Draughtsman Mechanical 2nd Year (Volume II of II TT

Draughtsman Mechanical
NSQF LEVEL - 5
2nd Year (Volume II of II)
TRADE THEORY
SECTOR: Capital Goods and Manufacturing
DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING

MINISTRY OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT & ENTREPRENEURSHIP
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
NATIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL
MEDIA INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
Post Box No. 3142, CTI Campus, Guindy, Chennai - 600 032
(i)
Sector : Capital Goods and Manufacturing
Duration : 2 - Years
Tradez : Draughtsman Mechanical 2nd Year (Volume II of II) - Trade
Theory - NSQF (Level - 5)
Developed & Published by
National Instructional Media Institute

Post Box No.3142
Guindy, Chennai - 600032
INDIA
Email: chennai-nimi@nic.in
Website: www.nimi.gov.in
Copyright © 2020 National Instructional Media Institute, Chennai

First Edition : December 2020 Copies :500
Rs.150/-
(ii)
FOREWORD
The Government of India has set an ambitious target of imparting skills to 30 crores people, one out of every
four Indians, by 2020 to help them secure jobs as part of the National Skills Development Policy. Industrial
Training Institutes (ITIs) play a vital role in this process especially in terms of providing skilled manpower.
Keeping this in mind, and for providing the current industry relevant skill training to Trainees, ITI syllabus
has been recently updated with the help of Mentor Councils comprising various stakeholder's viz. Industries,
Entrepreneurs, Academicians and representatives from ITIs.
The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI), Chennai, an autonomous body under Ministry of Skill
Development & Entrepreneurship is entrusted with developing producing and disseminating Instructional
Media Packages (IMPs) required for ITIs and other related institutions.
The institute has now come up with instructional material to suit the revised curriculum for Draughtsman
Mechanical 2nd Year (Volume II of II) Trade Practical NSQF Level - 5 in Capital Goods & Manufacturing
Sector under annual pattern. The NSQF Level - 5 Trade Theory will help the trainees to get an international
equivalency standard where their skill proficiency and competency will be duly recognized across the globe
and this will also increase the scope of recognition of prior learning. NSQF Level - 5 trainees will also get
the opportunities to promote life long learning and skill development. I have no doubt that with NSQF Level
- 5 the trainers and trainees of ITIs, and all stakeholders will derive maximum benefits from these IMPs and
that NIMI's effort will go a long way in improving the quality of Vocational training in the country.
The Executive Director & Staff of NIMI and members of Media Development Committee deserve appreciation
for their contribution in bringing out this publication.
Jai Hind
Directorate General of Training

Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship,
Government of India.
New Delhi - 110 001
(iii)
PREFACE
The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) was established in 1986 at Chennai by then Directorate
General of Employment and Training (D.G.E & T), Ministry of Labour and Employment, (now under Directorate
General of Training, Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship) Government of India, with technical
assistance from the Govt. of the Federal Republic of Germany. The prime objective of this institute is to
develop and provide instructional materials for various trades as per the prescribed syllabi (NSQF LEVEL -
5) under the Craftsman and Apprenticeship Training Schemes.
The instructional materials are created keeping in mind, the main objective of Vocational Training under
NCVT/NAC in India, which is to help an individual to master skills to do a job. The instructional materials are
generated in the form of Instructional Media Packages (IMPs). An IMP consists of Theory book, Practical
book, Test and Assignment book, Instructor Guide, Audio Visual Aid (Wall charts and Transparencies) and
other support materials.
The trade practical book consists of series of exercises to be completed by the trainees in the workshop.
These exercises are designed to ensure that all the skills in the prescribed syllabus are covered. The trade
theory book provides related theoretical knowledge required to enable the trainee to do a job. The test and
assignments will enable the instructor to give assignments for the evaluation of the performance of a trainee.
The wall charts and transparencies are unique, as they not only help the instructor to effectively present a
topic but also help him to assess the trainee's understanding. The instructor guide enables the instructor to
plan his schedule of instruction, plan the raw material requirements, day to day lessons and demonstrations.
In order to perform the skills in a productive manner instructional videos are embedded in QR code of the
exercise in this instructional material so as to integrate the skill learning with the procedural practical steps
given in the exercise. The instructional videos will improve the quality of standard on practical training and
will motivate the trainees to focus and perform the skill seamlessly.
IMPs also deals with the complex skills required to be developed for effective team work. Necessary care
has also been taken to include important skill areas of allied trades as prescribed in the syllabus.
The availability of a complete Instructional Media Package in an institute helps both the trainer and
management to impart effective training.
The IMPs are the outcome of collective efforts of the staff members of NIMI and the members of the Media
Development Committees specially drawn from Public and Private sector industries, various training institutes
under the Directorate General of Training (DGT), Government and Private ITIs.
NIMI would like to take this opportunity to convey sincere thanks to the Directors of Employment & Training
of various State Governments, Training Departments of Industries both in the Public and Private sectors,
Officers of DGT and DGT field institutes, proof readers, individual media developers and coordinators, but for
whose active support NIMI would not have been able to bring out this materials.
R. P. DHINGRA
Chennai - 600 032 EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
(iv)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) sincerely acknowledges with thanks for the co-operation and
contribution extended by the following Media Developers and their sponsoring organisations to bring out this
Instructional Material (Trade Theory) for the trade of Draughtsman Mechanical 2nd Year (Volume II of II) NSQF
(Level - 5) under Capital Goods and Manufacturing Sector for ITIs.
MEDIA DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS
Shri. V. Dhivagar _ ATO, Govt, ITI, Guindy
Shri. C.S. Kumar _ ATO, Govt, ITI, North Chennai
Shri. C.Selvam _ ATO, Govt, ITI, North Chennai
NIMI - COORDINATORS
Shri. Nirmalya nath _ Deputy General Manager,

NIMI, Chennai - 32
Shri. V. Gopalakrishnan _ Assitant Manager,

NIMI, Chennai - 32
NIMI records its appreciation for the Data Entry, CAD, DTP operators for their excellent and devoted services in
the process of development of this Instructional Material.
NIMI also acknowledges with thanks the invaluable efforts rendered by all other NIMI staff who have contributed
towards the development of this Instructional Material.
NIMI is also grateful to everyone who has directly or indirectly helped in developing this Instructional Material.
(v)
INTRODUCTION
TRADE THEORY
The manual of trade theory consists of theoretical information for the Course of the Draughtsman Mechanical
Trade. The contents are sequenced according to the practical exercise contained in NSQF LEVEL - 5 syllabus
on Trade Practical. Attempt has been made to relate the theoretical aspects with the skill covered in each
exercise to the extent possible. This correlation is maintained to help the trainees to develop the perceptional
capabilities for performing the skills.
The trade theory has to be taught and learnt along with the corresponding exercise contained in the manual on
trade practical. The indications about the corresponding practical exercises are given in every sheet of this
manual.
The manual is divided into Four modules. The Four modules are given below:
Module 1 - Detailed and assembly drawing
Module 2 - Drawing of machine parts
Module 3 - 2D/3D Modeling
Module 4 - Production Drawing
It will be preferable to teach/learn trade theory connected to each exercise at least one class before performing
the related skills in the shop floor. The trade theory is to be treated as an integrated part of each exercise.
The material is not for the purpose of self-learning and should be considered as supplementary to class room
instruction.
TRADE PRACTICAL
The trade practical manual is intended to be used in practical workshop. It consists of a series of practical
exercises to be completed by the trainees during the course of Draughtsman Mechanical Trade supplemented
and supported by instructions / informations to assist in performing the exercises. These exercises are designed
to ensure that all the skills in compliance with NSQF LEVEL - 5 syllabus are covered.
The skill training in the shop floor is planned through a series of practical exercises centered around some
practical project. However, there are few instances where the individual exercise does not form a part of project.
While developing the practical manual, a sincere effort was made to prepare each exercise which will be easy to
understand and carry out even by below average trainee. However the development team accept that there is a
scope for further improvement. NIMI looks forward to the suggestions from the experienced training faculty for
improving the manual.
(vi)
CONTENTS
Lesson No. Title of the Lesson Learning Page No.

Outcome
Module 1 : Detailed and assembly drawing
4.1.115 - 116 Description of valves and working principle of safety valve 1
Description and working principle of dead weight safety valve 4
Description and working principle of rams bottom safety valve 4
4.1.117 Simple stationary fire tube boiler, boiler mountings 9
4.1.118 - 119 Hydraulic system - components - working principle 11
Description and working principle of hydraulic jack 12
Different types of actuator 13
Hydraulic directional valve symbol 14
Throttle valve 15
Pneumatic Actuator Basics 1 17
4.1.120 Different types of pump systems 19
Description and working principle of reciprocating pump 23
4.1.121 Clamping devices 25
4.1.122 Workholding and toolholding in mass production 27
4.1.123 - 124 Different clamping devices on milling operation 33
4.1.125 Inter changeability in the manufacturing products 35
The Indian Standard System of Limits & Fits - Terminology 36
Fits and their classification as per the Indian Standard 39
The BIS System of limits and fits 41
4.1.126 - 127 Parts of press tool and their function 42
4.1.128 Die casting types of moulding process 44
4.1.129 Different parts of petrol engine 54
Simple carburettor 56
Some more main parts of an automobile engine 57
4.1.130 Design manufacture and operation of pressure vessels 61
Module 2 : Drawing of machine parts
4.2.131 Proper measurement practice in workshop 2 63
Function of gauges 67
Types of gauges and their essential features 67
(vii)
Lesson No. Title of the Lesson Learning Page No.
Outcome
4.2.132 Layout of machine foundations and types of machine foundations 70
Machine foundations 3 71
Consideration of ergonomics human factor for the layout 75
Module 3 : 2D/3D Modeling
4.3.133-135 User interface, menu bar, command manager 79
Feature manager 80
4.3.136 Extrude bosses and revolved features 4 84
4.3.137 - 138 Components configuration in an assembly, subassembly, interference 90
4.3.139 Manufacture drawing 95
4.3.140 - 141 Creation of exploded view - Animation - Annotation holes & threads 104
Module 4 : Production Drawing
4.4.142 - 144 Detail information of production drawing 5 114

Numbering of drawings and standard parts(Familiarization with SP:46-2003) 117
Graphic language 119
LEARNING OUTCOME
On completion of this book you shall be able to
Sl.No Learning Outcome Lesson No.
1 Construct detailed and assembled drawing applying

conventional sign &symbols using CAD. 4.1.115 to 4.2.130
2 Prepare drawing of machine parts by measuring with
gauges and measuring instruments 4.2.131
3 Draw a machine shop layout considering process path and
ergonomics (human factor). 4.2.132
4 Create and plot assembly and detail views of machine part
with Dimensions, Annotations, Title Block and Bill of materials
in Solid Works/AutoCAD Inventor/3D Modeling. 4.3.133 to 4.3.141
5 Create production drawing of machine part. 4.4.142 to 4.3.144
(viii)
SYLLABUS
nd
2 Year (Volume - II of II) Duration : Six months
Reference Professional Skills Professional Knowledge

Duration Learning (Trade Practical)
(Trade Theory)
Outcome With Indicative Hours
Professional Construct detailed 115. Construct detailed drawing of a lever Working principle of valves and
Skill 364 Hrs; and assembled safety valve.(28 hrs) their description.(16 hrs.)
drawing applying 116. Construct detailed drawing of a gate
Professional
conventional sign valve.(28 hrs) (using CAD)
Knowledge
&symbols using
104 Hrs
CAD. 117. Construct detailed drawing of a steam Knowledge of simple stationary
stop valve and blow off cock. (28 hrs) fire tube boiler, boiler
(using CAD) mountings.Function and purpose
of blow off cock. ( 0 8
hrs.)
118. Create library folder containingblocks of Brief description of atypical

hydraulic and pneumatic conventional hydraulic system, components,
signs and symbols.(10 hrs) working principle and function of
hydraulic jack. Different types of
119. Draw a sectional view of a hydraulic jack
hydraulic actuator. Symbol and
and a pneumatic valve actuator. (18hrs)
working of hydraulic DC valve,
(using CAD)
nonreturn valve and throttle valve.
Knowledge of typical pneumatic
system, FRL or air service unit
and pneumatic actuator. (08 hrs)
120. Draw detail and full sectional view of a Different types of pump
volute casing centrifugal pump (using systems.Characteristics of a
CAD). (28 hrs) pump system: pressure, friction
and flow.Energy and head in
pump systems. (08 hrs)
121. Draw assembly and detailed drawing Different clamping devices on

of tool post of a lathe. (using CAD) lathe. (08 hrs)
(28 hrs)
122. Construct detailed &assembly drawing Description of different job

of tail stock and revolving centre. (using holding devices in lathe
CAD)(28 hrs) operation. (08 hrs)
123. Construct detailed drawing of a milling Different clamping devices on

fixture. (using CAD) (28 hrs) milling operation. (08 hrs)
124. Construct detailed & assembly drawing Different clamping devices on

of shaper tool head slide. (using CAD) shaping operation. (08 hrs)
(28 hrs)
125. Draw a simple drilling jig for drilling Knowledge of accuracy and
holes in a given component. (using interchangeabilityinthe
CAD) (28 hrs) manufacturing of products.
(08 hrs)
126. Draw a Press Tool giving nomenclature Knowledge of various parts of
of each part. (08 hrs) press tools and their function.
127. Draw dies & punches for the production Knowledge of differentmoulding
of simple work pieces. (using CAD) processes.
(10 hrs)
(ix)
128. Develop isometric drawing for Introduction to Die casting, gating
manufacturing 2 cavity injection system design, force calculation,
moulds with side cavities. (using CAD) defects and remedies and estimation.
(10 hrs) (08 hrs)
129. Construct detailed drawing of a simple Description of different parts of petrol
carburetor. (using CAD) (28 hrs) engine. (08 hrs)
130. Construct detailed and assembly Knowledge of design, manufacture,

drawing of a simple pressure vessel. and operation of pressure vessels. (08
(using CAD) (28 hrs) hrs)
Professional Prepare drawing of 131. Prepare detailed drawing of a C-clamp Proper measurement practice in
Skill 28 Hrs; machine parts by and a machine vice by taking workshop.
measuring with measurement using gauges and
Professional Principlesof goodmeasurement
gauges and measuring instrument. (using CAD)
Knowledge result: rightmeasurement, right
m e a s u r i n g (28 hrs)
08 Hrs tools,right sketching, review and right
instruments.
procedures. (08 hrs)
Professional Draw a machine 132. Draw a machine shop layout of small Lay out of Machine foundations.
Skill 28 Hrs; shop layout production industry showing material
Brief treatment of the principle Involved
considering inflow to finished product stock. (using
Professional and the precautions to be observed.
process path and CAD) (28 hrs)
Knowledge Lay out of machine Foundation.
08 Hrs ergonomics
(human factor). Consideration of ergonomics (human
factor) for shop layout. (08 hrs)
Professional Create and plot SolidWorks/AutoCAD Inventor/ 3D Introduction to SolidWorks/ AutoCAD

Skill 140 Hrs; assembly and Modeling: Inventor/ 3D Modeling
detail views of User interface - Menu Bar –
Professional 133. Draw 3D solid figures by Sketching
machine part with Command manager – Feature
Knowledge features & applied features. (10 hrs)
Dimensions, manager – Design Tree – settings on
40 Hrs
Annotations, Title 134. Sketch an angle plate and a block –
the Default options – suggested
Block and Bill of Create/ Modify constraints. (08 hrs)
settings – key board short cuts.
materials in
135. Create a sketch of a new part. (10 hrs) Create the best profile – create a
SolidWorks/
AutoCAD Inventor/ sketch – create a new part. (08 hrs)
3D Modeling.
136. Create 3D solid and edit using: Extrude bosses and cuts,add fillets,
i) Copy & Paste, (04 hrs) and chamfer changing dimensions.
ii) Filleting, (04 hrs) Revolved features using axes, circular
iii) Chamfering, (04 hrs) patterning changes and Rebuild
iv) Editing a feature definition. (04 hrs) problems. (08 hrs)
v) Create ribs, mirror pattern, the Hole
wizard, (04 hrs)
vi) Create part configurations, Part
design tables, (04 hrs)
vii) Inset Design Table, Inset new
design table. (04 hrs)
137. Create New assembly part : Bottom up assembly modeling

i) Create a new assembly (08 hrs) Components configuration in an
ii) Insert components into an assembly, Insert subassemblies,
assembly, (04 hrs) Interference detection. (08 hrs)
iii) Add mates (degree of freedom).
(04 hrs)
iv) Perform components configuration
in an assembly, (04 hrs)
v) Insert subassemblies, (04 hrs)
vi) Perform Interference detection.
(04 hrs)
(x)
138. Create a 3D modelputting: Drawings & Detailing, create drawing
i) Driving dimensions, (02hrs) sheets, Add drawing items, Named
ii) Bill of materials, (04 hrs) views, std. 3 views, auxiliary views,
iii) Driven (Reference)Dimensions, section views, detail views.
(02 hrs) Drawings & Detailing, create drawing
iv) Annotations, (02 hrs) sheets, Add drawing items, Named
v) Alternate position view. (02 hrs) views, standard 3 views, auxiliary
139. Prepare drawings & detailing : views, section views, detail views.
i) Create drawing sheets, (04 hrs) (08 hrs)
ii) Add drawing items, (02 hrs)
iii) Named views, standard 3 views,
auxiliary views, section views, detail
views. (02 hrs)
iv) Reattach and replace dimensions,
(02 hrs)
v) Edit sketch, (02 hrs)
vi) Edit sketch plane, (02 hrs)
vii) Edit definition. (02 hrs)
140. Create a 3D transitionfigure Difference between sweep and loft.
• Using loft feature. (03 hrs) Exploded views – Configuration
• Using sweep feature. (03 hrs) manager, Animation controller.
Annotating Holes and Threads,
• Using library features.(03 hrs)
Creating Centerlines, symbols and
i) Create 3D model by annotating
leaders, Simulation.
Holes and Threads, (05 hrs)
ii) Create Centerlines, symbols and Introduction to plot & Different ways
leaders, (05 hrs) of plotting. (08 hrs)
iii) Create Simulation. (03 hrs)
iv) Plot the model. (01 hr)
141. Convert or save as Solid Works and
Inventor file into .dwg format. (05 hrs)
Professional Create production 142. Create production drawing of a simple Knowledgeof production drawing,
Skill 28 Hrs; drawing of Drill jig – Part model – assembly- name plate and bill of materials, etc.
machine part. detailing (using CAD). (28 hrs)
Professional Study of production drawing.
Knowledge 143. Create production drawing of a Screw
08 Hrs jack – Part model assemblydetailing. Procedure of preparing Revision
(26 hrs) (using CAD) Drawing: putting revision mark, writing
remarks in the table as per check list.
144. Create a check list by selfassessment (08 hrs)
and provide Revision mark by noting
in the Revision table. (02 hrs)
In-plant training / Project work (work in a team)

a. Prepare a model of a drill jig.
b. Prepare a chart of exploded view of a centrifugal pump.
c. Prepare a model of pipeline layout with necessary fittings.
(xi)
(xii)
CG&M Related Theory for Exercise 4.1.115 - 116
Draughtsman Mechanical - Detailed and Assembly Drawing
Description of valves and working principle of safety valve

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain different valves and their functions
• explain different valves and their parts
• explain the function of lever safety valve.
A valve is a device that regulates, directs or controls the − Hydraulic

flow of a fluid (gases, liquids, fluidized solids, or slurries)
by opening, or closing, or partially obstructing various − Pneumatic
passageways. Valves are technically fittings, but are − Manual
usually discussed as a separate category. In an open
valve, fluid flows in a direction from higher pressure to − Solenoid valve
lower pressure. The words is derived from the Latin − Motor
valve , the moving part of the door, in turn from valve, to
Components
turn, roll.
Valves have many uses, including controlling water for Cross-sectional diagram of an open globe valve. (Fig 1)
irrigation, industrial uses for controlling processes,
residential uses such as on/ off and pressure control to
dish and clothes washers and taps in the home. Even
aerosols have a tiny valve built in. valves are also used
in the military and transport sectors.
Valves are found in virtually every industrial process,
including water and sewage processing, mining, power
generation, processing of oil, gas and petroleum, food
manufacturing, chemical and plastic manufacturing and
many other fields.
People in developed nations use valves in their daily
lives, including plumbing valves, such as taps for tap
water, gas control valves on cookers, small valves fitted
to washing machines and dishwashers, safety devices
fitted to hot water systems, and poppet valves in car
engines.
In nature there are valves, for example one-way valves
in veins controlling the blood circulation, and heart valves
controlling the flow of blood in the chambers of the heart
1 Body
and maintaining the correct pumping action.
Valves may be operated manually, either by a handle, 2 Ports
lever, pedal or wheel, valves may also be automatic, 3 Seat
driven by changes in pressure, temperature or flow,
4 Stem
More complex control systems using valves requiring
automatic control based on an external input (i.e. 5 Bonnet
regulating flow through a pipe to a changing set point) 6 Packing
require an actuator. An actuator will stroke the valve
depending on its input and setup, allowing the valve to 7 Gland nut
be positioned accurately, and allowing control over a 8 Disc when valve is open
variety of requirements.
9 Handle or hand wheel when valve is open
Valves very widely in form and application, sizes typically
range form0.1 mm to 60 cm. 10 Fluid flow when valve is open
Special valves can have a diameter exceeding 5 meters. 11 Position of disc if valve were shut
Valves are quite diverse and may be classifies into a 12 Position of handle or hand wheel if valve were shut
number of basic types. Valves may also be classified by
how they are actuated.
1
The main parts of the most usual type of valve are the shut. In discs that rotate, the seat is always in contact
body and the bonnet. These two parts form the casing with the disc, but the area of contact changes as the
that holds the fluid going through the valve. disc is turned. The seat always remains stationary
relative to the body. Seats are classified by whether they
Body: The valve’s body is the outer casing of most or
are cut directly into the body, or if they are made of a
all of the valve that contains the internal parts or trim.
different material.
The bonnet is the part of the encasing through which
the stem (see Fig 1) passes and that forms a guide and The shut off butterfly valve for a Francis turbine at
seal for the stem. The bonnet typically screws into or is Gordon Power Station, Tasmania.
bolted to the valve body.
Ball valve: A closed soft seated valve is much less liable
Valve bodies are usually metallic or plastic, Brass, to leak when shut while hard seated valves are more
bronze, gunmetal, cast iron, steel, alloy steels and durable. Gate, globe, and check valves are usually hard
stainless steels are very common. Seawater seated while butterfly, ball, plug and diaphragm valves
applications, like desalination plants, of use duplex are usually soft seated.
valves, as well as super duplex valves, due to their
Stem: The stem transmits motion from the handle or
corrosion resistant properties, particularly against warm
controlling device to the disc. The stem typically passes
sea water. Alloy 20 valves are typically used in sulphuric
through the bonnet when present. In some cases, the
acid plants, whilst monel valves are used in hydrofluoric
stem and the disc can be combined in one piece, or the
acid (HF Acid) plants. Hastelloy valves are often used
stem and the handle are combined in one piece.
in high temperature applications, such as nuclear plants,
whilst inconel valves are often used in hydrogen The motion transmitted by the stem may be a linear
applications. Plastic bodies are used for relatively low force, a rotational torque, or some combination of these
pressures and temperatures. PVC, PP, PVDF and glass (Angle valve using torque reactor pin and Hub
-reinforced nylon are common plastics used for valve Assembly).
bodies.
Valves whose disc is between the seat and the stem
Ports: Ports are passages that allow fluid to pass and where the stem moves in a direction into the valve
through the valve. ports are obstructed by the valve to shut it are normally-seated or front seated.
member or disc to control flow. Valves most commonly
Gaskets: Gaskets are the mechanical seals, or
have 2 ports, but may have as many as 20. The valve is
packing’s used to prevent the leakage of a gas or fluids
almost always connected at its ports to pipes or other
from valves.
components. Connection methods include threading,
compression fittings, glue, cement, flanges, or welding. Valve balls: A valve ball is also used for several duties,
high-pressure, high-tolerance applications. They are
Handle or actuator: A handle is used to manually control
typically made of stainless steel, titanium, Satellite,
a valve form outside the valve body. Automatically
Hastelloy, brass, or nickel. They can also be made of
controlled valve often do not have handles, but some
different types of plastic, such as ABS, PVC, PP or PVDF.
may have a handle (or something similar) anyway to
manually override automatic control such as a stop - Spring: Many valves have a spring for spring-loading,
check valve. An actuator is a mechanism or device to to normally shift the disc into some position by default
automatically or remotely control a valve from outside but allow control to reposition the disc. Relief valves
the body. Some valves have neither handle nor actuator commonly use a spring to keep the valve shut, but allow
because they automatically control themselves from excessive pressure to force the valve open against the
inside; for example, check valves and relief valves may spring-loading. Coil springs are normally used. Typical
have neither. spring materials include zinc plated steel, stainless steel,
and for high temperature applications Inconel X750.
Valve disc: A disc or valve member is a movable
obstruction inside the stationary body that adjustably Valve operating positions: A seacock for cooling
restricts flow through the valve. Although traditionally seawater, on a marine diesel engine.
disc - shaped, discs come in various shapes. Depending Valve positions are operating conditions determined by
on the type of valve, a disc can move linearly inside a the position of the disc or rotor in the valve. Some valves
valve, or rotate on the stem (as in a butterfly valve), or are made to be operated in a gradual change between
rotate on a hinge or trunnion (as in a check valve).A ball two or more positions. Return valves and non-return
is a round valve member with one or more paths between valves allow fluid to move in 2 or 1 directions respectively.
ports passing through it. By rotating the ball, flow can
be directed between different ports. Two-port valves: Operating positions for 2-port valves
can be either shut (closed) so that no flow at all goes
Seat: The seat is the interior surface of the body which through, fully open for maximum flow, or sometimes
contacts the disc to form a leak-tight seal. In discs that partially open to any degree in between.
move linearly or swing on a hinge or trunnion, the disc
comes into contact with the seat only when the valve is
2 C G & M: Draughtsman Mechanical (NSQF Level-5) - Related Theory for Exercise 4.1.115 & 116
Three-port valves (Fig 2) It consists of a valve which is resting over a gun metal
seat, is called valve seat. The valve seat set over on a
mounting blocks, fitted out the boiler shell. One end of
the lever is hinged to a rod of the mounting blocks. The
other carries a weight. A small strut is fixed over the
value working of a lever.
Safety valve
The pressure of the lever is transferred to the value strut.
As and when the steam thrust exceeds the safe limit,
the upward pressure of the steam lift the value and the
steam escapes till the thrust pressure falls down to the
normal. The valve then gets back to its original position.
Schematic 3-way ball valve: L-shaped ball right, T- ie. closed position. The accepted weight at the end of
shaped left. Valves with three ports serve many different the lever for keeping the pressure ‘P’ in the boiler is get
functions. A few of the possibilities are listed here. by taking moments about the hinged point.
Three-way ball valves come with a T- or L- shaped fluid ie., PaL1 = WL2
passageways inside the rotor. The T valve might be used Where,
to permit connection of one inlet to either or both outlets
or connection of the two outlets. The L valve could be a = Area of valve exposed to steam
used to permit disconnection of both or connection of
L1 = Distance of valve centre from the hinged
either but not both of two inlets to one outlet.
point.
Four-port valves
L2 = Distance of the centre of the weight to
Main article: four-way valve: A 4-port valve is a valve the hinged point.
whose body has four ports equally spaced round the
body and the disc has two passages to connect adjacent The lever safety valve is employed in
ports. It is operated with two positions. stationary boilers only.
Control: Many valves are controlled manually with a Fig 4 shows assembled sectional view of a lever safety
handle attached to the stem. If the handle is turned ninety valve for the part name refer practical exercise
degrees between operating positions, the valve is called
a quarter-turn valve. Butterfly, ball valves, and plug
valves are often quarter-turn valves. If the handle is
circular with the stem as the axis of rotation in the center
of the circle, then the handle is called a hand wheel.
Lever safety valve: The main objective of safety valve
is that to prevent the pressure in the boiler to avoid
accident. For this a device is provided through which
the steam can escape when it reaches high pressure.
Description of lever safety valve: Fig 3 shows a simple
diagram of a lever safety valve and
C G & M: Draughtsman Mechanical (NSQF Level-5) - Related Theory for Exercise 4.1.115 & 116 3
Description and working principle of dead weight safety valve
• explain the construction features of a dead weight safety valve
• explain function of dead weight safety value.
Dead weight safety valve

