove weld, pipe axis is
will be occur if the root pass thickness is less. horizontal and is not rotated. Welding shall be done
without rotating the pipe.
Deposition of 3rd and 4th (Final) Pass
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
Clean and wire brush the welds thoroughly.
SMAW is one of the popular methods for welding pipe
The electrode should at all times be pointed towards the
both in the shop and in the field. Standard welding power
centre of the pipe’s circumference or should be
sources which produce direct current such as a rectifier,
perpendicular to the pipe surface.
inverter or an engine driven machine may be used. Welding
Deposit the third pass using slight side to side movement. may be done in 5G position and the direction of welding
Fill the crater at the end of weld. may be downhill or downward.
Remove the slag, spatters and clean the weld bead. Pipe Welding Electrodes
Welding Technique 5G Down Hill Position E6010 This type of electrode is frequently selected for
joining pipe and are generally capable of welding in the
Pipe joints are often used in industries which include vertical position with either uphill or downhill progression.
pipeline projects, refineries, tanks, etc.
In butt joints the letter ‘G’ is used to signify a groove joint
(edges are beveled) and a number is assigned to signify
the welding position. In 5G-Multiple positions (flat, vertical

Procedure for welding heavy wall pipes in 5G position welding

• perform edge preparation of pipes
• tack weld the fit-up
• weld a joint in vertical up (4G) position, uphill and 5G down hill position.
Basic Pipe Welding Procedures

Before starting to learn pipe welding, a pipe fitter should
be proficient in welding in the four basic positions:
flat, horizontal, vertical and overhead.
All of these positions are used to weld pipes. Since the
pipe has a round shape, there is usually a gradual transition
from one position to another.
When the pipe is in the 5G position, with its horizontal (clockwise). (Fig 3)
axis in position on the pipe, it can readily be identified by
their likeness to the numbers on the face of a clock. Repeat the steps several times, till the pipe welder is able
to produce uniform weld beads using the arc, restarting
Pipe axis shall be horizontal and pipe is fixed in horizontal. and merging techniques.
Rotation of pipe is not possible in 5G fixed position. Welding
is to be accomplished in the vertical position. Two different Preparation of pipe joint
welding procedures are used when the pipe is in the Follow the procedures as stated in the next Related Theory
horizontal position: downhill and uphill pipe welding. Exercise on downhill welding, for the edge preparation of
Before proceeding with this Related Theory pipe joint and fit-up.
Exercise, review the procedures and figures Make sure that the bevel angle conforms to the welding
for vertical downhill in the next Related procedure specification. The groove angle must be large
Theory Exercise. enough for the electrode to fit into the groove.
Practicing for vertical up (5G) Welding Technique
Prepare a pipe with diameter 168 mm OD ( 6”), 7.11 mm Perhaps the most difficult position in which to weld pipe is
thick, 100 mm long and mark lines at a pitch of 20 mm. in the 5G position. Once this is mastered, welding pipe in
other positions is less difficult to learn. For this reason, it
is best to start by learning how to weld in the 5G position.
Pipe size : OD 168 mm, 7.11 mm thickness
150 mm long - 2 nos.
Electrode : E 6010 - 3.20 mm
Welding current : 80 - 110 amperes
Vertical up welding uses lower current and slower travel
speed to produce a joint with fewer but heavier beads.
The slower travel speed of vertical-up welding and the high
liquid pool melts out gas holes more effectively than vertical
down welding.
Vertical up welding requires a larger root
opening and bevel angle than vertical down
does. The best way to weld an open root is to
Tack weld the pipe in its axis in the horizontal. (Figs 1&2) use a deep penetrating electrode like E 6010.
Strike the arc at the 5’o clock position and maintain the Pipe Clamps
correct electrode angle and arc length. Move the electrode One difficulty encountered in assembling pipe to be
towards the 11’o clock position (anticlockwise). fabricated / installed, is the positioning of the pipe before
Do not support or rest your hand on the pipe or the table. tacking. External line up clamps are made to hold virtually
Break the arc at the 11’o clock position. any type of pipe joint. The use of clamps to secure
proper alignment is highly recommended. The pipe joint
Move the arc from the 5’o clock to the 11’o clock position
should be clamped using the external line up clamp.
57
Procedure for welding heavy wall pipes in 6G position welding

• describe the 6G welding position
• state the work instruction for 6G.
Welding (including root and hot pass) in 6G position consumables (electrode in case of SMAW and "filler metal
& shielding gas normally argon" in case of TIG (also called
6G position welding introduction: 6G is a welding
as GTAW process) welding, try square / right angle,
position to which a welder / welding procedure is qualified
measuring tape / scale, chipping chisel, wire brush, PPE
to perform circumferential pipe (or tubular structure) weld
including welding helmet.
with the pipe fixed and oriented on approximately 45° angle
inclination. (Fig 1) Work instruction:
1 Always comply to work instruction and relevant welding
procedure specification (WPS) and all safety
requirements;
2 Verify based metal type and grade supplied as per
WPS;
3 Verify consumable supplied as specified in WPS;
The letter "G" in "6G stands for the type of butt weld, 4 Check SMAW/TIG welding equipment and accessories
called "groove weld" (another type of weld with letter "F" functionality;
stands for "fillet weld") and the number :6 designates the
position of the pipes welded. A groove weld is a joint in two 5 Cut the pipe and perform edge preparation of the pipe
metal pipes with joining edges prepared with angle bevel as per specification; normally, 32 to 38° for 6" MB pipe
and the joining space in between them is deposited with with sch 60 or sch 80 thickness pipes. Edges shall be
the welding material. prepared as per WPS; normally with 2 to 3mm root
face and 2 to 3mm root gap.
In the 6G welding position, the pipes aligned with slopes
at approximately 45° inclination from the horizontal from 6 Grind the edges to get smooth surface and clean &
the horizontal (X) axis 45° from the vertical (Y) axis. The remove the mill scale up to 25mm from the joining
pipe is in a fixed position, so the welder must move around edges of the pipe.
the pipe to perform the welding circumferentially. This is a 7 Perform pipe to pipe butt joint the fit-up duly maintaining
difficult welding position involving horizontal, vertical and the specified root face root gap as per WPS. Pipe edges
overhead position welding in a single joint welding that misalignment shall not exceed 1.5mm.
requires a great skill, competency, experience and
8 Preheating is not required if atmospheric temperature
technical expertise as the pipe / structure us immovable /
is above 20°C. If WPS required preheat, joint shall be
rotatable.
preheated to the specified temperature using propane
So welder has to weld the test piece in that position to get gas with rose bud torch. Otherwise, small warm up
qualification. Normally, the pipes are edge prepared with heat (about 50°C) is enough; but not mandatory unless
land (root face/weld face at the butt joint root) between required by WPS.
2mm and 3mm and joined with a 2 to 3mm root gap with
9 Welding electrodes / Filler metal specification and
proper alignment. The welder can use approximately 80
grade will wary with respect to base material quality /
amps to start on a tack weld without sticking.
specification. Approved WPS shall be referred.
Note for knowledge purpose only: Another restricted weld Normally, E 6013 / E 7018 for low carbon steel base
position called as "6GR" in which the letter "R" indicated metal welding with SMAW process and ER 70 - S2 /
that 6G positioned test coupon fitted with a S6 series for GTAW weld process.
restriction ring to restrict the welding holder movement /
10 Tack welding can be performed; but preformed; but
position. 6GR position qualification is mandatory for welder
preferred bridge tacking.
/ procedure qualification of TKY joints in tubular structural
construction. The difference with the 6G and 6GR position 11 Whenever you start and stop pipe welding, always do
is the restriction ring. 6GR position is applicable only for so no the side wall - never in the root gap. Start the
welding tubular structures and not for process / power or arc, wait for the weld pool to form, then slowly and
oil and gas piping. gently move across the open root to the other side.
Slowly zigzag your way along the open root for the first
Equipment and consumables requirement: Welding
section of the pipe until you have to change your
machine, grinding machine with grinding disc., welding
position.
58
12 Interpass temperature shall not exceed the limit 21 The order, location / position of mechanical test
specified in the WPS (normally, interpass temperature specimen cutting and removal shall be as per applicable
will be 250°C maximum for carbon steel base metal. specification, code or governing standard.
13 Think of the pipe in terms of a clock face, and divide it 22 Bend testing shall be performed with required radius of
up into sections. Start at the 12 0' clock position, and bend (normally bend radius - 2 times the specimen
work round to 3 0'clock then stop and make sure you're thickness.)
comfortable and prepared for the next section, and
23 Some standards require only NDT (normally visual and
repeat this process until you've completed the entire
radiography testing) for welder performance qualification.
weld.
Some specification requires only mechanical testing
14 Stagger these welding start and stop points for each (bend test). Some customer require both NDT and
weld layer rather than keeping them all at the same mechanical testing.
point around the pipe.
6G position arrangement
15 Perform and complete SMAW / GTAW welding process
Welders performing the 6G qualification testing, will weld
welding as per the WPS with appropriate current,
in all positions including horizontal, vertical and overhead.
voltage,, travel speed for the respective electrode filler
Hence, if a welder pass 6G test, he will automatically
meta sixes and respective weld passes (root, hot,
qualifies for welding in all position. (Fig 2)
intermittent and fill passes) within the permissible heat
input limitation as specified in the WPS for the
respective weld passes as per WPS.
16 In case of TIG / GTAW welding, shielding gas flow rate
shall be maintained as per WPS.
17 Ensure that welding is performed with proper fusion
and penetration. Excess penetration more than 1.5mm
shall be avoided.
18 Similarly welding shall be completed without excess
weld reinforcement (In general - 2mm maximum weld
reinforcement.) At the same time welding shall not be
under-flush with pipe base-metal surface.
19 Perform visual inspection and sent for necessary NDT
and mechanical testing (destructive test).
20 Mechanical testing for welder performance qualification
will be normally - Bend test (root bend & face bend or
side bend and number of bends, depending on applicable
codes / standard requirements.)

Weld symbol and welding symbol - Description and uses

• explain the necessity of weld symbol and welding symbol
• describe the elementary symbols and supplementary symbols
• describe the welding symbol and its application, as per symbol standard (BIS) and AWS.
Necessity: For conveying the information required for Supplementary symbols: Elementary symbols may be
welding for designers and welders, standard symbols are complemented by another set of symbols (supplementary)
used. The symbols described below provide the means of (Table 2) characterizing the shape of the external surface
placing on dawing the information concerning type, size, of the weld. Supplementary symbols on elementary
location of weldment. symbols indicate the type of weld surface required.
(Table 3)
Elementary symbols (As per IS 813 - 1986): The various
categories of welds are characterized by a symbol which
in general is similar to the shape of the weld to be made.
(Table 1)
TABLE 1
Elementary symbols
SI. Designation Illustration Symbol

No.
1 Butt weld between plates with raised edges
(the raised edges being melted down
completely)
2 Square butt weld
3 Single V butt weld
4 Single bevel butt weld
5 Single V butt weld with broad root face
6 Single bevel butt weld with broad root face
7 Single U butt weld (Parallel or sloping sides)
8 Single J butt weld
9 Backing run; back or backing weld
60
10 Fillet weld
11 Plug weld; Plug or slot weld/USA
12 Spot weld
13 Seam weld
1 Reference line 4 Dimensions and othe details

2 Arrow 5 Supplementary symbols
3 Welding elementary symbols 6 Finish symbols
Welder (Pipe) - GTAW - II
Procedure for welding of thin wall pipes in down hill position

• describe the setting pipes for weldings.
Pipe welding by arc (in 1G position) by continuous – Direct the electrode centrally at the root of the joint
rotation method: Satisfactory welding of butt joints in and in line with the radius of the pipe at the point of
pipes depends upon the correct preparation of pipe ends welding.
and careful assembly of the joint to be welded. Ensure
– Strike the arc near the top dead centre and hold the
that the bores and root faces are in correct alignment and
arc length as short as possible. Continue to weld as
that the gap is correct.
the pipe is rotated manually at steady speed.
Clean the edges. Prepare an angle of bevel 35° by gas
– Deposit first run by weaving the electrode very slightly
cutting and filing. A root face 1.5 to 2.5 mm is to be provided.
from root face to root face.
Setting the pipes for welding: Tack weld together with
– Adjust the speed of rotation to obtain full fusion of the
4 small equally spaced tacks. The gap should be equal to
root faces without excessive penetration.
the root face dimension plus 0.75 mm. Support the tacked
assembly on V blocks or rollers so that the assembly can – Chip out tack weld as they are approached. Do not
be rolled or rotated with the free hand. weld over tacks otherwise loss of penetration at the
tacking points may occur.
Select a 2.5 mm rutile electrode for 1st run and a
3.15 mm rutile electrode for 2nd run. – Complete the weld with the second run. Adjust the
speed of rotation to secure fusion to the outer edge of
Set a current of 70-80A for 1st run and 100-110 for the
each fusion face. The amount of reinforcement should
2nd run.
be even around the edge of the joint.
Rotate the assembly as welding proceeds. (Fig 1) keeping
Welding of a pipe butt (IG position i.e. by rotation)
the welding arc within an area between vertical and 10°
by segmental welding.
from the vertical in the direction of welding Fig 2 .
(Use a helmet type screen). – The edges of the pipe are bevelled to 35 to 40° angle
with a root gap of 2.5 mm.
Fig 1 – Tack the pipe as before and support the assembly on
two vee blocks. (Fig 3)
Fig 3
Fig 2
– Strike the arc at 10° from Top Dead Centre (TDC) and
deposit the root run. Use a small weaving motion to
achieve fusion of the root faces. Adjust travel speed to
control root penetration. (Fig 4)
– When a segment equivalent to 60° has been welded,
terminate/stop the weld run. Avoid the formation of a
crater.
– Move the pipe until the end of the segment is at 10°
before TDC.
62
– Move the pipe until the mid point of the segments is at
Fig 4
TDC.
– Strike the arc and deposit the second (filling) run, use
a side-to-side weaving position to fill the preparation
and to achieve fusion of the pipe edges.
– Complete the filling run in 60° segments.
Fig 5
– Strike the arc on the end of the previous weld run and
establish a weld pool.
– Weld a further 60° segment. (Fig 5)
– Continue welding in segments until the root run has
been completed.
Procedure for welding pipe in 2G position

• state different fixed pipe welding positions
• explain different methods of pipe welding in 2G position
• explain the welding producer of M.S. pipe butt joint by arc in fixed (5G) position.
Method 3: The weld is started from 6 O'clock to 12 O'clock

Fig 2
position on the right side first and then again from the
6 O'clock to 12 O'clock position on the left side (Fig 1).
This method is called uphill method or vertical up method.
This uphill method is used to weld pipes of 5 mm and
above wall thickness.
Fig 1
Fig 3
Welding in 2G and 6G positions are done based on the

position of the pipe axis.
In the 2G position, the horizontal pipe welding with its
axis being vertical, the weld joint connecting the two pipes
is in the horizontal position. The weld must be made around
the pipe. (Fig 2)
In the 6G position welding is usually done by using one of
the methods i.e. uphill or downhill welding. (Fig 3)
Use electrodes specially manufactured for pipe welding to
get good penetration, appearance and strength, (low
hydrogen electrodes, deep penetration electrodes etc.)

Development of a pipe "T" joint

• develop and layout the pattern for 90° "T" pipe of equal diameter by parallel line method.
Develop the pattern for a 90° "T" pipe of equal

diameter by parallel line method:
Draw the front view as shown in Fig 1.
Draw the side view as shown in Fig 2.
Draw a semi-circle on the base line of the front elevation.

(Fig 3)
Divide the semi-circle into six equal parts and number
them as 0, 1, 2, 3, 2, 1, 0. (Fig 3)
Now the vertical lines of the front view and the horizontal
lines of side meet at their respective points.
Join these points to get the line of intersection of "T" pipe
as shown in Fig 7.
Divide a semi-circle in side view into six equal parts and Extend the base line of the side view and mark the end
number as 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3 as shown in Fig 4. point as 0. (Fig 8)
Draw the perpendicular lines from each point of the Take one division of the semi-circle in side view and transfer
semi-circle of the view as shown in Fig 5. it 12 times on the base line starting from: 0: and number
Draw horizontal lines from the side view towards the front as 0, 1, 2, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 2, 1, 0 as shown in Fig 9.
view as shown in Fig 6.
64
Check the pattern once again and cut. Thus you get the
pattern for branch pipe.
For main pipe, develop and layout the pattern as follows:
Draw the front view and end view. (Fig 12)
Extend the vertical lines 0, 1, 2, 3, 1, 0 of branch pipe from

the front view as shown in Fig 13.
Extend the two extreme end vertical lines of the main pipe
from the front view as shown in Fig 14.
Draw perpendicular lines from these points and draw
horizontal lines from the points on the line of intersection
of "T". These line meet at their respective points. (Fig 9)
Join these points by free hand curve. (Fig 10)
Provide locked grooved joint allowance as shown in Fig 11.

On one of these lines, take point "0" as starting point and
mark points 0, 1, 2, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 2, 1, 0 at equal
distances equal to one division of the semi-circle and draw
horizontal lines from these points. (Fig 15)
Now these horizontal lines meet the vertical lines at their
respective points as shown in Fig 16.
Join these points by free hand curve and get the pattern
for the main pipe. (Fig 17)
Provide the locked grooved joint allowances as shown in
Fig 17.