Function of Dead weight safety valve
A valve is placed over a value seat, which is fixed upon
a long vertical pipe. It has a flange at the bottom to fix at
the top of the boiler. A weight carrier which carries cast
iron ring suspended at the top of the value. As and when
the steam pressure in the boiler exceeds the normal
pressure, it lifts the valve along with its weight. The steam
which is seems to be excess escapes through the pipe,
until the pressure decreases to the normal valve. This
type of valve is employed only to the stationary type of
boilers, because it cannot withstand any jerk or vibration
due to displacement (marine). This is heavy in weight
and required to withstand the stem pressure. So it is not
acceptable for high pressure boilers. The objection to
dead weight safety valve is that it carries heavy weight.
The construction features of a dead weight safety
A weight carrier ‘C’ hanged from the top of the boiler
valve. (Fig 1)
which carries a cast iron rings. The rings are called as
The dead weight safety valve has a value V which is weight ‘W’, and the total weight must be sufficient to
made of gun metal. It is made of gun metal. It is made keep the valve as the seat against the normal working
off from gun metal because to prevent from rusting. The pressure.
value is seated on a gun metal seat ‘S’. It is fixed to the
top of a vertical steam pipe P. The vertical pipe which
carries steam has a flange ‘F’ at its bottom to fix at the
top of the boiler shell.
Description and working principle of rams bottom safety valve

Objective: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the function and construction features of rams bottom safety value.
Rams bottom safety valve at one end to the lever and the other end to the eye bolt
It is a boiler mounting and a safety device which protects 2 by pins 7 and split pins 8. The required rigidity is
the boiler against building-up of excess pressure. The provided to this assembly by fixing the spring 10 between
spring used in the safety valve is set to act when the the eye bolt and the lever (holes are provided in the
stream pressure exceeds the set value and allows the lever and eye bolt for this purpose)
steam to escape. Thus, only the permissible value of When the set valve of the pressure exceeds in the boiler,
steam pressure is allowed inside the boiler. the lever moves and allows the valves to get lifted from
Figure 1 shows the details of Rams bottom safety valve. the seats concerned. The movement of the lever is
It consists of housing 1 with two valve chests. The valve permitted due to the slot provided centrally in it and
seats 4 are screwed into the housing and valves 5 are returns to the original position due to spring action.
located in the valve seats. The eye bolt 2 is fastened to Figure shows the assembled views of the Rams bottom
the bridge of the housing, by means of washer 11 and safety valve.
both the nuts 12 and 13. Pivot 6 is pinned to the lever 9
and it is placed over the valves and held in position by
safety links 3 and spring 10. The safety links 3 are fixed
Valves and boiler mountings inside union 8 is slipped onto the stem from below. This
is placed in the union 2 and screwed. The wedge valve
A valve is used on a fluid line to check or control the
is threaded on the stem and the assembly is placed in
fluid flow. It may be operated by the pressure of the fluid
the valve body and screwed. The gland is placed from
or by hand. A number of designs of valves are available;
the top of the stem so that it enters the union. It is fixed
however the gate valve permits the whole area of the
in position by the union ring 3. Finally, the hand wheel 6
passage for the flow of fluid, when fully opened. This
is placed on the square end of the screw and fixed in
minimizes any energy loss in the fluid flow.
position by means of a nut (not shown). The gate valve
The wedge valve 4 in this design is guided by the control may be fixed for any direction of the fluid flow.
screw 5. When fully opened, the wedge valve clears-off
the passage in the valve body I for the flow of fluid. The
Screw down Stop valve (Fig 4)
Note: To have general idea of sectional
elevation of there are shown for reference. Similar to any other valve, this valve is also used in a
fluid line to control the fluid flow. In the similar to any
Fig 4 shows the sectional assembled, view of the screw other valve, gets lifted by 5 mm from the seat to allow
down stop valve. the fluid flow from left to right. fully open position, valve
gets lifted by 5 mm from the seat to allow the fluid flow
from left to right.
During operation of the hand wheel, the screw 9 either
lifts the valve, opening the fluid passage or screws down seat. The isometric view of the inverted valve shows
the valve, closing the fluid passage. Hence, the name the details of he webs. However, in the non-return valve,
actuating screw. a separate valve seat is not provided.
Fig 5 shows the sectional assembled view of a non return Feed check valve (Fig 6)
valve (light duty)
Fig 5 a show the brass / metal non return valve
Non - return valve (light duty) Fig 5
Valve is a device used for regulating the flow of fluid. In
the non - return valve, the pressure of the fluid allows
the flow in one direction only.
When the inlet pressure of the fluid is greater than the
pressure at the top of the valve, it gets lifted allows the
fluid to flow past. However, as the fluid pressure builds
- up more at the top; the flow ceases and the fluid will
not be permitted in the reverse direction, due to shutting
of the valve automatically. It is used in boiler feed water
system.
As water with pressure enters at the bottom of the valve,
gets lifted in the valve seat, allowing free flow of water
through the exit. However, the amount of lift of the valve
is controlled by the cover.
5 a Non - return Valve
When a valve is operated by the pressure of a fluid, it is
called a non - return valve, because, due to the reduction
in the pressure of the fluid, the valve automatically shuts-
off, ensuring non-return of the fluid. Figure shows a It is used in boilers to regulate the supply of feed water
brass/gun metal valve with a bevelled edge on the valve and to maintain the water level. It is fitted close to the
boiler shell and in the feed pipe line. Fig 6 shows the
sectional assembled view of a feed check valve. The The valve member 2 is placed in the body through D
valve prevents water from being returned to the supply and spring 11 is introduced into the valve member. The
line, due to steam pressure in the boiler. Hence, it sealed adapter 4 is then screwed into the body so that it
functions like a non- return valve. touches the spring. Whenever there is and increase in
Fig 7 shows the sectional assembled view of the the line pressure, the valve member is lifted-off from its
pressure relief valve. seat. However, this lift may be adjusted by the adjusting
screw 3 which reaches the valve member through sealed
Pressure Relief Valve (Fig 7) adapter and spring. The washer 9 of correct thickness
This valve is used in a pipe line to relieve the excess ‘t’ is used between the body and the sealed adapter, not
pressure in the line and safeguard the installation. The only to adjust the spring pressure but also to act as seal.
sectional assembled view of a pressure relief valve are To prevent leakage of oil between the adjusting screw
shown in Fig 7. The valve is connected such that, the and the adapter, seal 10 is placed in the adapter. The
inlet of the fluid flow is attached to the port A and outlet adjusting screw is locked in position by means of the
to the port B. When the line pressure goes beyond the lock - nut 12.
set value, the fluid is let - off through the port C. The When the knob is operated so that the control rod forces
required line pressure may be set by changing the spring the valve member away from its seat, the fluid passes
pressure accordingly. through the port C. The washer 9 is placed between the
body and the adapter and it not only acts as an oil seal
but also controls the travel of control rod. When the knob
is operated in the opposite direction, the valve member
is returned to its seat by its spring pressure and the
control rod is returned by the influence of the oil pressure.
CG&M Related Theory for Exercise 4.1.117
Simple stationary fire tube boiler, boiler mountings

Objectives: At the end of this exercise you shall be able to
• state what is boiler
• explain working principle of a boiler
• state the different types of boiler and explain their features.
In this lesson we will study about what is a boiler; The 1 According to the contents in the tubes: According
boilers are used in power plant for the generation of to the contents in the tubes, the boilers can be
steam. They are crucial for the working of a power plant. classified as fire tube boiler and water tube boiler.
They are mostly used in the power plants where steam i Fire Tube Boiler: In fire tube boiler the fire or hot
turbines are used for the generation of electricity. The gas are present inside the tubes and water
knowledge of boiler is very essential if you are a surrounds these fire tubes. Since fire is inside the
mechanical engineer. tubes and hence it is named as fire tube boiler.
The heat from the hot gases is conducted through
the walls of the tube to the water.
• The examples of the fire tube boiler are: simple
vertical boiler, Cochran boiler, Lancashire boiler,
Cornish boiler, Locomotive boiler, Scotch marine
boiler and Velcon boiler.
ii Water Tube Boiler: In water tube boilers, the
water is present inside the tubes and the fire or
hot gases surrounds these water tubes.
• The examples of water tube boilers are: La -Mont
boiler, Benson boiler, Sterling boiler, Babcock and
What is a Boiler ? Wilcox boiler, Yarrow boiler and Loffler boiler.
A boiler is a closed vessel which is used to convert the Also Read:
water into high pressure steam. The high pressure steam • Steam Condenser - Definition, Working, Types and
so generated is used to generate power. Advantages
Working principle of a Boiler • Lever Safety Valve - Definition, Main parts and
Working
• Peloton Turbine Working, Main Parts, Application with
Diagram
2 According to the Number of Tubes: According to
the no of tubes, the boilers are classified as single
tube boiler and multitubular boilers.
i Single Tube Boilers: The boilers which contain
one fire tube or water tube are called as single
tube boiler.
• The examples of single tube boilers are Cornish
The boiler works on the same principle as the water is
boiler and simple vertical boiler.
heated in a closed vessel and due to heating , the water
changes into steam. This steam possesses high ii Multitubular Boiler: The boilers which has two
pressure kinetic energy. The boiler contains water. The or more water tube or fire tubes are called multi
water is heated to its boiling temperature by the use of tubular boilers.
heat from the furnace. Due to heating of water, it gets • Lancashire boiler, Locomotive boiler, Cochran
converted into high pressure steam. The steam boiler, Babcock and Wilcox boilers are
generated is passed through the steam turbines. As the multitubular boilers.
high pressure steam strikes the turbine, it rotates the 3 According to the position of the Furnace:
turbine. A generator is attached to the turbine and the According to the position of the furnace, the steam
generator also starts to rotate with the turbine and boilers are classified as internally fired boilers and
produces electricity. externally fired boilers.
Different types of Boiler:Boilers can be classified in i Internally Fired Boilers: The boilers in which the
different basis but here discussing the only important furnace is located inside the boiler shell are called
basis of boiler classification. internally fired boilers.
9
• Among all the fire tube boilers, most of the boilers the sediments collected. At the time of operation, water
are internally fired boilers. and sediments forcedly rush through the side flange of
ii Externally Fired Boilers: In externally fired cock and out through the bottom flange. Figure shows
boilers, the furnace is located outside the boiler the parts of blow of cock which consist of hollow conical
shell. In this the furnace is arranged underneath shaped body in which the cock is located. Both the cock
in brick work setting. body have vertical slots and when they are aligned, water
rushes through the cock. The gland is fastened to the
• Water tube boilers are always externally fired
body by means of studs, To prevent leakage, packing
boilers.
material is placed between the cock and gland.
4 According to the Axis of the Shell: According to
Blow of cock is used to drain out or blow off the water
the axis of the shell, the boilers are classified as
from the boiler shell, when it is excepted for chocking
vertical boilers and horizontal boilers.
repairing or cleaning process In this blow of cock used
i Vertical boilers: The in which the axis of the shell to control the flow is called plug or cock and hence it is
is vertical are called vertical boilers. called as blow of cock.
• Examples of vertical boilers are: simple vertical The material of blow of cock is either cast iron or gun -
boiler and Cochran boiler. metal generally the cock of the block is hollow conical
ii Horizontal Boilers: When the axis of the shell in as said above but in some cases it may be hollow
a boiler is found horizontal then it is called as cylindrical.
horizontal boiler.
• Lancashire boiler, Babcock and Wilcox boiler and
locomotive boilers are examples of horizontal
boilers.
5 According to the Methods of Circulation of Water
and Steam: According to the method of circulation
of water and steam, the steam boilers are divided
into natural circulation boilers and forced circulation
boilers.
i Natural Circulation Boilers: In natural circulation
boilers, the circulation of water takes place
naturally by the convection currents that set up
during the heating of water.
• In most of the boilers there is a natural circulation
of water such as Lancashire boiler, Cochran boiler
etc.
ii Forced Circulation Boilers: In this type of steam
boilers, the water circulation takes place with the
help of a centrifugal pump driven by some external
power, Here the circulation is forced by some
external agency.
• Forced circulation is used in high pressure boilers
such as La- Mont boiler, Loeffler boiler, Benson
boiler etc.
6 According to the use: According to the use, the
boilers are classified as stationary boilers and mobile
boilers
i Stationary Boilers: These are the boilers which
are stationary and cannot be moved from one
place to another. Once they are installed, cannot
be transported to other destination.
• These boilers are used in power plants and in
industrial process works.
ii Mobile Boilers: these are the steam boilers which
can be moved from one place to another.
• Locomotive and marine boilers are mobile - boilers
In this article we have studied about what is a boiler?
different types of boilers.
Function and purpose of blow off cock: A blow of
cock is fitted at the lowest part of the boiler, to remove
10 C G & M: Draughtsman Mechanical (NSQF Level-5) - Related Theory for Exercise 4.1.117
Hydraulic system - components - working principle

• define hydraulic system
• description and working principle of hydraulic jack
• state different types of actuators
• explain hydraulic directional valve
• explain throttle valve
• state knowledge of FRL.
Hydraulic systems It consists of:
Introduction and working principle: • a movable piston connected to the output shaft in an
enclosed cylinder
The controlled movement of parts or a controlled
application of force is a common requirement in the • storage tank
industries. These operations are performed mainly by
• filter
using electrical machines or diesel, petrol and steam
engines as a prime mover. These prime movers can • electric pump
provide various movements to the objects by using some • pressure regulator
mechanical attachments like screw jack, lever, rack, and
pinions etc. However, these are not the only prime • control valve
movers. The enclosed fluids (liquids and gases) can also • leak proof closed loop piping.
be used as prime movers to provide controlled motion
and force to the objects or substances. The specially • The output shaft transfers the motion or force,
designed enclosed fluid systems can provide both liner however, all other parts help to control the system.
as well as rotary motion. The high magnitude controlled • The storage/fluid tank is a reservoir for the liquid used
force can also be applied by using these systems. The as a transmission media.
kind of enclosed fluid based systems using pressurized
incompressible liquids as transmission media are called • The liquid used is generally high - density
as hydraulic systems. The hydraulic system works on incompressible oil. It is filtered to remove dust or any
the principle of pascal’s law which says that the pressure other unwanted particles and then pumped by the
in an enclosed fluid is uniform in all the directions. The hydraulic pump.
pascal’s law is illustrated in the Fig 1. • The capacity of the pump depends on the hydraulic
system design. These pumps generally deliver
constant volume in each revolution of the pump shaft.
Therefore, the fluid pressure can increase indefinitely
at the dead end of the piston until the system fails.
• The pressure regulator is used to avoid such
circumstances which redirect the excess fluid back
to the storage tank. The movement of piston is
controlled by changing liquid flow from port A and
port B.
The cylinder movement is controlled by using control
valve which directs the fluid flow. The fluid pressure line
The force given by fluid is given by the multiplication of
is connected to the port B to raise the piston and it is
pressure and area of cross-section. As the pressure is
connected to port A to lower down the piston. The valve
same in all the direction, the smaller piston feels a
can also stop the fluid in any of the port.
smaller force and a large piston feels a large force.
Therefore, a large force can be generated with smaller The leak - proof piping is also important due to safety,
force input by using hydraulic systems. environmental hazards and economical aspects.
Components The combined pumping and driving motor unit is known
as a hydraulic pump. they can be of two types:
The hydraulic systems consists a number of parts for its
proper functioning. The schematic of a simple hydraulic 1 Centrifugal pumps: Centrifugal pump uses rotational
system is shown in Fig 1. kinetic energy to deliver the fluid. The rotational
energy typically comes from an engine or electric
motor.
11
3 Automobiles: It is used in the systems like breaks,
shock absorbers, steering system, wind shield, lift,
and cleaning etc.
4 Marine applications: It mostly covers ocean-going
vessels, fishing boats, and navel equipment.
5 Aerospace equipment : There are equipment and
systems used for rudder control, landing gear,
breaks, flight control and transmission etc. Which are
used in airplanes, rockets, and spaceships.
2 Reciprocating pumps: The reciprocating pump is a Advantages and disadvantages of Hydraulic
positive plunger pump. It is also known as positive systems:
displacement pump or piston pump. It is often used
Advantages:
where relatively small quantity is to be handled and
the delivery pressure is quite large. The construction • The hydraulic system uses incompressible fluid which
of these pumps is similar to the four stroke engine. results in higher efficiency.
• It delivers consistent power output which is difficult
Applications of hydraulic systems:
in pneumatic or mechanical drive systems.
The hydraulic systems are mainly used for precise • Hydraulic systems employ high-density
control of larger forces. The main applications of the incompressible fluid. The possibility of leakage is less
hydraulic system can be classified into five categories: in a hydraulic system as compared to that in a
1 Industrial : Plastic processing machinery, steel pneumatic system. The maintenance cost is less.
making and primary metal extraction applications, • These systems perform well in hot environmental
automated production lines, machine tool industries, conditions.
paper industries, loaders, crushes, textile machinery, Disadvantages:
R & D equipment and robotic systems etc.
• The material of storage tank, piping, cylinder, and
2 Mobile hydraulics: Tractors, irrigation system, piston can be corroded with the hydraulic fluid.
earthmoving equipment, material handling Therefore one must be careful while selecting
equipment, commercial vehicles, tunnel boring materials and hydraulic fluid.
equipment, rail equipment, building, and construction • The structural weight and size of the system is more
machinery and drilling rigs etc. which makes it unsuitable for the smaller instruments.
• The small in purities in the hydraulic fluid can
permanently damage the complete system, therefore
one should be careful and suitable filter must be
installed.
• The leakage of hydraulic fluid is also a critical issue
and suitable prevention method and seals must be
adopted.
• The hydraulic fluids, if not disposed of properly, can
be harmful to the environment.
Description and working principle of hydraulic jack

• explain the purposes of hydraulic jack
• explain how the hydraulic jack works.
Purposes of hydraulic jack How Hydraulic Jacks Work...? (Fig 4)
A jack is a mechanical device used as a lifting device to A jack is a device that uses forces to lift heavy loads.
lift heavy loads or to apply great forces. A mechanical The primary mechanism with which force is applied
jack employs a screw thread for lifting heavy equipment. varies, depending on the specific type of jack, but is
A hydraulic jack uses hydraulic power. The most typically a screw thread or a hydraulic cylinder. Jacks
common form is a car jack, floor jack or garage jack, can be categorized based on the type of force they
which lifts vehicles so that maintenance can be employ: mechanical or hydraulic. Mechanical jacks, such
performed. Jacks are usually rated for a maximum lifting as car jacks and house jacks, lift heavy equipment and
capacity (for example, 1.5 tons or 3 tons). Industrial jacks are rated based on lifting capacity (for example, the
can be rated for many tons of load. (Fig 1, 2 & 3) number of tons they can lift). Hydraulic jacks tend to be
stronger and can lift heavier loads higher, and include
bottle jacks and floor jacks.
Hydraulic jacks depend on force generated by pressure.
Essentially, if two cylinders (a large and a small one)
are connected and force is applied to one cylinder, equal
pressure is generated in both cylinders. However,
because one cylinder has a large area, the force the
larger cylinder produces will be higher, although the
pressure in the two cylinders will remain the same.
Hydraulic jacks depend on this basic principle to lift
heavy loads: they use pump plungers to move oil through
two cylinders. The plunger is first drawn back, which
opens the suction valve ball within and draws oil into
the pumps chamber. As the plunger is pushed forward,
the oil moves through an external discharge check valve
into the cylinder chamber, and the suction valve closes,
which results in pressure building within the cylinder.
Different types of actuator

Objective: At the end of this exercise you shall be able to
• different types of actuators
There are three main systems on which the operation

of the ship is mostly based - hydraulic, pneumatic,
electrical and electronic systems. All these are mainly
responsible to control the starting and stopping
mechanisms of any marine machinery. To make it
possible, an actuator is connected to such system which
makes the system operational mainly from a remote
position.
Different Types of Actuators
Mechanical Actuator: In mechanical actuators normally
a rotary motion is converted into linear motion to perform
an operation. Such actuator normally involves gears,
rails, pulley, chain, springs etc to operate. (Fig 1)
A basic example of a mechanical actuator is chain block
hoisting weight in which mechanical motion of chain over Pneumatic Actuator: Pneumatic energy is most
the sprocket is utilized to lift a rated load. commonly used for actuators for main engine controls.
In the type, compressed air at high pressure is used
which converts this energy into either linear or rotary
motion. (Fig 2)
The most common example is Main engine pneumatic The electrical energy is used to actuate a mechanical
actuator for changing of Roller Position over cam shaft system using magnetic field i.e EMF. Basic example are
for reversing. electrical motor operated valve and magnetic valve
Hydraulic Actuator: Unlike air, liquid cannot be actuator or solenoid valve.
compressed and hence hydraulics generates higher In solenoid valve the electrical signal which will
energy than any other system. All systems involving high magnetize the upper portion of the valve, which will then
loads are operated by hydraulic actuators in which oil attract the valve seat and open the system. When
pressure is applied on mechanical actuator to give an electrical supply is removed, valve gets shut by spring
output in terms of rotary or linear motion. action.
Basic example is steering gear of ship in which hydraulic Hybrid Actuators: These are mixture of some of the
pressure is used to move the rudder actuator. above systems which control the mechanical part of the
Electrical Actuator: It is one of the cleanest and readily system. Common example is a thermo hydraulic
available forms of actuating system as it does not involve Electronic actuator used in operating valves in hot water
oil; as there is no need to compress air, hence no extra system, wherein hot water liquid is used along with
machinery. Electrical energy is always available on ship. electronic system acting as control for the valve
Hydraulic directional valve symbol

• what the hydraulic DC valve symbol
• state 2 way, 3 way, 4 & 5 way directional control valve.
A pressure relief valve is called safety valve in some in and out of it. This will always allow the flow of fluid
occasion, it really protect hydraulic system or other better when compared to may other fluid flow options
hydraulic components. The valve is like a guard keeping that people use in their machines.
an eye on a doors. The guard should be flexible and
strong enough to deal with different stages of alarm.
Hydraulic Directional valve symbols introduction:
The spool mounted in the directional valves common
known as sliding type often consists of lands as well as
grooves. Most of the lands often block oil flow that flow
through the body of the valve. The grooves also allow
gas or oil to flow around the given spool at the same
time through valve body. There are 2 fundamental
positions of the directional control valve that the normal
position and here the valve returns on the removal of
the actuating force while often work in a positive position
of a valve whenever the valve applies the actuating force.
There is another valves class that has 3 or even more
position that can be spring cantered at the same time
have 2 working position together with a normal position.
You need to know that directional control valves are
classified according to their number of ports, the number
of positions, the actuating methods and the type of spool.
This will always help you make the best choice if you
are planning of making the best decision when
controlling them.
The following are different spool positions of
schematic symbols that are commonly used in
directional control valves.
2 way directional control valves
3-Way directional control valves
The 2- way directional valve often has 2 ports normally
known as inlet and outlet. Whenever the inlet valve is The 3-way directional control valves
blocked in at -rest condition, the situation is common
The 3-way valve often has 3 working ports. The ports
known as the “normally closed” (NC). This at - rest box
are an inlet, outlet, and tank (exhaust). A 3-way valve
or normal condition is one of the flow lines that often go
does not only supply an actuator with the fluid, but also
allows fluid to make a return from it. This will always a making a decision of using them. This should help you
w-way directional control valves. This has been the make the flow of the fluid much easier than before. In
compared to many other options that exist in many conclusion, the above information will always enable you
industries. have more information that you need as you make that
4- way and 5-way directional control valves choice of learning how it directional control valves works.
They also work just like the previously mentioned ones.