Development of a pipe "Y" joint

• develop and able to layout the pattern for "Y" joint pipes intersecting at 120°
• develop and layout the pattern for "Y" joint pipes branching at 90°.
Development of "Y" joint pipes intersecting at 120°:

Draw the development of intersecting cylinders of dia.
30 mm at 120°. (Fig 1)
All the cylindrical pipes are of same diameter and
intersecting each at equal angles. Hence in this case the
development of all the pipes are same and so the
development of one pipe will represent other pipes.
• Draw the plan and elevation of the pipe 'A' and mark
the division on the plan. (Fig 1b)
• Draw the vertical projectors from the plan to front view
to meet the line of intersection.
• Draw horizontal projectors from these points on to the
development.
• Mark the intersecting points and join with a smooth
curve to complete the required development.
Development of 'Y' joint branching at 90°: Three
cylindrical pipes of X, Y, Z form a 'Y' piece. (Fig 2) Draw
the lateral surface development of each pipe.
In the three pipes XYZ, Y & Z are similar in size and shape,
hence their developments are also similar.
• Draw the development of pipe 'X' as in the previous
Related Theory Exercise.
• Draw the elevation and plan of pipe 'Y' as shown.
• Divide the plan circle into 16 equal parts.
• Project the points to the elevation.
• Draw the rectangle ABCD in which AB is equal to D.
• Draw the development of pipe Y as shown in Fig 2.
67
Welder (Pipe) - GTAW - III
Introduction to GTAW welding - Advantages, Equipment, Electrode

• state the principle of TIG welding process
• state its application
• identify a TIG welding equipment
• name the parts of a TIG welding equipment
• state the purpose of different parts.
Introduction to TIG welding: The Gas Tungsten Arc Inert Gas) welding. Gas tungsten arc welding, is particularly
Welding (GTAW) process fuses metals by heating them used when welding stainless steel, aluminium, titanium
between a non consumable (does not melt) tungsten and many other non-ferrous metals.
electrode and workpiece. The heat necessary for fusion
- An AC or DC arc welding machine. Fig. 2 & 3
(mixing or combining of molten metals) is provided by an
arcing electric current between the tungsten electrode and - Shielding gas cylinders or facilities to handle liquid
the base metal. Fig 1 gases
- A shielding gas regulator
- A gas flowmeter
- Shielding gas hoses and fittings
- A welding torch (electrode holder)
- Tungsten electrodes
- Welding rods
- Optional accessories
This type of welding is usually done with a single electrode. - A water cooling system with hoses for heavy duty
The tungsten electrode and the weld zone (area being welding operations
welded) are shielded from the atmosphere (air around it) by - Foot rheostat (switch)
an inert gas, such as argon or helium. Filler metal may or
may not be used. This process is also called TIG (Tungsten - Arc timers
68
Torch: There is a variety of torches available varying from
Fig 5
light weight air cooled to heavy duty water cooled types.
Fig 4. The main factors to be considered in choosing a torch
are:
The flowmeter which has a manually operated needle valve,

Current carrying capacity for the work in hand controls the argon flow from 0-600 litres/hour to 0-2100
litres/hour according to type.
Weight, balance and accessibility of the torch head to the
work in hand Parts of water cooled torch Fig 7
The torch body holds a top loading compression-type collet 1 Thoriated or Zirconiated tungsten electrode
assembly which accommodates electrodes of various 2 Ceramic shield/nozzle
diameters. They are securely gripped, yet the collet is
easily slackened for removal or reposition of the electrode. 3 "O" ring
As the thickness of plate to be welded increases, size of 4 Collet holder
torch and electrode diameter must increase to deal with the
larger welding currents required. 5 Collet
Gas regulator, flowmeter (Figs 5& 6): The gas regulator 6 Electrode cap (short & long)
reduces the pressure in the argon cylinder from 175 or 200 7 Body assembly
bar down to 0-3.5 bar for supply to the torch.
8 Sheath
Fig 6
9 Hose assembly cover
10 Argon hose assembly
11 Water hose assembly
12 Power cable assembly
13 Adaptor (power cable)
14 Adaptor (argon gas hose)
15 Switch actuator
16 Switch
17 Switch retaining sheath
18 Cable (2 core)
19 Insulating sleeve
20 Plug
Fig 7

Advantages of TIG welding process over manual metal arc welding and gas
welding
• state the advantages of TIG welding process over manual metal arc Welding
• state the advantages of TIG welding process over oxy-acetylene welding process.
Advantages of TIG welding process over manual metal arc welding
TIG welding process Manual metal arc welding process
TIG process introduces only heat to the part being welded MMAW cannot introduce the heat without
without depositing the metal. With this process the 'filler' depositing the metal. Hence, there are risks of lack
metal is only added when it is needed and this need not of fusion, inclusions due to slags from the electrode
be linked to the welding current. coating and lack of penetration, associated in welding.
TIG welding process neither adds nor subtracts MMA welding uses consumable electrodes with the
elements from the metal which it simply brings to fusion. operating weldability is governed by elements in the
Hence the process is highly suitable for joining reactive flux covering, sometimes introduces elements which,
metals like stainless steel, aluminium, magnesium etc. from a metallurgical point of view, are undesirable.
These consumable electrodes can also increase of
This process is most suitable for the following materials. hydrogen absorption (e.g moisture in the coatings).
Stainless steel 0.5-3mm thickness unprepared. With difficulty stainless steel plates and sheets more
Aluminium and its alloys of 1.5 - 8mm thickness. than 3mm thickness can be welded. Coated electrodes
Copper, cupro-nickel and aluminium bronze. are specially made with coating flux containing
alloying elements to make up for the loss during
welding.
Carbon steels and low alloy steels. Largely, the process is restricted to only Mild steel
Highly reactive materials like Titanium and Magnesium and Carbon steels.
and their alloys. Process is not at all suitable for sheets and plates of
aluminium and other reactive metals.
TIG welding process offers exceptionally perfect clean MMA welding generally suffer from arc spatter and
weld and an absence of spatter. and hence hot spots in the base metal near the
weld joint.
These advantages make TIG the high quality welding Stick electrodes in MMAW does not offer flexibility
process which is the easiest to automate for the for automation.
production of joints of small dimensions or very difficult
to access.
TIG welding process produces sound weld because In MMA welding with stick electrodes, there is every
there is very little smoke, fumes or sparks. Since the danger of smokes, fumes leading to gas porosity in
shielding gas around the arc is transparent, the welder the weld.
can observe the weld easily.
Oxy - acetylene welding process
Arc temperature is as high as 60000C and hence welding In oxy acetylene welding, the flame temperature is
heat is much higher, it is possible to weld with narrower not more than 35000C for the neutral flame, and lower
preparations which means more economical use of heat input in the flame calls for the wider preparations
filler wire and higher welding speed. for the weld joint hence larger amount of filler wire
and slower welding speed.
Shielding gases Argon, Helium are totally inert and Thermal source in oxy-acetylene welding is only by
non-active. Welding done by this process is always burning of acetylene in oxygen, hence there is always
clean and without any oxidation. a chance of oxygen getting in touch with hot weld
metal and hence oxidation of the weld pool and oxide
defects or porosity by the liberated carbon-monoxide.
Suitability for joining/welding reactive materials is Since it is oxy-fuel, the reactive materials can be
excellent. welded only in the presence of lower melting flux fed
along with the filler rod. This does not ensure 100%
defect free weld deposits.

GTAW Power sources
• state the necessity of a suitable power sources
• state the different types of power sources used
• state the application of different power sources
• state the care and maintainance of GTAW machine.
Power sources Frequency stabilisation. Each of these has its applications,

advantages, and disadvantages. A look at each type and
TIG welding power sources have come a long way from
its uses will help the operator select the best current type
the basic transformer types of power sources which were
for the job. The type of current used will have a great effect
used with add-on units to enable the power source to be
on the penetration pattern as well as the bead configuration.
used as a TIG unit, eg high frequency unit and/or DC
The diagrams below, show arc characteristics of each
rectifying units.
current polarity type.
The basics of TIG welding has almost remained the same,
DCSP - Direct Current Straight Polarity (Fig 2) : (The
but the advent of technology TIG welding power sources
tungsten electrode is connected to the negative terminal).
have made the TIG processes more controllable and more
This type of connection is the most widely used in the DC
portable.
type welding current connections. With the tungsten being
The one thing that all TIGs have in common is that they connected to the negative terminal it will only receive 30%
are CC (Constant Current) type power sources. This means of the welding energy (heat). This means the tungsten will
only output adjustment will control the power source amps. run a lot cooler than DCRP. The resulting weld will have
The voltage will be up or down depending on the resistance good penetration and a narrow profile.
of the welding arc.
CURRENT TYPE DCSP
Characteristerics of power fource :The output slope or
voltampere curve A, a change from 20 volts to 25 volts will Electrode Polarity Electrode Negative
result in a decrease in amperage from 135 amps to 126
Oxide Cleaning Action No
amps. With a change of 25 percent in voltage, only a 6.7
percent change occurs in the welding current in curve A. Heat Balance in the Arc 70% at work end 30% at
Thus if the welder varies the length of the arc, causing a electrode end
change in voltage, there will be very little change in the Penetration Profile Deep, narrow
current and the weld quality will be maintained. The current
in this machine, even though it varies slightly is considered Electrode Capacity Excellent
constant (Fig 1).
This is called drooping characteristic power source. Also
called constant current (CC)power source.
This type of power source is used in SMAW & GTAW
process.
DCRP - Direct Current Reverse Polarity (Fig 3) : (the

tungsten electrode is connected to the positive terminal).
This type of connection is used very rarely because most
heat is on the tungsten, thus the tungsten can easily
overheat and burn away. DCRP produces a shallow, wide
Types of welding current used for GTAW profile and is mainly used on very light material at low
amps.
When TIG welding, there are three choices of welding
current. They are: Direct Current Straight Polarity, Direct
Current Reverse Polarity, and Alternating Current with High

CURRENT TYPE DCRP
Electrode Polarity Electrode Positive
Oxide Cleaning Action Yes
Heat Balance in the Arc 30% at work end 70% at
electrode end
Penetration Profile Shallow, wide
Electrode Capacity Poor
AC - Alternating Current - Square Wave (Fig 5)

With the advent of modern electricity AC welding machines
can now be produced with a wave form called Square Wave.
The square wave has the benefit of a lot more control and
each side of the wave can be, in some cases, controlled
to give a more cleaning half of the welding cycle, or more
penetration.
Once the welding current gets above a certain amperage
(often depends on the machine) the HF can be turned off,
allowing the welding to be carried on with the HF interfer-
AC - Alternating Current (Fig 4) is the preferred welding
ing with anything in the surrounding area.
current for most white metals, eg aluminium and
magnesium. The heat input to the tungsten is averaged Extended Balance Control (Fig 5 ,6 & 7)
out as the AC wave passes from one side of the wave to AC balance control allows the operator to adjust the bal-
the other. ance between the penetration (EN) and cleaning action
On the half cycle, where the tungsten is positive electron (EP) portions of the cycle. Some inverters have adjust-
welding current will flow from base material to the tungsten. able EN as great as 30 percent to 99 percent for control
This will result in the lifting of any oxide skin on the base and fine-tuning of the cleaning action.
material. This side of the wave form is called the cleaning
For instance, if the operator sets EN at 60 percent, it
half. As the wave moves to the point where the tungsten
means that 70 percent of the AC cycle is putting energy
becomes negative the electrons (welding current) will flow
into the work, while 40 percent of the cycle is cleaning.
from the welding tungsten to the base material. This side
of the cycle is called the penetration half of the AC wave
form.
Because the AC cycle passes through a zero point the
arc goes out. This can be seen with fast film photography.
At this point the arc would stay out if it wasn’t for the
introduction of HF (high frequency). High frequency has
very little to do with the welding process; its job is the re-
ignition of the welding current as it passes through zero.
HF is also often used for starting the welding arc initially
without the tungsten touching the workpiece. This helps
on materials that are sensitive to impurities. HF start can
also be used on DC welding current to initially start the
welding current without the tungsten touching the
workpiece.
CURRENT TYPE ACHF Pulsed TIG (Fig 8)
Electrode Polarity Alternating In this type of power source, the supply current is not
Oxide Cleaning Action Yes (once every half constant and it is being fluctuated from low level to high
cycle) level. This causes low heat input to the metal and hence
Heat Balance in the Arc 50% at work end 50% at distortion effect will be less.
electrode end
Penetration Profile Medium
Electrode Capacity Good
Peak Current - This is set up higher than for non-pulsed
TIG.
Background Current - This is set lower than peak cur-
rent and is the bottom current the pulse will drop to, but
must be enough to keep the arc alive.
Pulses Per Second - This is the number of times per
second that weld current reaches peak current.
% on Time - This is the pulse peak duration as a percent-
age of the total time, which controls how long the peak
current is on for before dropping to the background cur-
rent.
The pulse and base current periods are also controllable.
When welding is done with pulsing welding mode the weld
is in principle a row of spot welds overlapping to a lerger or
smaller extent depending on the welding speed.
Many double-current machines are equipped with a con-
trol function which makes it possible to modify the curve
of the alternating current in balance between thew positive
and the negative semi-periods.
Pulsed TIG has the advantages of

1 better penetration with less heat
2 less distortion
3 better control when welding out of position
4 Easy to use on thin materials
The down side is - more set-up cost and more operator
training.
Pulsed TIG consists of
Current Type DCEN DCEP AC (Balanced)

Electrode Polarity Negative Positive
Electron and
ion flow
Penetration
Charateristics
Oxide Cleaning Yes-once every

Action No Yes Half Cycle
Heat Balance in 70% at work end 30 % at work end 50 % at work end
the arc (approx.) 30% at electrode end 70% at electrode end 50 % at electrode end
Penetration Deep Narrow Shallow Wide Medium
Electrode Excellent Poor Good
Capacity e.g., 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) 400 A e.g. 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) 120 A e.g. 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) 225 A

GTAW arc starting methods
• state the purpose of the High Frequency unit of a TIG welding machine
• state the care and maintenance of HF unit.
There are three types of arc starting methods in GTAW The oscillator consists of an iron cored transformer with a
1. High frequency start high voltage secondary winding, a capacitor, a spark gap
and an air core transformer or inductive circuit, one coil of
2. Lift arc start which is in the high voltage circuit and the other in the
3. Scratch start welding circuit Fig. 2. The capacitor is charged every half
cycle to 3000-5000V and discharges across the spark gap.
The control system of the TIG equipment can be either The discharge is oscillatory, that is, it is not a single spark
very simple or very advanced with many different func- but a series of sparks oscillating across the spark gap
tions. during discharge. This discharge, occurring on every half
In its most simple or version only the welding current is cycle sets up oscillatory currents in the circuit and these
controlled and the shielding gas is turned on/off by a small are induced and superimposed on the welding current
valve on the TIG torch. through the inductance of the coils L.
The more advanced TIG boxes are capable of controlling

the shielding gas so it is lead to the welding place before
the arc is ignited, and delaying the interruption of the shield-
ing gas after the welding current is cut off.
This means that the tungsten electrode and the weld pool
are also protected from the atmospheric air during the
cooling period.
Furthermore, the TIG box usually has an ignition facility in
order to avoid having to scratch the electrode against the
workpiece and thus damaging the electrode point.
This ignition facility can be a high frequency can be a high
grequency unit (HF) which increases the frequency to 2 to
4 million periods per second and the voltage to several
thousand volts.
To initiate the arc, electrode is brought to about 6mm from
The high frequency and the voltage make it possible to the work with the HF unit and groups of sparks pass across
produce a spark between the electrode point and the sur- the gap, ionizing it and the welding current flows in the form
face of the workpiece that transfers the arc. (Fig 1) of an arc without contamination of the electrode by touch-
ing down.
Care and maintenance of HF unit: The HF unit can give
rise to considerable radio and TV interference and ad-
equate suppression and screening must be provided to
eliminate this as far as possible.
Lift start (Fig 3): In this method no HF unit is used, the
tungsten electrode is placed down upon the work where the
welding is to begin. The operator presses a switch which
connects it to the electronic control but, as yet, no current
flows.
The torch is then lifted a little from the work (or tilted on the
gas nozzle), the arc is struck as the electrode makes a gap
from the work and the switch the current slopes down to
High frequency unit (HF unit): High frequency, high zero and thus prevents the formation of a finishing crater.
voltage, spark gap oscillator. This device enables the arc With this method there is no HF interference with any other
to be ignited without touching down the electrode on the HF apparatus.
work and thus it prevents electrode contamination. It also
Scratch start (Fig 4): Some units do not employ an HF unit
helps arc re-ignition at the beginning of the positive half
for starting the arc without touch down. The tungsten is
cycle.
scratched momentarily onto the work and the arc is
ionized. Naturally there will be some vey small tungsten
contamination but this will not greatly interfere with the
mechanical properties of the joint in non-critical conditions.
Down Slope - This is the way and the time taken for the
welding current to wind down at the end of the TIG weld.
Down slope will help prevent the uneven cooling of the
final weld pool and will help stop pinholes forming at the
completion of a TIG weld.
Post Flow - Post flow is the time taken for the shielding
gas to stay on after the welding current has stopped. This
time will
1 protect the end of the weld
2 protect the cooling down of the tungsten (the oxidation
of the tungsten).
Pre-Flow - Preflow is used at the start of the welding
process to help protect the start of the weld from contami-
nation and to make sure the shielding gas is flowing be-
fore the welding current starts up.
Other possibilities for control of the ignition are:

Slope control that makes it possible to preprogram the
increase of the welding current when welding starts and the
decrease of the welding current when welding stops. Slope
control is especially important at the end of welding to help
eliminate porosity and shrink holes (Fig 5).
Up Slope: This is the time taken for welding current to
reach the maximum value from zero current. This will help
for progressing heating of metal.

GTAW Torches
• state the purpose of the torch and its parts
• state the care and maintenance of torches.
GTAW Torch
Torch: There is a variety of torches available varying from
light weight air cooled to heavy duty water cooled types.
Fig.1 & 2. The main factors to be considered in choosing
a torch are:
- Current carrying capacity for the work in hand
- Weight, balance and accessibility of the torch head to the
work in hand.
The torch body holds a top loading compression-type collet
assembly which accommodates electrodes of various
diameters. They are securely gripped, yet the collet is
easily slackened for removal or reposition of the electrode.
As the thickness of plate to be welded increases, size of
torch and electrode diameter must increase to deal with the
larger welding currents required.
Parts of water cooled torch Fig 2

1 Thoriated or Zirconiated 6 Electrode cap 11 Water hose assembly 16 Switch
tungsten electrode (short & long) 12 Power cable assembly 17 Switch retaining sheath
2 Ceramic shield/nozzle 7 Body assembly
18 Cable (2 core)
3 "O" ring 8 Sheath 13 Adaptor (power cable) 19 Insulating sleeve
4 Collet holder 9 Hose assembly cover 14 Adaptor (argon gas hose) 20 Plug
5 Collet 10 Argon hose assembly 15 Switch actuator
77
The function of the TIG torch is to Please make sure when ordering a TIG torch to tell the
supplier the amperage rating, whether water- or air-cooled,
1 hold the electrode tungsten
and the fitting that is to go on the end of the TIG torch lead
2 deliver welding current to the tungsten via a welding suitable to fit the TIG power source it will be used from.
power cable This may include power cable fit up, gas fittings and con-
3 deliver shielding gas to the TIG torch nozzle. The nozzle trol plug fittings.
then directs the shielding gas to cover the weldpool Gas Regulator & Flowmeter
protecting it from contamination from the surrounding
Gas regulator, flowmeter (Fig 3 & 4): The gas regulator
air.
reduces the pressure in the argon cylinder from 175 or 200
4 often will be the way of getting the welder control cir- bar down to 0-3.5 bar for supply to the torch.
cuit to the operation, eg on/off and/or amperage con-
The flowmeter which has a manually operated needle valve,
trol.
controls the argon flow from 0-600 litres/hour to 0-2100
5 the TIG torch can be watercooled. Hoses in the TIG litres/hour according to type.
lead will supply cooling water to the TIG torch head
assembly.
6 the TIG torch length will allow a distance from the TIG
power source and workpiece.
TIG torches come in different styles depending on the brand
being selected. But they all have things in common -
1 aircooled or watercooled
2 current rating. The operator must select the correct
amperage rating TIG torch.
Cooling of the TIG torch
Some torches are constructed in such a way that it is the
flowing shielding gas that cools the torch. However, the
torch also gives off heat to the surrounding air.
Other torches are constructed with cooling tubes. Water-
cooled torches are mainly used for welding with larger
current intensities and AC-welding.
Usually a water-cooled TIG torch is smaller than an air-
cooled torch designed to the same maximum current in-
tensities
Using a TIG torch that is not sufficiently rated for the ma-
chine may result in the TIG torch overheating. A TIG torch
wiith an excessive rating may be larger and heavier than a
lower amperage TIG torch.
The TIG torch is made up of
1 Leads - The lead will be set up for either aircooled or
watercooled. It will be at a length suitable to do the
job, eg 4 metre, 8 metre, etc. The lead will be made up
of a power cable, gas hose and water leads in and out
if the TIG torch is watercooled. The lead may also in-
clude a control lead.
2 Collet - To hold the tungstan rods. Collet may vary
with different brands of TIG torches.
3 Ceramic Nozzles - The nozzle’s job is to direct the
correct gas flow over the weldpool.
4 Back Caps - The back cap is the storage area for ex-
cess tungsten. They can come in different lengths de-
pending on the space the torch may have to get into
(eg. long, medium and short caps).
GTAW electrodes
• state the types of electrodes
• state the colour codification.
Electrodes for TIG Welding Colour Indications on Tungsten Electrodes

For TIG welding the applied electrode is mainly made of As the pure tungsten electrodes and the different alloyed
tungsten. ones look the same, it is impossible to tell the difference
between them. Therefore a standard colour indication on
Pure tungsten is a very heat resistance material with a
the electrodes has been agreed.
fusion point of approximately 3,3800C.
The electrodes are marked with a particular colour on the
By alloying tungsten with a few per cent of a metal oxide
last 10 mm.
the conductivity of the electrode can be increased which
has the advantage that it can thereby resist a higher cur- The most commonly used types of tungsten electrodes
rent load. are:
The alloyed tungsten electrodes therefore have a longer • Pure tungsten is marked with green colour. This elec-
lifetime and better ignition properties than electrodes of trode is especially used for AC welding in aluminium
pure tungsten. and aluminium alloys.
The most frequently used metal oxides used for alloying • Tungsten with 2% thorium is marked with red colour.
of tungsten are: This electrode is mostly used for welding of non-al-
loyed and low-alloyed steels as well as stainless steels.
• Thorium oxide ThO2
• Tungsten with 1% lanthanum is marked with black
• Zirconium oxide ZrO2
colour. This electrode is equally suited for welding of
• Lanthanum oxide LaO2 all TIG weldable metals.
• Cerium oxide CeO2
Colour Code and Alloying Elements For Various Tungsten Electrode Alloys
AWS Classifications Colour*Alloying Element Alloying Oxide Current type
EWP Green Pure - AC/DC
EWCe-2 Orange Cerium CeO2 AC/DC
EWLa-1 Black Lanthanum La2O3 AC/DC
EWTh-1 Yellow Thorium ThO2 DC
EWTh-2 Red Thorium ThO2 DC
EWZr-1 Brown Zirconium ZrO2 AC
• Colour may be applied in the form of bands, dots, etc, Grinding Angle
at any point on the surface of the electrode. An important condition for obtaining a good result of TIG
Electrode Dimensions welding is that the point of the tungsten electrode must be
ground correctly.
Tungsten electrodes are available in different diameters
from 0.5 to 8 mm. The most frequently used dimensions When welding is done with direct current and negative
for TIG welding electrodes are 1.6 - 2.4 - 3.2 and 4 mm. polarity, the electrode point should be conical in order to
obtain a concentrated arc that will provide a narrow and
The diameter of the electrode is chosen on basis of the deep penetration profile.
current intensity, which type of electrode that is preferred
and whether it is alternating or direct current. The following thumb rule indicates the relation between
the diameter of the tungsten electrode and the length of
its ground point.

A small pointed angle gives a narrow weld pool and the
larger the pointed angle the wider the weld pool (Fig 1).
The pointed angle also has an influence of the penetration

depth of the weld (Fig 2).
Blunting the electrode point to make a flat area with a

diameter of about 0.5 mm can increase the lifetime of the
tungsten electrode (Fig 3).
Electrode condition: Fig. 8 shows tungsten electrode

conditions associated with TIG welding.
For AC TIG welding the tungsten electrode is rounded as
during the welding process it is so heavily loaded that it is Comments
melted into a half globular form (Fig 4). a Well sharpened and healthy electrode (color ‘silver
Grinding of the Tungsten Electrode white’) and used with normal current. Sharpening to a
cone (without a point) allows a rapidly forming and
When grinding the electrode its point must point in the stable arc, centered in relation to the electrode.
direction of the rotation of the grinding disc so the grinding
traces will lie lengthways the electrode (Fig 5, 6, 7). b The point of the electrode has melted under the action
of too great a current. The point is deformed, the arc is

erratic and poorly directed because the ball ‘vibrates’ d This fault occurs mostly in the welding of light alloys
during welding. Welding is therefore difficult, if not im- with an electrode of thoriated tungsten and a low cur-
possible. rent. The current must be increased to form a ball
shape at the electrode tip. If this is not done the arc
will remain ‘erratic.
e Electrode point too sharp. Rapid wear occurs since
the point carries current densities which are too high.
this leads to systematic inclusions of tungsten in the
weld which are highly visible on radiographics.
c The electrode has been used without protection of ar-

gon shielding gas. The flow has been cut off too soon.
The electrode has turned blue, is contaminated with
oxygen and disintegrates rapidly. It is necessary to
reshape it.
Tungsten selection and preparation
Base Metal Type Welding Current Electrode Type Shield Gas
Aluminium Alloys and Pure (EW-P) Argon

AC/HF
Magnesium Alloys
Zirconiated(EW-Zr) Argon
2% Thoriated (EW-Th2 Argon

Copper Alloys, Cu-Ni Alloys DCSP
and Nickel Alloys 2% Ceriated(EW-Ce2 Argon, Helium mixture
2% Thoriated (EW-Th2) Argon

Mild steels, Carbon steels,
Alloy Steels and Titanium DCSP 2% Ceriated(EW-Ce2 Argon, Helium mixture
Alloys
2% Lanthanated Argon
(EWG-Th2)

Shielding gases used for GTAW

• state the properties of argon gas
• compare the performance characteristics of argon and helium gas for TIG welding
• identify an argon gas cylinder and ceramic nozzles
• state the uses of argon and helium gas.
hielding gases tend to break the gas shielding, resulting in porous and
oxide contaminated welds.
Chemical activity of shielding gases: The behaviour of
gases in welding is related to their chemical activity so it The penetration profile of argon shielded welds has a
is convenient to group them according to this activity. characteristic shape in the form of a finger.Fig.1
Inert gases: These are argon and helium. Other inert
gases such as krypton, Radon, xenon and neon have been
tried, but their low availability results in them being expen-
sive. Also their characteristics do not, at present, give
them any particular advantage.
Argon and helium are monatomic (their molecule contains
only one atom) and do not react with other bodies (in the
arc plasma) and hence the designation ‘inert’. This pre-
cious property allows them to protect the electrode and
molten metal against the atmospheric gases. However Helium: Helium is used mainly in TIG welding and is
they are not suitable in every case. Pure argon for example normally used with direct current whatever the metal being
does not allow a smooth droplet transfer when welding welded (light alloys, copper, etc.)
carbon steels. To obtain the desired transfer mode it is
necessary to add a certain proportion of oxygen or carbon The main advantages of helium shielding are:
di oxide. – Increase in welding speeds
The different ionisation potential of argon and helium cause – More intense local heating, important with metals
them to behave differently. which are good conductors of heat
– Fig.2 shows the penetration, profile typical of a helium
Properties of argon and helium gas shielded weld
These gases are colourless, odourless.
Argon is heavier than air and helium is lighter than air.
They do not chemically react with any metals in hot or cold
conditions.
They give a good shielding action for molten metal from the
atmosphere.
Gases for TIG welding of aluminium
Argon gas
An argon cylinder is identified by the peacock blue colour Argon gas gives more penetration than helium gas.
painted on it. Characteristics and comparative performance of ar-
Quality : Argon gas of welding quality should be used. gon and helium as shielding gases
The rate of flow of argon should be adequate to obtain a Argon

clean weld. This depends on several factors such as type Low arc voltage : Results in less heat; thus argon is used
of parent metal, current used, shape and size of nozzle, almost exclusively for manual welding of metals less than
type of joint and whether the work is done indoors or 1.6mm thick.
outdoors. Generally a higher rate of flow is required with
higher welding currents, for outside corner joints, edge Good cleaning action: Preferred for metals with refractory
welds and work outdoors. Generally flow rates 2 to 7 litres oxide skins, such as aluminium alloys or ferrous alloys
per minute will be found sufficient to weld all thicknesses. containing a high percentage of aluminium.
If tungsten inert gas welding has to be done outdoors during Easy arc starting: Particularly important in welding of thin
inclement weather, especially during period of high wind, metal.
the welding area should be effectively protected. Draughts
82
Arc stability is greater than with helium Helium
Low gas volume: Being heavier than air, argon provides High arc voltage: Results in a hotter arc, which is more
good coverage with low gas flows and it is less affected by favorable for welding thick metal (over 5mm) and metals
air drafts than helium with high heat conductivity.
Vertical and overhead welding: Sometimes preferred Small heat affected zone:With high heat input and
because of better weld puddle control but gives less greater speeds, the heat affected zone can be kept narrow.
coverage than helium. This results in less distortion and often in higher mechani-
cal properties.
Automatic welding: May cause porosity and undercut-
ting with welding speeds of more than 60cm per min. High gas volume: Helium being lighter than air, gas flow
Problem varies with different metals and thicknesses and is normally 1 1/2 to 3 times greater than with argon. Being
can be corrected by changing to helium or a mixture of lighter, helium is more sensitive to small air drafts, but it
argon and helium. gives better coverage for overhead welding and often for
vertical position welding.
Thick work metal: For welding metal thicker than 5mm a
mixture of argon and helium may be beneficial Automatic welding: With welding speeds of more than
60cm per min. welds with less porosity and undercutting
Welding dissimilar metals: Argon is normally superior to
may be attained (depending on work metal and thickness).
helium
Comparision Between Argon and Helium Shielding

Argon Helium
1 Smoother arc. 1 Smaller heat affected zone.
2 Easy starting. 2 Best for thicker metal welding due to higher arc
voltage.
3 Best for thinner metal welding due to lower arc 3 Better for welding at higher speed. voltage.
4 Good cleaning action while welding Al. 4 Gives better coverage in vertical and overhead
positions.
5 Heavier than air - Lower flow rates. 5 When used in back shieldings flatens the root
face.
6 Lowe cost, more availability.
7 Better for welding dissimilar metals.
8 Better control of puddle on positional joints.
Ceramic Shields/Nozzles: Gas nozzles are usually Nozzles are identified by the size of the orifice (opening)
designed for installation into a particular type of torch and and the length of the nozzle as shown in Fig.4 Each torch
generally do not adapt to another make or model. They manufacturer assigns part numbers to the various nozzles
come in all sizes, shapes and materials. Gas nozzles are for individual type torches and these must be used when
reasonable in cost, therefore they should be replaced when ordering for replacement of nozzles.
they become unusable. A nozzle which has chips or
cracks or a metal build up on the outlet end should be
discarded. These types of defects can alter the gas flow
pattern from the nozzle and cause contamination of the
weld metal. Typical nozzle configuration are shown in
Fig.3.
Size in mm No.
5 No.3
6.3 No.4
8 No.5
10 No.6
11 No.7
12.5 No.8
14.5 No.9
16 No.10
18 No.11
20 No.12
Gas lens: The gas lens device allows the welder to use a
longer electrode extension than with a standard nozzle.
The device uses a series of stainless steel wire mesh
screens to “firm up” the argon gas column. This aids in
maintaining a blanket of inert gas around the tungsten and
over the weld area. This is very helpful when wind drafts are
present, or the tungsten must be extended due to the
location of the weld area. Use of the gas lens requires a
special gas lens collet body and gas nozzle. A gas lens
device is shown in Fig. 5 & 6.
Typical GTAW procedure

• clean workpieces for GTAW
• set the parameters for GTA welding.
Typical GTA Welding Procedure (Fig 1) 6 Tungsten Electrode

Grinding the tungsten electrode produces dust and flying Select and prepare tungsten according to
sparks which can cause injury and start fires. Use local recommendation (Fig 2 & 3).
exhaust (forced ventilation) at the grinder or wear an ap- Guidelines:
proved respirator. Consider using cerium or lanthanum
based tungsten instead of thoriated. Thorium dust con- The inside diameter of the gas cup should be at least
tains low-level radioactive material. Properly dispose of three times the tungsten diameter to provide adequate
grinder dust in an environmentally safe way. Wear proper shielding gas coverage. (For example, if tungsten is 1.6
face, hand, and body protection. Keep flammables away. mm diameter, gas cup should be a minimum of 5 mm.
1 Workpiece diameter.
Make sure workpiece is clean before welding. Tungsten extension is the distance the tungsten extends
2 Work Clamp out gas cup of torch.
Place as close to the weld as possible. The tungsten extension should be no greater than the in-
3 Torch side diameter of the gas cup.
Make sure electrode size, collet ceramic nozzle are Arc length is the distance from the tungsten to the
intact and cooling water is flowing perfectly. workpiece.
Also check the torch connection for any loosenes and Tungsten Tip Preparation (Fig 2)
damage. Tungsten Extension (Fig 3)
4 Filler Rod Tungsten Grinding
Select proper size Shape by grinding longitudinally (never radially). Remove
5 Gas nozzle the sharp point to leave a truncated point with a flat spot.
Select proper size Diameter of flat spot determines amperage capacity.
The included angle determines weld bead shape and size.
Generally, as the included angle increases, penetration
increases and bead width decreases.
Use a medium (60 grit or finer) aluminium oxide wheel.
Importance of preheating and post heating and post weld heat treatment
• explain the necessity of heat treatment in welding
• describe different methods of heat treatment applied in welding
• state the purpose of preheating
• state the purpose of post heating.
Different methods of heat treatment

Direct preheating, Indirect preheating, Local preheating
Preheating and its purpose: Preheating means heating
a joint to be welded before or during welding to a certain
temperature as shown in tables 1 and 2.
TABLE 1
Preheating of various Metals
Metal Temperature °C
Nickel alloys (wrought) Warm it below 16°
Nickel alloys (cast) 90° - 200°
Copper and copper alloys 200° maximum
Silicon bronze 90°
Brass low zinc 200° - 260°
Brass high zinc 260° - 370°
Phosphor bronze 150° - 200°
The preheating reduces the rate of cooling after welding.