However, you need to know more about them prior to
Throttle valve
• state what is a throttle value
• state the general working principle of valve
• state the type of valves.
What is a Throttle valve? (Fig 1) throttle orifice hole to actuators or to oil tank. By
A throttle valve is the most commonly used in various regulating he adjustable knob to move the valve poppet
filed, even in our kitchen, for example. The working position axially, which is be able to achieve fluid flow
principle of home faucet is the simple throttle valve, but rate adjustment by adjusting cross - sectional area of
the difference is hydraulic oil as media and high pressure throttle port.
in industrial field instead of water in home. The throttle There are other throttle port type, such as needle throttle
valve is throttling the fluid flow, there are many different valve, eccentric style throttle valve, poppet seal throttle
structures designed to throttle and it is better to choose valve and axial gap throttle valve. please refer the
the correct one for some certain working condition. following details:
finotek.com
Needle Type Throttle valve: (Fig 2a)
The needle type of throttle valve regulates the fluid flow
rate by adjusting the size of throttle area through the
axial movement of needle throttle poppet.
Throttle valve is the one of the most simple and widely

used as flow control valve, it is often equipped with
pressure relief vale to compose a variety of throttle speed
adjustment hydraulic circuit or system for fixed position
pump oil supplying. According to different ways of
manipulating the throttle valves can be divided into
general manually adjustable throttle valve, cam operated
mechanical moving response throttle vale and other
different throttling forms. The throttle valve is often
installed with a one way check valve to become one
way throttle check valve, there are threaded type and
modular type (including sandwich type) as per the way
of connection.
General Working principle of Throttle Valve:The
picture above is the axial orifice type throttle valve. The
inlet port and outlet port T are drilled on the valve house,
there is a axial triangle throttle orifice hole is created on
the top of valve poppet (part no 3), the fluid flows into P
oil ports and flows out from T oil port through triangle
Feature: Simple structure, but longer throttle gap with equipment, such as valves and cylinders, Before air can
small hydraulic force radius, therefore, the needle throttle be used it needs to be filtered, regulated and lubricated.
valve is easily be blocked and influenced by hydraulic
An airline filter (Fig 3) cleans compressed air, It strains
oil temperature. The needle type throttle valve is often
the air and traps solid particles (dust, dirt, rust) and
used in general working condition.
separates liquids (water, oil) entrained in the compressed
Eccentric - type Throttle valve: (Fig 2b) air, Filters are installed in the air line upstream of
regulators, lubricators, directional control valves, and
There is an eccentric slot of three angle shape on the
air driven devices such as cylinders and air motors.
cross section of valve poppet, the eccentric throttle valve
adjusts the fluid flow rate by turning the valve poppet to
change the size of throttle area.
Feature: The eccentric type throttle valve feature is most
similar valve feature is most similar with needle throttle
valve, it is easy to be manufactured, but the
disadvantage is unbalanced radial force on the valve
poppet and hardly to rotate the adjustment wheel,
especially under higher pressure. The eccentric throttle
valve is used
Axial Triangular Slot Throttle Valve: (Fig 2c)
There are one or two triangular slots on the end of valve
poppet, the fluid flow rate is able to be regulated by the
poppet axial movement to adjust the area of triangular Airline filters remove contaminants from pneumatic
slot. systems, preventing damage to equipment and reducing
Feature: Large hydraulic force radius, better stability production losses due to contaminant - related
for small flow rate. When the triangular slots are downtime. Downtime in an industrial plant is expensive;
manufactured symmetrically, the hydraulic radial force often it is the result of a contaminated and poorly
keeps balance in hydraulic system. The axial triangular maintained compressed air system.
slow throttle valve is often used for high pressure Selecting the proper size of filter for any application
systems. should be done by determining the maximum allowable
Groove throttle valve: (Fig 2d) pressure drop, which can be caused by the filter. The
pressure drop can be determined by referring to flow
The groove throttle valve is throttling the flow by a groove curves provided by the manufacturer.
on the valve poppet. The oil fluid flows into internal holes
through the groove, then flows out from the left holes. There are three types of filters. General purpose,
To turn the valve poppet is able to change the groove Coalescing (oil removal), and Vapuor removal. General
gap area and throttle the oil by the area dimension. purpose, are used to remove water and particles,
Coalescing, to remove oil ad Vapuor removal, to remove
Feature: The throttle oil port can be produced to a thin oil vapuor and odor.
edge shape, to achieve small and low stable flow, but
the valve poppet is unbalance while operation by radial Pressure regulators (Fig 3) reduce and control fluid
force, therefore, the groove throttle valve is usually used pressure in compressed air systems. Regulators are also
for low pressure hydraulic system. frequently referred to as PRVs (pressure reducing
valves). Optimally, a pressure regulator maintains a
Axial gap type Throttle valve: (Fig 2e) constant output pressure regardless of variations in the
There is a slut on the valve sleeve, moving the valve input pressure and downstream flow requirements. In
sleeve in axial directional to change the gap area size practice, output pressure is influenced to some degree
in order to adjust the fluid flow rate. by variations in primary pressure and flow.
Feature: The valve sleeve is available to produce as Pressure regulators are used to control pressure to: air
single thin blade or double thin blade structure, hence, tools, such as impact wrenches, blow guns, air gauging
the flow is not sensitive to temperature variation. The equipment, air cylinders, air - bearings, air motors,
axial gap type throttle valve is used for high performance spraying devices, fluidic systems, air logic valves,
requirement working condition because its large aerosol lubrication systems and most other fluid power
hydraulic force radius at throttle ports and good stability applications.
under small flow rate. Downstream equipment flow and pressure requirements
What is the purpose of a Filter Regulator Lubricator must be determined to properly size the correct regulator
(FRL)? (Fig 3) for the application.
Air leaving a compressor is hot, dirty, and wet - which

can damage and shorten the life of downstream
A lubricator (Fig 3) adds controlled quantities of oil into components. When lubricators are not used in a system,
a compressed air system to reduce the friction of moving a coalescing filter should be installed to remove
components. compressor oil aerosols.
Most air tools, cylinders, valves air motors, and other There are two types of airline lubricator: Oil -Fog for
air driven equipment require lubrication to extend their heavy applications such as single tools, cylinders and
useful life. The use of an air line lubricator (Fig 3) solves valves and Micro - Fog for multiple applications, several
the problems of too much or tool little lubrication that cylinders or valves. In oil-fog lubricators, all the oil
arise with conventional lubrication methods such as a droplets seen in the sight dome are added directly into
grease gun or oil, as well as supplying the right kind of the air flow. This results in relatively large oil droplets
lubricant for the tools being used. Once the lubricator is passing downstream. In micro - fog lubricators, the oil
adjusted, an accurately metered quantity of lubricant is droplets seen in the sight dome are automized and
supplied to the air operated equipment and the only collected in the area above the oil in the bowl. The
maintenance required is a periodic refill of the lubricator smaller lighter particles are drawn into the air flow and
reservoir. Adding lubrication to a system also “Washes pass downstream. As a result, typically only 10% of the
away” compressor oils that travel through the system in oil seen as drops in the sight dome is passed
vapor form. Mineral oils added to the system prevent downstream.
synthetic compressor oil build - up on system
Pneumatic Actuator Basics

• introduction
• explain basic styles
• define pneumatic actuator force speed and maintenance.
There are thousands of industrial applications that require Single - acting cylinders have a single port to allow
a linear motion during their operation sequence. One of compressed air to enter the cylinder to move the piston
the simplest and most cost effective ways to accomplish to the desired position. They use an internal spring or
this s with a pneumatic actuator. Pneumatic actuators sometimes simply gravity to return the piston to the
are also very clean operating because the operating fluid “home” position when the air pressure is removed. Single
is a gas, which prevents leakage from dripping and - acting cylinders are a good choice when work is done
contaminating the surroundings. only in one direction such as lifting an object or pressing
This section will discuss the basic construction and an object into another object.
function of a pneumatic actuator, the relationship with a Double - acting cylinders (Fig 2) have a port at each end
fluid power system and the selection guidelines for and move the piston forward and back by alternating the
pneumatic actuators or air cylinders. (Fig 1) port that receives the high pressure air. This uses about
Fig 1 twice as much energy as a single-acting cylinder, but is
necessary when a load must be moved in both directions
such as opening and closing a gate.
Basic styles
Pneumatic actuators convert compressed air into rotary
or linear motion. There are many styles of pneumatic
actuators: diaphragm cylinders, rod less cylinders,
telescoping cylinders and through - rod cylinders.
This actuator style can be sub-divided into two types
based on the operating principle: single acting and double
acting.
In a typical application, the actuator body is connected Pressure and flow requirements of the actuators in a
to a support frame and the end of the rod is connected system must be taken into account when selecting these
to a machine element that is to be moved. A control upstream system components to ensure the desired
valve is used to direct compressed air into the extend performance. Undersized.
port while opening the retract port to atmosphere. The
difference in pressure on the two sides of the piston Schematic diagram of pneumatic actuator
results in a force equal to the pressure differential (Fig 3)
multiplied by the area of the piston. If the load connected
to the rod is less than the resultant force, the piston and
rod will extend and move the machine element. Changing
the valve to direct compressed air to the retract port while
opening the extend port to atmosphere will cause the
cylinder assembly to retract back to the “home” position.
Pneumatic actuators are at the working end of a fluid
power system. Upstream of these units, which produce
the visible work of moving a load, there are compressors,
filters, pressure regulators, lubricators, control valves and
flow controls. Connecting all of these together is a
network of piping or tubing (either rigid or flexible) and
fittings.
Different types of pump systems

Objective: At the end of this exercise you shall be able to
• state different type of pump system
• state the characteristics of a pump system
• explain pressure friction and flow energy
• state head in pump systems.
1 Different types of pump systems Back in the old days domestic water supply was simpler
a the good old days. Goodnight john boy.(Fig 1a)
There are many types of centrifugal pump systems.
Fig 1 shows a typical industrial pump system. There are Fig 1a
many variations on this including all kinds of equipment
that can be hooked up to these systems that are not
shown. A pump after all is only a single component of a
process although an important and vital one. The pumps’
role is to provide sufficient pressure to move the fluid
through the system at the desired flow rate.
Domestic water systems take their water from various

sources at different levels depending on the water table
and terrain contours. (Fig 2)
The system in Figure 3 is a typical domestic water Fig 2a

supply system that takes it’s water from a shallow well
(25 feet down max.) using an end suction centrifugal
pump. A jet pump works well in this application
The system in Figure 4 is another typical domestic water
supply system takes it’s water from a deep well ( 200-
300 feet) and uses a multi - stage submersible pump
often called a turbine pump
Fig 2a Typical jet pump
19
Fig 4 Typical residential deep well pump system Fig 5 Typical residential deep well pump system
Fig 6 Another representation of a typical residential deep force responsible for the movement of the fluid. Friction
well pump system. is the force that slows down fluid particles. Flow rate is
the amount of volume that is displaced per unit time.
Fig 7
Fig 7 Typical deep well residential submersible pump.

2 Three important characteristics of pump systems:
Pressure, friction and flow. (Fig 8)
Pressure, friction and flow are three important
characteristics of a pump system. Pressure is the driving
Pressure is often expressed in pounds per square inch measurement and there is no kpa, In a pipe or tube that
(psi) in the imperial system and kilo pascals (kpa) in the is at the same level, your garden hose for example, the
metric system. In the Imperial system of measurement, pressure is high at the tap and zero at the hose outlet,
the unit psi or pounds per square inch gauge is used, it this decrease in pressure is due to friction and is the
means that the pressure measurement is relative to the pressure loss.
local atmospheric pressure, so that 5 psi is 5 psi above
Table 1 Expected flow rates for 100 feet of pipe of various
the local atmospheric pressure. The kPa unit scale is
diameters based on available pressure.
intended to be a scale of absolute pressure
Table 1
Flow rate based on available pressure ad pipe size
Nom. Inside Flow Flow Flow Flow Flow
dia.(in) dia. (in) rate (gpm) rate (gpm) rate (gpm) rate (gpm) rate (gpm)
@ 30 psi @ 40 psi @ 50 psi @ 60 psi @ 70 psi
1/4 0.311 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2
1/2 0.527 5.4 6.3 7 7.7 8.5
3/4 0.745 13.6 15.6 17.7 20 21
1 0.995 29 34 38 42 46
1 1/2 1.6 103 119 135 147 160
Fig 9 a typical garden hose connection, see table 1 for as the fluid moves through the needle to produce a great
flow rate vs. pressure. deal of pressure in the body of the syringe.
Fig 9 Fig 11 Pressure produced by fluid friction in s syringe.
If we apply this idea to the pump system of Figure 5,

even though the discharge pipe end is open, it is
possible to have pressure at the pump discharge
because there is sufficient friction in the system and
Fig 10 typical pump system elevation difference.
3 What is friction in a pump system
Friction is always present, even in fluids, it is the force
that resists the movement of objects.
Fig 12 Friction, the force that resist movement
The pump provides the energy necessary to drive the

fluid through the system and overcome friction and any
elevation difference.
Pressure is increased when fluid particles are forced
closer together. For example, in a fire extinguisher work
or energy has been spent to pressurize the liquid
chemical within, that energy can be stored and used later.
Is it possible to pressurize a liquid within a container
that is open ?Yes. A good example is a syringe, as you
push down on the plunger the pressure increases and
the harder you have to push. There is enough friction
C G & M: Draughtsman Mechanical (NSQF Level-5) - Related Theory for Exercise 4.1.120 21
When you move a solid on a hard surface, there is friction energy in pump systems: pressure, elevation, friction
between the object and the surface. If you put wheels and velocity.
on it, there will be less friction. In the case of moving
Pressure is produced at the bottom of the reservoir
fluids such as water, there is even less friction but it can
because the liquid fills up the container completely and
become significant for long pipes. Friction can be also
its weight produces a force that is distributed over a
be high for short pipes which have a high flow rate and
surface which is pressure. This type of pressure is called
small diameter as in the syringe example.
static pressure. Pressure energy is the energy that
In fluids, friction occurs between fluid layers that are builds up when liquid or gas particles are moved slightly
travelling at different velocities within the pipe (see figure closer to each other. A good example is a fire
8). There is a natural tendency for the fluid velocity to extinguisher, work was done to get the liquid into the
be higher in the center of the pipe than near the wall of container and then to pressurize it. Once the container
the pipe. Friction will also be high for viscous fluids and is closed the pressure energy is available for later use.
fluids with suspended particles.
Any time you have liquid in a container, even one that is
Fig 13 Friction between layers of fluid and the pipe well. not pressurized, you will have pressure at the bottom
due to the liquid’s weight, this is known as static
pressure.
Elevation energy is the energy that is available to a liquid
when it is at a certain it can drive something useful like
a turbine producing electricity.
Friction energy is the energy that is lost to the
environment due to the movement of the liquid through
pipes and fittings in the system.
Velocity energy is the energy that moving objects have.
When a pitcher throws a baseball he gives it velocity
energy. When water comes out of a garden hose, it has
Another cause of friction is the interaction of the fluid velocity energy.
with the pipe wall, the rougher the pipe, the higher the
Fig 15 The relationship between height, pressure and
friction.
velocity.
Friction depends on:
- average velocity of the fluid within the pipe
- viscosity
- pipe surface roughness
An increase in any one of these parameters will increase
friction.
The amount of energy required to overcome the total
friction loss within the system has to be supplied by the
pump if you want to achieve the required flow rate.
Fig 14 Streamline flow patterns for typical fittings such
an elbow and a tee. In the figure above we see a tank full of water, a tube full
of water and a cyclist at the top of a hill. The tank
produces pressure at the bottom and so does the tube.
The cyclist has elevation energy that he will be using as
soon as he moves.
As we open the valve at the tank bottom the fluid leaves
the tank with a certain velocity, in this case pressure
energy is converted to velocity energy. The same thing
happens with the tube. In the cyclist, the elevation energy
is gradually converted to velocity energy.
4 Energy and head in pump systems The three forms of energy: elevation, pressure and
velocity interact with each other in liquids. For solid
Energy and head are two terms that are often used in objects there is no pressure energy because they don’t
pump systems. We use energy to describe the extend outwards like liquids filling up all the available
movement of liquids in pump systems because it is space and therefore they are not subject to the same
easier than any other method. There are four forms of kind of pressure changes.
The energy that the pump must supply is the friction energies is an energy deficiency that the pump must
energy plus the difference in height that the liquid must supply but as you can see the velocities of these two
be raised to which is the elevation energy. points will be quite small.
PUMP ENERGY = FRICTION ENERGY + ELEVATION
ENERGY
You are probably thinking where is the velocity energy
in all this. Well if the liquid comes out of the system at
high velocity then we would have to consider it but this
is not a typical situation and we can neglect this for the
systems discussed in this article. The last word on this
topic, it is actually the velocity energy difference that we
would need to consider. In figure 16 the velocities at
point 1 and point 2 are the result of the position of the
fluid particles at points 1 and 2 and the action of the
pump. The difference between these two velocity
Description and working principle of reciprocating pump

• describe parts and design of reciprocating pump
• state the material used in making the reciprocating pump
• explain the working principle of the reciprocating pump
• explain the maintenance required on the reciprocating pump
• explain uses of reciprocating pump, advantages and disadvantages
• explain main parts of reciprocating pump and its working.
Introduction Material used in making the reciprocating pump

Reciprocating pumps: In the present world plays a very Piston - Generally made by the mild steel.
important role in ship machinery and other industry. In
this high pressure is the very important main character. Liner - Mild steel
In this the high pressure output are being employed in Cylinder - Cast iron
places like starting of the engine and also we can say the
building of pressure in the fluids. As it requires more Suction pipe - G.I. Pipes
maintenance its application of use is very limited. The Delivery pipe - G.I. Pipes
pumps are positive displacement, and because of that
they do not need any type of positive to the functioning in Air vessel - Cast iron
the starting period of the pump. Working principle of reciprocating pump.
(Fig 1)
Reciprocating pump fitted with air vessels. (Fig 2)

Working of a reciprocating pump is very simple. It is like
an IC engine. Here the piston has the function of suction
force. Due to this function the liquid can be lift up or it can
be sucked in with sufficient force. Then it comes to the
compression part which gives the needed pressure energy
to the fluids. In this phase the liquid expressed properly
by the piston and its pressure increased to the required
level. The manufacturer set the inlet and outlet valve
open at a certain pressure.
In the single acting piston type, it can suck from one end
and so designed to transmit on the same side only. In
case of double reciprocating pump, the function of suction
and discharge takes place simultaneously in each stroke
of the piston. The pump can also be used as a compressor
for which it should have a good valve system to operate
with good frequency.
It should be noted that the reciprocating pump is a
positive displacements pump. It means that the fluids/
liquids can be moved to only one direction and they Sometimes it is used for ballast.
cannot be reverse back. Because of this activity the
pump is always kept the outlet open in starting if not the Advantages of reciprocating pump
pressure will keep on reusing, which leads to rupturing of 1 Provides high pressure outlet.
pipe line or even damage to pump. To prevent from
damage and rupture relief valve is fitted, so that the 2 High suction lift.
pressure will come down. 3 For starting primary is not required.
4 It is used as air compressor.
Disadvantages of reciprocating pump
1 High wear and tear.
2 Flow will not be uniform.
3 The flow is very less and due to this reason it cannot
be used for high flow operations.
4 Its weight more heavy.
5 Initial cost is very high.
Main parts and its working
1 Cylinder: It is made of cast iron or steel alloy. Piston
of this pump reciprocating in side of the cylinder. The
connecting rod which connects the piston and the
rotating crank causes the piston for its movement.
2 Suction pipe: The water is sucked through this pipe.
It connects the source of water and cylinder.
3 Delivery pipe: It delivers the water sucked by the
pump.
4 Suction valve: It controls/adjust the flow from the
suction pipe and discharge to the delivery pipe.
Maintenance required on the reciprocating pump: Delivery pipe
The reciprocating pump provides required pressure and
It takes the flow from the cylinder into the delivery pipe.
there are so many moving parts which are subjected to
wear and tear. Hence care has taken for the maintenance Air vessel
of the part for its well working condition and for its long life. It is a closed chamber made of cast iron. It has an
Due to this reason these pumps are used where high opening in which water flows to vessel.
pressure and high suction head is needed.
Working (Fig 3): At the time of suction stroke the piston
The following are the maintenance carried on the moves left and creates vacuum in the cylinder. This
reciprocating pump causes the suction valve to open. Then the water enters
to the cylinder. In delivery stroke the piston moves to
1 The piston rings are changed time to time as they are
right. This causes of increasing pressure in the cylinder
always direct contact with the linear body and causes
and makes the suction valve to close. Then the delivery
for wear and tear.
valve open and the water is discharged to the delivery
2 Case should be taken to prevent leakage of valves pipe. The air vessel is used for to get uniform discharge.
used in the pump, if not there will be heavy damage to
valves.
3 The gland packing to be done with more care to avoid
leakage.
4 In coupling and cross head of the pump to be taken for
more careful maintenance, because in which piston
gets linear motion and any type of misalignment lead
to wear and tear uses.
Advantages and disadvantages of the pump: The
reciprocating pump supplies lubrication oil to the main
engine for the proper function.
Reciprocating pump is the suction pump for the main
bilge.
Clamping devices
• explain clamping devices
• state the types of clamping devices.
• clamping system
• work holding devices of lathe and state.
Clamps: Clamps in jigs are meant for holding the

component in position against the cutting force. They
also help in rapid loading and unloading of the
components. Clamps are fitted in such a way they do
not interfere with the cutting operation.
The commonly used types of clamps are:
Strap clamp (Fig 1)
Latch clamp (Fig 4)
Cam clamp (Fig 2)

Wedge clamp (Fig 5)
Screw clamp (Fig 3)
25
Toggle clamp ( Fig 6) Hook clamp (Fig 7)
Work-holding and tool-holding in mass production

• explain the common types of work-holding and tool-holding
• fixtures in mass production, used for machining operation
• state the parts of a fixture
• state the function of setting blocks and balancing weight in fixtures.
Common types of fixtures uses for the machining

operations are:
• Milling fixture (Fig 1)
Standard clamps and locators

These are provided for clamping and locating the work
pieces with the fixture as in the case of drill jigs.
The clamps used in the fixtures are very rigid and sturdy.
• Turning fixture (Fig 2)
The setting blocks
• Grinding fixture etc
These are used to position the fixture and work relative
These fixtures consist of a base plate, standard clamps
to the cutter before machining.
and locators, setting blocks and balancing weights.
A feeler is introduced between the cutter and the setting
faces of the block for correct positioning of the cutter
with the fixture. (Fig 4)
Base plate
The base plate for a milling fixture is provided with
tendons at its bottom for proper location of the fixture
with the machine table through Tee slots. (Fig 3) Two or
four hold down slots are provided in the base plate for
rigid clamping of the fixture with the machine table.
27
Balancing weight of bolts. The work is held in the held in the various types
of work holding devices like three jaw chuck, four jaw
This is used dynamically balancing the irregular work
chuck, combination chuck, magnetic chuck, hydraulic
piece fixed to the turning or cylindrical grinding fixture.
chuck, face plate, driving plate, angle plate and lathe
In the case of a turning fixture, normally the base plate carriers.
of the fixture is clamped to the face plate. (Fig 5)
Types of work holding Devices
The following are the various work holding devices used
on lathe machine.
• Chuck
• Face plate
• Driving plate
• Angle plate
• Lathe carrier or lathe dog
Chucks (Fig 7)
Chucks are efficient and true devices for holding the work
on the lathe during the operation. The most common
types of chucks are:
Vice fixture
Standard machine vices, attached with special jaws, pro-
vide an easy method of holding parts for machining.
(Fig 6)
a Three jaw chuck

b Four jaw chuck
c Magnetic chuck
d Combination chuck
e Collect chuck
a Three jaw chuck: It is also known as three jaw self
centering chuck. It consists of a cylindrical body
having three jaws fixed radically at its front. Further,
it carries a through hole at its centre to enable the
long job to project backward in the spindle. It consists
of a circular disc having spiral scroll at its front and a
Other types of tooling used for positioning parts relative rack at its back. The rear face of jaws is provided
to each other for fabricating purposes are also commonly with slots corresponding to the scroll serrations. The
referred to as fixtures. Bending fixtures, assembly bevel pinions are fitted radically at the back of the
fixtures and welding fixtures are examples of this type. disc and they mesh with the rack at its back. Top of
these pinions are matching with the outer surface of
The construction of a fixture depends upon the
the chuck and have square slots to accommodate
machining and fabricating methods employed.
the chuck key. For operating the chuck anyone of
Work holding Devices used during operations on these pinion can be rotated by means of the chuck
Machine key which, intern, revolves the scroll disc. This causes
all the jaws to move in the radial direction
When cutting operations are performed on the machine,
simultaneously. Normally two sets of jaws are
lots of forces are generated. To counter these forces the
provided with each chuck, one for gripping on the
work and the tool have to be held rigidly so that during
outside surface & other for inside.
cutting operation there should not be any vibration or
jerk. The tool is held rigidly in the tool post with the help
b Four jaw chuck: In outside appearance, it is very • The surface of the job and the chuck should be
much similar to the three jaw chuck except that it has properly cleaned from oil etc.
four jaws, but its internal mechanism differs totally.
d Combination chuck: As the name implies a
The rear portion of its jaws is threaded & is engaged
combination chuck may be used as a self cantering
with separate adjusting screws. With the result all the
or as an independent chuck to take the advantages
jaws can be moved separately and adjusted at de-
of both types. The jaws may be operated individually
sired distance from the centre of the chuck. Due to
by separate screws or simultaneously by the scroll
this it is also known as independent jaw chuck. This
disc. The screws mounted on the frame have teeth
enables the chuck to successfully hold irregular or
cut on its underside which messes with the scroll and
eccentric jobs in addition to the regular cylindrical
all the jaws together with the screws move radically
shaped jobs. It is possible to reverse the same jaws
when the scroll is made to rotate by a pinion.
so that the work can be gripped from inside surfaces
also. e Collect chuck: It fits in to the spindle nose of the
headstock. It can be used on a centre lathe. Capstan
c Magnetic chuck: It holds the job by magnetic force.
lathe or turret lathe for producing items form bar stock.
The following are the two types of magnetic chucks
It is constructed with a hollow body having internal
these are explained in the subsequent paragraphs:
threads for screwing on the spindle nose. The slits in
i Permanent Magnetic chuck: it is generally used collets provides it with springing action to allow the
on lathes and surface grinders. For this no electric bar for easy passing These are of two types:
current is needed. When the operating lever brings
• Draw in type
the magnet to ‘ON’ position the flux coated inside.
The magnetic flux passes through the work and • Push out
hence holds it. it can hold light and thin jobs without
Face plate (Fig 8)
any clamp the complicated jobs, which are difficult
to be clamped in other chucks can be hold on it It is usually a circular cast iron disc having threaded hole
without use of clamping These are made either in at its centre so that it can be screw to the threaded nose
rectangular or circular shape. The following are of the spindle. It consists of number of holes and slots
different parts of permanent magnetic chuck. by means of which the work can be secured.
Body: It is made of cast iron. There is a provision in the
body for keeping the magnetic plates the body of the
round chuck is connected with a back plate, which is
threaded to be screwed on the nose of the spindle.
Base: It is also made of cast iron. In rectangular chuck
the base is used for mounting on the table. In round chuck
the base plate is used for mounting on the lathe spindle.
Magnetic plates: These are magnetic plates of high
strength, which are kept in the body.
Non - Ferrous metal plate: A non- ferrous metal plate Driving plate (Fig 9)
such as brass or aluminium is kept around the magnetic
plates. This plate does not allow having any magnetic It is a cast circular disk having a projected boss at its
effect in the body of chuck rear. The boss carries internal threads so that it can be
screwed on spindle nose. It also carries a hole to
Lever or Handle: A lever is provided in the chuck, which accommodate a pin which engages with the tail of a lathe
converts the magnetic field, and the magnet is ‘ON’ dog or carries.
Electromagnetic chucks: These are also called
temporary captivating chucks. It implies the use of electric
current for developing a strong electromagnet, which
holds the job centrally in chuck.
Precautions
Following precautions to be observed while handling the
magnetic chucks:
• Light works should be clamped on magnetic chucks Angle plate (Fig 10)
• Always take light cuts. It is employed for holding odd shape work in conjunction
with a faceplate. When the shape of the work is such
• When the job is to be machined on lathe. the speed that it is not possible to mount it directly on the face plate
and feed should be kept low. it can be mounted on angle plate.
• Small packing should be provided around the work.
• Clamping system should not obstruct loading and
unloading of the workpiece.
• Clamping system should not obstruct the paths of
cutting tool.
Lathe Carriers or Lathe Dogs (Fig 11) • Operator should be able to operate clamps easily and
safely
These are used in conjunction with the driving plate. The
work to be inserted in the ‘V’ shaped hole of the carrier • A vertical hole drilled in the bent workpiece would
and then firmly secured in position by means of a screw become unclamped workpiece springs back to its
lathe dogs have two types of tails original shape.
a Straight tail Strength (Fig 13)
b Bent tail • Clamping force shall be directed towards support /
locators.
Clamping system
• A clamping system must hold the workpiece firmly
against the locating elements and the cutting forces
developed during operation without causing damage • Clamp shall be directly in line with the support
to it. (Fig 14)
• Speed of operation, operator fatigue and strategic
positioning are consideration while designing
clamping system
• Clamping device should be incorporated into the jig
or fixture, proper clamping in a fixture directly influence
the accuracy and quality of the work done and
production cycle time.
Principles of clamping
• Position • Clamping force shall be directed towards support /
• Strength locators. (Fig 15)
• Productivity
• Operator fatigue
Position: (Fig 12)
• Clamping system should be positioned at thick
sections of the workpiece.
• Clamping should be positioned to direct the clamping
force on a strong, supported part of the workpiece. • Clamps shall apply force against supported area of
• Clamping on unsupported part bends slender work piece (Fig 16)
workpieces, affects accuracy of operation.
Strength: (Fig 17) Productivity:
• The clamping system should be capable to hold the • Clamping time should be minimised by using hand
workpiece securely against the forces developed knobs, tommy bars, knurled screws, hand wheels and
during operation. handles, so that clamp can be tightened or loosened
manually without using spanners.
• Clamping device should be capable to be unaffected
by the vibrations generated during an operation. • Most of the clamps use hexagonal nut or hand nut
• The clamping force should not dent or damage the Operator Fatigue: (Fig 18)
workpiece with excessive pressure.
• Operator fatigue should be taken into account.
• For clamping weak and fragile workpiece, clamping
• Clamping should be operator friendly.
force should be equally distributed over a wider area
of the workpiece. • Clamping and releasing should be easy and less time
consuming.
• While clamping soft workpiece, clamps should be
fitted with pads or softer materials such as Nylon or • Maintenance should be easy.
Fibre to prevent damage and denting of the
• If considerable number of clamps are to be tightened
workpiece.
or loosened repeatedly, it is better to use pneumatic
• Clamping faces should be hardened by proper or hydraulic clamping which reduces operator fatigue
treatments to minimize their wearing out. and saves clamping time.
• Hand nuts are more convenient for the operator than
hexagonal nuts because a spanner is not required to
tighten them.
Fig 18
Types of clamping • Swinging clamps
• Mechanical Actuation clamps • Quick action clamps
• Pneumatic and Hydraulic clamps • Power clamps
• Vacuum clamping • Non - conventional clamps
• Magnetic clamping
• Electrostatic clamping
• Non Mechanical clamping
• Special clamping operations
Types of clamps (Fig 19,20 & 21)
• Screw clamps
• Strap clamps
• Pivoted clamps
• Hinged clamps
CG&M Related Theory for Exercise 4.1.123 &124
Different clamping devices on milling operation