This is necessary to prevent the weld metal from cracking
in restrained/rigid joints. Also some of the non-ferrous
metals like copper, brass, aluminium, etc. expand more
due to heating and ferrous metals like cast iron, medium
and high carbon steels require preheating as they are too
brittle. These materials are necessarily to be preheated to
avoid cracking or distortion. In some cases, it is also
necessary to preheat during welding between each layer of
deposition.
The minimum preheating temperature for satisfactory welds
of different grades of steel, cast iron, non-ferrous metals will
depend upon the: (Fig 1)
– type of metal
– composition and properties of the parent metal
– thickness of the plate
– type of joint
– degree of restraint of the joint
– rate of heat input.
Do not allow the temperature to drop below the
minimum preheating temperature between each
weld run.
The preheating temperature can be checked by tempera-
ture indicating crayons. (Fig 2)
If the job and area to be preheated are large, then it is done
in a preheating furnace (Fig 3).
86
The important aspects to be considered while post–
heating are:
– the rate of heating
– temperature to which the part is to be post-heated
– holding time in the furnace
– the rate of cooling.
Post heating of carbon steels depends on the thickness of
the base metal and its carbon content. (Fig.5)
Post heating retards the rate of cooling of a

welded joint.
For plain carbon steels the joint is heated from 100°C to
300° C for general post heating. This treatment will reduce
the cracking tendency of carbon steel and cast iron. If they
If it is small localised preheating is applied to the joint area are not post heated, cracks may develop.
only. This is called local preheating. (Fig 4)
Also the welding heat can develop hardness and brittle-
ness in some areas of the joint. In addition the grains of the
base metal in the heat affected zone and fusion zone will
grow in size which will change the property of the welded
joint.
In the case of joints which are not free to expand i.e.,
restrained joints and in joints in which there is a stress
already present before welding, the residual stresses will
be more after cooling of the joint. If these residual stresses
are not removed after welding, then the joint will fail or
distort when they are put into use or the joint is machined
or the joint is subjected to dynamic loading.
To avoid the above problems a welded job is usually either
Post heating: Post heating means that the part is heated normalised or annealed or stress-relieved.
immediately after welding. The reasons for post heating are
to prevent hard and brittle spots from forming in the
weldment. It also relieves the residual stresses caused by
the welding heat and due to welding of a rigid joint.

TABLE 2
Preheating temperatures for plain and alloy steels
Approximate composition Recommended
(percentage) preheating
temperature
% Carbon °C °F
PLAIN CARBON STEELS C
Plain carbon Below 0.20 Up to 95 Up to 200
Plain carbon 0.20 to 0.30 95 to 150 200 to 300
CARBON MOLYBDENUM C Mo
STEELS
Carbon molybdenum 0.10 to 0 .20 0.50 150 to 260 300 to 500
Carbon molybdenum 0.20 to 0.30 0.50 200 to 315 400 to 600
Carbon molybdenum 0.30 to 0.35 0.50 260 to 425 500 to 800
MANGANESE STEELS C Mn Si
Silicon structural 0.35 0.80 0.25 150 to 260 300 to 500
Medium manganese 0.20 to0 .25 1.0 to 1.75 150 to 260 300 to 500
SAE T 1330 0.30 1.75 200 to 425 400 to 600
SAE T 1340 0.40 1.75 260 to 425 500 to 600
SAE T 1350 0.50 1.75 315 to 480 600 to 900
12% Manganese 1.25 12.0 Usually not Usually not
required required
NICKEL STEELS C Ni
SAE 2015 0.10 to 0.20 0.50 Up to 150 Up to 300
SAE 2115 0.10 to 0.20 1.50 95 to 150 200 to 300
2”% Nickel 0.10 to 0.20 2.50 95 to 200 200 to 400
SAE 2315 0.15 3.50 95 to 260 200 to 500
SAE 2320 0.20 3.50 95 to 260 200 to 500
SAE 2330 0.30 3.50 150 to 315 300 to 600
0SAW 2340 0.40 3.50 200 to 370 400 to 700
LOW CHROME
MOLYBDENUM STEELS C Cr Mo 0
C 0
F
2% Cr. ”% Mo Up to .15 2.0 0.5 200 to 315 400 to 600
2% Cr. ”% Mo 0.15 to 0.25 2.0 0.5 260 to 425 500 to 800
2% Cr. 1% Mo Up to 0.15 2.0 1.0 260 to 370 500 to 700
2% Cr. 1% Mo 0.15 to 0.25 2.0 1.0 315 to 425 600 to 800
MEDIUM CHROME
MOLYBDENUM STEELS C Cr Mo
5% Cr. ”% Mo Up to 0.15 5.0 0.5 260 to 425 500 to 800
5% Cr. ”% Mo 0.15 to 0.25 5.0 0.5 315 to 480 600 to 900
8% Cr. 1% Mo 0.15 Max. 8.0 1.0 315 to 480 600 to 900
PLAIN HIGH
CHROMIUM STEELS C Cr
12 to 14% Cr TYPE 410 0.10 13.0 150 to 260 300 to 500
16 to 18% Cr TYPE 430 0.10 17.0 150 to 260 300 to 500
23 to 30% Cr TYPE 446 0.10 26.0 150 to 260 300 to 500

Welding metallurgy - weld stress

• state the basic metallurgy
• explain the process of metallurgy.
Metallurgy defined In studying metallurgy we find that carbon plays a big part
in the strength of the steel we weld on. Steel is made
Metallurgy is the science and study of metals, especially
harder by adding more carbon, but the more carbon added
involving welding. Everyone should know basic metallurgy
also makes it less ductile, thus more brittle. There are
before they weld. When welding, you can alter the steel
low, medium and high-carbon steels used in industry. The
you are working on affecting it adversely. A good example
more carbon steel has, the more difficult to weld it will be.
is stainless which is alloyed with chromium to make it
rust-resistant, and nickel to make it hard. If you burn the Most hobbyist will use low-carbon steel with around 30%
chromium out of the steel when welding, it will then rust. carbon in it.
Stainless will also warp very easily from the heat if
There are technical journals, textbooks, and countless
precautions are not taken.
internet sites available to help with the study of metallurgy.
Many people will put way too much weld on a joint thinking The more you learn about the steel you are welding on,
that more is better. Actually more can be worse because the better the welder you will be!
of the added heat. You are also wasting time and materials
Abstract: The reliability of welded structure can be
which wastes money. Studying metallurgy will help you
evaluated through welding residual stress analysis and
know what amount of weld met should be deposited.
fatigue strength assessment. In this study, welding
Welding metallurgy involves the chemical, mechanical, residuals stresses of multi-pass dissimilar material welded
and physical properties of metal joint between alloy 617 and 12Cr steel were analysed
numerically and experimentally. Fatigue strength was then
Chemical - One form of chemical metallurgy most everyone
assessed in the air. Based on results of welding residual
has heard of is rust. Rust is the oxidation of metal, or
stress analysis and fatigue strength assessment, a fatigue
where oxygen gets into the metal and corrodes it. There
design method considering welding residual stress was
is also corrosion where the atmosphere wastes away the
investigated. Welding residual stresses at the weld of
metal. And in welding we are concerned with reduction,
dissimilar welded joints distributed complicatedly on
which is the removal of oxygen from the molten puddle.
longitudinal and transverse directions, showing differences
Oxygen affects the weld pool adversely! We want to keep but a very similar distribution tendency between numerical
oxygen out of our molten weld pool! and experimental results. Numerical and experimental
Mechanical - mechanical metallurgy involves the way that peak values of welding residual stresses at HAZ of the
metal acts under stresses and loads. Welding rods are weld on the 12Cr steel side were periodical to be 333 MPa
numbered with the first 2 or 3 numbers telling the tensile and 282 MPa, HAZ, respectively. The fatigue limit of
strength of the rod per square inch of deposited metal. dissimilar material welded joint (767 MPa) of dissimilar
Tensile strength is the ability to resist being pulled apart. material welded joint. However, the stress range including
There are many different loads and stresses involving welding residual stress was assessed to be 206.9 MPa,
brittleness, toughness, ductility, malleability, shear, and which was 145 lower than that calculated by including the
others. effect of residual stresses.
Physical - physical properties in metallurgy involve the Keywords: Dissimilar material welding; welding residual
metals being affected by the heat applied when welding. stress; finite element method; fatigue strength; modified
Grain size affects strength in metals, and grain size can Goodman equation; fatigue design, alloy 617; 12Cr steel
be affected when welding. A good welder needs to know 1 Introduction:
the thermal conductivity, melting point, and grain
It is well-known that the most effective methodology for
characteristics of the metal they are going to weld on.
green power plant system is to increase the generative
One of the first things learned in metallurgy is the atomic efficiency of steam power plants (1). The core technology
structure of the metals. These structures consists of for increasing the generative efficiency is to improve the
different "space lattices" which form different crystals. After performance of steam turbines. A basic method for
you get a general idea of different structures in metals it improving the performance of thermal power plants is to
will help you to understand the changes metals and steels elevate steam temperature (2). Therefore, it is necessary
go through when heated. to develop suitable materials for extreme environment of
power plants. So far, Ni alloys have been candidates as
89
available materials for high temperature steam power plants recent years, as high computational power is available,
due to their incredible mechanical properties (3,4). However, many researchers have acknowledged the reliability of using
in order to apply Ni alloys (alloy 617 in this paper) to steam the finite element method for this purpose (13,14).
turbine materials such as turbine rotor and blades, it is
In the present study, the hole-drilling method and the finite
necessary to do dissimilar material welding with the 12Cr
element method were used to measure welding residual
steel alloy that is currently used as material for turbine
stresses.
rotor and blades. However, since Inconel alloy 617 and
12Cr steel alloy have different chemical compositions and Fatigue is considered the most common cause of failure
mechanical properties, reliable welding technology needs in welded strictures (15). Dissimilar material welded joints
to be developed to manufacture hybrid structures that can are very sensitive to fatigue stress (16). There, fatigue
withstand extreme environmental conditions (4,5). There testing with varying limits of high stresses can provide
are many suitable processes for the joining of dissimilar very useful information to assess the quality of welded
material as comprehensively summarized by Martinsen joints (17). Bae et al. have proposed a σa-r. Stres range
et al. (6). These dissimilar material welded structures often including welding residual stresses by using a modified
experience variable loadings, ranging from cyclic to Goodman equation (17). Their results showed that fatigue
completely random fluctuation during their practical strength, including welding residual stresses, was lower
working. than fatigue strength without considering residual
Therefore, engineering designers should sufficiently stresses. The objective of the present study was to analyse
understand the welding metallurgical phenomena, as well the welding residual stresses of the multi-pass dissimilar
as the mechanical properties of the weld, including the material welded joint between alloy 617 and 12Cr steel,
mechanism of welding residual stresses generated during numerically and experimentally. Fatigue strength was then
the welding process. In particular, as the generation of assessed in the air.
welding residual stresses is formidable, as well as being 2 Materials and methods
the crack driving force of the welded structures, it is very
Materials used for dissimilar material welding included
important to understand and assess welding residual
alloy 617 and 12Cr steel alloy, Alloy 617 has good
stresses in the design process of welded structures.
resistance against high temperature and corrosion as it
Basically, as welding residual stresses are generated due
consists of Cr, Mo, and Co as major compositions, while
to repetitive nonlinear thermal loading cycles by the welding
12Cr steel is being currently used as a material of turbine
heat input, assessing the distribution of these stresses
rotor and blade of steam power plant. Filler material used
may be too complex to be predicted accurately (7,8).
in this study was Thyssen 617. Its chemical composition
Residual stresses have a substantial effect on engineering
is similar to alloy 617. Mechanical properties and chemical
properties of material and welded structures, particularly
compositions of alloy 617, 12Cr steel, and Thyssen 617
fatigue strength, corrosion resistance, dimensional
are illustrated in Table 1 and 2. Multi-pass direct current
stability, and distortion (9). Many researchers have
straight polarity (DCSP) tungsten inert (TIG) welding was
practiced various methods to measure residual stresses
carried out for multi-pass dissimilar material welding.
using experimental and numerical methods (10-12). In
Table 1. Mechanical properties of alloy 617, 12Cr steel, and dissimilar material weld
Base Material Yield strength Tensile strenght Elongation Reduction in Melting point
(MPa) (MPA) Area (%) (°C)
Alloy 617 322 732 62 56 1330

12Cr 551 758 18 50 1375
Dissimilar material 490 767 48
welded joint
Table 2. Chemical composition of alloy 617, and 12Cr steel
Chemical composition (Weight %)

Base/Filler
metel
Ni Cr Co Mo AI C Fe Si Ti Cu Mn S
44.3 22 12.5 9.0 1.2 0.07 1.5 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.008
Alloy 617
0.43 11.6 - 0.04 - 0.13 Bal 0.4 - 0.1 0.58 -
12Cr
45.7 21.5 11.0 9.0 1.0 0.05 1.0 0.1 1 - - -
Thyssen 617

Real time monitoring system was used to control welding parameters (i.e.current, voltate, welding speed, shield gas
conditions (electrode shape, electrode to workpiece compositions, and flow rates) to determine optimum
distance, welding wave form, and welding heat input). dissimilar material welding conditions. Obtained optimum
Preliminary welding was performed under various elding welding conditions for dissimilar material are listed in Table
3 (18).
Table 3. Optimum welding conditions
Pass Shield gas Voltage (V) Current (A) Welding speed (cm/min) Heat input (kj/mm)
1 Argon-2.5% H2 10 150 10 0.9

2 Argon-2.5% H2 13 150 10 1.17
3 Argon-2.5% H2 16 150 10 1.44
4 Argon-2.5% H2 16 150 10 1.44
5 Argon-2.5% H2 16 150 10 1.44
6 Argon-2.5% H2 16 150 10 1.44
7 Argon-2.5% H2 16 150 10 1.44
Since the out of plane thermal distortion is formidably weld condition. Finer meshes were generated in weld metal
caused by welding heat input during the multi-pass welding regions to handle the greater nonlinearity and to obtain
process, welding jigs were used to fix both ends of base accurate results. The total number of elements and nodes
metals to prevent out-of-plane thermal distortion. Multi- were 221,760 and 474,012, respectively. Hyper-mesh
pass welding directions were parallel to the rolling (10.0, Altair, Troy, MI, USA,2008) was used for mesh
direction. U-groove shape was machined for narrow-gap- generation. ANAQUS (6.10, Dassault systemes, Johnston,
welding (19). U-groove is economical, as it requires less RI, USA, 2010) was employed for transient temperature
filler metal, which results in less distortion and residual and subsequent welding residual stress analysis. (Fig 2)
stress-related problems, (20). Figure 1 shows a welding
specimen with U-groove and narrow gap. In the multi-pass
welding process, the specimen was cooled down to be
under 70°C in the interval of every welding process. After
finishing each pass welding, the ultrasonic testing was
carried out following ASTM E164-13 standard to inspect
weld defects of multi-pass welds. (Fig 1)
Fig 1
Numerical analysis procedure

Uncoupled thermo-mechanical analysis was performed
in this study as shown in Fig 3 (21). Temperature
distribution at the weld was analysed first by thermal
analysis. It was then used as input data for stress
analysis. Some assumptions were taken into account in
3 Residual stress analysis of multi-pass dissimilar the process of thermal-mechanical analysis. When
material welded joint between alloy 617 and 12Cr performing the thermal analyses, the initial temperature
steel of base and weld metal was assumed to be a room
temperature (25°C). The conductivity and specific heat in
Numerical analysis of welding residual stresses
the molten pool were assumed to be constant. Radiation
A seven-pass dissimilar material welded plate model and forced convection due to shielding gas flow were
shown in Fig 2 was used in the analysis, its thickness, neglected. Since the temperature is very high in the molten
width, and weld length were 12/7, 300, and 300mm, pool, radiation and convection can influence
respectively. Three-dimensional finite element models were microstructures and cooling rates in weld metal. Heat
used for both thermal and mechanical analyses with a losses or gains from phase transformation were neglected.
head source model. In this study, ramp heat source model The volume change effect due to phase transformation
was used. For welding, 8-node brick solid elements of was neglected in the stress analysis. Apart from these
type DC3D8 were used. Weld beads of the model assumptions mentioned above, in thermal-mechanical
represented the weld bead determined from the actual analyses for dissimilar material welded model, influences

of transient temperature field and temperature-dependent Fig 3
physical properties were considered as input data for
accurate and reliable assessment of thermal analysis.
When performing the stress analysis, mechanical and
physical properties of yield stress, elastic and plastic
modules, and thermal expansion coefficient were
considered to be temperature dependent. However,
mechanical properties were assumed to be constant
above the melting point. The temperature dependency of
poisson's ratio was neglected. Physical and mechanical
properties of alloy 617 and 12Cr steel are given in Fig 3
and 5, respectively (22, 23).

CG & M Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.99-100
Distortion and its control correction of distorted section

• explain the causes of distortion
• describe the types of distortion
• explain the methods of preventing distortion
• explain the methods of correcting distortion.
Causes of distortion: In arc welding, the temperature at Types of distortion
different areas of the joint are different. (Fig 1a). The
The 3 types of distortion are:
expansions in these areas are also different depending on
the temperature (Fig 1b). In the same way after welding, - longitudinal distortion
different areas of the joint contract differently, But in a - transverse distortion
solid body (i.e., the parent metal) it cannot expand or
contract differently at different areas. This uneven expansion - angular distortion.
and contraction of the welded joint due to uneven heating The figures (3,4,5) illustrate the different types of distortion.
and cooling in welding creates stresses in the joint. These
stresses make the welded job to change its size and shape
permanently (i.e.deformation) and this is called distortion
of the welded joint. (Fig 2)
93
Factors affecting distortion
Design
Parent metal
Joint preparation and set up
Assembly procedure
Welding process
Deposition technique
Welding sequence
Unbalanced heating about the neutral axis
Restraint imposed
Either one or more of these above factors are responsible
for distortion, in a welded job. To avoid or reduce the
distortion in a welding job these factors are to be taken
care of-before, during and after welding. The methods
adopted to avoid or reduce distortion are as follows.
Prevention of distortion: The following methods are used
to prevent and control distortion.
- Reducing the effective shrinkage force.
- Making the shrinkage forces to reduce distortion.
- Balancing the shrinkage force with another shrinkage
force.
Methods of reducing the effective shrinkage forces
Avoiding over-welding/Excessive reinforcement:
Excessive build up in the case of butt welds and fillet
welds should be avoided. (Fig 6)
The permissible value of reinforcement in groove and fillet
welds is T/10 where “T” is thickness of parent metal.
use of deep fillet weld: Place the weld as possible to

the neutral axis by using the deep fillet method. This will
reduce the leverage of pulling the plates out of alignment.
(Fig 9)
Use of proper edge preparation and fit up: It is possible

to reduce the effective shrinkage force by correct edge
preparation. This will ensure proper fusion at the root of
the weld with a minimum of weld metal.(Fig 7)
Use of few passes: Use of fewer passes with large dia.
electrodes reduces distortion in the lateral direction.
(Fiig 8)
Use of intermittent welds: Minimize the amount of weld
metal with the help of intermittent welds instead of
continuous welds. This can be used with fillet welds only.
(Fig 10)
the weld pulls them to the desired shape. When the weld
shrinks it will pull the plate to its correct position
(Fig 14 & 15)
Use of ‘back step’ welding method: The general

direction of welding progression is from left to right. But in
this method each short bead is deposited from right to
left. In this method. the plates expand to a lesser degree
with each bead because of the locking effect of each weld.
(Fig 11)
Welding from center: Welding of long joints from centre

outwards breaks up the progressive effect of high stresses
on continuous weld.
Use of planned wandering method: In this method
welding starts at the centre, and thereafter portions are Spacing of parts to allow for shrinkage: Correct
completed on each side of the centre in turn. (Fig 12) spacing of the parts prior to welding is necessary. This
will allow the parts to be pulled in correct position by the
shrinkage force of the welding. (Fig 16)
Use of skip welding: In this method, the weld is made

not longer than 75 mm at one time. Skip welding reduces
locked up stresses and warping due to more uniform Pre-bending: Shrinkage forces may be put to work in
distribution of heat. (Fig 13) many cases by pre-bending. (Fig 17)
Methods used for making the shrinkage forces work Methods of balancing of one shrinkage force with
to reduce distortion another shrinkage force
Locating parts out of position: Distortion may be allowed Use of proper welding sequence: This places the weld
for by pre-setting the plates in the opposite way so that metal at different points about the structure. In this method,
welds are made from each side alternately so that when a
second run of weld metal shrinks it will counteract the
shrinkage forces of the first weld. (Figs 18, 19 a and 19b)
Peening: This is light hammering of the weld metal

immediately after it is deposited. By peening the bead, it
is actually stretched counteracting its tendency to contract
as it cools. Fig 20.
Divergence allowance: As there is a tendency of the
plates to extend & converge along the seam during welding, Preheating: Some metals would normally fracture if
this technique is used to diverge the plates from the point welded in the cold state. They may be welded successfully
where welding commences by placing a wedge or an by preheating and subsequent controlled cooling.
alignment clamp between the plates ahead of the weld. (Fig 23)
(Fig 21 & 22) Jigs and fixtures: Jigs and fixtures are used to hold the
The spacing allowances are as follows. work in a right position during welding. By using them the
shrinkage forces of the weld are balanced with sufficient
3mm/m for (mild steel) Ferrous metals
counterforce of the jigs and fixtures. (Fig 24)
10 mm/m for non ferrous metals
Tack-welding: A tack weld is a short weld made prior to
While cooling, the shrinkage stresses will pull the plate in
welding to hold the plates in perfect alignment and with
correct alignment.
Methods of correcting distortion: Distortion may take
place even after following a planned procedure as it is
uniform root gap. Tack welds are made at regular intervals difficult to control distortion to the full extent. So some
along the joint with high current to obtain proper penetration. mechanical means and application of heat are used to
(Fig 25) They are necessary where the plates cannot be remove distortion after it occurs.
held by a fixture. (Fig 26) Mechanical methods: Small parts, deformed by angular
distortion can be straightened by using a press. If the
parts of the assembly are not restrained, they can be
brought into alignment by hammering, drifting or jacking
without giving excessive force (stress}.
Heating methods: The distorted part is heated locally
and rapidly keeping the surrounding metal reasonably cool.
Heat small areas at a time. It should not exceed bright
red hot condition.
If thin plates are buckled they can be corrected by local
spot heating on the convex side. Starting at the centre of
the buckled area heat symmetrically outwards as shown
in Fig 27.
Correction of distortion caused by fillet welds is done by
local heating on the underside of the plate in a narrow
strip following the line of the joint. (Fig 28)
Straightening by flame heating: The most common

distortion-removal technique is to use a flame and heat
the part at selected spots or along certain lines and then
to aircool it. The area to be straightened is heated to
between 600 and 650°C for plain carbon and low alloy
steels and suddenly cooled in air, or if necessary with a
spray of water in low carbon steels.
The methods of flame straightening are shown in Fig 29.
In Line heating (Fig 29a) heat from the torch is applied
along a line or a set of parallel lines. This method is
frequently used for removing the angular distortion produced
by the fillet welds attaching a plate to its stiffener. Stress relief: In many cases thermal stress relief is
In pipe-needle (Fig 29b) heating, heat is applied along two necessary to prevent further distortion being developed
short lines crossing each other. This method is half way before the weldment is brought to its finished state.
between line heating and spot heating. Since the shrinkage Residual tensile stress in welds are always balanced by
and angular distortion occur in two directions, this method compressive reidual stresses. If a considerable portion of
produces a uniform distortion-removal effect. the stressed material is machined out, a new balance of
residual stress will result, causing new distortion. Weld
In checker board (cross-directions) heating, (Fig 29c) heat stress-relieving prior to machining is thus very important
is applied along a pair of two lines crossing each other. for prolonged dimensional accuracy of sliding and rotating
This method is used to remove severe distortion. parts.
In spot heating. (Fig 29e) heat is applied on a wedge Vibration stress relieving: This technique reduces
shaped area, and this method is useful for the removal of distortion by means of vibrating the weldments. The
bending distortion in frames. equipment consists of a variable speed vibrator, which is
In triangular heating (Fig 29e) heat is applied on a clamped to the workpiece, and an electronic amplifier, by
wedgeshaped area, and this mehod is useful for the varying the speed of the vibrating motor, the frequency
removal of bending distortion in frames. can be varied until a resonant frequency has been reached
for the workpiece. The piece is then allowed to vibrate for
Red hot heating (Fig 29f) is used when severe distortion a period which varies in relation to the weight of the
has occured in a localised area, and it may be necessry workpiece. Usually it ranges from 10 to 30 minutes. 30 to
to heat the area to a high temprature and beat it with a even 50% of the residual stresses are relieved using
hammer. This method can cause metallurgical changes. vibrating methods. The component thus balances roughly
Thermal treatments: To reduce distortion, various its residual stresses, and it remains undistorted
thermal treatments are done. They inculde preheat and
postweld thermal treatments.
Preheating: Weld shrinkage is generally reduced by
preheating. Actual measurements across welds during
cooling have shown that less than 30% total contraction
occured in joints preheated to 200°C, compared to
nonpreheating joints.
Welder (Pipe) - GTAW & SMAW
Introduction to GMAW & Flex cored arc welding, equipment accessories

• state the main difference between shielded metal arc welding and Co2 welding
• state the principle of Co2 welding.
Introduction to Co2 welding: Fusion welding of metal

plates and sheets is the best method of joining metals
because in this process the welded joint will possess the
same properties and strength as the base metal.
Without a perfectly shielded arc and molten puddle, the
atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen will get absorbed by the
molten metal. This will result in weak and porous welds.
In shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) the arc and molten
metal are protected/shielded by the gases produced by the
burning of the flux coated on the electrode.
The above mentioned shielding action can be done by
passing an inert gas such as argon, helium, carbon-di-
oxide through the welding torch/gun. The arc is produced
between the base metal and a bare wire consumable MIG/MAG welding is a name with respect to gas
electrode fed continously through the torch. used for shields purpose
Principle of GMA welding: In this welding process, an On the other hand Gas Metal Arc Welding is the
arc is struck between a continuously fed consumable bare common name.
wire electrode and the base metal. The heated base metal,
the molten filler metal and the arc are shielded by the flow BASIC EQUIPMENT FOR A TYPICAL GMAW SEMIAU-
of inert/noninert gas passing through the welding torch/ TOMATIC SETUP: (Fig 2)
gun. (Fig.1)
• Welding Power Source - provides welding power.
If an inert gas is used to protect the arc produced by a
• Wire Feeders - controls supply of wire to welding gun.
consumable metal electrode, this process is called Metal
Inert Gas Welding (MIG). • Supply of Electrode Wire.
When carbon-dioxide is used for shielding purposes, it is • Welding Gun - delivers electrode wire and shielding
not fully inert and it partly becomes an active gas. So Co2 gas to the weld puddle.
welding is also called as Metal Active Gas (MAG) welding.
• Shielding Gas Cylinder - provides a supply of shielding
gas to the arc.
99
GMAW wire feed unit
• state the functions of wire feeder and different types of drive rollers.
Wire Feeder (Fig 1) iii Provides gas flow control through a solenoid valve. The
gas is fed down from the gas regulator to the weld area
The wire feeder is the part of the MIG/MAG welding set up
via the feeder and then the MIG welding torch.
that:
Wire feeders come in many different shapes and sizes,
i Controls the speed of the wire electrode and pushes
but they all do the same basic job roles. Feeders can be
this wire from the feeder through the welding torch to
separated from the power source or built into the power
the workpiece.
source itself. Feeders are made up of different parts, each
ii Provides the path for welding current to be passed from having a different job role.
the welding power source through the interconnecting
lead to the feeder and then to the welding torch.
Wire spool holder. This is designed to hold the spool of
the correct wire size in place on the feeder to ensure the
wire electrode is on the correct input angle for the drive
roller to be able to do its job properly.
Drive Motor MIG/MAG welding relies on smooth and
constant wire feed. The wire drive motor has the job of
turning the drive rollers (this can be one or more sets of
rollers). Undersize drive motors can result in poor feeding
of the wire electrode down the MIG welding torch . This
will have the effect of making the overall performance of
the MIG machine sub-standard as compared to a machine
with a quality drive system.
Drive Rollers: The drive rollers grasp the wire electrode
and continuously feed the wire down the MIG torch into
the welding arc (Fig 2 & 2A). The rollers need to be selected
by :
i the wire size
ii the type of wire to be fed. Each type of wire may need
a different style of roller groove – eg
V rollers for steel and other hard wires
V-Knurled for Fluxcored wire
U-Grooved for aluminium and other soft wires
The idea of using the correct roller is to have a good wire
drive without crushing the wire. The pressure roller is also Wire Feed Controls
used to set the wire tension. This must be set with enough The wire feeder will have its own built-in control system.
pressure to feed the wire electrode, but not too much The number of controls that will be built into the feeder will
tension as to crush the wire. depend on the type of feeder but the most common are
i) Wire speed – this control is the adjustment for how fast
the drive rollers will turn and as stated earlier, the faster
the wire speed for each wire size the more amperage the
power source will produce. The wire speed controls can
be labelled as wire speed, eg ipm (inches per minute) or
mpm(metre per minute), or as a percentage from the slow-
est speed being zero to the highest speed being 100%.
Usually mpm will be the range of 1 m/min to 25 m/min.
The amperage being set by the wire speed setting will
also have an effect on the speed of travel and the deposi-
tion rate of the wire (how fast the weld metal is being put
onto the weldpiece); with the advantage of, the higher the
amperage the thicker the material that can be welded.
ii) Purge switch. Some feeders have a purge switch. This
is to allow the gas flow setting to be set on the gas regu-
lator without turning of the wire feed roller or without any
welding power being turned on.
All the wire guides on the input and output side of rollers iii) Burnback. Burnback is the setting of the degree that
must be the wire electrode will melt back towards the contact tip
at the completion of the weld. If there is too much burnback
i lined up to feed the wire straight into the rollers the wire electrode will melt back onto the contact tip, pos-
ii lined up in a way as to make sure the wire is lined with sibly damaging it. If there is not enough burnback set, the
wire electrode will not melt away from the weldpool and
the grooves in the drive rollers
can be left stuck to the weld metal.
iii all guides must be as close as possible to the drive
iii) Spot timers or stitch modes are to be found on some
roller to prevent the possibility of the wire bunching up.
feeders. These controls normally control the time the drive
roller will turn for after the trigger contactor has been acti-
vated.
GMAW equipment and accessories
• state the power sources for GMAW.
MIG welding power sources have come a long way from a change of 25 percent in voltage, only a 6.7 percent
the basic transformer type power source to the highly change occurs in the welding current in curve A. Thus if the
electronic and sophisticated types we see around today. welder varies the length of the arc, causing a change in
Even though the technology of MIG welding has changed, voltage, there will be very little change in the current and the
the principles of the MIG power source have, in most cases, weld quality will be maintained. The current in this machine,
not. The MIG power sources use mains power and converts even though it varies slightly is considered constant.
that mains power into CV (constant voltage), DC (direct This is called drooping characteristic power source. Also
current) power suitable for the MIG welding process. called constant current (CC)power source.
MIG welding power sources control voltage – this is done This type of power source is used in SMAW & GTAW
by either voltage stepped switches, wind handles, or process.
electronically. The amperage that the power source
produces is controlled by the cross sectional area of the Curve B (For GMAW): The open circuit voltage curve for
wire electrode and the wire speed, ie the higher the wire a setting of 50 volts on the machine is shown as curve B in
speed for each wire size, the higher the amperage the the Fig.1. The same 20 volt to 25 volt (25 percent) change
power source will produce. in the welding voltage will result in a drop in current from 142
amps to 124 amps or 13.3 percent. This slower sloping volt
Because the output of the MIG power source is DC (direct ampere curve output causes a large change in amperage
current) the terminals on the front will have + positive and with the same small change in voltage. A welder may wish
negative on the output side. The principles of electric to have this slower sloping (flatter) volt-ampere output
circuits states that 70% of the heat is always on the positive curve.
side.
This is called flat characteristic power source. Also called
This means that the lead that is connected to constant Voltage(CV)power source.
the positive side of the welder, will carry 70% This type of power source is used in GMAW & SAW
of the total energy (heat) output. process.
The characteristics volt, ampere curves (A & B) are shown With a flatter output slope the welder can control the molten
in Fig.1. pool and electrode melt rate by making small changes in
the arc length. Control of the molten pool and electrode
Curve A ( For SMAW): On the output slope or voltampere melt rate are most important when welding in the horizontal,
curve A, a change from 20 volts to 25 volts will result in a vertical and overhead positions.
decrease in amperage from 135 amps to 126 amps. With
Advantages, disadvantages of GMAW over SMAW process and applications

• state the advantages and disadvantages of Co2 welding over shielded metal arc welding process
• state the applications of Co2 welding.
Advantages: Welding is economical due to less edge Disadvantages

preparation and no stub loss.
Welding equipment is costly, more complex and less
Produces joints with deep penetration. portable.
Thin and thick materials can be welded. Since air drifts may disturb free flow of the shielding gas,
It can be used for welding of carbon steels, alloy steel, GMAW may not work well in outdoor welding.
stainless steel, copper and its alloys, aluminium and its Applications: This process can be used for welding
alloys. carbon, steel alloy steels, stainless steel, aluminium,
Welding in all positions can be done. copper, nickel and their alloys, titanium etc.
Deposition rate is more. Light and heavy fabrication work.
No solid flux is used. So needs no cleaning of slag after This process is successfully used in ship building fabrica-
each run. tion of pressure vessels and automobile industries.
Reduced distortion.
GMAW (MIG/MAG) torches