• state what are the work holding devices used on milling machine
• state the work holding devices used on a shaping machine.
What are the work holding devices used on milling c Universal vices - It can be swivelled in a horizontal
machine? (Fig 1) plane similar to a swivel vice and can also be tilted in
any vertical position for angular cut. The vice is not
It is necessary that the work should be properly and
rigid in construction and is used mainly in tool room
securely held on the milling machine table for effective
work. It enables the milling of various surfaces, at an
machining operations. The cutting pressure exhorted by
inclination to one another, without removing the work
milling cutter is quite high comparing the single point tool
piece.
of lathe machine. Therefore the work piece has to be
secured rigidly to avoid any vibration. The following are
the usual methods of holding work on the milling machine.
Types of work holding devices
Various types of work holding devices are explained in
the following paragraphs.
T- Bolts and clamps - Bulky work pieces of irregular
shapes are clamped directly on the milling machine table
using T - bolts and clamps. Different types of clamps are
used for different patterns of work. All clamps carry a long
hole, through which clamping bolt passes. This hole
permits the bolts for adjustment according to the size and
shape of the job.
Angle plates - When work surfaces are to be milled at
right angles to another face. Angle plates are used for
supporting the work.
Dividing Head: Dividing head or indexing head used to
V block - The V blocks are used for holding shafts on hold the work piece and divide the periphery into the
milling machine table in which keyways and slots are to number of divisions required. These are of three types.
be milled.
Work holding devices of shaping machine
Vices - Vices are most common appliance for holding
work on milling machine table. According to its quick Workpieces can be held and supported on the shaper
loading and unloading arrangement. Vices are of three table directly or by having some special devices.
types. Depending on the size and shape of the work, it may be
supported on the table by any one of the following
a Plain vice - The plain vice is directly bolted on the methods.
milling machine table is the most common type of vice
used on plain milling operations, which involves heavy 1 Shaper vices
cuts, such as in slab milling. Its especially low 2 Clamps and stop pins
construction enables the work to remain quite close to
the table. This reduces the chance of vibration to 3 T - bolts and step blocks
minimum. The base carries slots to accommodate ‘T’ 4 Angle plate
bolts to fix the vice on the table. Work is clamped
between the fixed and movable jaw and for holding 5 V - block
work pieces of irregular shape special jaws are 6 Special fixtures
sometimes used.
1 Shaper vices: vices is the most common and simple
b Swivel vices - The swivel vice is used to mill an work holding device used in a shaper. Different types
angular surface in relation to a straight surface without of vices are used in a shaping machine according to
removing the work from the vice. It has got circular the need and they are plain vices, swivel vices and
base graduated in degrees. The base is clamped on universal vices (Fig 2)
the table by means of T - bolts.
33
block are useful in levelling the clamp when holding
works of different heights. A nut on the top of the
clamp holds the work rigidly. (Fig 4)
2 Clamps and stop pins: T - blots are fitted into the T

- slots of the table. The work is placed on the table the
work is supported by a rectangular strip at one end
and by a stop pin at the other side. The screw is
4 Angle plate: Angle plate resembles the English
tightened to secure the work properly on the machine
alphabet ‘L’. It is accurately machined to have two
table. (Fig 3)
sides at right angles. Slots are provided on both the
sides. One of the sides is bolted to the machine table
and the workpieces are held on the other side. (see
Table 1)
5 V- block: V- block is a metal block having a ‘V’ shaped
groove on it. It is used for cylindrical workpieces.
operations like keyway cutting, slot cutting and
machining flat surfaces can be performed on the
cylindrical workpieces held on a ‘V’ block. (see Table
3 T - bolts, clamp and step blocks: The step blocks 1)
are used in combination with T - bolts and clamps to
6 Special fixtures: When internal keyways are to be
hold the work directly on the machine table. T -bolts
machined on the holes, the work is held with a special
are fitted in the T - slots of the machine table. One side
fixture. The fixture has a V- block attached to it and the
of the clamp holds the work and the other side rests
cylindrical work is mounted on it. (see Table 1)
on a step of the step block. The different steps of the
Table 1
Inter changeability in the manufacturing products

• state the advantages and disadvantage of mass production
• outline the meaning of the term, ‘interchange-ability’
• state the necessity for the limit system
• name the different standards of system of limits and fits.
Mass production
Mass production means production of a unit, component
or part in large numbers.
Advantages of mass production
Time for the manufacture of components is reduced.
The cost of a piece is reduced.
Spare parts can be quickly made available.
Disadvantages of mass production Interchange-ability
Special purpose machines are necessary. When components are mass-produced, unless they are
interchangeable, the purpose of mass production is not
Jigs and fixtures are needed. fulfilled. By interchange-ability, we mean production is
Gauges are to be used instead of conventional precision not fulfilled. By Interchange-ability, we mean that
instruments. identical components, manufactured by different
personnel under different environments, can be
Initial expenditure will be very high. assembled and replaced without any further rectification
Selective assembly during the assembly stage, without affecting the
functioning of the component when assembled.
The figures illustrate the difference between a selective
assembly; and a non-selective assembly. It will be seen Necessity of the limit system
in (Fig 1) that each nut fits only one bolt. Such an If components are to be interchangeable, they need to
assembly is slow and costly, and maintenance is difficult be manufactured to the same size which is not possible,
because spares must be individually manufactured. when they are mass-produced. Hence, it becomes
necessary to permit the operator to deviate by a small
margin from the exact size which he is not able to
maintain for all the components. At the same time, the
deviated size should not affect the quality of the
assembly. This sort of dimensioning is known as limit
dimensioning.
A system of limits is to be followed as a standard for the
limit dimensioning of components.
Various standard systems of limits and fits are followed
by different countries based on the ISO (International
Non-selective assembly Standards Organisation) specifications.
Any nut fits any bolt of the same size and thread type.
Such an assembly is rapid, and costs are reduced. The system of limits and fits followed in our
Maintenance is simpler because spares are easily country is that stipulated by the BIS(Bureau of
available. (Fig 2) Indian Standards)
Non-selective assembly provides interchange- Other systems of limits and fits

ability between the components. International Standards Organisation (ISO)
In modern engineering production, i.e. mass production, British Standard System(BSS)

there is no room for selective assembly. However, under German Standard(DIN)
some special circumstances, selective assembly is still
justified.
35
The Indian Standard system of limits & fits - terminology
• state the terms under the BIS system of limits and fits
• define each term under the BIS system of limits and fits.
Size
It is a number expressed in a particular unit in the
measurement of length.
Basic size
It is the size based on which the dimensional deviations
are give. (Fig 1)
Minimum limit of size

It is the smaller of the two limits of size. (Fig 2) (Table1)
Hole
In the BIS system of limits & fits, all internal features of
a component including those which are not cylindrical
are designated as ‘hole’. (Fig 3)
Actual size
It is the size of the component by actual measurement
after it is manufactured. It should lie between the two
limits of size if the component is to be accepted. Shaft
Limits of size In the BIS system of limits & fits, all external features of
a component including those which are not cylindrical
These are the extreme permissible sizes within which are designated as shaft. (Fig 3)
the operator is expected to make the component. (Fig 2)
(Maximum and minimum limits) Deviation
Maximum limit of size It is the algebraic difference between a size, to its

corresponding basic size. It may be positive, negative
It is the greater of the two limit sizes. (Fig 2) (Table 1) or zero. (Fig 2)
Table 1 (Examples)
Sl. Upper Lower Max-limit Min-Limit
No. Size of component Deviation Deviation of size of size
1 + .008
20 -.005 +0.008 -0.005 20.008 19.995
2 +.028
20 +.007 +0.028 +0.007 20.028 20.007
3 -.012
20 -.021 -0.012 -0.021 19.988 19.979
Upper deviation
It is the algebraic difference between the maximum limit
of size and its corresponding basic size.(Fig 2)(Table 1)
Lower deviation
It is the algebraic difference between the minimum limit
of size and its corresponding basic size.(Fig2)(Table 1)
Upper deviation is the deviation which gives
the maximum limit of size. Lower deviation is
the deviation which gives the minimum limit of
size.
Actual deviation
It is the algebraic difference between the actual size
and its corresponding basic size.(Fig 2)
Tolerance
It is the difference between the maximum limit of size
and the minimum limit of size. It is always positive and
is expressed only as a number without a sign. (Fig 2)
Zero line
In graphical representation of the above terms, the zero
line represents the basic size. This line is also called as
the line of zero deviation. (Figs 1 and 2)
Fundamental deviation
The fundamental deviations are for achieving the
There are 25 fundamental deviations in the BIS system different classes of fits. (Figs 8 and 9)
represented by letter symbols (capital letters for holes
and small letters for shafts) i.e. for holes - ABCD.....Z
excluding I,L,O,Q & W. (Fig 4)
In addition to the above, four sets of letters JS, ZA, ZB

& ZC are included. For fine mechanisms CD, EF and
FG are added.(Ref. IS:919 Part II -1979)
For shafts, the same 25 letter symbols but in small letters
are used.(Fig 5)
The position of tolerance zone with respect to the zero

line is shown in Figs 6 and 7.
Fundamental tolerance A very wide range of selection can be made by the
combination of he 25 fundamental deviations and 18
This is also called as ‘grade of tolerance’. In the Indian
grades of tolerances.
Standard System, there are 18 grades of tolerances
represented by number symbols, both for hole and shaft, Example
demoted as IT01, IT0, IT1..... to IT16. (Fig 10) A high
In figure 13, a hole is shown as 25 0.2 which means
number gives a large tolerance zone.
that 25mm is the basic dimension and 0.2 is the
deviation.
As pointed out earlier, the permissible variation from the
basic dimension is called ‘DEVIATION’.
The deviation is mostly given on the drawing with the
dimensions.
In the example 25 0.2. 0.2 is the deviation of the hole of
25mm diameter.(Fig 13) This means that the hole is of
acceptable size if its dimension is between
25 + 0.2 = 25.2 mm.
or 25 -0.2 = 24.8 mm.
The grade of tolerance refers to the accuracy of

manufacture.
In a standard chart, the upper and lower deviation each
combination of fundamental deviation and ...........
tolerance are indicated for sizes ranging up to .........
mm.(Refer to IS919)
Tolerance size
This includes the basic size, the fundamental deviation
and the grade of tolerance.
Example
25 H7 - tolerance size of a hole whose basic size is 25.
The fundamental deviation is represented by the letter 25.2 mm is known as the maximum limit. (Fig 14)
symbol H and the grade of tolerance is represented by 24.8 mm is known as the minimum limit. (Fig 15)
the number symbol 7. (Fig 11)
The difference between the maximum and minimum

25 e8 - is the tolerance size of a shaft whose basic size limits is the TOLERANCE. Tolerance here is 0.4 mm.
is 25. The fundamental deviation is represented by the (Fig 16)
letter symbol e and the grade of tolerance is represented
by the number 8. (Fig 12)
All dimensions of the hole within the tolerance zone are
of acceptable size as in Fig 17.
As per IS 696, while dimensioning the

components as a drawing convention, the
deviations are expressed as tolerances.
Fits and their classification as per the Indian Standard

Objectives: At the end of the lesson you shall be able to
• define ‘Fit’ as per the Indian Standard
• list out the terms used in limits and fits as per the Indian Standard
• state examples for each class of fit
• interpret the graphical representation of different classes of fits.
Fit The limits of the hole are 20 + 0.021 = 20.021 mm and

It is the relationship that exists between two mating parts, 20 + 0 = 20.000mm (Fig 2)
a hole and a shaft, with respect to their dimensional
differences before assembly.
Expression of a fit
A fit is expressed by writing the basic size of the fit first,
(the basic size which is common to both the hole and
the shaft) followed by the symbol for the hole, and by
the symbol for the shaft.
Example
30 H7/g6 or 30 H7 - g6 or 30
Clearance
For a shaft 20 g6 we find in the table - 7
In a fit the clearance is the difference between the size
- 20
of the hole and the size of the shaft which is always
positive. So the limits of the shaft are
Clearance fit 20-0.007 = 19.993 mm
It is a fit which always provides clearance. Here the and 20-0.020 = 19,980 mm (Fig 3)
tolerance zone of the hole will be above the tolerance
zone of the shaft.(Fig 1)
Example 20 H7/g6
With the fit given, we can find the deviations from the
chart.
For a hole 20 H7 we find the table +21.
Maximum clearance
In a clearance fit or transition fit, it is the difference
between the maximum hole and minimum shaft. (Fig 4)
These numbers indicate the deviations in microns. (1

micrometre = 0.001 mm)
Minimum clearance Maximum Interference
In a clearance fit, it is the difference between the In an interference fit or transition fit, it is the algebraic
minimum hole and the maximum shaft. (Fig 5) difference between the minimum hole and the maximum
shaft. (Fig 10)
The minimum clearance is 20.000 - 19.993 = 0.007mm.

(Fig 6) Minimum Interference
The maximum clearance is 20.021 -19.980 = 0.041mm. In an interference fit, it is the algebraic difference
(Fig 7) between the maximum hole and the minimum shaft.
(Fig 11)
In an example shown in figure 9
The maximum interference is = 25.035 -25.000
= 0.035
The minimum interference is = 25.022 - 25.021
= 0.001
There is always a clearance between the hole and the

shaft. This is the clearance fit.
Interference
It is the difference between the size of the hole and the
shaft before assembly, and this is negative. In this case,
the shaft is always larger than the hole size.
Transition fit
Interference Fit
It is a fit which may sometimes provide clearance, and
It is a fit which always provides interference. Here the sometimes interference. When this class of fit is
tolerance zone of the hole will be below the tolerance represented graphically, the tolerance zones of the hole
zone of the shaft. (Fig 8) and shaft will overlap each other. (Fig 12)
Example : Fit 75 H8/j7 (Fig 13)

The limits of the hole are 75.000 and 75.046 mm and
Example: Fit 25 H7/p6 (Fig 9) those of the shaft are 75.018 and 74.988 mm.
The limits of hole are 25.000 and 25.021 mm and the
limits of the shaft 25.022 and 25.035 mm. The shaft is
always bigger than the hole. This is an interference fit.
Maximum clearance = 75.046 -74. 988 = 0.058 mm.
If the hole is 75.000 and the shaft 75.018 mm, the shaft The hole basis system is followed mostly. This is
is 0.018mm, bigger than the hole. This results in because, depending upon the class of fit, it will be always
interference. This is a transition fit because it can result easier to alter the size of the shaft because it is external,
in a clearance fit or an interference fit. but it is difficult to do minor alterations to a hole. Moreover
the hole can be produced by using standard tooling’s.
Hole basis system
The three classes of fits, both under hole basis and shaft
In a standard system of limits and fits, where the sizes
basis, are illustrated in Fig 16.
of the hole is kept constant and the size of the shaft is
varied to get the different class of fits, then it is known
as the hole basis system.
The fundamental deviation symbol ‘H’ is chosen for the
holes. When the hole basis system is followed. This is
because the lower deviation of the hole ‘H’ is zero. It is
known as ‘basic hole’. (Fig 14)
Shaft basis system

In a standard system of limits and fits, where the size of
the shaft is kept constant and the variations are given to
the hole for obtaining different class of fits, then it is
known as shaft basis. The fundamental deviation symbol
‘h’ is chosen for the shaft when the shaft basis is followed.
This is because the upper deviation of the shaft ‘h’ is
zero. It is known as ‘basic shaft’. (Fig 15)
The BIS System of limits and fits

• refer to the standard limit system chart and determine the limits of sizes.
The standard chart covers sizes upto 500mm (I.S.919 Then refer to the chart and note the upper and lower
of 1963) for both holes and shafts. It specifies the upper deviations which are given in microns, with the sign.
and lower deviations for a certain range of sizes for all Accordingly add or subtract from the basic size and
combinations of the 25 fundamental deviations, and 18 determine the limits of size of the components.
fundamental tolerances.
The upper deviation of the hole is denoted as ES and
the lower deviation of the hole is denoted as EI. The
upper deviation of he shaft is denoted as es and the
lower deviation of the shaft is denoted as ei.
NOTE
es is expanded as ECART SUPERIOR and ei as ECART
INFERIOR. Example : 30 H7 (Fig 1)
Determining the limits from the chart It is an internal measurement. So we must refer to the
chart for ‘holes’.
Note whether it is an internal measurement or an
external measurement. The basic size is 30 mm. So see the range 30 to 40.
Note the basic size. Look for ES, and EI values in microns for H7 combination
for 30 mm basic size.
Note the combination of the fundamental deviation and
the grade of tolerance. It is given as +25
Parts of press tool and their function

• state types of press tool
• state press tools & jigs Fixtures cutting clearance
Types of press tools: Press tools are commonly used in Cut off tool (Fig 3)
hydraulic, pneumatic, and mechanical presses to produce
Cut off operations are those in which a strip of suitable
components at high volumes. Generally press tools are
width is cut of length in a single operation. Cut - off tools
categorized by the types of operation performed using
can produce many parts. The required length of strip can
the tool, such as blanking, piercing, bending, forming,
be cut off for bending and forming operations using this
forging, trimming etc. The press tool will also be specified
tool.
as a blanking tool, piercing tool, bending tool etc.
Classification of press tools
Blanking tool (Fig 1)
• When a component is produced with one single
punch and die where the entire outer profile is cut i a
single stroke the tool is called a blanking tool.
• Blanking is the operation of cutting flat shapes from
sheet metal.
• The outer area of metal remaining after a blanking
operation is generally discarded as waste.
Parting off tool
• Size of blank or product is the size of the die &
clearance is given on punch. Partings are similar, in that a discrete part is cut from a
sheet or strip of metal along a desired geometric path.
• It is a metal cutting operation. The difference between a cut-off and a parting is that a
cut-off can be nestled perfectly on the sheet metal, due
to its geometry. With cut-offs, the cutting of sheet metal
can be done over one path at a time and there is
practically no waste of material. With partings, the shape
can not be nestled precisely. Partings involve cutting the
sheet metal along two paths simultaneously. partings
waste a certain amount of material, that can be significant.
Trimming tool (Fig 4)
Piercing tool (Fig 2) When cups and shells are drawn from flat sheet metal the
edge is left wavy and irregular, due to uneven flow of
Piercing involves cutting of clean holes with a resulting metal. This irregular edge is trimmed in a trimming die.
scrap slug. The operation is called die cutting and can Shown is flanged shell, as well as the trimmed ring
also produce flat components where the die, the shaped removed from around the edge. While a small amount of
tool, is pressed into a sheet material employing a shearing Material is removed from the side of a component in
action to cut holes. This method can be used to cut parts trimming tool.
of different sizes and shapes in sheet metal, leather and
many other materials.
42
Shaving tool Progressive tool
Shaving removes a small amount of material around the A progressive tool differs from a stage tool in the following
edges of a previously blanked stampings or piercing. A respect: in a progressive tool the final component is
straight, smooth edge is provided and therefore shaving obtained by progressing the sheet metal or strip in more
is frequently performed on instrument parts, watch and than one stage. At each stage the tool will progressively
clock parts and the like. Shaving is accomplished in shape the component towards its final shape, with the
shaving tools especially designed for the purpose. final stage normally being cutting - off.
Bending tool (Fig 5) Compound tool
Bending tools apply simple bends to stampings. A simple In a combination tool two or more operations such as
bend is done in which the line of the bend is straight. One bending and trimming will be performed simultaneously.
or more bends may be involved, and bending tools are a Two or more operations such as forming, drawing,
large important class of press tools. extruding, embossing may be combined on the component
with various cutting operations like blanking, piercing,
broaching and cut off takes place - it can perform a cutting
and non cutting operations in a single tool.
Combination tool
The compound tool differs from progressive and stage
tools by the arrangement of punch and die. It is an
inverted tool where balancing and piercing take place in
a single stage and also blanking punch will as the piercing
tool.
General press tool construction
The general press tool construction will have following
elements:
Forming tool • Shank: It is used to locate the press tool in press for
alignment purpose.
Forming tools apply more complex forms to work pieces.
The line of bend is curved instead of straight and the • Top plate: It is used to hold top half of the press tool
metal is subjected to plastic flow or deformation. with press slide.
Drawing tool (Fig 6) • Punch back plate: This plate prevents the hardened
punches penetrating into top plate.
Drawing tools transform flat sheets of metal into cups,
shells or other drawn shapes by subjecting the material • Punch holder: This plate is used to accommodate
to severe plastic deformation. Shown in fig is a rather the punches of press tool.
deep shell that has been drawn from a flat sheet.
• Punches: To perform cutting and at cutting operations
either plain or profiled punches are used.
• Die plate: Die plate will have similar profile of the
component where cutting dies usually have holes with
land and angular clearance and on cutting dies will
have profiles.
• Die back plate: This plate prevents the hardened die
inserts penetrating into bottom plate.
• Guide pillar & Guide Bush: Used for alignment
between top and bottom halves of the press tools.
• Bottom plate: It is used to hold bottom half of the
press tool with press slide.
• Stripper plate: It is used to strip off the component
Types of press tools from punches.
This type of press tool is used to perform only one • Strip guides: It is used to guide the strip into the press
particular operation therefore classified under stage tools. tool to perform the operation.
Die casting types of moulding process

• define die casting
• state the types of moulding processes
• special casting techniques.
What is Die casting

Fig 2
Die casting is a metal casting process that is characterized
by forcing molten metal under high pressure into a mould
cavity, which is created using two hardened tool steel
dies which have been machined into shape and work
similarly to an injection mould during the process. Most
die castings are mad from non-ferrous metals, specifically
zinc, copper, aluminium, magnesium, lead, power and tin
based alloys. (Fig 1)
Hot - chamber machines

Fig 1
Hot - chamber machines, also known as gooseneck
machines, rely on a pool of molten metal to feed the die.
At the beginning of the cycle the piston of the machine is
retracted, which allows the molten metal to fill the
“gooseneck”. The pneumatic or hydraulic powered piston
then forces this metal out of the gooseneck into the die.
The advantages of this system include fast cycle times
(approximately 15 cycles a minute) and the convenience
of melting the metal in the casting machine. the
The casting equipment and the metal dies represent disadvantages of this system are that high melting point
large capital costs and this tends to limit the process to metals cannot be utilized and aluminium cannot be used
high volume production. Manufacture of parts using die because it picks up some of the iron while in the molten
casting is relatively simple, involving only four main pool. Due to this, hot chamber machines are primarily
steps, which keeps the incremental cost per item low. It used with zinc, tin, and lead based alloys.
is especially suited for a large quantity of small to medium
sized castings, which is why die casting produces more Cold - chamber machines
castings than any other casting process. Die castings are These are used when the casting alloy cannot be used in
characterized by a very good surface finish and hot - chamber machines; these include aluminium, zinc
dimensional consistency. alloys with a large composition of aluminium, magnesium
Two variants are pore -free die casting, which is used to and copper. The process for these machines start with
eliminate gas porosity defects; and direct injection die melting the metal in a separate furnace. Then a precise
casting, which is used with zinc castings to reduce scrap amount of molten metal is transported to the cold -
and increase yield. chamber machine where it is fed into an unheated shot
chamber (or injection cylinder). This shot is then driven
Sanjian is a professional die casting mould producer into the die by a hydraulic or mechanical piston. This
since we have advanced software to assist us in the biggest disadvantage of this system is the slower cycle
designing process and skilled personnel’s who are in the time due to the need to transfer the molten metal from the
position for decades. furnace to the cold - chamber machine. (Fig 3) example
In 1966, General Motors released the acurad process. (Fig 4).
(Fig 2)
Casting Equipment
There are two basic types of die casting machines: hot -
chamber machines and cold - chamber machines. These
are rated by how much clamping force they can apply.
Typical ratings are between 2,500 and 25,000 kg.
44
Introduction of casting process (Fig 6)
Casting process can be divided into two categories:
First, a gravity casting: Sand casting, die casting. The
molten metal gravity poured into the cavity.
Second, pressure casting consists of low pressure casting
and high pressure casting, it relies on the additional
pressure onto the molten metal casting cavity moment.
Casting process typically include:
1 Mould preparation (casting the liquid metal to be a
solid container) mould, according to he materials, can
be divided into sand, metallic, ceramic, clay type,
graphite, etc.; according to the number of use times,
it can be divided into semi - permanent and permanent
style. The merit of mould preparation is a major factor
Fig 4 affecting the quality of castings.
2 Cast metal melting and casting: There are all kinds of
cast iron, cast steel and cast non - ferrous metals and
alloys of casting metal (cast alloy).
3 Casting processing and testing: The casting process
includes the removal of foreign body core and the
casting surface, removal pouring riser, relief grinding
burrs and other projections as well as thermal
treatment, rust prevention, rough finish and so on.
How can we design die casting mould (Fig 5): Die
casting is one of the fastest and most cost - effective Fig 6
methods for producing a wide range of components.
However, to achieve maximum benefits from the process,
it is critical that designers collaborate with the die caster
at an early stage of the product design and development.
Consulting with the die caster during the design phase
will help resolve issues affecting tooling and production,
while identifying the various exchanges that could affect
overall costs.
For instance, parts having external undercuts or
projections on sidewalls often require dies with slides. Types of Moulding processes (Fig 7): Different types
Slides increase the cost of the tooling, but may result in of moulding processes form plastic into the desired
reduced metal use. Uniform casting wall thickness or shape based on the plastic’s intended use. Plastic
other advantages. These savings may offset the cost of manufacturing relies on different types of moulding in a
tooling, depending upon the production quantities, variety of shapes. Plastic is a synthetic material that is
providing overall economies. soft or semi - liquid when hot. The soft plastic is placed in
moulds, and then the plastic cools, or sets. After setting,
Many sources are available for information on die casting
the plastic is in the desired shape and is removed from
design, including textbooks, technical papers, trade
whatever types of moulding were used to create it.
journals and professional associations. While the section
Thermoplastics can be melted down and reformed if
is not intended to provide a comprehensive review of all
necessary, however thermo set plastics cannot be
the factors involving die casting design, it will highlight
reheated.
some of the primary considerations.
Fig 7
Fig 5
Plastic manufacturing relies on different types of moulding Gating system
processes to form liquid, melted plastic into solid shapes. Parting line gating in which the metal enters the mould
Casting, injection moulding, blow moulding, compression cavity at the parting line as shown in Fig 8a
moulding and rotational moulding have different uses
and advantages in plastic manufacturing. Bottom gating in which the metal from the pouring basin
flows down to the bottom of the mould cavity in he drag
Plastic moulding using casting as shown in Fig 8b
Plastic moulding using casting is the simplest method as
plastic manufacturing as it requires the least amount of
complex technology. plastic is simply heated so it turns
into a fluid, and then transferred into a mould. The plastic
is left to cool and the mould is removed. This process can
be used for intricate shapes and is performed under low
pressure.
Injection moulding of plastic
Injection moulding of plastic creates high - quality three
- dimensional objects that can be commercially
reproduced. The injection moulding process begins by
melting plastic in a hopper. The melted, liquid plastic is
Top gating in which the metal from the pouring basin
injected into a tightly closed, chilled mould. The plastic
quickly takes the shape of the surrounding mould. Once Special casting Techniques
it has completely set, the mould is opened to release the Classification
plastic object. The mould can generally be used many
times before needing to be replaced. Plastic items such a Metal mould casting
as yogurt cups, butter tubs, plastic toys and bottle caps i Gravity or permanent mould casting
use the injection moulding process.
Hot chamber process
ii Die casting
Sciencing video vault Cold chamber process
Blow moulding plastic manufacturing iii Slush casting
Blow moulding is a process used for making hollow iv Pressed or corthias casting
objects such as piping or milk bottles. In the blow moulding b Non-metallic mould casting
plastic manufacturing process, plastic is heated until
True-Centrifugal casting
molten. The liquid, molten plastic is injected into a cold
i Centrifugal casting Semi-centrifugal casting
mould. The mould has a tube set within it, which has a
Centrifuge casting
particular shape when inflated. While the plastic is molten,
air is blown into the tube and the plastic is formed around ii Carbon - dioxide moulding
the tubing. The plastic is left to cool and removed from the iii Investment mould casting or lost - wax process
mould.
iv Shell moulding
Compression moulding of plastic: Compression
moulding of plastic is the most labour - intensive type of v Plaster moulding
moulding process. Since compression moulding is more vi Mercast process
complicated, it is typically only used for large scale Reciprocating moulds
production purposes rather than mass production. For c Continuous casting Draw casting
example, boat hulls and car tires are made using the Stationary moulds
compression moulding method. Molten plastic is poured Direct sheet casting
it no a mould. Then a second mould is pressed into it. This - Electric resistance furnaces are generally not
squeezes the plastic into the desired shape before the preferred, but low frequency induction furnaces are
plastic is left to cool and removed from the mould. gradually finding wider use.
Rotational moulding of plastic: Toys, shipping drums, - Molten metal may be transferred from holding furnaces
storage tanks and consumer furniture made of plastic are to die casting weighs more than 7 kg or even when
all made using rotational moulding. In this method, liquid producing smaller castings, at high production rates.
plastic forms each object as it is added to the mould from
the inside. Two mechanical arms hold the mould in place. - Automatic molten metal transfer from the holding
The inside. As the mould turns, the plastic coats the furnace to the die casting machine may work with the
inside of he mould to create a new hollow, plastic object. following mechanisms:
The arms constantly rotate the mould at the same level a The holding furnace and the die - casting machine is
while molten. connected with the help of a refractory tube. Air or
nitrogen at low pressure, when introduced in the
enclosed furnace exerts pressure on he molten metal - French chalk or calcium carbonate suspended in
which via refractory tube flows into the injection cylinder sodium silicate binder is commonly used as a coating
of the die casting machine. for aluminium and magnesium permanent mould
castings.
b Non - Metallic (refractory)pumps can be placed in the
holding furnace for molten metal transfer. - Coating is dried and then smoothed with steel wool.
c A monorail is mounted between die casting machine - Refractory coating:
and holding furnace. A valve bottom inlet crucible
i Protects mould surfaces from erosion and checking
riding on the monorail is lowered into the holding
furnace (for taking metal) and is then moved along the ii exercises insulating effect and thus helps obtaining
monorail to the die casting machine where it discharges progressive directional solidification.
molten metal into the injection cylinder. iii is kept then when chilling is needed and vice
Die - casting Dies (Fig 9) versa.
i A die is a sort of permanent mould and is made in two iv may be repaired and normally replaced after every
halves for facilitating the removal of casting. eight hours
- Lubricating coatings if sprayed, help removal of
castings and cores from the mould. A coating of
graphite water paint permits easy removal of a 60-40
brass casting.
- Permanent moulds, besides refractory coating are
given a carbon acetous soot coating once every
casting cycle.
Chills
- Chills are pieces of copper, brass or aluminium and
are inserted into the mould’s inner surface.
- Water passages in the mould or cooling fins made on
outside the mould surface are blown by air otherwise
Gating system
water mist will create chilling effect.
- The spruce, risers, runners, gates and vents are
A chill is used to promote directional solidification.
machined into the parting surface of one or both
mould halves. Die casting
- The runner channels are inclined, to minimize 1 Force calculation
turbulence of the incoming metal, and this practice is
2 Causes and Remedies
often furthered by tilting the die around suitable
trunnions. 3 Die casting estimation
- Wherever possible, the runner should be at the thinnest 1 Force calculation
area the casting, with the risers at the top of the die
Die locking: Early in the analysis of a die casting, die
above the heavy sections.
locking requirements should be calculated. These
- Blind risers, located above the sections to be fed, are calculations will establish the machine size to be used.
commonly used.
⎡ 2⎤
- For better escape of the air present within the mould F = Pm A I ⎢
( )
⎢ Where P
m
⎛D⎞
= Ph ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎝d⎠ ⎥
cavity, vent channels about 0.125 mm deep may be ⎣ ⎦
cut into the parting surface.
F = Force required to hold the die closed (tons)
- Gating system is designed to promote progressive
solidification of metal in an unbroken flow from the Ph = Hydraulic pressure in injection cylinder
farthest end of the casting to the point of entry. Pm = pressure acting on the molten metal
Coatings A = Projected area of all cavities, runners, overflows
- After the mould surfaces have been heated to the and sprue and biscuit.
required temperature, a refractory coating in the form D = Diameter of injection cylinder.
of slurry is sprayed or brushed on to the mould cavity,
d = Diameter of plunger.
riser, gate and runner surfaces.
I = Dimensionless impact/freeze factor
1000 − 575
The load 1 acting on B + D = 180 x = 76.5T
1000
A check can be made for the calculations by adding the

two results (i.e. 103.5+76.5 =180T). The total should be
equal to the force generated by section 1 of the projected
area. Next it is necessary to determine how the 103.5 is
divided between tie bars A and C and tie bars B and D.
The load 1 acting on A = Load on (A + C) Y1
x
D
Where Y1 = Vertical distance between centre of gravity
of section1 to the tie bar C
700
Therefore load 1 on A = 103.5 x =72.45T
1000
1000 - 700
The impact/freeze factor 'I' depends on the injection Similarly load 1 on c = 103.5 x = 31.05T
1000
velocities required. Generally the value may range from
approximately 3 for shorter fill time to 1.5 for longer fill Similarly the load 76.5 T on B+D is divided:
times. For very thick casting the value may range from
0.6 to 0.8. 700
Load 1 on B = 76.5x =53.55T
Molten metal pressure will usually be about 13.8MPa for 1000
Zinc and 34MPa for Aluminum and Magnesium castings.
If the projected area is not centered between the tie bars 1000 - 700
Load 1 on D = 76.5x =22.95T
the load required for each tie bar must be calculated by 1000
the sum of the moments. The required machine size is
determined by multiplying the load of the tie bar with the The procedure is repeated for all section of the
greatest load by the number of tie bars. projected area.
The first step is to divide the total projected area in to
simple geometrical forms such as rectangles to find the 700
Therefore load 2 on A + C = 60x = 42T
centre of gravity of each. Then both the horizontal and 1000
vertical distance from the centre of gravity of each
geometric shape from the tie bar are computed. Next 1000 - 700
the area of each geometric form is calculated and Therefore load 2 on B + D = 60x = 18T
1000
multiplied by the injection pressure.
The next step is to use the sum of the moment's method 400
to calculate how the force of each section of projected Therefore load 2 on A = 42 x = 16.8T
1000
area is applied to each of the four tie bars. The calculation
is simplified by dividing in to several parts. The first part
is to calculate the load on the left side of the machine. 600
Therefore load 2 on C = 42 x = 25.2T
(I.e. tie bars A and C as shown in figure 1000
Using the formula:
400
X1 Therefore load 2 on B = 18 x = 7.2T
Load 1 on A + C = F1 x 1000
D
Where: F1= Force generate by projected area of section 600

1 ( F1=180 Tones ,i.e. 0.3T/cm2) Therefore load 2 on D = 18 x = 10.80T
1000
X1= Distance from centre of gravity of section1 to the
centre line of B and D tie bars. (d1=575mm) 250
D1= Distance between tie bars, D =1000mm Therefore load 3 on A + C = 52.5 x = 13.125T
1000
575
Therefore load 1 on A + C = 180 x = 103.5T Therefore load 3 on B + D
1000
Then by using the same general formula, the load acting 1000 - 250
on the right side of the machine (i.e. tie bars B and D) = 52.5 x = 39.375T
1000
due to the same section (section 1) is calculated.
625 Lastly, the loads are added for each tie bar. Then find
Therefore load 3 on A = 13.125 x = 8.2T out which tie bar has the maximum load acting on it.
1000
This load is multiplied by four to get the tonnage to be
set on the machine. So in this case the maximum load
1000 - 625
Therefore load 3 on C = 13.125 x = 4.92T is acting on tie bar A which is equal to 97.45
1000 (72.45+16.8+8.2). All tie bars must be locked to
103.3875 tones before the shot is made. There for the
625 minimum machine tonnage required is equal to
Therefore load 3 on B = 39.375 x = 24.6T
389.8tones. The die may be loaded on a 400T machine.
1000
1000 - 625
Therefore load 3 on D = 39.375 x = 14.76T
1000
Tie bar loading for off-centre conditions (The injection pressure is assumed to be 0.3T/cm2
Geometric Form Tie bar load in Tones
Section Area mm2 Force Tones A B C D
1 60000 180 72.45 53.55 31.05 22.95
2 30000 60 16.8 7.2 25.2 10.8
3 18000 52.5 8.2 24.6 4.92 14.76
Total 292.5 97.45 85.35 61.17 48.51
3 Die casting defects and remedies:
Casting defect Cause/sate Countermeasure
Cast hole A blow hole generated by entry of air or gas in Adjust the casting pressure, change the
molten metal or a shrinkage generated due to vent hole, and adjust the amount of mold
a short supply of molten metal release agent to be applied, or change
the position and size of the gate.
Shrinkage Depression following slow cooling due to a Adjust the mold temperature or redesign
partially overheated mold the mold.
Insufficient The area near the gate cools down too quickly Change the mold temperature, adjust the
filling (poor run of to fill the entire cavity with molten metal. molten metal temperature, or change the
molten metal) position and size of the gate.
Cold shut A low mold temperature and a low pouring Raise the mold temperature, the molten
(weld mark) pressure cause molten metal to solidify before metal temperature, and the plunger
preading entirely in a pair of molds, generating speed or change the position and size
a mark at the joining pointof. the gate.
Crack/distortion An insufficient draft angle, an uneven shrink, Redesign the shape or change the
or an improper extrusion (hot cracking during extrusion position.
solidification and cold cracking in cooling
processes and over time)
Broken chill layer A solidification layer generated in the sleeve Adjust the molten metal temperature and
enters the cavity and is then contained in the the plunger speed.
die-casting.
Flow mark A low mold temperature or too much mold Raise the mold temperature and reduce
release agent. the amount of mold release agent.
Scuffing Die-casting adhered to a mold when being Sufficiently polish the mold surface and
ejected or an improper draft angle provide an appropriate draft angle.
Casting defect Cause/sate Countermeasure
Seizure A partially overheated mold causes adhesion Change the type or application method
with the molten metal. of mold release agent or redesign the
mold.
Blister Compressed gas near the surface expands Take the same countermeasures as for
and causes swelling on the surface. cast holes and extend the mold cooling
time.
Discoloration The die-cast surface is discolored by one or Change the agent.
more mold release agent components.
Rough surface A rough mold surface is transferred directly Clean and polish the mold.
to the die-cast surface.
Hard spot A hard foreign particle enters into the Filter the molten metal.
molten metal causing, for example, grinding tool
breakage in later processes.
3 Die casting estimation;

Various Technical terms used in Dies & Moulds 13 Total cost: It is the sum of the manufacturing cost,
Economics selling and distributing expenses.
1 Direct labour: The workers who are actually 14 Selling price: It is the sum of the total cost and profit
processing the materials form the direct or productive of the company.
labour.
15 Man-hour rate: It is the method of distributing factory
2 Indirect labour: The workers who are not actually over head over each job by overheads by number of
processing the materials form the indirect or non- total working hours.
productive labour.
16 Machine hour rate: It is the method distributing
3 Direct labour cost: It is the wages paid to the direct factory over heads over each job by total hours for
labour. which the machine runs.
4 Indirect labour cost: it is the wages paid to the Allowances: This is the time allowed to the workers
indirect labour. during their working hours. These may be:
5 Direct material cost: It is the cost of those materials a) Set up time.
which form the final shape of the product.
b) Operation time.
6 Indirect material cost: It is the cost of those
c) Personal allowance.
materials which are consumed in order to convert
the direct material to their final shape. d) Fatigue allowance.
7 Overhead charges: These are business expenses
not chargeable to particular part of the work. These e) Tool changing allowance.
are also known as indirect cost, on cost or burden.
f) Tool grinding time.
The term includes all expenses except direct labour,
direct material and direct expenses incurred in
production and distribution of the product to the g) Checking time.
consumers.
17 Fixed cost: A cost which remains constant
8 Factory over heads: These are known as expenses irrespective of the volume of out put. These costs
chargeable as indirect labour, indirect material etc. mainly depend on the time spend and do not vary
9 Administrative over heads: These include salaries directly with the rate of out put.
of office staff, high rank officials, telephone charges 18 Variable cost: A cost which varies directly with the
etc. quantity produced.
10 Prime cost: It is the sum of the direct labour, direct 19 Depreciation: The reduction of value of a fixed asset
material and other direct expenses if any. It is also due to use or laps of time.
known as direct cost.
20 Price: The cost to a buyer of any product expresses
11 Factory cost: It is the sum of prime cost and factory in terms of money.
over heads.
21 Break Even Point: The point at which neither profit
12 Manufacturing cost: It is the sum of the factory cost nor loss is made
and administrative expenses.
22 Quotation: This is a document containing the details 10 Determine the prime cost.
of rates and other terms and conditions at which the
11 Determine the factory overheads.
jobs are performed. It is a formal statement of the
estimated cost of a job. 12 Determine the administrative overheads.
AIMS OF ESTIMATING 13 Determine the packing and delivery charges.
1 The main aim of estimating is to help the factory 14 Calculate the total cost.
owner to decide about the manufacturing and selling
15 Decide on the profit.
policies.
16 Fix the sale price.
2 It helps in preparing quotation.
17 Decide on the delivery time.
3 It helps in deciding the expenses in advance.
The total cost is made up of three main elements.
4 It gives a reference for setting the price.
They are:
5 It helps in taking certain favorable decisions. 1 Material cost
Estimating Procedure
2 Labour cost.
1 Engineering department decides the requirements 3 Expenses (over heads).
and specifications of the product.
The various components of cost are:
2 Engineering department makes out the drawing,
decides the type of material and its quantity and other 1 Prime cost = Direct material cost+ Direct labour cost+
requirements. Direct expenses.
3 The planning department lays down the methods and 2 Factory cost = Prime cost + Factory Expenses.
sequence of operations, decides machines to be 3 Manufacturing cost = Factory cost+ Administrative
used and schedule the operations. Estimating expenses.
department is generally attached to the planning
department. 4 Total cost = Manufacturing cost+ Selling and
Distribution cost.
4 To decide accuracy and finish required.
5 Selling price = Total cost + Profit
5 To prepare a list of the components of the product.
6 To decide which component can be made in-house
and which should be procured from outside.
7 Determine the material cost.
8 Determine the machining cost.
9 Determine the labour cost.
Element of cost block digram
Profit Selling
or price
Loss
Selling and Total
Distribuve cost
Cost or
Administrave Manufacturing Selling
expenses or office cost cost
Factory
Expenses
Direct Prime or
material direct
Factory or
Cost cost
works cost
Direct
cost
Direct
expenses
Estimate form
Description:————————
Quantity:——————————
Drawing No:——————
Date :————————
Enquiry No:—————
Customer :—————-
Item Total cost Cost of each item
1 Material (@———————)
Quantity (—————— )
2 Operation Labour Overhead
(a)
(b)
(c)
Total : (Factory cost)
3 Office and administrative
Expenses
Total: (Manufacturing cost)
4 Selling expenses
(a) Packing and carriage
(b) Advertisement and publicity
(c) Other allied expenses
Total : (Total cost)
5 Profit Total: (selling price)
Delivery date:——————————
Estimated by:———————————
Worked out example: Depreciation of plant = Rs.4, 500.00

The expenditure for manufacturing a turret lathe is Direct wages = Rs.65, 000.00
as given below:
Factory rent = Rs.6, 000.00
Material consumed = Rs.55, 000.00
Telephone & postage charges = Rs.150.00
Indirect wages = Rs.8, 000.00
Plant electricity charges = Rs.500.00
Consultant charges = Rs.3, 000.00
Office salary = Rs.2, 100.00
Advertisement = Rs.10, 000.00
Office rent = Rs.500.00
Set profit = Rs.12, 500.00
Showroom rent = Rs.1, 500.00
Depreciation on sales department = Rs.1, 100.00
Sales man concession = Rs.2, 650.00
Printing & stationary = Rs.250.00
Sales deportment expenses = Rs.1, 500.00
Find out: c) Office cost
a) Direct cost Office cost = Factory cost + Admin Exp.
b) Factory cost = 1,39,000 + 3,000 + 250 + 150 + 2,100
c) Office cost + 500
= Rs.1, 45,000.
d) Cost of sales
d) Cost of sales (selling cost)
e) Selling price
Selling cost = Office cost + Sales overheads (selling &
Solution
distribution cost)
a) Direct Cost
= 1,45,000 + 10,000 + 1,100 + 1,500 +
Direct cost = direct material + direct + direct expenses 2,560 + 1,500
= 55,000 + 65,000 = Rs.1, 20,000. = Rs.1, 65,750.
b) Factory cost e) Selling price
Factory cost = Direct cost + factory overheads (factory Selling price = Total cost + profit
expenses)
= 1, 65,750+ 12,500
= 1,20,000 + 8,000 + 4,000 + 6,000 + 50
= Rs.1, 39,000. = Rs.1,74,250.
Different parts of petrol engine

• define I.C engine.
• different parts of a petrol engine and define each of them
• main part of an engine.
I.C Engine
Internal combustion engine are those that burns fuel
inside the engine cylinder. The I.C engines convert such
of the chemical energy stand in the fuel in to heat energy
during the burning operation The heat energy converted
in to mechanical energy by the expansion of force against
pistons attached the crank benefits through connecting
rod which can rotate
To meet the requirements of the objectives stated above
drawings of some component parts of IC engines along
with their functioning are given below.
• Piston
• connecting rod
• Sparking plug.
• Carburettor
• Rotary gear pump
Piston: Pistons are just smaller in diameter than the bore
of the cylinder. The gap between the piston and the
cylinder will is called the piston clear angle. clearance is
essential so to provide a space for a film of lubricant
between the piston and the cylinder wall.
• Pistons are mostly made of aluminium alloys cast
steel. cast iron or chrome nickel. Figure 2 shows another type of 2 stroke I.C engine piston
• Aluminium alloy pistons usually are lighter than other Connecting rod: (Fig 3)
types and are very good conductors. The pistons
expand more and consequently, require some means The connecting rod is the connection between the piston
of compensating. In order to achieve this compensation and crankshaft. IT joins the wrist pin of the piston with the
nearly vertical slots are cut in aluminium pistons so throw or crankpin of the crankshaft. The lighter the
that expansion when occurs , takes place chiefly in the connecting rod and the piston the greater the resulting
slots, leaving enough clearance of safe operation power and the less the vibration
between the cylinder wall and the piston Because the reciprocating weight is less. The rod usually
Fig 1 shows the construction of a typical aluminium alloy has an I - beam cross section. The lower part of the
piston. Grooves are cut in the side of the piston for four connecting rod is split to permit its being clamped round
rings which are incorporated to seal the compressed and the crankshaft. The split head usually incorporates babbitt
expansion gases above the piston and to control bearing.
lubricating oil film. The lining may either be in the form of a separate split
The top of the piston is called head, the part alone the shell with a steel backing or it may be spun on the inside
grooves is called start. The portions of the piston that of the rod and cap during manufacture of the connecting
separate the grooves are called the lands. The piston rod. When a separate split - shell liner is used, it is held
bosses are the reinforced sections of the piston designed in place by the connecting rod cap and by the bolts which
to hold the piston pin or wrist pin clamp together the split parts of the liner. A dowel pin or
lip prevents the liner from turning. In the spun type of liner
the babbitt is reamed to proper size at the factory.
54
Parts list
Part no Name matl. Qty
1 Rod FS 1
2 Cap FS 1
3 Bearing brass GM 2
4 Bearing bush P Bronze 1
5 Bolt MCS 2
6 Nut MCS 2
Petrol engine connecting rod

Figure 3 shows the assembly drawing of a petrol engine
connecting rod the big and of which is split into two lines.
The bearing bush 4. Which is an piece, is fitted at the
small and of the connecting rod is connected to piston.
The main bearing bush, which is split into the haves, is
placed at the big and of the connecting rod The big and
of the connecting rod is connected to the cracks pin of the
centre grant First the split bearing brasses 3. are placed
on the crank, pin, then the big and of the connecting and
cap 2 are clamped on to these, by means of two bolts 5
and nuts 6.
Spark plug (Fig 4)
In petrol engine fuel under pressure is ignited by producing
sparks by way of a spark plug. Fig 4 shows an assembly
drawing of a spark plug with various details indicated. In
this the control electrode 3 is screwed into the insulator
2 The insulator is fitted in to the shell 1 by means of a nut
4 and is employed with gas tight in the shell by lower 7 and
upper 8 sealing gaskets respectively. The upper end of
The pieces of metal called shims are sometimes used the control electrode is threaded to receive the plug
when spun bearings are employed. These can be peeled terminal 6 The high tension (HT) cable connector is fitted
or filed thinner to compensate for wear of the bearing. to this terminal The lower end of the central electrode
extends highly beyond the bottom surface of the control.
Compound electrode 5 is welded to the bottom face of the Rotary gear pump (Fig 5)
shell 1. The ground electrode is beat over at right angles
The function of rotary gear pump is to supply oil under
so that the spark gap is formed between the two electrodes
pressure to the various parts of engine in pressure
lubrication system. The oil pump is generally located
inside the crank case below the oil level. This is the type
universally used in the automotive engine. Its construction
is very simple in consists of two gears only. Which are in
mesh with each other. One gear is mounted on a fixed
spindle and is driven only where as the other gear is the
driving that it gear, itself being driven by cam shaft
through the same gear, which drives the distributor shaft.
Fig 5 shows assemble view of a rotary gear pump. The oil
is transported from the inlet to the outlet side by entering
in the space between the teeth of the gear and the casting
and carrying it round the gears from the suction side to
the delivery side
Simple carburettor
• explain principle of a carburettor
• state the different types of carburettor and their functions.
Carburettor (Fig 1) fuel bowl (3). When the air passes through the air horn
(1) it creates a vacuum at the tip of the discharge tube
Principle of carburetion (2), and sucks fuel from the fuel bowl (3).
The carburettor is a device for atomising and vaporising An air bleed (4) is provided on the jet tube (2) which
fuel and mixing it with air in varying proportions to suit helps in breaking the fuel particles into very fine particles.
the changing operating conditions such as varying engine This is known as atomising. The fuel and air mixture is
speed, load and operating temperature of the motor then sucked into the cylinder.
vehicle engines.
This process of breaking up fuel and mixing it with air is
During the suction stroke air is drawn through the air called carburetion.
cleaner and it passes through the air horn (1). A discharge
tube (2) is connected between the air horn (1) and the
Some more main parts of an automobile engine
• define engine block
• explain piston & connecting rod
• define crank shaft and crank shaft casing
• define engine head - valves - crankshaft
• explain timing belt - valve spring - Tappet gasket - piston rings.
Introduction Now that why have semi - circular seats, in an engine
The burning heart of our fast cars, It’s the power unit we block, let’s take a look what going to do with cylindrical
have to spin our car wheels. The entire thrill we have got holes in the block.
while driving depends on the capacity of this power unit, 2 Piston (Fig 2)
and the limits up to which we can push its components to
operate safely. It is the combination of all parts of an Piston is a cylindrical structure with a flat surface called
engine that makes a car to move faster and faster. crown at the top. Piston is the component that moves up
and down in an engine cylinder. Wait what it would
So let’s just dig out what it’s components are, how cause?, friction if one cylinder (piston). And place rings in
precisely they must be engineered to get the maximum these groves called piston rings. So now the whole
power out of an engine. cylindrical structure is not rubbing with engine cylinder
1 Engine block (Fig 1) and only piston rings are in contact with engine cylinder
thus reducing friction to a great extent.
Fig 1
Fig 2
Engine block is an important parts of an engine. It is made Now how go to use this up and down motion of piston, for
by pouring the molten iron or aluminium alloy into a that need to know about 2 more things that are connecting
mould. the mould is made such that we should have rod and wrist pin.
required number of holes in the casted block, which are
said to be the number of cylinders of an engine or engine Also read:
cylinders. The diameter of these holes is called the bore • What is sterling engine - Types, main parts, working
of an engine. and fasten them together with nut. Two and application?
studs are used for holding one bearing - cap in place.
• How engine cooling system works? You will generally find some random holes in crankshaft;
these holes are for balancing the crankshaft while rotating
• Torque converter working, principle, main parts and
at high speed.
application.
5 Crankshaft casing or oil sump (Fig 5)
3 Connecting Rod (Fig 3)
It is also called as oil sump. It is a casing which is bolted
It is an ‘I’ shape structure whose one end is connected to
to engine block, which covers engine from bottom thus
piston and other one to crankshaft. The piston side end
called crankshaft casing. It retains lubricating oil in it
of connecting rod has hole in it. And have also got a hole
which is pumped to different engine parts. Crankshaft
in piston’s cylindrical structure just beneath the piston
has got small holes which spills oil towards piston, to
rings. So align this hole with connecting rods hole and put
remove piston heat and lubricate the piston rings, so it
a wrist pin through it. Wrist pin act a s a bearing and
also prevents oil from splashing and have got a bolt at the
connecting rod can move like pendulum beneath piston,
bottom of this casing from where remove used lubricating
though piston’s cylindrical structure is goanna limit its
oil during maintenance.
motion. To make sure that wrist pin should not move from
its position it is restricted by snap ring at both sides.
Fig 5
Fig 3
6 Engine Head (Fig 6)