• state the types and functions of torches.
MIG/MAG Torch Connection

The torch connection is the system in which the MIG torch
is connected to the wire feeder. There are various types of
MIG torch connections. Different manufacturers can use
any one of many systems to connect their torch to the
wire feeder.
When ordering a new Torch tell the supplier
a) the type of torch you need, including amperage rating
b) the type of connection on the feeder so the Torch can
be supplied to match the connection
The torch connection is also the area where the wire elec-
trode, welding current and welding gases are passed onto for the machine may result in the Torch overheating.
the welding torch. This means these components should This may result in a poor weld and damage to the Torch
be checked for damage or leaky seals etc, so the con- . A Torch with an excessive rating will be larger and
nection will do its job correctly. heavier than the smaller Torch, which could result in
discomfort for the operator.
MIG/MAG Torches
3 They all have parts that will wear out (consumables eg
The MIG Torch is connected to the wire feeder, and its job liners, tips, diffuser, nozzle, etc.)
is to deliver the wire electrode, shielding gas and the elec-
trical welding current to the welding area. There are a lot Let’s take a look at each part (Fig 4)
of different shapes and styles of MIG Torch out in the Liner The liner causes the most problems. First, they
marketplace but they all have things in common. have a life span that is approximately one to four rolls of
(Fig. 1 & 3). MIG wire depending on the quality of the liner and wire.
1 Aircooled (less than 200 Amps) or watercooled (above The life of the liner will also be increased if the operator
200 Amps) (Fig 2) removes and cleans it by soaking in non-corrosive and a
non-toxic solvent. Each wire size needs to have the cor-
2 Current rating. The operator must select the correct rect wire size liner. Be aware some liners may fit more
size Torch. Using a torch that is not sufficiently rated than one size of wire.
103
There are also different materials for different types of wire Contact Tip Holder This is the item which holds the
electrode, eg steel or stainless liners for solid wires welding tip in place. Again, tip holders can be very different
and Teflon liner for aluminium. in design and are very often unique to that brand of MIG
torch.
The liner length is most important. In the field it is very
common to find even newly fitted liners that have been cut Contact Tips The Contact tip/tube is the key to good
too short. This results in the wire being able to move around welding. First of all, it is the way that welding amperage is
behind the welding tip and leading to bad wire feeding. delivered to the welding wire electrode, often with a very
The liner has to be fitted correctly and different MIG Torch high amperage.
will often have a different way of ending up with a liner that
Most contact tips are made of copper alloy, the better the
is the correct length.
alloy the better the tip will pass current to the wire electrode
Don’t just take out the old liner and cut the new one to the and the less wear the MIG tip will have; also the less the
same length. It could end up with an incorrect result. Please tip will oxidize.
refer to MIG Torch manual. The size is important. The right size contact tip must be
All MIG Torch should be laid out straight ont he floor before selected contact . If the selected tip size is too large the
trimming the liner, to prevent the new liner being cut too wire electrode will not make a good contact, leading to
short. Do not cut the liner if the Torch lead is coiled up. poor welding performance.
Gas Diffusers The gas diffuser’s job is to make sure that If a contact tip selected is too small, the wire electrode
the shielding gas is delivered to the shielding nozzle will feed poorly and may even jam in the contact tip.
correctly. It is designed to make the gas come out as Nozzle: Guns are available with a straight or curved
straight as possible and equally supplied around inside nozzle. The curved nozzle provides easy access to
the gas shield nozzle. Diffusers can be made of different intricate joints and difficult-to-weld.
materials, eg copper, brass or fibre. Some diffusers will
also be the tip holder.
Torch angle
Fig 3
The position of gun and electrode with respect to the joint
affects the weld bead shape and penetration rather than arc
voltage or travel speed. The gun is usually maintained
within 10 - 20º on either side of the vertical. Depending on
which way the gun is incline, the technique is referred to as
forehead and backhand. The various electrode positions
and techniques and their effects are shown in Fig 5. It is
observed that as the electrode is changed from perpendicular
to the forehand technique, the weld bead becomes shallower
and wider and has less penetration.
Backhand technique gives a more stable arc, less spatter
and a narrower, more convex weld bead with deep
penetration. Perpendicular technique is used more in
automatic welding and avoided in semi-automatic mode
because the end of the gas nozzle restricts the operator’s
view of the weld pool.
Synergic Control
The complexity of setting welding parameters in conventional
DC and pulsed GMAW promoted the development of
equipment with ‘Single-knob’ controls known as Synergic
control. These systems relied on selection of combinations
of present welding (e.g. Wire feed speed/mean current and
voltage) by means of a single control.
This is possible now because of development of electronic
power regulation and micro processor control and
programmable equipment which can supply a large number
of predetermined welding conditions as well as allowing
users to record and retrieve their own customerised
parameters.
Although in the pulsed GMAW process the optimum
welding parameters can be accurately predetermined, if a
change in mean current is required the control settings
must be recalculated and a number of the welding parameters
reset. This could impose significant practical problems
including the possibility of error and resultant deterioration
in operating performance. Fortunately it is possible to store
both the predetermined parameters and the control
equations in the equipment and automatically adjust the
output in response to a single input signal. This system is
known as Synergic Control (Fig. 6).
Fig 5
Fig 6
Welding wires used for GMAW and applications

• state the chemical composition of different electrode wires.
Electrode wire - consumable wire for GMAW: Perform- Machine settings: Diameter of the wire and ampere/
ance & metal transfer characteristics are largely governed current employed for welding decide the type of metal
by the diameter of the wire and the machine settings such transfer. The various recommended diameter, voltage and
as arc voltage and amperage and chemical properties of current ranges are tabulated in tables below for welding
the filler wire employed. mild steel, low alloy steel and stainless steel.
Approx. machine settings for short circuit metal transfer on Chemical properties: Chemical compositions of the filler
mild and low alloy steel wire play a very important role. The main composition,
apart from the major elements, in the case of mild steel
Electrode Arc Amperage
welding, will contain deoxidisers like Si, Mn to take of care
diameter(mm) voltage range
of porosity due to oxidation of carbon in the steel. Typical
0.8 16-22 80-190 composition of mild steel filler wires are listed in the table.
1.2 17-22 100-225 We are using ER70S-6 for most of our carbon steel
fabrication.
Approx. machine settings for spray arc transfer on mild and
low alloy steel Specification of Electrode wires
Electrode Arc Amperage The GMAW electrode specification as per AWS is as given
diameter(mm) voltage range below.
Eg: E 70S-2 or ER70S-2 or E70T-2
0.8 24-28 150-265
1.2 24-30 200-315 E — Electrode
1.6 24-32 275-500 ER — Electrode can also be used as a filled Rod in GTAW
Approx. machine settings for short circuit transfer on .
series 300 stainless steel 70 — 70 x 1000 PSI — Tensile strength of the weld metal
Electrode Arc Amperage in pounds per square inch.
diameter(mm) voltage range S — Solid wire / Rod
T — Tubular wire used in FCAW.
0.8 17-22 50-180
1.2 17-22 100-210 2 — Chemical composition of the wire.
Approx. machine settings for spray transfer on series 300

stainless steel
Electrode Arc Amperage
diameter(mm) voltage range
0.8 24-28 160-210

1.2 24-30 200-300
1.6 24-32 215-325
AWS Classification c Mn Si P S Cu Ti Zr Al
70S-2 0.07 0.90 0.40 0.025 0.035 0.5 0.05 0.02 0.05
to to to to to
1.40 1.40 0.15 0.12 0.15
0.06 0.90 0.45

to to to
70S-3 0.7
0.15 1.4
0.07 1.4 0.8
70S-6 to to to
0.15 1.85 1.15
Wire electrodes selection 4 joint design

The selection of the wire electrode to be used in the MIG/ 5 cost
MAG process is a decision that will depend on
6 mechanical properties of the weld material and those
1 the process being used (eg, solid wire or fluxcore wire)
that are a match for the base material.
2 the composition of the metal being welded
3 welding indoors or outdoors
Shielding gases for GMAW

• state the different types of shielding gases used in Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) process
• state the effects of different shielded gases and gas mixtures on ferrous and non-ferrous metals
• select the inert gas or gas mixtures for welding different metals using different modes of metal transfer
• explain why a gas heater is used in Co2 welding plant.
There are three types of shielding gases used for GMAW. For thinner metal welding, lower conductivity argon is the
They are inert gases, reactive gases and gas mixtures. better choice. Also argon is often used for welding out of
Inert gases: Pure Argon and Helium gas are excellent position because of its lower thermal conductivity. Argon
for protecting the arc, metal electrode and weld metal from gas is 10 times heavier than helium gas, hence less argon
contamination. Argon and helium are generally used for gas is required to provide a good shield as compared to
GMAW of non ferrous metals. Helium has very good helium gas.
conductivity and conducts heat better than argon. Therefore The weld bead contour and penetration are also affected by
helium is choosen for welding thicker metals as well as the gas used. Welds made with argon generally have
high conductivity metals like copper and aluminium. deeper penetration. They also have a tendency to under cut
at the edges. Welds made with helium have wider and
thicker beads. Fig1 shows the shape of welds made with
various gases and gas mixtures.
Argon used with the gas metal arc spray transfer process The arc in a CO2 atmosphere is unstable and a great deal
tends to produce deeper penetration through the center line of spattering occurs. This is reduced by holding a short arc.
of the bead. Spray transfer occurs more easily in argon Deoxidizers like aluminium, manganese or silicon are
than in helium. often used.
Reactive gases and gas mixtures used in GMAW. The deoxidizers remove the oxygen from the weld metal.
Good ventilation is required when using pure CO2. About 7-
Carbondioxide: Carbondioxide (CO2) has a higher thermal
12 percent of the CO2 becomes CO (carbon monoxide) in
heat conductivity than argon. This gas requires a higher
the arc. The amount increases with the arc length.
voltage than argon. Since it is heavy, it covers the weld well.
Therefore less gas is needed. A 25% higher current is used with CO2 than with argon or
helium. This causes more agitation of the weld puddle,
CO2 gas is cheaper than argon. This price difference will
hence entrapped gases raises to the surface of the weld,
vary in various locations. Beads made with CO2 have a very
so low weld porosity.
good contour. The beads are wide and have deep penetration
and no undercutting.
107
Argon carbondioxide: CO2 in argon gas makes the strength or appearance of the weld to an unacceptable
molten metal in the arc crater more fluid. This helps to level. If more than 2% oxygen is used with low alloy steel,
eliminate undercutting when GMA welding carbon steels. a more expensive electrode wire with additional deoxidisers
must be used.
CO2 also stabilizes the arc, reduces spatter and promotes
a straight line (axial) metal transfer through the arc. The desirable rate of gas flow will depend on the type of
electrode wire, speed and current being used and the metal
Argon-Oxygen: Argon-oxygen gas mixtures are used on
transfer mode.
low alloy carbon and stainless steels. A 1-5 percent
oxygen mixture will produce beads with wider, less finger As a rule small weld pools 10 L/min
shaped, penetration. Oxygen also improves the weld
medium weld pools 15 L/min
contour, makes the weld pool more fluid and eliminates
undercutting. and large spray weld pools 20-25 L/min
Oxygen seems to stabilize the arc and reduce spatter. The Too much gas flow can be just as bad as not having enough.
use of oxygen will cause the metal surface to oxidise The reason being that if the gas flow is too high it will
slightly. This oxidization will generally not reduce the come out of the MIG Torch.
Suggested gases and gas mixtures for use in GMAW spray transfer
Metal Shielding gas Advantages
Aluminium Argon 0.1 in.(2.5mm) thick; best metal transfer and arc stability; least spatter
75% Helium 1-3 in.(25-76mm) thick; higher heat input than argon
25% argon
Copper, Argon Provide good wetting;good control of weld pool for thickness up to
nickel 1/8 in.(3.2mm)
and alloys
Magnesium Argon Excellent cleaning action
Carbon Steel, Argon Good arc stability; produces amore fluid and controllable weld
5-8% CO2 pool; good coalescence and bead contour, minimizes undercutting ;
permits higher speeds compared with argon.
Low alloy Argon Minimizes undercutting; provides good toughness
Steel 2% oxygen
Stainless Argon Good arc stability; produces a more fluid and controllable weld pool,
Steel 1% oxygen good coalescence and bead contour, minimizes under cutting on heavier
stainless steels
Argon Provides better arc stability, coalescence and welding speed
2% oxygen than 1% oxygen mixture for thinner stainless steel materials
Suggested gases and gas mixtures for use in GMAW short circuiting transfer
Metal Shielding gas Advantages
Aluminium Argon and Argon satisfactory on sheet metal argon-helium preferred on thicker
copper, argon helium sheet metal
magnesium,
nickel and
their alloys
Carbon steel Argon Less than 1/8 in.(3.2mm) thick; high welding speeds without melt
20-25% CO2 through; minimum distortion and spatter; good penetration
CO2 Deeper penetration; faster welding speeds;minimum cost
Stainless 90% helium No effect on corrosion resistance small heat affected zone; no
Steel 7.5% argon undercutting; minimum distortion; good arc stability
2.5% CO2
Co2 gas cylinder and regulator: The shielding gas Gas Preheater for CO2 welding (Fig 3): Carbondioxide
required for GMAW/Co2 welding is supplied from a gas is filled in cylinders in liquid form. i.e., the CO2 at room
cylinder through an outlet valve and regulator. temperature and high pressure condenses into liquid form.
Therefore while welding the liquid CO2 has to be in gaseous
Gas flow meter: It is a unit which has graduations marked
form as they enter into the welding torch. CO2 liquid boils
on the glass tube. A flow rate adjustment valve fixed to the
and expands into gas as it passes through the regulator.
flow meter controls the rate of flow of inert gas/Co2 gas to
This causes the gas to cool. If moisture is present in the
the welding gun in litre per minute. Fig. 2.
regulator inlet, it will condense and freeze in the regulator,
causing blocking of the gas passage. Therefore to avoid
cooling a gas heater is connected to the cylinder to
increase the temperature of the gas leaving the cylinder.
Hence a uniform gas flow is maintained during welding.
Types of metal transfer awelding parameters in GMAW

• state the advantages and disadvantages of Co2 welding over shielded metal arc welding process
• state the applications of Co2 welding.
Types of metal transfer: In GMAW/Co2 welding process, Globular transfer: In globular transfer, only a few drops
the weld metal is transferred from the electrode wire to the are transferred per second at low current values, while
base metal in different methods/modes. Though there are many drops are transferred at high current values. This
many methods, only the following four methods are used transfer occurs when the welding current is low. (Fig 2). The
popularly used in industries. voltage range is 23 to 27V.
– Spray transfer (Free flight) The spatter produced in this transfer is more and hence it
– Globular transfer (Intermediate) is less preferred. But this is a good transfer method for
– Short circuit or Dip transfer using co2 gas as a shielding gas.
– Pulsed transfer
The type of metal transfer that occurs will depend on the
electrode wire size, shielding gas, arc voltage and welding
current.
Spray transfer: In spray transfer very fine droplets of the
electrode wire are rapidly projected through the arc from the
end of the electrode to the workpiece. (Fig 1) Spray transfer
requires high current density (28 to 32V).
Short circuit transfer (DIP transfer): In short circuit

transfer, as the molten wire is transferred to the weld, each
drop touches the weld puddle before it breaks away from
the advancing electrode wire. The circuit is shorted and the
arc is extinguished. (Fig 3). The voltage range is 16 to 22V.
To obtain a good spray mode of welding shielding gases

containing a blend of argon is used. The spray method of
metal transfer can be used with most of the common weld-
ing wire electrodes (eg mild steel, aluminium, stainless
steel).
The advantages of metal spray transfer are
i) high deposition rates
ii) good travel speeds
iii) good looking weld appearance
iv) little weld spatter
v) good weld fusion
vi) very good on heavy sections It permits welding thinner sections with greater ease, and
The disadvantages of the spray mode are is extremely practical for welding in all positions.
i) higher capacity power source needed Pulsed Spray Transfer (Fig 4)
ii) weld position is limited to flat and horizontal fillet Pulsed spray transfer has a steady stream of metal
iii) the cost of using a more expensive mixed gas droplets crossing the welding arc. The pulsed power source
iv) higher radiated heat is produced so extra protection is supplies the welding arc with two types of welding current.
needed
110
Pulsed spray transfer allows time for the weld puddle to
freeze a little on the background current cycle, which allows
for
i) more control of the weld puddle.
ii) more time for impurities to float to the top of the weld
pool resulting in cleaner and stronger welds.
Advantages
i) able to spray thinner metals
ii) less heat input
iii) stronger welds
iv) more weld control
1) Peak current - this current allows the formation of metal v) out-of-position welding
droplets which then cross the welding arc.
vi) Little spatters
2) Background current - the background current will keep
the arc alive, but doesn’t allow for any weld metal Disadvantages
transfer. i) higher set up costs
ii) needs operator training
iii) lower deposition rate
Burn-off characteristics of filler wire in GMAW

• get familiar with wire burn off characteristics of different filler wires and shielding gases
• explain the principles of self regulating arc length in GMAW/Co2 welding.
Wire burn-off characteristics: A linear relationship exists
between the rate at which the wire is fed into the arc and
the current required to melt it off to maintain a constant arc
length. This is known as the burn off characteristics, and
it differs for different filler wire composition and diameters.
Fig.1 & 2 shows the typical burn off characteristics of
aluminium in argon and steel in CO2 respectively. It can be
observed from the figure that to alter the welding current a
proportionate increase in the wire feed rate is required. The
amount of current drawn by the arc depends on the wire
diameter, wire material and the feed rate.
For a given wire material, at the same wire feed rate, the
smaller diameter wires draw less current compared to the
bigger diameter wires.
Principles of self regulating arc length in GMAW/CO2
welding: The wire melting rate is a function of the welding
current. That means to vary the wire melting rate, the
welding current must be varied. The variation of the wire
melting rate with current is best achieved in the constant
voltage source compared to a constant current power
source.
Constant voltage power source provides ‘self regulation’ of
the arc length can be explained by referring Fig.3 The
‘operating point’ is determined by the output characteristics
of the power source and the arc characteristics. For
example, if the arc length is increased, results in slower
burn off rate and consequently the arc length will be
adjusted to the original level. On the other hand if the arc
length is shortened it results in increase in current and a
faster burn off rate and the arc length will be adjusted to the
original level. This self adjustment will operate successfully
only if the change in current produced by voltage variation
is sufficiently large to produce a large change in the burn
off rate.
GMAW parameters/variables
• state the type of edge preparation done for Co2 welding
• state and explain different welding parameters to be set for Co2 welding
• explain the welding procedure while using Co2 welding process.
GMA welding process parameters/variables Electrode wires should be of the same composition as that
The following parameters must be considered in the of the material being welded.
welding procedure of GMAW/Co2 welding. Basic wire diameters are 0.8 mm, 1.0 mm, 1.2 mm, 1.6 mm
Electrode size and 2.4 mm.
Rate of wire feed (Welding current) Welding current: The wire feed speed will control the
current. A wide range of current values can be used with
Arc voltage each wire diameter. This permits welding metal of various
Stick out thicknesses without having to change the wire diameter.
The current selected should be high enough to secure the
welding position desired penetration and low enough to avoid under-cutting
Shielding gas or burn through.
Travel speed The success of GMA welding is due to the concentration
of high current density at the electrode tip.
electrode position
General data on current selection is given in the table given
Electrode: Best results are obtained by using the proper below.
size wire for the thickness of the metal to be welded and the
position in which the welding is to be done. The current varies as the wire feed varies.
Ranges of wire feed rate in CO2 welding