Engine head is casted in the same way as engine block.
Its mould is made such that the casted piece must have
Other end of the connecting rod can be split into two an opening for air to flow into engine cylinder and an
parts. First is semi circular journal bearing seat, which is exhaust opening from where the burnt gases will go out.
placed over crankshaft after installing the half part of This passage of air flowing in and going out of engine
journal bearing, in the seat. Other half is journal bearing cylinder is controlled by inlet and outlet valves.
cap. These two parts are bolted together, holding
Fig 6
crankshaft in between. Thus piston is now connected to
crankshaft through connecting rod.
4 Crankshaft (Fig 4)
As name suggests it is designed in such a way to convert
linear (up and down) motion of piston into rotational
motion. It works same as slider - crank mechanism,
Material used for making crank shaft is cast iron generally
but also use forged steel in high power engines where
load on crankshaft is too high.
Casting a crank-shaft seems to be an easy task, but it’s
not. Once crankshaft is casted it is then machined, which 7 Valves (Fig 7)
is not that easy considering its shape. Then after machining It has already know that it control the inlet and exhaust air
it requires proper balancing work properly. to go into and out of engine cylinder. Material used to
make valves is nickel-chromium iron alloy. It can resist
Fig 4 high temperature and have great strength. Valve could
be described in two parts-valve stem and valve head.
Also already know that we have got cylindrical hole in
engine head for valve steam and it also have a valve seat
where valve head will rest in engine head. Valve is
mounted upside down means valve head is facing engine
cylinder. It is so because when there would be high
pressure in engine cylinder it would press the valve head
against its seat in engine head and thus pressure will be
maintained at best.
Fig 7 Valve spring provides a self-returning mechanism when
valve is not being pressed by camshaft. Further have
bucket type tappet covering the valve spring.
The purpose of tappet is to provide smooth surface for
cam to press the valve spring or inlet and outlet valve. The
arrangement is like valve spring around valve stem and
tappet mounted over that spring for smooth surface and
camshaft mounted just over it making the valve move up
and down using its cam-profile.
10 Timing Belt (Fig 10)
Wonder how camshaft gets its rotational motion to regulate
8 Camshaft (Fig 8) valves. It’s through timing belt which transmits the motion
of gear mounted at crankshaft called crank-gear, to the
It is a shaft with a number of cam profiles along its length.
gear mounted at camshaft. The ration of cam-gear to that
It is a shaft with a number of cam profiles along its length.
of crank-gear is 2:1. So that camshaft would rotate only
So it regulates the valves opening and closing time. It
once in two rotations of crankshaft. Timing belt is made
does so by pressing the end of valve stem by its cam
up either from glass-fibber or Kevlar so it does not worn-
profile. But we still need a mechanism which would return
out easily.
the valve back to its position once pressed by the cam
profile of camshaft. It has valve spring and bucket head
Fig 10
tappet assembly for solving this problem.
Fig 8
Now it has semicircular seats for bearings of camshaft. 11 Gasket (Fig 11)
What retains it to be fixed in engine head while rotating
is cam-caps? They hold the other half of journal bearing A wide variety of materials are used in making gaskets
and have two holes in their casing through which we like Teflon, glass-fibber, silicon etc. It is generally a paper
insert bolts and fasten them in internally threaded holes like sheet which is placed between engine block and
of engine head thus we hold our camshaft between the engine head. As it has already discussed that it has both
casted journal seat in engine block and cam-caps and water and oil vents in engine block, so gasket gives
fasten them up with long bolt. insulation from water or oil leaking into engine cylinder or
air-fuel mixture from engine cylinder leaking out from joint
9 Valve Spring and Tappet (Fig 9) of engine block and engine head. Aluminium engine
blocks are preferred over cast iron because it expends
Fig 9 more on heating thus compressing the gasket more,
increases the workability of gasket, thus reducing the
chances of leakage.
Fig 11
12 Piston Rings (Fig 12) Fig 12
Piston rings reduce friction between piston and cylinder
walls. What else they do?
Piston rings prevent the pressure created by burning of
air-fuel mixture from leaking into crankcase. Not only that
piston rings scrap down the oil from cylinder walls which
is spilled by crankshaft to remove heat from piston. They
also transfer heat of the piston to the cylinder walls which
are being cooled by water circulation through water
vents.
Design manufacture and operation of pressure vessels

• explain pressure vessels
• state design criteria - loads - materials and allowable stress
• state design formulas
• define opening reinforcement.
Pressure vessels Design Formulae

Pressure vessels used in industry are leak-tight pressure The design formulas used in the “design by rule” method
containers, usually cylindrical or spherical in shape, with are based on the principal stress theory and calculate
different head configurations. They are usually made the average hoop stress. The principal stress theory of
from carbon or stainless steel and assembled by welding. failure states that failure occurs when one of the three
Early operation of pressure vessels and boilers resulted principal stresses reaches the yield strength of the
in numerous explosions, causing loss of life and material. Assuming that the radial stress is negligible,
considerable property damage. the other two principal stresses can be determined by
simple formulas based on engineering mechanics.
Design criteria
The Code recognizes that the shell thickness may be
The forces that influence pressure vessel design are
such that the radial stress may not be negligible, and
internal/external pressure; dead loads due to the weight
adjustments have been made in the appropriate
of the vessel and contents; external loads from piping
formulas. shows various formulas used to calculate the
and attachments, wind, and earthquakes; operating-type
wall thickness for numerous pressure vessel geometries.
loads such as vibration and sloshing of the contents; and
startup and shutdown loads. The Code considers design Code Formulas for Calculation of Vessel Component
pressure, design temperature, and, to some extent, the Thickness
influence of other loads that impact the circumferential PR
(or hoop) and longitudinal stresses in shells. It is left to the Cylindrical shell t =
SE¡ 0:6P
designer to account for the effect of the remaining loads
on the vessel. Various national and local building codes PR
Hemispherical head or spherical shell t =
must be consulted for handling wind and earthquake 2SE¡ 0:2P
loadings.
PD
Materials 2:1 ellipsoidal head t =
2SE¡ 0:2P
The materials to be used in pressure vessels must be
1:77PL
selected from Code-approved material specifications. Flanged and dished head t =
This requirement is normally not a problem since a large 2SE¡ 0:2P
catalogue of tables
listing acceptable materials is available. Factors that Flat head t = dP CP = SE
need to be considered in picking a where
suitable table are: T = Minimum required thickness (in.)
• Cost P = Design pressure (psi)
• Fabric ability R = Inside radius (in.)
• Service condition (wear, corrosion, operating S = Allowable stress (psi)
temperature)
D = Inside diameter (in.)
• Availability
L = Inside spherical crown radius (in.)
• Strength requirements
E = Weld joint efficiency factor, determined
Several typical pressure vessel materials for a non by joint location and degree of examination
corrosive environment and for service
C = Factor depending upon method of head-to-shell
attachment
61
Defining Terms Pressure vessel: A leak-tight pressure container, usually
cylindrical or spherical in shape, with pressure usually
Code: The complete rules for construction of pressure varying from 15 psi to 5000 psi.
vessels as identified in ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code, Section VIII, Division 1, Pressure Vessels. Stress concentration: Local high stress in the vicinity
of a material discontinuity such as a change in thickness
Construction: The complete manufacturing process, or an opening in a shell.
including design, fabrication, inspection, examination,
hydro test, and certification. Applies to new construction Weld efficiency factor: A factor which reduces the
only. allowable stress. The factor depends on the degree of
weld examination performed during construction of the
Hoop membrane stress: The average stress in a ring vessel.
subjected to radial forces uniformly distributed along its
circumference.
Longitudinal stress: The average stress acting on a

cross section of the vessel.
Draughtsman Mechanical - Drawing of Machine Parts
Proper measurement practice in workshop

• state different types of measuring instruments and their applications in work shop
• state different types of gauge and its applications.
Measuring instruments
Measuring instruments have an important role in a
mechanical workshop. The quality of work is based on
the accuracy and precision of the instruments used for
inspection. There are different types of measuring
instruments are used in a workshop; some of them are
given below.
1 Steel rule
2 Calipers
3 Vernier caliper
Vernier caliper (Fig 3)
4 Micrometer
The vernier caliper is a precision instrument used for
5 Vernier height gauge measuring internal and external distances between two
6 Dial test indicator points extremely accurately. It has two versions, manual
and digital. The manual version has both an imperial and
7 Screw thread pitch gauge metric scale. The digital version requires a small battery
8 Screw cutting gauge where as the manual version does not need any power
source. Vernier calipers are available in the range of
Steel rule 0-100mm, 0-150mm, 0-200mm, 0-300mm, 0-600mm
Steel rule is a measuring instrument having a long, thin and 0-1000mm. Accuracy of metric scale vernier caliper
stainless steel strip with marked scale of unit division is 0.02mm and imperial scale vernier caliper is 0.002”.
such as in centimeters or inches, used for drawing lines,
measuring distances between two points, etc. These are
available in different sizes, such as in 15cm, 30cm, 60cm,
1m, 1.5m, 2m, 3m, 4m, 5m & 6m. Generally least of a
steel rule is 0.5mm. (Fig 1)
1 Outside jaws : used to measure external diameter or

width of an object
Calipers 2 Inside jaws : used to measure internal diameter of an
object
A caliper (British spelling also caliper) is a device used to
measure the distance between two opposite sides of an 3 Depth probe : used to measure depth of an object or
object. An ordinary caliper may be classified as the a hole
following: (Fig 2) 4 Main scale : scale marked every mm (metric scale)
1 Outside caliper: Used to measure outside diameter 5 Main scale : scale marked in inches and fractions
of a round shaped objects or to measure distance (imperial scale)
between two points.
6 Vernier scale : give interpolated measurements to
2 Inside caliper: Used for measuring inside diameter of 0.1 mm or better
a pipe or to measure inside dimensions hollow sections.
7 Vernier scale : gives interpolated measurements in
3 Jenney caliper: It is also known as odd leg caliper or fractions of an inch
hermaphrodite caliper. It used for scribe a line at a
distance from the edge of a work piece. 8 Retainer : used to block movable part to allow the
easy transferring of a measurement
63
9 Locking screw : used to lock movable jaw with main • Note the line on the vernier scale, which is coinciding,
scale. (Fig 4) with a line on the main scale.
• 31th line coincides with a line on the main scale.
So, the reading is 28mm plus 31 divisions of 0.02mm
TOTAL : 28mm + 0.02 - 28.62mm
Micrometer (Fig 6&7)
A Micrometer (also known as screw gauge)is used for
measuring dimensions smaller than those measured by
the Vernier caliper. A micrometer screw gauge is a small
measuring device, which works on the “screw” principle.
The accuracy of micrometer are varies between 0.01mm
Least count (LC) : Least Count is the smallest value that and 0.001mm depending on the type of micrometer.
can be read directly in that scale. Figure and detailed specifications of micrometer are
given below.
Least Count (L.C) = 1 Main Scale Division (MSD) - 1
Vernier Scale Division (VSD)
1 MSD = 1mm
1VAD = 49/50mm = 0.98mm
Therefore, LC = MSD - VSD = 1.098mm
= 0.02mm
How to take measurements (Fig 5)
Various ranges of micrometers available
Metric Imperial
Micrometer (mm) Micrometer (mm)
Each division on the main scale is 1mm. The metric
0-25mm 250-275mm 0-1” 10”-11”
Vernier scale is 49mm long and divided into 50 equal
parts. Each division is 49/50, which is equal to 0.98mm. 25-50mm 275-300mm 1”-2” 11”-12”
The difference between one division on the main scale 50-75mm 300-325mm 2”-3” 12”-13”
and one division on the metric vernier scale is 1/50 or
0.02 mm which is the main scale and one division on the 75-100mm 325-350mm 3”-4” 13”-14”
metric vernier scale is 1/50 or 0.02mm which is the least 100-125mm 350-375mm 4”-5” 14”-15”
Count.
125-150mm 375-400mm 5”-6” 15”-16”
Procedure
150-175mm 400-425mm 6”-7” 16”-17”
• Note the main scale reading, immediately preceding
the zero line on vernier scale. 175-200mm 425-450mm 7”-8” 17”-18”
• Here, zero of the vernier scale immediately preceding 200-225mm 450-475mm 8”-9” 18”-19”
28mm. 225-250mm 475-500mm 9”-10” 19”-20”
• This (28mm) must be added with decimal reading on
Zero error of micrometer (Fig 8)
the vernier scale.
Least count (LC) = Pitch / Number of divisions on the
main scale = 0.050mm/50
=0.01mm
How to take measurements
Total observed reading = main scale reading + (circular
scale division coinciding the base line of main scale) x
least count
True diameter = observed diameter - zero error
Determination of the diameter of a wire rod (Fig 9)
The wire whose diameter is to be determined is placed
between the anvil and spindle end, the thimble is rotated
till the wire is firmly held between the anvil and the spindle.
The ratchet is provided to avoid excessive pressure on
the wire. It prevents the spindle from further movement.
The diameter of the wire could be determined from the
reading as shown in figure below.
Reading = Linear scale reading + (coinciding circular
scale x least count)
= 2.5mm + (46 x 0.01) = ( 2.5 + 0.46) mm
= 2.96 mm
Dial test indicator (Fig 12)

Dial test indicator have been used in the machine shop
Vernier height gauge (Fig 10&11) to test alignment and rotation measurement of machine
A vernier height gauge is a measuring device used either parts. The dial indicator is a very precise instrument that
for repetitive marking of items to be worked on. The measures distance between two parts and can be used
pointer is sharpened to allow it to act as a scriber and to measure distances between two or locations. Dial test
assist in marking on work pieces. Figure below shows indicators typically measure ranges from 0.25mm to
details and working arrangement of a vernier height 300mm (0.015 inch to 12 inch). with graduations of 0.001
gauge. mm to 0.01mm (metric) or 0.00005 inch to 0.001 inch
(imperial). Contact points of test indicator most often
Various ranges of micrometers available come with a standard spherical tip of 1, 2, or 3mm
Metric Micrometer (mm) Imperial Micrometer (inch) diameter. Many are of steel (alloy tool steel or HSS);
0-150mm 0-6” higher - end models are of carbides (such as tungsten
0-200mm 0-8” carbide) for greater wear resistance. Other materials are
0-250mm 0-10 available for contact points depending on application,
0-300mm 0-12 such as ruby (high wear resistance) or Teflon or PVC (to
0-450mm 0-18 avoid scratching the work piece). These are more
0-600mm 0-24 expensive and are not always available, but they are
0-1000mm 0-40 extremely useful in applications that demand them.
0-1500mm Figure gives and idea about the dial test indicator gauges.
Screw thread pitch gauge (Fig 13) Count the number of crests to another major division,
usually 20 - 30mm.
A screw thread pitch gauge is used to check or find the
pitch of a thread. It is a series of thin marked blades Divide the length between the major divisions by the
which have different pitched teeth. Thread pitch gauges number of crest counted.
also come in the standard thread forms of metric, The answer is the pitch of the thread.
Whitworth, etc. which allows both the pitch of the thread
to be gauged and the form or shape of the thread, to be Then choose the pitch gauge closest to this pitch for the
checked. Each set of screw pitch gauge has the thread first try.
form stamped on it. For imperial threads, the method is similar, except that
the pitch is given as threads per inch (TPI) and the
numbers of crests in one inch are counted (TPI = 25.4/P).
Example : If the major diameter is 10mm and pitch of
the thread (P) is 1.25mm, then the thread is M10x1.25.
Screw cutting gauge (Fig 16)
Screw cutting gauge in an important tool used in a
machine shop, made from hardened and polished
stainless steel. It is also known as Centre gauge or Fish
tail gauge. It is used for checking tool angles while
machining threads in metal turning lathes. Metric, BSW,
How to measure pitch of the thread with screw pitch BSF, BA, American National and Acme thread angles
gauge? (Fig 14&15) are clearly etched on the V slots in the gauge as shown
First, measure the approximate pitch of the thread with in figure.
a steel rule. To be this for metric threads:
Put the steel rule on the thread parallel to the thread
axis.
Line up a major division on the rule with top or crest of
the thread.
Function of gauges
• explain the main function of gauges
• explain the principle of go and no gauges.
Main function of gauges: Components manufactured BIS covers the requirements for Go and No-Go gauging
using mass production methods are checked only to members for plain plug gauges for the required size.
ensure that the sizes are within the prescribed limits. The material for plain gauges prescribed in IS 7018
The most economical method of checking such (Part 1) 1983.
components is by using limit gauges. These gauges are
used in inspection because they provide a quick means
of checking.
Principle of Go and No-Go gauges (Fig 1)
The Go and No-Go principle of gauging is that the Go-
end of the gauge must go into the feature of the
component being checked and the No-Go end must not
go into the same feature. The dimensions of the Go and
No-Go ends of gauges are determined from the limits
stated on the dimension of the component to be gauged.
The dimension of the Go-end is equal to the minimum
permissible dimension and that of the No-Go end is
equal to the maximum permissible dimension.
Types of gauges and their essential features

• state different types of gauges
• explain the essential features of gauges
• explain the type of gauges and their nomenclature according to B.I.S.
Types of gauges
In mass production to maintain quality control on
dimensions, for speed, inspection different devices are
employed for different work. These devices are called
as gauges.
1 Cylindrical plug gauges
– Progressive plug gauge
– Double ended plug gauge
2 Plain ring gauges
3 Taper ring gauges
4 Thread plug gauges
5 Snap gauges
6 Adjustable caliper gauges
7 Screen pitch gauge
8 Screen thread caliper gauge
Progressive plug gauge (Fig 1)
These plug gauges are used for checking the diameter
of a straight hole. (Fig 2) The Go-gauge checks the lower
limit of the hole and the ‘No-Go’ gauge checks the
upper limit.
Plain ring gauges (Fig 3)
These are used to check the outside diameter of the
work pieces. Separate gauges are used for checking
Go and No-Go sizes. The No-Go gauge is identified by
an annular groove, cut on the knurled surface.
These gauges must be resistant to wear, corrosion and

expansion due to temperature. The plugs of the gauges
are ground and lapped.
The Go-end is made longer than the ‘No-Go’ end for
easy identification. Sometimes a groove is cut on the
Taper plug gauges ( Fig 4)
handle near the ‘No-Go’ end to distinguish it from the
These gauges are made with standard or special tapers ‘Go’ end.
and are used to check the size of the hole and the
The dimensions of these gauges are usually stamped
accuracy of the taper. The gauge must slide into the
on them.
hole for a prescribed depth and fit perfectly. An incorrect
taper is evidenced by a wobble between the plug and IS 9529-1980 has provided specification for taper plug
the hole. gauges and taper ring gauges.
IS 2251-1986 has provided specification for plug and ring
gauges for self holding tapers.
Snap gauges (Fig 7)
Snap gauges are used as a quick means for checking
sizes within certain limits by comparing the size of the
parts with the opening of the gauge.
Taper ring gauges ( Fig 5)
These gauges are used to check both the accuracy and
the outside diameter of a taper. Ring gauges often have
scribed lines or a step ground on the small end to indicate
the ‘Go’ and ‘No-Go’ dimensions.
Adjustable caliper gauges (Fig 8)
There are several types of which are employed for

different work and purposes the Fig 6, shows a double
ended plug gauge.
Essential features: These gauges are easy to handle
and are accurately finished. They are generally finished
to one tenth of the tolerance they are designed to control.
For example, if the tolerance to be maintained is at
0.02mm, then the gauge must be finished to with in 0.002
mm, of the required size.
These gauges are generally C-Shaped and are 1 Scope - Covers requirements for taper plug gauges
adjustable to the maximum and minimum limits of the and taper ring gauges used for checking taper bores
part being checked. When in use the work should slide of taper handles and taper shanks of gauging
into the Go anvil but not into the No-Go anvil. members.
Snap gauges are adjustable caliper gauges can be used 2 Material - Shall be as prescribed in IS : 7018 (Part I)
for checking external sizes in any place along the length - 1973 Technical supply conditions for gauges : Part
of a work. I General.
IS 8023:1991 provides informations about single ended 3 Dimensions
progressive type plate snap gauges.
– Taper plug gauges for checking taper bore of
IS study material regarding snap gauges gives complete gauge handles.
data for preparation of moving drawing. While making
working drawing these informations should be applied.
IS 7606-1982 gives specification for plain adjustable
snap gauges. This study material of IS gives complete
parts and function of each part. These information
incorporated in this study material should be applied in
preparation of working drawing.
Specification for taper plug gauges and taper ring gauges
to check taper bore of gauge handles and taper shanks
of gauging members. (Fig 9)
Draughtsman Mechanical - Drawing of machine parts
Layout of machine foundations and types of machine foundations

• define foundation plan
• describe types of foundation plans
• express practical and general requirement of a machine foundation.
Foundation plan layout From the practical point of view, the following
requirements should be fulfilled.
Foundation plan layout is the process of marking out of
the installation area for the machine tool and its 1 The groundwater table should be as low as possible
foundation bolts to be erected as per foundation plan and groundwater level deeper by atleast one fourth
supplied by the manufacturer. of the width of foundation below the base plane. This
limits the vibration propagation, groundwater being a
Free space may be ensured around the good conductor of vibration waves.
machine for operation and maintenance
2 Machine foundations should be separated from
purpose as per manufacturers
adjacent building components by means of a
recommendation.
expansion joints.
Types of machine foundation 3 Any steam or hot air pipes, embedded in the
foundation must be properly isolated.
Machine foundation design, which is also known as
machinery foundation design is accomplished to protect 4 The foundation must be protected from machine by
the adjacent foundations of the structure from the means of acid resisting coating or suitable
vibration of the rotating or vibrating machine. There are chemical treatment.
four types of machine foundations generally used. Each
5 Machine foundations should be taken to a level .......
of them is discussed briefly below.
than the level of the foundations of adjoining .........
1 Block Type
The following general requirements of machine
2 Box Type foundations shall be satisfied and results checked prior
to .............. the foundations
3 Wall Type
1 The foundation should be able to carry the ......... loads
4 Framed Type
without causing shear or crushing ........
Block Type (Fig 1A)
2 The settlements should be within the permissible limits
Block type machine foundations consist of a pedestal
3 The combined centre of gravity of machine and ........
resting on a footing. The footing has a large mass and a
should as far as possible, be in the same ...... line as
small natural frequency.
the centre of gravity of the base plane.
Box Type (Fig 1B)
4 No resonance should occur, hence the natural
Box type machine foundation consists of a hollow frequency of the foundation - soil system should be
concrete block. The mass of the foundation is less than either too large or too small compared to the operating
the block type and the natural frequency is increased. frequency of the machine. For low-speed machines
Wall Type (Fig 1C) the natural frequency should be high.
It consists of a pair of walls having a top slab. The 5 The amplitudes under service conditions should be
machine rests on the top slab. it is economical for smaller within permissible limits which are prescribed by the
projects. Wall type machine foundation is made by machine manufacturers.
homogeneous material in case of both horizontal and 6 All rotating and reciprocating parts of a machine
vertical member. should be so well balanced as to minimize the
Frame Type (Fig 1D) .......forces or moments.
Frame type consists of vertical columns having a 7 Where possible the foundation should be ........... such
horizontal frame at their tops. The machine is supported a manner as to permit a subsequent ....... natural
on the frame. It is economical for larger projects. In frame frequency by changing base .............. the foundation
type machine foundation, vertical and horizontal member as may subsequently.......
is made by different materials.
70
Machine foundations
• state the purpose of foundation
• explain the factors for deciding the size of the foundation
• state the use of wooden templates as wooden forms
• state the purpose of bracing the wooden forms
• write the procedure to prepare concrete foundation.
Purpose of foundation - It must support the machines at a given height and

Machinery foundation is a built up structure designed to must be able to take up the static and dynamic loads
support the machine and to take up the static and - It should preserve the alignment of the machine
dynamic load of the machine, besides keeping the
machine in alignment. - It should absorb the vibration of the moving parts
The machine foundation must fulfil the following
requirements.
The size of the foundation will be decided by:
- the type of the soil
- the weight of the machine
- the vibration when it is operating
Concrete
Should be prepared from clean cement on a wooden
surface. Proportions for the mixture vary. A good average
Foundation mixture is 1:2:4. ie 1 part cement, 2 parts sand and 4
parts stone. This is mixed thrice when dry and thrice
The position of the foundation is first determined, marked after wetting and is immediately placed on the excavated
off and wooden pegs are driven if it is in the soil (Fig 1) area after a good spraying with water on the excavated
The size of the excavation is drawn with chalk if it is on area.
a concrete floor. The foundation should be given a day at least to set
Excavating the hole should be done as neatly as possible before the template is removed.
but should the soil persist in falling into the hole it may Machine Foundation Design
be advisable to shore this up by the use of shuttering.
The excavation should be made a few millimeters deeper As the structural engineer who recently designed the
than the required foundation depth. The bottom surface machine foundation for one of the largest vertical turning
is well rammed prior to and after placing a layer of clean and milling centers in the country, in addition to over
bottoming stones or broken bricks. 250 other machine foundations worldwide,
Wooden template “When an owner selects a specific machine to meet the

milling needs of their company, it is paramount to
A wooden template is formed as shown in Fig 2 to construct a foundation that properly supports the
represent the base of the machine and to support bolts machine. Without a properly designed and built
over the excavation as shown. The combined thickness foundation, the machine will not function properly.
of the template frame A and blocks B should equal the Machine tool suppliers request the foundation to
thickness of the foot of the machine as shown. These maintain deflections measured in microns, and with the
boxes are formed of light timber and are suitably nailed cost of some foundations exceeding a million dollars,
for easy removal later. the design process needs to be carefully and precisely
Wooden forms worked out. Utility layouts, trenches, pits, safety railings
and numerous other items need to be planned for a
Wooden forms for concrete foundations are made and complete foundation package. Larson & Darby Group
placed over the excavation. has worked with industrial clients and machine tool
Bracing the wooden form suppliers worldwide for 30 years, designing foundations
for large milling machines. Over that time span, we have
After placing the wooden form in position in the
developed a checklist to ensure the foundation design
excavation. it is firmly braced from the outside so as to
meets the needs of the owner and also meets the
withstand the pressure of the concrete and prevent any
requirements of the machine tool supplier. The following
movement when the concrete is being poured.
is a partial hackliest of items for the owner, machine
tool supplier and foundation designer to consider:”
I OWNER REQUIREMENTS - Steel - AISC 1989 edition
A Assign a specific contact person who can answer - Welding - ASW D1.1-92
questions dealing with the owner’s requirements and
Adjacent floor surface match requirements
a specific contact for the machine tool supplier to
answer engineering foundation design questions. - Concrete to concrete
B Approved layout within the facility, including these - Concrete to floor block
items:
Plant grounding scheme
Machine location
Safety standards
- Pits for tanks E Architectural registration requirements
- SU changer
F Design approval process between machine tool
- Tool changer supplier and owner
- Transformer cabinet G Documentation requirements:
- AC control cabinet - Paper size
- DC control cabinet - Title block format
- NC cabinet - Drawing number system
- Troughs - Approval drawings, type and quantity
C Factory standards - Final drawings
- Piping standards II GEOTECHNICAL (supplied by owner)
- Electrical standards A Recommendations: Foundation designer will
recommend the number, location and depth of the
- Floor plate standards
soil borings necessary to complete the design
- Type process.
- Load capacity B Geotechnical investigation information
- Chip/coolant systems - Detailed description of the soil profile
- Pit locations - Foreign materials within the soil
- Trough locations - Condition of the excavated material

- Recommendations during excavation
D Design information, including these items:
- Backfill and compaction requirements
Codes required
- Ground water elevations
Geotechnical considerations
- Estimated settlement
Seismic design considerations
- Allowable bearing pressure
Vibration design considerations
- Modules of elasticity “E”
Plant engineering drawings showing site conditions
- Modules of sub-grade reaction “K”
- Underground piping
- Values for “E” & “K” for depths 10', 15' & 20'
- Compressed air
- If rock is encountered: profile of stratum and
- Water supply for chip/coolant system bearing capacity of rock
- Electrical supply III FOUNDATION DESIGN
- Building column and foundation layout A Approval of all information from the owner to machine
supplier
- Existing foundations within area
Environmental standards for pits, troughs, and piping B Machine tool supplier/owner recommendation of the
maximum work piece weight expected to be loaded
Finish standards for surfaces on the machine
- Paint specifications (concrete surfaces, floor plate, C Deflection criteria for all components
guarding, and misc. metals)
D Individual component weights for both static and
Approval of the concrete and steel design standards dynamic conditions
- Concrete - ACI 301 E Monument locations to identify centerlines
F Foundation drawings for machine tool supplier - Water specifications
((machine, accessories and chip/coolant system)
- Compressed air specifications
- Cell layout plan with all items located and
•´ scfm
measurements shown
•´ dew point
- Machine plan (machine accessories located with
dimensions) •´ pressure
- Machine front and side views (minimum - Piping, conduit and fitting specifications.
clearances noted) I Team listing of all machine tool supplier personnel
- Foundation plan for each discipline
• Anchor locations, machine and accessories IV CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS
• Trough locations and pitch A Foundation impact on existing structure
• Concrete elevation and dimensions - Under pin, lower or move existing column footings
• Piping and conduit size and location - Shore excavation
• Grounding specification and location B Crane loads during construction or when machine is
in use
- Foundation sections
C Environmental
• ´ Anchor detail
- Dust barriers
•´ Foundation sections
- Exhaust flumes
•´ Floor slopes
D Soil removal
•´ Machine/accessories/foundation relationship
- Is it contaminated?
- Foundation load diagram
- Soil stockpiled on site or removed
• ´ All component weights
- Can soil be reused for fill?
•´ Deflection criteria (static, dynamic, deflection by
areas) E Site access
•´ Seismic criteria - Truck routes in and outside of plant

- Workers access and security clearance
• Vibration criteria
- Lay down area and construction trailers
• Cutting forces
- Wash-out area for concrete trucks
• Special conditions (tensional, bending and
F Procedure for pouring concrete
combination requirements)
- Back-up procedure for concrete plant, pumpers,
G Guard and shielding drawings
delivery
- Guards and shields elevations - Proper mix design and delivery method
•´ Chip deflectors - Hot or cold weather considerations for mass
concrete
•´ Hinged gratings
- Proper curing procedures
•´ Fencing & railings
- Form work standards
- Guards and shields plans
The above outline is an excellent starting point for items
• ´ Special conditions to be discussed in the beginning stages of the foundation
•´ Safety switch requirements design for a milling machine. With this information, the
foundation designer will be able to produce a set of
H Utility requirements of machine, accessories and drawings and specifications that a contractor can use
chip/coolant system to accurately bid and build the base. With the proper
- Main disconnect size in amps information from all parties, the owner will have a
foundation that is correctly constructed to precise
- Type of metal being machined measures, and thus have the right foundation on which
- Chip load to place the new milling machine.
- Coolant specifications For more information on machine foundations from a

leader in this unique industry, please contact
- Coolant GPM required - machine and flushing
William J. Waldorf, SE, Chief Executive Officer of Larson
- Coolant pressure required - machine and flushing & Darby Group at 815-484-0739 or via
Consideration of ergonomics human factor for the layout
• state correct posture and proper grip of load
• explain how to handle load manually according to its type
• state safety factors while handling load manually.
Handle block manually

• Correct positioning of feet: Lift load keep the legs
apart by 30 cm approximately with one foot the side
of the load and other foot towards the direction of
movement (Fig 1).
• Knees bend and body straight: Bent knees as • Arms close to the body: Keep the arms and load
shown in Fig 2 for stable position to lift the load for a close to the body to reduce leverage or else it may
right hander. cause strain to back bone and arms. (Fig 3)
• Correct grip: Hold the load firmly on one side using and fingers of both hands and continue to support
the roots of the fingers as in Fig 4 but not with the the drum to lift.
finger tips.
• Raise the drum to its balanced condition then adjust
the position of the hand so that the fingers grip the
edge of the drum. Use the palm of the hand to
continue the support to the drum Fig 7a.
• As the load is lifted, now shift the hands to the top of
the rim (Fig 7b). As the drum being settled to erect
position, the left hand to be adjusted as shown in Fig
7c. So that the risk of toppling the drum again is
avoided.
• For lowering the drum the procedure may be
reversed.
• While storing the oil filled drum in the store, always it
should be kept 3 O’ clock position with proper wooden
wedge at the ends as shown in Fig 7d to avoid
spillage of oil.
• Lift the load on the knees (Fig 5a)
• Adjust the hand position if necessary and make sure
that the body and load are balanced before you stand
erect. (Fig 5b)
• Moving with load: Move with load steadily by taking

short flat footed steps to have proper balance and to
avoid risk of slippage. (Fig 6) Walk with steady steps
forward by taking fairly straight path.
• Remove obstruction if any, from the path wherever
possible.
Handling of gas cylinder

• Take your position (as shown in Fig 8a) by 30 cm
gap between two feet, bent knees, keep arm straight
with elbows and chin drawn in to hold the cylinder by
Handling of drums both hands.
• Position your feet a slightly apart with one forward
for balance. Hold (clasp) the drum firmly by palms
• Hold the valve portion of the cylinder from underneath • Team members must be nearly of same height and
straighten your legs and step forward to lift the strength to share the load evenly.
cylinder gradually to its balanced in upright position - use protective clothing and gloves for safe
as in Fig 8b. handling.
- ensure that the movement path is free from
obstruction and clear.
Move load to higher position
• For shifting heavy loads to a higher position, step
lifting is required as in Fig 11. The load is lifted to
step-1 and then lifted to the final step 2.
Handling of sheet metal (Fig 9)

• Hold the sheet metal firmly by a long handled hook
(Fig 9a) and place the other arm on the top edge of
the sheet and shift as shown and carry the sheet
metal by keeping the balance of the sheet slightly
towards the body Fig 9b.
• Use hand gloves while handling sheet metal.
• Wrong way to lift the load as shown in (Fig 12) can

strain backbone etc.
Team lifting
• Heavy and irregular loads to be carried by more than
one person as shown in Fig 10.
• As angle between two limbs of sling increased, the
load carrying capacity of the sling decreases.
Maximum sling angle should not be more than 120°.
(Fig 13)
• While handling liquid in buckets, care should be taken
to avoid spillage of liquid which can lead to an
accident.
• Use of body weight (Fig 14)
• Position the body in such a way to counter balance
the load to get greater mechanical advantage.
Bending the back forward will not counter balance
the load, instead, it will reduce mechanical
advantage.
CG&M Related Theory for Exercise 4.3.133 -135
Draughtsman Mechanical - 2D/3D Modeling
User interface, menu bar, command manager

• work on user interface, task pane, manager panels and settings.
The solid works on design models quickly and precisely. - Function selection and feedback
Solid works designs are: Menu Bar
- Defined by 3D design The Menu Bar contains a set of the most frequently used
tool buttons from the Standard toolbar, the SolidWorks
- Based on components
menus, the Solid Works Search, and a fly out menu of
Solid Works uses a 3D design approach. As design a part Help options.
from the initial sketch to the final model, a 3D entity is to
Frequently used tool buttons
be created.. From this 3D entity, it can be created 2D
drawings, or mate different components to create 3D
assemblies. It can also be created 2D drawings of 3D
assemblies. By clicking the down arrow next to a tool button, it can be
expanded to display a fly out menu with additional
One of the most powerful features in the Solid Works
functions. This lets to access most of File menu commands
application is that any change in a part is reflected in any
from the toolbar. For example, the Save fly out menu
associated drawings or assemblies.
includes Save, Save As, and Save All.
User interface (Fig 1)
The solid works application includes a variety of user
interface tools and capabilities to create and edit models
efficiently. These tools and capabilities include the
following:
- Windows functions
- SolidWorks document windows
Fig 1
79
This toolbar can be customized in the same way.
Fig 3
Solid works menus
The menus are visible when moves the mouse over or

click the Solid Works logo. Pin the menus to keep them
visible at all times. The toolbar moves to the right when
the menus are pinned.
Solid works search
Fly out menu of Help options (Fig 2)
Fig 2
Command manager
The Command Manager provides access to the Solid
Works tools. (Fig 3)
Feature manager
• work on feature manager design tree
• set on default option suggested settings
• keyboard shortcuts
• create best profile and sketch with new part.
Feature Manager- Design Tree (Fig 1) Names of features are displayed from top to bottom in the
order created in the Feature Manager design tree, unless
Fig 1 recorded them. (Features can be considered as
components of parts.)
The Feature Manager design tree in assemblies displays
components (parts or subassemblies and their features),
a Mates folder, and assembly features.
The Feature Manager design tree in drawings contains
an icon for each sheet. Under each sheet are icons for the
sheet format and each view. Under each view are the
parts and assemblies that belong to the view.
80 C G & M: Draughtsman Mechanical (NSQF Level-5) - Related Theory for Exercise 4.3.133-135
Property Manager (Fig 2) Fig 5
Fig 2
Manager Display (Fig 6)
Fig 6
Most sketch, feature, and drawing tools in Solid Works
open a Property Manager in the left panel. The Property
Manager displays the properties of the entity or feature to
specify the properties without a dialog box covering the
graphics area.
Configuration Manager (Fig 3)
Fig 3
To switch between the Feature Manager design tree,

The Configuration Manager is a means to create, select, property manager, configuration manager, and display
and view multiple configurations of parts and assemblies. manager can be done by clicking the tabs at the top of the
Dim Xpert Manager (Fig 4) left panel in the solid works window.
The panel and display can be split more than one
Fig 4 manager or multiple copies of one manager. (Fig 7)
Fig 7
The Dim Xpert Manager lists the tolerance features

defined by Dim Xpert for parts. It also displays Dim Xpert
tools that you use to insert dimensions and tolerances In a property manager to view a fly out feature manager
into parts. These dimensions and tolerances can be design tree, click simultaneously.
imported into drawings.
Splitting the manager pane
Display Manager (Fig 5)
Split the manager pane to the left of the graphics area.
The Display Manager lists and provides editing access to
appearances, decals, scene, lights, and cameras that Keyboard shortcuts
are applied to the current model. When Photo View 360 To view all existing SOLIDWORKS shortcuts, start out by
is added in, the Display Manager provides access to opening a part, drawing or assembly. (must have a file
Photo View Options. open to access the CUSTOMIZE menu).
C G & M: Draughtsman Mechanical (NSQF Level-5) - Related Theory for Exercise 4.3.133-135 81
Next, access the CUSTOMIZE menu. typically access Click on the tab which says KEYBOARD. In the section
this via the triangle pull down, next to the options button. labelled SHOW, choose to show COMMANDS WITH
KEYBOARD SHORTCUTS.
Accessing the Keyboard tab in the Customize menu and
choosing to show commands with keyboard shortcuts.
(Fig 8)
Fig 8
This list shows all of the commands in the software which

have a KEYBOARD SHORTCUT ASSIGNED and the list
shows the associated keyboard shortcut.(Fig 9)
Fig 9
Create a sketch (Fig 10)

• Start new part Fig 10
• Sketch on front plane

• Use "symmetric" and "equal" constraints
• Add dimensions
• Close sketch and save part
Create new part file front plane selected (Fig 11)
Feature Manager Design Tree Views
In part documents you can set the Feature manager
design tree to show features in the order they were
created. Instead of hierarchically Right - click in the
Feature Manager design tree and click Tree Display >
Show Flat Tree view in Flat three view. Curves 2 D
sketches and 3D sketches are not absorbed into the
features that reference them instead they are shown in
the order creation
Flat Tree view is only available for parts
All regular feature manager design tree functionality is
available in Flat Tree View. With the exception of user
created folders. You can reorder features in flat Tree
view. changing design intent.
Fig 11
Not all items are unabsorbed in Flat Tree View The • Vent
following features continue to absorb items in Flat Tree
• Snap hook
View. (Fig 12).
• Sheet metal feature
• Simple hole
• Library feature
• Hole wizard hole
• Weldement structural member
• Mounting boss
• Sketch block
• Lip/ groove
In the following example the same part is shown in
• Snap hook groove
Normal view and flat Tree view.(Fig 13).
Fig 12 Fig 13
Extrude bosses and revolved features

• extrude, cut, fillet, chamfer and changing dimension
• revolve features using axes, circular pattering changes and rebuild process
• bottom up assembly modelling.
Extrude boss / base (Fig 1)
Fig 1
Extrude Boss/Base is the tool in Solid works to create

Fig 2
solid 3D models like block, cube, cylinder, 3D polygon,
3D elliptical shapes, etc. It extrudes a sketch or selected
sketch contours in one or two directions to create solid
feature. This feature is located in "Features command
manager" or "Insert Menu".
Extrude Cut
Extrude cut helps to remove materials from the 3D model.
It cuts a sketch profile while extruding in both directions
and mainly used for creating holes, channels, slots, etc.
This feature tool is also located in command manager or
can access it from the Insert menu bar. (Fig 2,3)
Fillet
Open the fillet property manager by clicking on the fillet
features tool and select "face fillet".
In "Items to Fillet" set the fillet radius and click on model
part face 1 and face2
84
Fig 3
Click on the green tick button to get final face filleted

design part.(Fig 4)
Fig 4
Chamfer is depends on the angle and distance from the age or

corner. But default 45° is cutting plane angle and the
Angle distance chamfer tool is located in Chamfer
distance is 10 mm.(Fig 5,6)
Property Manager and which is used to create cham-
fered corner or age in sharp 3D object. The chamfering
Fig 5
Fig 6
Changing dimensions
Fig 7
Changing dimension (smart dimension) helps to correct
or modify the dimension for sketched part. This tool at the
sketch toolbar manager also helps to notate the
dimensions of the design part or product. First select the
first point then select the second point. Then drag the
mouse button up or down to fix the dimension marking
and click left mouse button. Then a small dialog box will
appear and named as modify. Here it can be changed the
dimension name, enter the length of the line and reverse
the sense of the dimension. Then reset the spin increment
value. (Fig 7)
Revolve features any sketch and exit the sketch. Then go to feature
command manger and click revolved boss/base feature.
Go to sketch and select the line or center line sketch tool
Select the axis line then select the rectangular profile for
from the sketch command manager. First draw a line
creating 3D cylinder. (Fig 8)
through origin of the drawing part. There is no dimension
restriction for this center line. After sketching rectangle or
Fig 8
Linear patterning (base pattern) which used to create the array of patterns
in one or two dimension. The pattern should follow the
Linear pattern features tool is a placed features tool
exact shape of the main pattern. (Fig 9)
which is used to create patterns of features in linear
manner. For linear patterning there is parent pattern
Fig 9
Fig 10
Circular patterning: Circular sketch pattern is sketch thorough rebuild, which rebuilds every item in the tree in
tool which helps to make sketch of circular pattern by sequence is the CTRL + Q rebuild. This has no
adding different closed profiles like circle, rectangle, etc. corresponding toolbar icon and is keyboard shortcut
this tool is mainly located in the sketch command man- only. CTRL Q has been known to highlight errors not
ager with linear sketch pattern tool. It can also be ac- previously seen, but also solve errors that just require a
cessed from the Tools menu within the sketch tools. After rebuild. (Fig 12)
selecting the base circle and rotating object fix the
"Verification on Rebuild" controls the level of error checking
number of items by entering in the number of instances
during rebuilds, it has been recommended in the past that
section in the circular pattern property manager. To get
this be cleared except when troubleshooting a problematic
equally spaced pattern tick on equal spacing.(Fig 10,11)
part. In fact, on the topic of "Verification on Rebuild", Solid
Works Help states that "the default setting (cleared) is
Fig 11
adequate and results in a faster rebuild of the model".
At some point usually after the creating additional features,
a rebuild may eventually display multiple rebuild errors.
Trying to fix all the rebuild errors can be quite difficult. If
"Verification on Rebuild" is turned on, from Tools >
Options > System Options > Performance.
Bottom-up assembly approach (Fig 13)
- Allows designer to use part drawings that already
exist (off the shelf)
Final circular pattern with base circle - Provides the designer with more control over individual
parts.
Changes and rebuild: The rebuild tool will refresh the - Multiple copies (instances) of parts can be inserted
model after a change. Sometimes this is done automati- into the assembly.
cally; sometimes this must be done manually. The rebuild
traffic light symbol will be seen in the bottom left hand - The approach is ideal for large assemblies consisting
corner of the SW window as well as attached to a of thousands of parts.
particular part or feature. When this appears, either - The approach is used to deal with large designs
select the corresponding traffic light icon from the Stan- including multiple design teams.
dard toolbar or use CTRL + B from your keyboard.
- It lends itself well to the conceptual design phase
The CTRL + B rebuild will only rebuild the last few e.g. : Piping and fittings, welds, lock pins
changes that have been made to the model. A more
Fig 12
Fig 13
Bottom up assembly modelling (Fig 14)
Fig 14
Fig 15
Bolts & Nuts

Rack & Pinion Hinge
Cam
Components configuration in an assembly, subassembly, interference

• draw assembly and insert subassembly and interference detection
• detailing of drawing items, add items, named views, 3-views, auxiliary views, sectional
• work on views and detailed views in a drawing sheet.
Components configuration in an assembly

1 Right-click the component and select Component
Properties ..
To specify configurations for more than one component,
hold down Ctrl and select the components, then right-
click and select Component Properties ..
Properties that are common to all the selected components
appear in the dialog box. Once the part is inside the Assembly, go to component
2 Set the following options, then click OK. properties by either doing a left or right click on the part
directly from the graphic's area or from the feature
Configuration specific properties manager design. (Fig 1)
Referenced configuration. Select a configuration from After selection of the component properties it will open a
the list. If the selected component is an instance of a dialog box as shown below where it can be selected the
component pattern, select one of the following: required configuration and the part till automatically
- Use same configuration as pattern seed update. (Fig 2)
component. If the selected component is an instance To insert a new subassembly
of a component pattern, this is the default setting.
1 Do one of the following:
- Use named configuration. Select to specify a
- In the Feature Manager design tree, right-click either
configuration that is different from the seed component,
the top-level assembly icon or the icon for an existing
and select a configuration from the list.
subassembly, and select Insert New Subassembly.
Change properties in. (Only available in assemblies
with more than one configuration.) Sets properties in this - Click New Assembly (Assembly toolbar) or
configuration, All configurations, or Specify configurations. Insert > Component > New Assembly.
Suppression state. Controls the suppression state of In the Feature Manager design tree, an empty
the component. subassembly is inserted as the last component of the
Solve as. Sets the component as Rigid or Flexible. selected assembly. Virtual subassemblies appear with a
name in the form [Assemnâssembly_name]. Externally
Exclude from bill of materials. Omits this component saved subassemblies appear with a name in the form
from the bill of materials (BOM). Applies to only table- Assemn.
based BOMs, not Excel-based BOMs.
2 Add components to the subassembly:
1 In an assembly, right-click a component and click
Configure Component . - To move a component that is already in the assembly
into the subassembly, see Drawing Components to
2 In the Modify Configurations dialog box, you can: Edit the Assembly Structure or Assembly Structure
Editing.
- Create new assembly configurations.
- Change the component configuration used in each - To add an existing, saved component to the
assembly configuration. subassembly, right-click the subassembly icon in the
Feature Manager design tree, and select Edit
- Suppress or unsuppressed the component for each Subassembly. Then insert components using any of
assembly configuration. the methods in Adding Components to an Assembly.
Changing the Part configuration after dropping it into
assembly.
90
Fig 1
Fig 2
- To insert a new component into a subassembly, you Fig 3

must edit the subassembly in its own window. It
cannot be insert a new component into a subassembly
while editing the top-level assembly. Also, it cannot be
insert a new component while editing the subassembly
in the context of a higher level assembly. Right-click
the subassembly icon in the Feature Manager design
tree, and select Open Assembly to open the
subassembly in its own window. Then add a new
component.
Interference detection
To check for Interference in between multiple weldment
structural members in a Soli works Part, there is no
interference detection tools available while working on a
part.
C G & M: Draughtsman Mechanical (NSQF Level-5) - Related Theory for Exercise 4.3.137&138 91
Fig 4 see if there is any interference. If there are none,
following message will appear: "Unable to create
single body common to the input bodies" which would
mean that there is no interference".
Fig 7
Fig 5
Drawing and detailing

Work through numerous activities to create multiple-
view, multiple-sheet, detailed drawings, and assembly
drawings. Develop Drawing templates, Sheet formats,
and Custom Properties. Construct drawings that
incorporate part configurations, assembly configurations,
and design tables with equations. Manipulate annotations
in parts, drawings, assemblies, Revision tables, Bills of
1 Simply create an assembly with the weldment part (no Materials and more.
other parts are needed) and run Interference Detection
from the pull-down Tools/Interference Detection or Fig 8
from the Evaluate tab on the Command Manager.
Make sure to use the following option, 'Include Multi-
body part interferences'.
Fig 6
Create Drawing Sheet

The Sheet Format/Size dialog box defines the sheet
format and the paper size.
The U.S. default Standard Sheet Format is A-
2 In the weldment part file use the Combine Feature to Landscape.slddrt. The Display sheet format option toggles
check between 2 structural members. From the pull- the sheet format display on/off.
down Insert/Features/Combine, simply select the
'Common' option and select 2 structural members to
check if there is any overlapping volume between
them. Use the Preview button in the command and
92 C G & M: Draughtsman Mechanical (NSQF Level-5) - Related Theory for Exercise 4.3.137&138
Fig 9 Imported annotations display in the Annotations
(Imported) color; reference annotations (added in the
drawing) are displayed in the Annotations (Non Imported)
color. These colors are specified in Tools > Options >
System Options > Colors.
Named views
Pick the New View icon . The Named View dialog

box will appear (note: the model will revert to the view to
be saved.) Enter the name for the new view in the View
Name box. Hit OK.
Fig 11
Add drawing Items

To insert existing model items into a drawing:
1 Click Model Items (Annotation toolbar), or click