(Current is shown in brackets)
Wire feed speed, m/min]
Wire dia. (mm) Spray type arcs (28 - 32 V) Short circuiting arcs (16-22 V)
0.8 5.0-15 (150-250 amps) 2.5-7.5 (60-160 amps)

1.2 5.0-15 (200-350 amps) 2.0-3.8 (100-175 amps)
1.6 5.0-8.8 (350-500 amps) 1.5-2.0 (120-180 amps)
Arc voltage: This is a very important variable in GMAW/ For details refer to the table of General Guide to Welding
Co2 welding process, mainly because it determines the Conditions.
type of metal transfer by influencing the rate of droplet
Arc travel speed: The linear rate at which the arc moves
transfer across the arc. The arc voltage to be used depends
along the joint, termed arc travel speed, affects the weld
on the base metal thickness, type of joint, electrode
bead size and penetration.
composition and size, shielding gas composition, welding
position, type of weld and other factors.
If the arc travel speed is lowered, the weld pool becomes Electrode position: In all welding processes, the position
larger and shallower. As the travel speed is increased, the of the gun and electrode with respect to the joint affects the
heat input rate of the arc is decreased; consequently there weld bead shape and penetration. The welding can be done
is decreased penetration and narrower weld bead. When either by using Forehand/Forward technique or by using
the travel speed is excessive, undercutting occurs along Backhand/ Backward technique. The gun angles are
the weld bead, because the deposition of the filler metal is usually maintained within 10 to 15° as shown in Fig 2.
not sufficient to fill the paths melted by the arc.
Stick out: It is the distance between the end of the contact
tube and the tip of the electrode. (Fig 1)
Too long a stick out results in excess weld metal being

deposited at low arc heat, giving rise to badly shaped weld
and shallow penetration.
When the stick out is too short, excessive spatter gets
deposited on the nozzle, which can restrict the shielding
gas flow and cause porosity in the weld.
Recommended stick out is 6 to 13 mm for a short

circuiting arc, and 13 to 25 mm for the spray
transfer arc.
Welder (Pipe) - GTAW IV
Types of welding defects cause and remedies

• state the weld defect, explain the causes and remedy if the defects
• state the non - destructive testing methods.
Excessive Spatter
Excessive Spatter : scattering of molten metal
particles that cool to solid form near weld bead.
Possible Causes Corrective Actions
Wire feed speed too high. Select lower wire feed speed.
Voltage too high. Select lower voltage range.
Electrode extension (stickout) too long. Use shorter electrode extension (stickout).
Workpiece dirty. Remove all grease, oil, moisture, rust, paint, undercoating,
and dirt from work surface before welding.
Insufficient shielding gas at welding arc. Increase flow of shielding gas at regulator/flowmeter and/or
prevent drafts near welding arc.
Dirty welding wire. Use clean, dry welding wire.
Eliminate pickup of oil or lubricant on welding wire from

feeeder or liner.
Porosity
Porosity — small cavities or holes resulting from gas

pockets in weld metal.

Inadequate shielding gas coverage. Check for proper gas flow rate.
Remove spatter from gun nozzle.
Check gas hoses for leaks.
Eliminate drafts near welding arc.
114
Hold gun near bead at end of weld until molten metal solidifies.
Wrong gas. Use welding grade shielding gas; change to different gas.
Dirty welding wire. Use clean, dry welding wire.
Eliminate pick up of oil or lubricant on welding wire from feeder or
liner.
Workpiece dirty. Remove all grease, oil, moisture, rust, paint, coatings, and dirt from
work surface before welding.
Use a more highly deoxidizing welding wire.
Welding wire extends too far out of Be sure welding wire extends not more than (13 mm) beyond
nozzle. nozzle.
Incomplete Fusion
Incomplete Fusion — failure of weld
metal to fuse completely with base
metal or a preceeding weld bead.

Workpiece dirty. Remove all grease, oil, moisture, rust, paint, coatings, and dirt from
work surface before welding.
Insufficient heat input. Select higher voltage range and/or adjust wire feed speed.
Improper welding technique. Place stringer bead in proper location(s) at joint during welding.
Adjust work angle or widen groove to access bottom during welding.
Momentarily hold arc on groove side walls when using weaving tech
nique.
Keep arc on leading edge of weld puddle.
Use correct gun angle of 0 to 15 degrees.
Excessive Penetration
Excessive Penetration — weld metal
melting through base metal and
hanging underneath weld.

Excessive heat input. Select lower voltage range and reduce wire feed speed.
Increase travel speed.
Lack of Penetration
Lack of Penetration — shallow
fusion between weld metal and
base metal.

Improper joint preparation. Material too thick. Joint preparation and design must provide access
to bottom of groove while maintaining proper welding wire extension
and arc characteristics.
Improper weld technique. Maintain normal gun angle of 0 to 15 degrees to achieve maximum
penetration.
Keep arc on leading edge of weld puddle.
Be sure welding wire extends not more than (13 mm) beyond nozzle.
Insufficient heat input. Select higher wire feed speed and/or select higher voltage range.
Reduce travel speed.
Burn Through
Burn-Through — weld metal melting
completely through base metal resulting in holes where
no metal remains.

Excessive heat input. Select lower voltage range and reduce wire feed speed.
Increase and/or maintain steady travel speed.
Waviness of Bead
Waviness of Bead — weld metal that
is not parallel and does not cover
joint formed by base metal.

Unsteady hand. Support hand on solid surface or use two hands.
Distortion
Distortion — contraction of weld metal
during welding that forces base
metal to move.

Excessive heat input. Use restraint (clamp) to hold base metal in position.
Make tack welds along joint before starting welding operation.
Select lower voltage range and/or reduce wire feed speed.
Increase travel speed.
Weld in small segments and allow cooling between welds.
GMAW Troubleshooting
Problem Probable Cause Solution
Wire stops feeding Fuse blown in power source primary. Replace fuse.
while welding. Control circuit fuse blown. Replace fuse.
Wire drive rolls misaligned. Realign rolls.
Excess or insufficient drive roll pressure. Adjust drive roll pressure.
Wire feeder’s spindle friction too great. Loosen and readjust nut pres
sure.
Excess loading of drive motor. Clear restriction in drive assem-
bly.
Drive rolls worn and slipping. Replace drive rolls.
Drive motor burnt out. Test motor. Replace if necessary.
Torch liner dirty or restricted. Remove and clean or replace.
Broken or damaged torch casing / liner. Replace damaged part.
Torch trigger switch / leads defective. Check connections / replace
switch.
Contact tip orifice restricted = burnback. Replace contact tip.
Sharp / excessive bend in cables or liner. Straighten cables and replace
liners.
Wire feeds, but Primary line fuse blown Replace fuse.
no arc is struck. Contactor plug not tight in socket. Tighten plug in receptacle.
Contactor control leads broken. Repair or replace.
Remote/Standard switch broken / set
wrong. Repair or replace / position
correctly.
Loose cable connection. Tighten connection.
Poor work-piece connection. Tighten if loose. Clean work of
rust,etc.
Wire-feeder contactor plug not seated. Tighten plug in receptacle.
Wire feed motor Insufficient drive roll pressure. Adjust drive roll pressure.
operates, but wire Incorrect wire feed rolls. Match feed rolls to wire size /
doesn’t feed. type.
Excessive pressure on wire spool brake. Decrease brake pressure.
Restriction in liner or torch. Check liner and tip, clean or
replace.
Incorrect liner or contact tip. Check and replace with correct
size.
Problem Probable Cause Solution
Irregular wire-feed Power circuit fluctuations. Check line voltage.
and burnback Polarity wrong. Check polarity. Reverse leads if req’d.
Insufficient drive roll pressure. Adjust drive roll pressure.

Contact tip plugged or worn. Clean or replace contact tip.
Kinked electrode wire. Cut out kink or replace spool.
Coiled torch cable. Straighten cables and hang wirefeeder.
Conduit liner dirty or worn. Clean or replace liner.
Electrode wire wraps Excessive feed-roll pressure. Adjust feed roll pressure.
around drive roll Incorrect liner or contact tip. Match liner and contact tip to wire size.
(“birdnesting”)
Misaligned drive rolls or wire guides. Check rolls / guides and align properly.
Restriction in torch or cable. Remove restriction.
Difficult to start an Wrong polarity. Check polarity. Reverse leads if req’d.
arc and arc unstable.
Poor work-piece connection. Secure work lead connection.
Cable connections are loose. Tighten connections.
Weld joint area dirty. Clean to remove scale, rust, paint, etc.
Wire feeds, but Failure of gas valve solenoid. Replace failed part.
no gas flows. Loose or broken wires to gas valve Check and repair wires if necessary.
solenoid.
Gas cylinder is empty. Replace and purge lines before welding.
Gas cylinder valve is closed. Open cylinder valve.
Regulator / flowmeter are not adjusted Adjust to give flow required for job.
Restriction in gas line / torch / nozzle. Check and clean.
Welding torch
overheats Check. Repair or replace as required.
Excessive amperage for torch. Reduce current or upgrade torch.
Heavily oxidised Air / water leaks in torch cables. Check for leaks and repair / replace.
weld bead Restricted shielding gas flow. Check and clean nozzle and gas line.
Improper torch angle. Use approx. 15º leading or trailing angle.
Excessive nozzle to work distance. Reduce to approx. 12.5 – 20mm.
Air drafts. Protect weld area from drafts.
Excessive oxidising gas. Use correct mixed gas as required.
Insufficient shielding gas flow. Check and adjust gas pressure /
flow rate.
Contact tip not centred in gas nozzle Centre contact tip in nozzle.
distance.
Wire stubs into Excessive wire-feed speed. Reduce wire-feed speed.
Work-piece. Arc voltage too low. Increase arc voltage.
Excessive slope set on machine. Reduce slope setting (short-circuit txfr).
Welding cables Cables are too small or too long. Check requirements, adjust cable length.
overheating. Cable connection loose. Tighten cable connection.
Cables are too thin for current used. Replace with cable of a greater
capacity.
Problem: High Frequency Present - No Arc Power
Probable Causes Remedy
Incomplete weld circuit. Check work connection. Check all cable connections.
No shielding gas. Check for gas flow at end of torch.
Check for empty cylinder or closed shut off valve. Gas flow should typically be set
at 15 to 20 CFH.
Problem: Porosity and Poor Weld Bead Colour

Condensation on base metal. Line should be purged with Argon for a few minutes. Remove all condensation
from base metal beforewelding. Metals stored in cold temperatures will conden
sate when exposed to warm temperatures.
Loose fittings in torch or hoses. Tighten fittings on torch and all hoses.
Inadequate or too much gas flow. Adjust flow rate as necessary. Gas flow should typically be set at 15 to 20
CFH.
Defective gas hose or loose Replace gas hose and check connections for leaks, cuts, or pin holes.
connection.
Contaminated or improper Check filler metal type. Remove all grease, oil, or moisture from filler metal.
filler metal
Base metal is contaminated. Remove paint, grease, oil, and dirt (including) mill scale from base metal.
Problem: Yellow Powder or Smoke on Cup - Tungsten Discolour
Shielding gas flow rate too low. Increase flow rate. Gas flow should typically be set at 15 to 20 CFH.
Incorrect shielding gas or mixture. Use argon gas.
Inadequate post flow. Increase post flow time. Set at 10 to 15 seconds.
Improper tungsten size or cup size. Match tungsten size and cup size to joint being welded.
General purpose tungsten size is 2.4 mm diameter and 8 cup.
Tungsten contamination. Keep tungsten from contacting weld puddle.
Raise the torch so that the tungsten is off of the work piece 4 to 6 mm.
Problem: Unstable Arc While AC Welding

Excessive rectification in arc. Increase travel speed. Increase balance control toward Max Penetration.
Add filler metal.
Improper shielding gas. Change shielding gas - In some cases, when welding on 10 to 12 mm
thick aluminum, Argon/Helium is used.
Incorrect arc length. Use correct arc length. Adjust the torch so that the tungsten is off of the
work piece 4 to 6 mm.
Tungsten is contaminated. Remove 12 mm of contaminated tungsten and repoint tungsten.
Base metal is contaminated. Remove paint, grease, oil, and dirt (including mill scale) from base metal.
Improperly prepared tungsten With Squarewave and inverter machines, use pointed tungsten.
Point will eventually round off after welding.
Problem: Unstable Arc While DC Welding
Weld circuit polarity is incorrect. Check polarity switch on welder. Select DCEN (Direct Current Electrode
Negative).
Arc too long. Shorten arc length. Lower torch so that the tungsten is off of the work piece
no more than 1.6 to 3 mm.
Check tungsten type or size.
Problem: Arc Wanders While DC Welding

Improper arc length/tungsten in poor Lower the torch so that the tungsten is off of the work piece 1.6 to 3 mm
condition. Clean and sharpen tungsten.
Check tungsten type or size.
Improperly prepared tungsten. Grind marks should run lengthwise with tungsten, not circular. Use proper
grinding method and wheel.
Light gray frosted appearance on end Remove 1/2 in. of tungsten and repoint tungsten.
of tungsten.
Improper gas flow. Gas flow should typically be set at 15 to 20 CFH.
Problem: Arc Wanders While AC Welding

Improper tungsten preparation. With Squarewave and inverter machines, use pointed tungsten.
Point will eventually round off after welding.
Incorrect balance control setting. Increase balance toward Max Penetration.
Improper tungsten size and type. Select proper size and type. General purpose tungsten size is 2.4 mm.
diameter and ceriated or thoriated.
Excessive rectification in arc. Increase travel speed. Increase balance setting toward Max Penetration.
Add filler metal.
Improper shielding gas flow. Gas flow should typically be set at 15 to 20 CFH.
If the high-frequency current does not start 9 Check for broken high-voltage leads in the spark gas
1. Make certain that proper line voltage is at the machine oscillator circuit. Also check components of the cir-
and that no fuses are blown or circuit breakers tripped. cuit.
2 Make certain power switch is on and fan is running. 10 Check for 230 V to the spark gap oscillator. Use cau-
3 Check reset button on the machine if overload trip took tion line voltage is present at various terminals.
place. Common NDT methods
4 Rectifier thermostat may have tripped. Wait 5 min- While there are many different methods of NDT only the
utes with fan running and reset more common NDT methods used for the evaluation of
5 High-frequency switch may be in the wrong position. materials and welds will be outlined here. These methods
6 Check the remote-local switch to make sure that it is are the following:
in the proper position. 1 Visual inspection
7 Make certain that the torch is connected to the “GTAW 2 Liquid penetrant inspection
or TIG torch” terminal and that the work lead is se-
curely connected to the work terminal and to the work 3 Magnetic particle testing
piece. 4 Radiographic inspection
8 Check the spark gaps. They should be set between 5 Ultrasonic testing
0.006 and 0.008 in (0.15 and 0.2 mm). Refer manufac- 6 Eddy current testing
turers’ recommendation.
CG & M Related Theory for Exercise 2.8.114 to 118
Welder (Pipe) - GTAW IV
Different tests and inspection involved is qualification weld ments and visual
inspection kits and gauges
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able tostate the types of welding gauge
• explain the uses at weld fillet gauge.
• explain the uses of AWS type weld measurement gauge.
Welding gauger: A set of individual leaves having the Weld fillet gauge: To check fillet weld profile for
profile, made of, hardened and tempered , weld to straight acceptable limit, the fillet weld is checked for the leg size,
with a clamping arrangment, The gauge is used to measure using weld fillet gauge. Also concaving in weld face is
the leg size of weld reinforcement in buttwelds,(concave also to be determined by comparing the weld face adjusting
and convexing in case of fillet welder and) The weld joints the gauge. (Fig 1)
are frequently checked for the above features, to ensure a
The fig no.1 shown is set of weld fillet gauge, which are
proper weld to meet the size requirement of the component
marked with metric and equivalent inch standard. The
of structure which are inspected for coupling standards
measuring blade is made of stainless steel and accordingly
need stage inspection and the most suitable inspection
finshed with are end for checking the leg size and
procedure is to use the weld gauge, to attain better quality
concaving of the weldface. (Fig 2)
standard. The type of weld gauge weld belong the a
category of weld ins pection, to check weld profile and its If one of the leg sizes is short then welding size is
required size of bead. undersized, and this is not acceptable, (Fig 3)
• weld fillet gauge (Fig 1)
• AWS type weld measurement gauge (Fig 2)
Also the less concaving shows a gap between measuring

face to face reweld and this is also not acceptable.
Causes of the throat thickness of weld is less is also not
acceptable.
All weld measurement gauge:
This gauge is more powerful than the standard fillet gauge.
The following are the functions of this weld measurement
gauge.
1 Leg size of fillet used.
2 Acceptable size of convexity.
3 Acceptable size of concavity.
4 Acceptable reinforcement height on butt weld
The gauges consist of struck which can be suitably altered
according to the position of the used bead for fillet used
butt weld.
It consists of blade whose alignment is adjusted according
to the weld bead surface.
121
According to the type of measurement the blade after
positioning over the weld bead the locking screw as shown
in (Fig 1) Is tightened suitably to determine the
measurement .
On sliding the pointer blade to touch the face of the weld

determines the concavity, formed due to under fill of the
weld bead as shown in Fig 4.
1 Leg size of fillet weld: To determine the fillet weld

leg size the slot is placed against the toe of the weld as
shown in (Fig 2)
On moving the pointer blade as shown in the figure down
wards on the face of the other joint number.
The co-incidence of the graduation scale defines the fillet
issued leg measurement.
4 Acceptable reinforcement height on butt weld: To

determine the acceptable size of reinforcement height on
butt weld, the spode portion of the gauge, flat portion may
be scated on either size of butt weld as shown in Fig 5, on
sliding the pointer blade downwards so as to touch the
reinforcement placed on the butt weld.
The co-incidence of the graduated scale determines the
acceptable reinforcement height of the weld bead.
2 Acceptable size of convexity: To determaine the

acceptable size of convexity, the stock portion of the gauge
having 45° angle sides to which both the members of the
joints is placed as shown in (fig 3)
On sliding due pointer blade to touch the face of the weld,
determines the convexity of reinforcement.
3 Aceeptable size of convexity: To determine the
acceptable size of convexity the stock portion of the gauge
having 45° angle sides touching both the members of the
joints is placed as shown in Fig 4.
Welder (Pipe) - GMAW
Welding codes and standards

• describe the welding codes and standards
• explain about WPS & PQR.
Welding procedure, Performance, Qualification and 1 Physical soundness (free from discontinuities)
codes
2 Related Theory for Related Theory Exercise 2.6.06
Introduction Metallurgical compatibility (Chemistry of weldment,
‘Code’ is any set of standards set forth and enforced by a base metal, gas etc.)
local government for the protection of public safety, health 3 Mechanical Properties
etc.. as in the structural safety of building, (building code)
health requirements for plumbing, ventilation etc.... (Sanitary The welding Procedure Specification (WPS) is written
or health code) and the specifications for fire escapes or exactly to translate these property requirements on to
exits (Fire code) relevant welding variables.
‘Standard’ is defined as ‘something considered by an The procedure has to be testified on a test piece for its
authority or by general consent as a basis of comparison, intented performance by a qualified welder. To draw a
an approved model’. correct weld procedure, performance methods and qualifi-
cation criteria, there are popular codes and standards are
As a practical matter, codes tell the user what to do and available.
when and under what circumstances to do it. Codes often
legal requirements that are adopted by local jurisdictions All the codes specifies the rules for the preparation of
that then enforce their provisions. welding procedures specification and the qualification of
welding procedures, welders and welding operators. This
Standards tell the user how to do it and are usually code specifies the rules for all manual and machine welding
regarded only as recommendations that do not have the processes.
force of law.
Reading of Welding Procedure specifications (WPS)
The uses of welding in Engineering Industries are Boilers, & Reading of Procedure Qualification Record (PQR)
Heat Exchangers, Pressure Vessels, Bridges, Ships,
Pipelines, Reactors, Storage tanks, Construction Struc- Government as well as private organizations develop and
tures and Equipment etc. When a design engineers issue standards that apply to a particular area of interest.
designs a welding structure, the function of production & Many standards with regard to the welding industry are
Quality control personnel is to translate that design in to a prepared by the American Welding Society (AWS). Many
real component. countries have their own national standards on the sub-
ject of welding.
From a design point of view properties of the weld joint are
designed as The following are examples of the various standards, and
the bodies responsible for them.
Standard codes Country Responsible bodies
IS India Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)

BS U.K British Standard issued by British Standard Association
ANSI U.S.A The American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
AWS U.S.A American Welding Society
ASME U.S.A American Society of Mechanical Engineers
API U.S.A American Petroleum Institute
DIN Germany German standard issued by the Deutsches Institute fuer Normung
JIS Japan Japanese industrial standard issued by the Japanese standards
Association
123
There is also the International Organization for listed in the WPS. A WPS is valid only when supported
Standardisation (ISO). The main goal of ISO is to establish by a relevant PQR.
uniform standards for use in international trade.
The characteristics listed in the WPS, those in this chap-
The American Welding Society publishes numerous ter, are otherwise known as variable. As the term signi-
documents on welding and some of them are listed below: fies, these characteristics may be changed or varied.
When these "variables" are changed we have a new WPS.
Welding procedure qualification
Whenever a change in a particular "variable" is bound to
A welding procedure qualification is the test to prove that influence the mechanical properties of the weld, then that
the properties of a weld to withstand the service conditions "variable" is termed as an ESSENTIAL variable. The vari-
as designed for particular/specific purpose. able which do not have any impact on the mechanical
Welder performance qualification properties of the weld are generally termed as NON-ES-
SENTIAL variables. However, under certain conditions,
A welder's performance qualification is the test to certify a some of the variables could influence the mechanical prop-
welder's or a welding operator's ability to deliver consistently erties of the weld. Such variables are termed as supple-
quality welds. This performance qualification is always mentary essential variables. A more detailed treatment of
done in accordance with a qualified weld procedure these is made in the code of manufacture and the same
specification. could be referred to.
Weld procedure specification Similarly those variable that have an influence on the
A WPS is deemed to have been qualified if through tests welder's ability to produce sound welds are referred to as
that are conducted on the weld test coupon meeting the essential variables for purposes of Welder Performance
requirements or the acceptance criteria. Acceptance cri- Qualification. An example that comes to one's mind right
teria and the specification format may vary depending on way would be the position in which a weld is made.
the code of design and manufacture. The tests that are Introduction to ASME Sec.IX
carried out on the weld test coupon are destructive tests,
and they help to evaluate the mechanical properties of the Welding procedure and performance qualification
weldment carried out in accordance with WPS. Section IX of the ASME code specifies the rules for the
The results of this qualification are generally recorded in a preparation of welding procedure specification and the
format and these are generally recorded in a particular qualification of welding procedures, welders and welding
format and this is usually referred to as an Procedure operators.
Qualification Record (PQR). Thus for every WPS there This code specifies the rules for all manual and machine
has to be at least ONE PQR and vice versa. welding processes.
A performance qualification is generally done to evaluate Materials
the performance of a welder on a welding operator. It is
All the materials that can be used for pressure vessel
done to evaluate the ability of a welder or operator to perform
manufacture have been grouped (Table 1) under different
consistently and deliver sound and good quality welds.
'P' numbers. The object of grouping the base materials is
As this is done to a WPS which has already been qualified
to reduce the number of qualifications required. The 'P'
most codes of practice generally permit the evaluation to
numbers grouping of materials is based essentially on
be done by the use of non destructive tests viz, radiography.
comparable metal characteristics such as composition,
Welders and operators who fulfill the requirements are
weldability and mechanical properties.
deemed to be certified for welding to the specific WPS/
WPSs. Table 1
ASME sections IX, AWS B2.1, API 1104 are some of the 'P' Number grouping
popular American codes specifying welding procedures
P1 to P11 Steel and steel alloy
and welder performance qualification.
P21 to P30 Aluminium and aluminium based alloys
BS 2633, BS 4870/4871, BS 4872, DIN 8560, AD Merkblatt
HP 2 and HP 3, eN 288-2 and EN 287-1 are some of the P31 to P35 Copper and copper based alloys
European standards for welding procedures and perfor- P43 to P47 Nickel and nickel based alloys
mance qualification.
P51 to P52 Titanium and titanium based alloys.
IBR chapter 13, IS 2825, IS 7307, IS 7310, IS 7318 are
the major Indian codes on welding qualifications. Filler metals
Weld procedure specifications, variables and logic The filler metals are grouped as both "F" numbers and "A"
for requalification numbers.
A WPS (Weld Procedure Specification) is a document
which lists out all the essential characteristics for per-
forming a weld. For purposes of qualifying for the WPS, a
test coupon is welded adhering to all parameters as stated/
"F" numbers Welding procedures qualification
All the electrodes and filler metals are grouped under dif- The codes stipulate that all the details of the welding
ferent "F" numbers. The object of the "F" number grouping procedure should be listed in the 'Welding procedure
(Table 2) is to reduce the number of welding procedures specification' (WPS).
and performance qualifications.
Each of these welding procedure specifications shall be
Table 2 qualified by the welding of test coupons, and the
mechanical testing of the specimens cut from these
"F" Number grouping
coupons are required by this code. The welding date for
F1 to F6 Steel and steel alloys these coupons and the results of these tests shall be
F21 to F24 Aluminium and aluminium based alloys recorded in a document known as 'procedure qualification
record (PQR)'.
F31 to F 37 Copper and copper based alloys
A WPS may require the support of more than one PQR,
F41 to F45 Nickel and nickel based alloys while alternatively, one PQR may support a number of
F51 Titanium and titanium alloys WPSs. A WPS will be applicable equally for a plate, pipe
and tube joints. The WPS should contain the following
F61 Zirconium and zirconium alloys nine points in detail.
F71 to F72 Hard facing weld metal overlay. 1 Joints: details
The "F" number grouping is based essentially on their The groove design, the type of backing used etc. are
usability characteristics, with respect to coating. This to be specified in this. If a change in the type of edge
fundamentally determines the ability of the welder to make preparation (Single Vee, Single 'U' or double Vee etc.)
a satisfactory weld with a given filler metal. For example, is made or if the joint backing is removed, a new WPS
the low hydrogen electrodes have been grouped under "F" has to written but need not be qualified by a test.
Number 4 and rutile steel electrode4s under "F" Number 2 Base metals
2.
The base metal (P) number and the thickness ranges
Obviously, a welder who is able to produce a sound weld for which the procedure is applicable etc. have to be
with a E6013 (rutile) electrode may not be able to produce mentioned here. If the range of thickness has to be
a sound weld with a low hydrogen lime powder coated increased or a change of base metal from one 'P'
electrode. number to another 'P' number is required, a new WPS
The skill required to use these electrodes is definitely not should be prepared and supported by a PQR after due
the same. "F" Number 1 is thus the easiest (iron powder) tests.
electrode used only in downhand fillet/butt and horizontal 3 Filler metals
fillet positions.
The details of the electrodes, and filler wires such as
'A' Numbers the 'F' number, 'A' number and the type of the filler
A part from classifying the filler metals under "F" numbers, metals have to be specified here. The electrodes, flux
they are again classified under 'A' number as shown in compositions, (basic, rutile, etc.) are also to be men-
Table 3. 'A' number classification of the filler metals is tioned. A change in 'F' number or 'A' number shall re-
based on the weld metal chemical analysis whereas the quire a new WPS and PQR. A change in the diameter
'F; number classification is based on the usability, or rather of the electrode also requires a new WPS but need not
operation characteristics. With these definitions of 'P' be qualified by a test. The addition or deletion of filler
numbers and 'A' numbers, we shall now see what the code metals requires a new WPS and PQR after re-tests.
says regarding welding procedures and welders 4 Position
qualification.
The positions in which the welding should be done shall
Table 3 be mentioned here. The qualification test can be done
'A' number grouping in any position but still the same procedure is appli-
cable to all positions.
A1 Mild steel
A2 Carbon - Molybdenum 5 Preheating
A 3 to A 5 Chrome - Molybdenum The preheating temperature, interpass temperature etc.
A6 Chrome - Martensitic shall be clearly specified. If the preheat is to be de-
creased by more than 550C, then a new WPS has to
A7 Chrome - Ferritic
be prepared and qualified by a test.
A 8 to A 9 Chrome - Nickel
6 Post - weld heat treatment
A 10 Nickel - 4%
A 11 Manganese-Molybdenum The temperature and soaking time of the post-weld heat
treatment shall be shown here. Any change in this
A12 Nickelchrome-Molybdenum
shall require a new procedure qualification.
7 Electrical characteristics
Table 4
The type of current, (AC or DC) polarity, amps and
voltage etc. have to indicated here. Range of positions qualified
8 Gas Test position Also qualifies
The shielding gases flow rate, details of gas purging 1G 1G

etc. will be shown here. Change in gas composition 2G 1G
will call for re-qualification.
3G 1G
9 Technique
4G 1G & 3G
The details of the welding techniques string or weave
bead, method of initial and interpass cleaning, back 5G 1G & 3G
gouging, single or multiple passes, root grinding etc., 2G & 5G All positions
shall be written here. The test welding can be done
either in a plate or pipe material and in any position. 6G All positions
The maximum thickness for which the procedure is
For positions 1G and 2G (flat and horizontal) qualification
applicable is generally twice the thickness of the test
on a plate shall also qualify the welder in pipes. For all
plate or pipe. The welder who welds the test joint is
other positions, qualification on a pipe shall qualify for plate
also qualified for that procedure but only in that posi-
but not vice versa.
tion in which he welds whereas the procedure is appli-
cable to all positions. The results of the tests shall be A qualification in a plate or pipe butt joint shall also qualify
recorded in the PQR including welding, NDT and me- the welder for fillet welding in all plate thickness and pipe
chanical test results. diameters.
Welder's qualification
The purpose of the welder's qualification is to determine
the ability of the welder to make sound welds.
The welder may be qualified, based on the results of the
mechanical test (two face bends and two root bend tests
or four side bend tests) or by radiographic examination of
a minimum length of 150 mm for a plate or the entire weld
for a pipe. The position of the weld joint has been classi-
fied as 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G and 6G. Table 4 shows the
positions qualifying for other positions.

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WELDER (PIPE)

DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING

Developed & Published by

National Instructional Media Institute

Copyright © 2022 National Instructional Media Institute, Chennai

SHRI. ATUL KUMAR TIWARI., I.A.S.,

New Delhi - 110 001

Chennai - 600 032 EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR

MEDIA DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS

Shri. K. Rajasekaran _ ATO, Govt. ITI,

Shri. A. Elamurugu _ ATO, Govt. ITI, Central Prison

Shri.Nirmalya Nath _ Deputy Director of Trainning

Shri. V. Gopalakrishnan _ Assistant Manager,

2.1.56 Gas cutting 1

2.1.57 Common defects in gas cutting 4

2.1.58 & 59 Gas cutting - Plasma arc cutting 1 6

2.1.60 Principles of shielded metal arc welding 9

2.1.61 Types of power source polarity type and arc length 11

2.1.62 Welding positions 18

2.1.63 & 64 Welding procedure & Edge preparation 2 20

2.1.65 Welding fixtures and clamps 24

2.2.66 & 68 Electrodes - Types description and sepcification 29

2.2.69 Electrode storage and backing temperature 39

2.2.70 Types of metals and the characteristics 41

Module 3 : SMAW - III

2.4.79 Selecion of electrode (SMAW) for root pass and cover

2.4.80 Procedure for welding heavy wall pipes in 5G position welding 3 57

2.4.81 Procedure for welding heavy wall pipes in 6G position welding 58

2.5.87 Development of a pipe "T" joint 64

2.5.88 & 90 Development of a pipe "Y" joint 67

Module 6 : GTAW - III

2.6.91 Introduction to GTAW welding - Advantages, equipment 68

2.6.92 & 94 GTAW Torches 77

2.6.95 & 96 Shielding gases used for GTAW 82

2.6.97 Importance of preheating and post heating and post weld

2.6.98 Welding metallurgy - weld stress 89

Module 7 : GTAW & SMAW

2.7.101 Introduction to GMAW & Flow cored arc welding, equipment

2.7.102 & 105 Advantages, disadvantages of GMAW over SMAW process 5

2.7.106 Shielding gases for GMAW 107

LEARNING / ASSESSABLE OUTCOME

On completion of this book you shall be able to

8 Perform Plasma cutting. 2.1.56 - 2.1.59

14 Carry out Dimensional inspection and testing of weldments. 2.9.119 - 2.9.122

Duration Reference Learning Professional Skills Professional Knowledge

66.Groove welding on plate in 3G - Electrodes - types - description

68.Groove welding on plate in 3G - Selection of electrodes (Rutile /

70. Groove welding on plate in 4G - Types of metals and their

72.Groove welding on plate in 4G - Introduction to pipe welding.

76.Fit up inspection. (5hrs.) - Selection of electrode (SMAW) for

87. Beading practice by TIG on MS - Welding procedure for

91. Square butt joint on M.S. sheet - Introduction to GTAWwelding -

106.Root pass welding of pipes - Power source - Wire feeder -

110. Root pass welding of pipes - Types of welding defects, cause

114.Square butt joint on M.S. sheet - Requirement for qualification in

There are two types of cutting machines.

Provision is also made to enable full adjustment of the

The speed of the manually operated cutting machines is

Profile cutting by using templates To cut a circle using an extermal template

2 CG & M : Welder (Pipe) (NSQF Level - 3) Related Theory Exercise 2.1.56

- The top edge may not be sharp; there is a possibility of

CG & M : Welder (Pipe) (NSQF Level - 3) Related Theory Exercise 2.1.56 3

Common defects in gas cutting

Common faults in cutting