Insert > Model Items. A Named View has been successfully created.
You can also preselect views, features, or components to To generate standard 3 views:
which you want to add model items. Select features or 1 In a part or assembly document, click Make Drawing
components from the Feature Manager design tree or the
graphics area. from Part/Assembly on the Standard toolbar
2 Set options in the model Items property manager. and select a template in the Sheet Format/Size dialog
box.
Fig 10 The View Palette opens on the right side of the
window.
2 Click to pin the View Palette.
3 Drag a view from the View Palette onto the drawing

sheet.
4 In the Drawing View or Projected View Property
Manager, set options such as orientation, display
style, scale, etc. then click .
5 Repeat steps 3 and 4 to add views.
Fig 12
Dimensions are inserted for unabsorbed model sketches

only if the sketch is visible in the drawing. To insert
dimensions for an unabsorbed sketch, right-click the
sketch in the Feature Manager design tree and select
Show before inserting the dimensions. Dimensions
belonging to an unabsorbed sketch are shown or hidden
depending on the state of Show or Hide.
3 Click .
Toggle the visibility of individual reference geometry
items. Right-click the item, and select Hide or Show.
Auxiliary views A Detail View in general is used to create a new drawing
view, which is an enlarged portion of an existing view.
The Auxiliary View and the Auxiliary View Label fonts
The enlarged portion is enclosed using sketch geometry,
specify the font type and size used for the letter labels on
usually a circle or other closed contour like a spline.
the auxiliary arrow and the auxiliary view label text.
An Auxiliary View in general is similar to a Projected view, Fig 14
but it is unfolded normal to a reference edge in an existing
view. The reference edge can be an edge of a part, a
silhouette edge, an axis, or a sketched line. If you sketch
a line, activate the drawing view first.
Fig 13
Sectional views
The Section View and the Section View Label fonts
specify the font type and size used for the letter labels on
the section lines and the text below the Section view. A
Section view is generally used to create a new drawing
view that is defined by cutting an existing view with a
section line (Sketch).
Detail views
The detail view and the detail view label fonts specify the
font type and size used for the letter labels on the detail
circle and the text below the detail view.
Fig 15
Manufacture drawing
• draw manufacture drawings
• draw title blocks orthographic drawing
• estimate bill of material.
Understanding of manufacturing drawing can seem quite These projections indicate types of view of component on
difficult compare to no symbols indicated on drawing drawing sheet. As drawing standards like scale, angles,
sheet for manufacturing process of component. Sheet gd& t symbols and paper size.
based on types of projection angles either they may be in
first angle project.
Drawing template having two line structures called outer • Revision: Identifies the correct version of the drawing.
frame. This outer frame including two lines alphabets and • Scale (optional): Ratio of actual size of the part
two numerical. compared to the size of the part on the drawing.
Two lines are like horizontal and vertical lines while lines • It can be shown as 1:1 or 1+1. The first number
are continue to other end but in the template lines are not represents the actual size of the part and the second
shown. Because of types of view of parts located in number represents the print. In other words, 1:2
between manufacturing drawing sheets so lines are not means the print is double the actual size. Whereas 2:1
shown like dark. indicates the actual size is two times what is shown on
This case mostly used when understanding the the print.
manufacturing drawing may be in that having any typically • Note: Use the dimensions to create drawing template.
identified part of details then designers are this alphabets
and numerical to identify the part of details at the end of Size: Specifies the drawing sheet size
lines. Designers are mentioned there typical part of A0 = 841 X 1189,
details.
A1 = 594 X 841,
Title block
A3 = 297 X 420
• Name company name who prepared the drawing.
A4 = 210 X 297 ( in mm).
• Name and date: Responsible designer who drew,
checked, and approved the drawing. Isometric view of manufacturing drawing (Fig 2)
• Part name/description: Describes what the part The representation of the object in figure is called an
name. isometric drawing view. This is three - dimensional views
called drawings. In the isometric view drawing show
• Part/drawing number: Assigned number to identify width, top view and height planes are placed on horizontal
the part in assembly part list. plane and isometric view shown 3d view of the object.
95
• A half section view help of an object showing one- half
of the view in section of component, The diagonal
lines on the section drawing are used to indicate the
area that has been theoretically cut.
• These lines are called “hatching”. The lines are thin
and are usually at a s45-degree angle to the major
outline of the object.
• The indicating hatching on the drawing view it is a
thickness of part. Sectioning of the components to
see the internal parts location, depth of holes, length
of cut portions.
Orthographic drawing views (front view, right side • Section views are mainly used for Assembling of
view,, top view,) (Fig 3) parts, internal joints components and welding parts of
details according to joining of particular part.
• Orthographic views are easy to understanding of
actual visualization of the component. • Section views are enough to drawn of component to
help of joining of components by welding and fitting.
• Projection is a way of visualizing different views of an

object from there different sides such as a top view,
front view, Right side view, the object is rotated based
on 90 (degrees) clockwise and so that the viewer • Geometrical dimensioning and Tolerancing is
viewing the object can see each side as the part is language of accurately communicate geometry
rotated. requirement fo associated features on assembly and
• These views are appearing then drawn on a drawing individual manufacturing component drawings.
sheet or on paper, enough views are drawn of the • GD & T consist of dimensioning, tolerances, symbols,
object to help the person manufacturing of the part to definitions, rules and it is used for precisely
get a good visualization of what the part looks like after communicate the functional requirements for the
manufacturing. location, orientation, size, and form of each feature of
• The most common views drawn of an object in an the design models.
orthographic drawings are the front view, and right • GD & T symbols provides accurate dimension from
side view. After the views have been drawn on a sheet point to point of requirement of model. Manufacturing
of paper notes and dimensions are then added for of model based on the GD & T symbols.
requirement of part.
• Manufacturing of the drawing having concise of GD &
Section views (half section views, cross section T symbols to help of understanding the drawing.
views) (Fig 4)
• Section views are represents the intricate views of the
component
Symbol Control Name Description
Form Straightness Where an component of a surface is a staight line

Form Flatness Surface having all elements one plane
Form Circularity The form of surface of revolution (cone,cylinder,

sphere) where all points of the surface intersected
by any plane.
Form Cylindricity Like circularity, but applies simultaneously to the

entire part of the surface
Profile Profile of a Uniform amount of profile variation, either unilaterally

line or bilaterally, along a line element of a feature.
Profile Profile of a Uniform amount of profile variation, either unilaterally
surface or bilaterally, along a line element of a surface.
Orientation Per-pendicularity Which is 90 deg perpendicular to the primary datum

of its datum reference frame
Orientation Angularity Which is having specific angle in relation to the

primary datum of it’s datum reference frame
Orientation Parallelism Which is having a equidistant at all points from

datum plane
Location Position Orientation of a features relation to it’s datum

reference frame
Location Concentricity In which two or more features having a same axis
Location Symmetry Symmetry of two planes about a center datum
Run-out Circular Circularity and coaxiality of each circular segment

run-out of a surface independently about a center datum
Run-out Total run-out Circularity, straightness, coaxiality and taper of a

cylindrical surfaces about a center datum to rotated
360 (deg)
Dimension: Dimension is a expressing length, area, Expressing of details by according to designing and part
height, mass, volume, weight, angle of one part details. shape.
It is representing on part by at different conditions.
Angle projection: Angle projection represents the develop NC programming. drafters are developing
drawing view position in drawing sheet and it helps to manufacturing drawing based upon the projection angle.
understanding the drawing. Which is use to programmers Projection angle plays main role in manufacturing drawing.
It is showing real drawing with accurate dimensions. BoM (Bill of Material): It represents the list of parts or
Scale is play main role in developing drawings to help of components that are required for develop a product. It is
understanding of actual dimensions of it. Which is a list of assembly, sub assembly, parts needed for
representing of drawing is reduced or increased. according manufacturing an end product. Also it is a list of materials
to scale understand the drawings and drafters are for each component. It is a list of number of parts to be
mentioned in title box they show scales two types like 1:2, manufacture of product. (Fig 11)
1:1, 2:1 in 1:1 it is having actual view and real dimension
of drawing. 1:2, 1:3... etc drawing shows small but it has
a actual dimension. 2:1,2:2.2:3 drawings appearing big
view but it is having actual dimensions. (Fig 8,9,10)
How to Read a Manufacturing Drawing drawings show the material type, the finish, dimensions,
hardware, company information, and other specific
When learning how to read a manufacturing drawing, it
requirements. The sole purpose of a drawing is to show
can seem quite because there is so much information to
all the details of apart. Imagine if you were looking at a
take in. This blog post will break down a drawing and
single part in your hand, a drawing would essentially
make it easier to understand. But, first thing is first what
describe and illustrate all the details of how to place the
is the purpose of a manufacturing drawing if there are 3D
part in your hand.
models? Manufacturing drawings shown numerous
features of a part that a 3D model doesn’t. For instance,
Fig 12
Fig 13
Manufacturing drawings can be referred to as you have experience with reading drawings or you’re an
manufacturing pints, dimensional prints, prints, drawings, engineer. Learning what everything means on a print can
manufacturing blueprints, blueprints, mechanical be a challenge. So let’s break down a print and make this
drawings, and more. Drawings are designed by engineers, easier! This blog post will specify the format, location, and
so there is a lot of engineering lingo and symbols that are type of information that should be included in drawings
used to identify and describe certain aspects of a part. like blocks, notes, specifications, and symbols you may
This is the “daunting” part of a drawing because unless find on a drawing.
Information blocks • Size: Specifies the drawing sheet size: A = 8.5 X 11,
B = 11X17, C = 17 X 22, D = 22 X 34, E = 34 X 44, F
Engineers include a lot of critical information in the blocks
= 28 X 40 (inches)
in order to give the reader information about who the print
belongs to , part number and description, and information Revision Block
about the material and finish. The information blocks are
In addition to the revision shown in the Title block, there
located in the bottom right-hand corner of the drawing.
is a revision block that is located in the upper right hand
Occasionally, some blocks are left blank if the information
comer. The Revision Block indicates the specifics in
in that block is not needed or hasn’t been decided. From
regards to the changes that were made to roll the revision.
a manufacturing point of view, the more information the
The Revision block includes the revision, the description
better and all blocks should be filled in so there are no
of what changes were made, the date of the revision, and
assumptions. The information blocks include the following:
approval of the revision.
Fig 14
The following information is located within the title block Bill of materials (BOM) block
in the lower right hand corner of a blueprint as shown For parts that require assembly, require hardware to be
above. added to the part, or there is a kit of parts, there is a Bill
• Name: Company or agency who prepared or owns of Materials block that contains a list of all the items that
the drawing are needed for the assembly or project. Bill of materials
can also be referred to as a parts list, schedule, or for
• Address: Location of the company or agency short BOM (pronounced either “be-oh-em” or “bomb”).
• Name and date: Responsible engineers who drew, The BOM includes the part number. the description/
checked, and approved the drawing name of the part or item, the material specification (if
any), and the quantity to be required of that item.
• Part name/description: describes what the part is
The BOM can be located in different areas on the print.
• Part /drawing number: Assigned number to identify The two most common are located right above the Title
the part block or in the upper left hand corner.
• Revision: Identifies the correct version of the drawing
Zone letters and numbers
• Scale (optional): ration of actual size of the part Prints contain a border around the entire print which
compared to the size of the part on the drawing. It can letters and numbers as shown in the above print between
be shown as 1:1 or 1=1. The first number represents the red lines. These letters and numbers are used like a
the actual size of the part and the second number map in order to help locate and pinpoint certain areas of
represents the print. In other words, 1:2 means the a print. The letters in alphabetical order from the bottom
print is double the actual size. Whereas 3:1 indicates up. The numbers are in numerical order from right to left.
the actual size is three times what is shown on the pint. Therefore, you are to read the zones from right to left.
Note: even if the sale says 1:1,never measure the
drawing, use the dimensions.
Fig 15
Fig 16
Notes and specifications fabrication, and welding fabrication for the medical,
Since the blueprint shows the part graphically and with defence, kiosk, commercial, and high technology
dimensions, many times there are more specifics to the industries who require high quality products. If you’re
part that cannot be seen graphically which are described company requires these types of services and you are
in the notes and specifications which are generally located looking for a precision sheet metal company, please
in the upper left hand corner or lower left hand corner. contact us today for a quote. We will require manufacturing
Notes are additional information about the part. Whereas, drawings like those described above and quantities. We
specifications are a reference to an actual document or look forward to hearing from you!
statement that describes how the parts are to be For more information about manufacturing prints, check
manufactured, assembled, and maintained. out these articles:
Now that all the different components of a print have been • 5 Steps: How to manufacture a product
identified and described, the next step learning how to
read a manufacturing print. This blog post will help you to • How to read lines on a drawing
understand the lines of a part of a print in order to • Sheet metal drawing DON’ts
visualize the part correctly.
• Manufacturing prints - View types
Thanks for reading along. vista industrial products, Inc,
has specialized in fabricating sheet metal for over 57 • Sheet metal dimensional drawing example
years. We provide CNC machining, sheet metal • Minimum requirements to submit an RFQ.
Fig 17
Fig 18
This entry was posted in Drawings, drawings 101,

Engineering 101 and tagged blocks on a drawing blocks
on a print, parts of a blueprint, parts of a drawing, parts of
a manufacturing print by britney blue (payne). Bookmark
the permalink
Creation of exploded view - Animation - Annotation holes & threads

• create exploded view, animation controller, annotating holes and threads
• creat center lines, symbols and leaders, simulation.
Exploded views (Fig 1) right click on the configuration would like to display. From
the context menu, simply choose New Exploded View, or
SolidWorks makes creating exploded views relatively
choose Exploded View from the Assembly Tab at the top
easy; the process is in many ways automated, but also
of the screen.
includes additional configuration options for getting it just
right. To get started, go to Configuration Manager and
Fig 1
If the current configuration contains bolts or minor

elements do not wish to include, it can also be created a
new configuration and suppress those features.
Fig 2
Animation controller motion based on the limits set forth in the mates added to
the assembly level. It can be moved a assembly based on
Assembly file that allows to create animations based on
range of motion and control several mates at one time.
mates. This command is called Mate Controller. This
function allows to move the assembly through a range of
104
Fig 3 Switch to the Motion Study Tab at the bottom of the
SOLIDWORKS screen. Next, click on the icon for the
Animation Wizard:
Fig 5
After starting this Wizard, a dialog box asking what type

of Animation are trying to create. Choose the Mate
Controller option and press Next:
Fig 6
The mates that are available to use are:

- Angle
- Distance
- Limit Angle
- Limit Distance
Next, choose the option for Key Points as we are just
- Slot adding camera movements and not doing a motion
- Width simulation:
To setup a simple animation show range of motion, then Fig 7
take this mate controller feature and use this in a
SOLIDWORKS Animation study to add camera positions,
zoom factors, and other animation based functions.
Here's how this works
Fig 4
The next screen is going to ask about the length of the

animation. Now this will take 10 or so seconds but get to
choose when to start the actual animation of the mates.
Usually to set this at 0 so that it starts right away, but it
could have it wait for a second or two if it is required to
zoom in first or something like that:
Fig 8 It is required as many times to perhaps walk around the
design as it is playing its range of motion with the mates.
When these are finished, just press the Calculate button
and watch the animation play and zoom/rotate based on
the placements.
Fig 11
After finishing this wizard dialog box, then see the motion
study with key points for each component in the assembly.
The next it is required to do the right mouse click on the
item, called orientation and camera views. To unselect
the option for disable view key creation:
Fig 9 Annotating holes and threads
- Click Hole Callout (Annotation toolbar), or click Insert>
Annotations > Hole Callout.
The pointer changes to.
- Click the edge of a hole, then click in the graphics area
to place the hole callout.
A Hole Callout is inserted and the Dimension Property
Manager appears. The callout contains a diameter symbol
To drag the time bar to a time value and then rotate or and the dimension of the hole diameter. If the depth of the
zoom and a new camera key will auto-create itself to hole is known, the callout also contains a depth symbol
record this new position: and the dimension of the depth. If the hole is created in
the Hole Wizard, the callout contains additional information
Fig 10 (the dimensions of a countersink or number of hole
instances, for example).
- Edit the callout in the Dimension Property Manager.
You can specify precision, select an arrow style, or add
text. However, you should retain the dimensions and
symbols for the size and type of hole.
If the hole has been created by the Hole Wizard, you can
also click Variables in the Dimension Property Manager
to access a list of Callout Variables to insert into the hole
callout.
If you attach a hole callout to a tapped hole in ANSI inch
standard and the current drawing units are millimeters,
the drill diameter and hole depths are reported in mm but
the thread description retains the ANSI inch size
designation. You might want to replace the thread
description with other variables from the Callout Variables
dialog box.
- Repeat steps 2 through 4 to insert additional hole
callouts, then click.
- You can display the dimension in various formats by
right-clicking the dimension and clicking Display
Options, then clicking an option: Display as Diameter,
Display as Radius, Display as Linear, Show
Parentheses, or Show as Inspection.
Fig 12 Fig 14
Dashed line cosmetic threads are useful in drawing

orthographic views. In this case, right click the annotations
folder in the Feature Manager, then click Details, deselect
Cosmetic threads and select Shaded cosmetic threads.
Shaded threads give a realistic view in a model file.
Fig 15
From Hole Wizard tapped holes, the option to include

cosmetic threads with or without thread callouts. Using
thread callouts results in a drawing note that doesn't To make a custom part template with these settings by
conform to usual drafting standards. opening a new part make the settings, Save As>Part
Template.
Fig 13 Fig 16
Unchecking 'With thread callout' removes the note and

lets to use 'Insert > Annotations>Hole callout' in the
drawing to get a note conforming to the drafting standard.
Cosmetic threads are not shown in assemblies by default. The first auto insert option with regards to centerlines is
It can show cosmetic threads by making four settings: the first in the list "Center marks-holes-part". This option
View menu > Hide/Show All annotations; Right click the will add centerlines to the holes visible when straight on
Annotations folder > Details> Cosmetic threads> Apply; a view like the drawing demonstrated below.
Right click the Annotations folder > Details> Check 'Use
The second option for Auto Insert centerlines is
assembly settings for all components'> Apply; Right click
"Centerlines", navigating to it is the same as listed above.
the Annotations folder > Display Annotations.
Fig 17
It can be make a custom assembly template that include
these settings: Open a new assembly, make the settings
above, also make the choice of regular or shaded cosmetic
threads, then File>Save as> select assembly template
as the file type. Keep in mind that cosmetic threads in a
large assembly add to the graphics display workload.
As in assemblies, cosmetic threads are not shown by
default in assembly drawings. You can display them
using Insert>Model Items. Select a component, feature
or model and click the cosmetic thread icon. This second option will add centerlines through the part
for any view orientation. Therefore displaying a through
Creating centerlines
hole in this parts right side and isometric views. Image
To create centerlines the settings to be applied to all below shows this new type of centerline which can be
future part drawings, it is required to update the templates automatically inserted on view creation.
by adding these options and resaving those templates.
Navigating to these Auto Insert options Fig 18
- Tools
- Options
- Document Properties
- Detailing
- Auto insert on view creation
Below is an image which points using orange arrows, to
the Detailing option and first option we talk about under
the Auto Insert on view creation.
Fig 19
To save this option in the templates for further use: Creating symbols
- It is needed to add these document options to your There is a new document option for the automatic creation
existing template of all dowel pin symbols on view creation. Go to Tools >
Options. On the Document Properties tab, click Detailing.
- Then save that template out again, under the same
Under Auto insert on view creation, you can select either
name.
Dowel symbols -part or Dowel symbols -assembly. Then,
- After that, use that template to create the drawings click OK.
when the centerlines automatically inserted.
Fig 20
It can be automatically insert all dowel pin symbols in a Fig 21

Solid Works drawing view after view creation. Similarly,
insertion of dowel pin symbols for dowel holes created
with the Hole Wizard. To insert dowel pin symbols into a
drawing, pull down the Insert menu and pick Annotations
> Dowel Pin Symbol. Under Auto Insert, select For all
dowel holes.
Selecting the drawing views, the dowel pin symbols are
inserted in the view. The ability to flip a dowel pin symbol
after it has been inserted (right-click the symbol and click
Flip Symbol.)
Lastly, to manually insert dowel pin symbols into a Solid
Works drawing, pull down the Insert menu and pick
Annotations > Dowel Pin Symbol. Select a circular edge,
a sketched circle, or an arc. Note that pre-select circular
edges, sketched circles, or arcs and then click Insert >
Annotations > Dowel Pin Symbol. Dowel pin symbols
appear in the selected holes.
Creating Leaders
Fig 22
To assign multiple leaders from a single annotation. location for the first leader, then hold Ctrl and select as
There are several different ways of creating multiple many additional leader locations
leaders depending on what type of annotation are using. - Then click to place the annotation
1 Pre-select when adding note 3 Ctrl-drag existing leader attachment points to
- for adding Notes that need to point to multiple locations, other locations
pre-select the vertices, edges or faces and then use - If an annotation has already been placed on the
the Note tool drawing with a leader, Ctrl-drag the leader attachment
2 Ctrl-select before placing the annotation point and drop it on another location
- When using an annotation tool like Balloon, select the Create Simulation
Fig 23
Creating a Simulation Temp directory Fig 25
1 Create a temporary directory named Simulation Temp
in the Examples folder of the SolidWorks Simulation
installation directory. SolidWorks Simulation menu
2 Copy the Solid Works Simulation Education Examples

directory into the Simulation Temp directory.
Opening the Spider. SLDASM Document
1 Click Open on the Standard toolbar. The Open dialog
box appears.
2 Navigate to the Simulation Temp folder in the Solid
Works Simulation installation directory.
3 Select Spider. SLDASM
4 Click Open.
The spider.SLDASM assembly opens. The spider
assembly has three components: the shaft,hub, and 2 Click the Default Options tab.
spider leg. The figure below shows the assembly
components in exploded view. 3 Select SI (MKS) under Unit system.
4 Select mm and N/mm2(MPa) from the
Fig 24
Length/Displacement and Pressure/Stress
fields, respectively.
5 Click OK.
Fig 26
Checking the solid works simulation menu

If solidworks simulation is properly installed, the Solid
Works Simulation menu appears on the Solid Works
menu bar. If not:
1 Click Tools, Add-Ins.
The Add-Ins dialog box appears.
2 Check the checkboxes next to Solid works Simulation.
Step 1: Creating a Study
If Solid Works Simulation is not in the list , you need
The first step in performing analysis is to create a study.
to install SolidWorks Simulation.
1 Click simulation, study in the main solid works menu
3 Click OK.
on the top of the screen.
The Simulation menu appears on the solid works menu
The study property manager appears.
bar.
2 Under Name, type My First Study.
Setting the Analysis Units
3 Under Type, select static.
Before start this lesson, set the analysis units.
4 Click OK.
1 On the SolidWorks menu bar click
SolidWorks Simulation creates a Simulation study tree
Simulation, Options.
located beneath the Feature Manager design tree.
A tab is also created at the bottom of the window to b) Expand the Steel category.
navigate between multiple studies and the model.
c) Select Alloy Steel.
Step 2: Assigning Material
3 Click Apply.
All assembly components are made of Alloy Steel.
4 Close the Materials window.
Assign Alloy Steel to All Components
1 In the Solid Works Simulation Manager tree, right-
click the Parts folder and click
Apply Material to All.
The Material dialog box appears.
2 Do the following:
a) Expand the Solid Works Materials library folder.
Fig 27
Alloy steel is assigned to all components and a check

mark appears on each component's icon. The Fixture Property Manager appears.
Note that the name of the assigned material appears next 3 Make sure that Type is set to Fixed Geometry.
to the component's name.
4 In the graphics area, click the faces of the three holes,
The mechanical and physical properties of indicated in the figure below.
Alloy Steel appear in the table to the right.
Face<1>, Face<2>, and Face<3> appear in the
Step 3: Applying Fixtures
Faces, Edges, Vertices for Fixture box.
We will fix the three holes.
5. Click
1 Use the Arrow keys to rotate the assembly as shown
in the figure. Fixed fixture is applied and its symbols appear on the
selected faces. Also, Fixed-1. Item appears in the
2 In the Simulation study tree, right-click the Fixtures Fixtures folder in the Simulation study tree. The name of
folder and click Fixed Geometry. the fixture can be modified at any time.
Fig 28
Fig 29
CG&M Related Theory for Exercise 4.4.142-144
Draughtsman Mechanical - Production Drawing
Detail information of production drawing

• study production drawing
• state the elements of production drawing
• sate the other features and classification of drawing.
What is production Drawing? • Represent dimensions by visible outlines rather than

by hidden lines.
• Production drawings (sometimes called as working
drawing are complete sets of drawings that the • Avoid dimensioning the center line, except when it
manufacturing and assembly of products. They are passes through the centre hole
widely used as orthographic views of machine parts
and their assembly.
• Production drawings are drawn (graphic) information
prepared by the design team for use by the construction
or production team, the main purpose of which is to
define the size, shape, location and production of the
building or component.
• The drawings many also outline the most convenient
order in which to assemble components.
Main sets of production drawings (Fig 1)
The three main sets of production drawings include the
following:
• Detail of each non - standard part on a drawing sheet,
usually one part per sheet
• Assembly drawing showing all parts on one sheet
• A bill of materials (BOM), essentially of each part Lettering (Fig 2)
Elements of production drawings • Lettering heights will be in accordance with the
recommendations of the ANSI standards.
• Size and shape of component
• General lettering and dimensioning uses 3/32” to 1/8”
• Format of drawing sheet
high lettering with 1/8” being the preferred size.
• Process sheet
• Projection method
• Limits, fits, and tolerances, of size, form, and position
• Production method
• Indication of surface roughness and other heat
treatments
• Conventions used to represent certain machine
components
• Inspection and testing methods
Basic principles of dimensioning in production
drawings
• The drawing module should dimension each feature
Hidden lines (Fig 3)
only once.
• Views should be chosen that show as many features
• The drawing should show no more dimensions than
with visible lines as possible. Hidden lines should be
necessary.
used wherever necessary to make the drawing clear.
• Place dimensions outside the drawing view as far as
possible.
114
Where they are not needed of clearness they should sometimes other descriptive text. The parts list is
be omitted. clouded on all detail drawings and assembly drawings
or can be on a separate sheet. Generally the parts list
• Hidden lines in assembly drawings are generally not
is shown with the assembly drawings and includes
needed as a result of extensive use of section views.
only those parts shown on the assembly drawing
They should be used wherever necessary for
sheet.
clearness.
Assembly Drawings (Fig 5)

• An assembly drawing shows the assembled machine
or structure with all detail parts in thei functional
Parts list (Fig 4) positions.
• The parts list is a listing of all of the component parts • Assembly drawings show how the parts fit together in
of the assembly. The parts list includes part number, the assembly and to suggest function.
part name, number required, material of part, and
Part identification (Fig 6) Table of contents

• Circles containing part numbers are used to identify Section Subject Page
parts on detail and assembly drawings.
A Introduction 2
• Identification circles on assembly drawings are placed
adjacent to the parts with leaders terminated by B Scope 2
arrowheads touching the parts.
C Procedure 3
• Identification circles used to identify a detail drawing
A Introduction
of a part are placed below the detail.
The Cornell Laboratory for Accelerator - based Sciences
and Education (CLASSE) is engaged in variety of research
activities that use complex mechanical / electrical systems,
high voltage/current power systems, and ultra clean high
vacuum systems. Since the Laboratory fabricates a wide
of components, a system to ensure that all engineering
and design requirements are up to date is essential.
B Scope and follow a best practice for changing those drawings,
writing revisions (rev letter increments), and releasing /
This procedure defines the requirements for releasing
issuing those revised drawings. please note that drawings
and editing approved / issued drawings, individual
that have not been released through the CLASSE Design
responsibilities and vendor contracts. This procedure
- Drafting Office must not be sent for fabrication, especially
applies to all CLASSE personnel and design documents
to outside vendors, except with explicit permission by the
under the control of the CLASSE design Drafting Office.
P.I/Co-P.I. in charge or project CAM plus one of
Critical components (research programs) that are being
Engineering/Fabrication Director, Technical Director,
fabricated or modified in a strict configuration- control
CHESS/ERL/SRF project director.
process are included.
A design develops to a point where the initial drawings
C Procedure for Releasing and Revising CLASSE
have been completed. The author (defined as originator
Drawings
of the design or originator or subsequent design changes)
As any given design matures from concept through to communicates to the Design-Drafting Office when they
completion, it is important to follow a semi - formal review have been approved and are ready to be released and
process prior to initial release to fabrication. This should issued for fabrication, either by the Newman Machine
be true even in our research and development Shop or by outside vendors.
environment. Important aspects of the design to be
The Design - Drafting Office plots the drawings and
considered Should include, but are not limited to :
enters the initial release data, from the drawing title block,
• Manufacturability in a machine shop into the drawing database (called NUMO). This release
data includes the release /plot date, the author’s name
• Value engineering ($)
(Drawn For), the drawing titles and sheet quantities. At
• Vacuum properties this time, the plot date on every sheet’s title block reflects
• Synchrotron radiation power parameters the date that any sheet of the drawing was last revised or
released. There is no revision letter used at the initial
• All other power and heat loads release, either in the title block or the revision history in
• Physical stresses and strains the upper right hand corner of every drawing sheet.
However, the date and approval fields for the initial
• Aperture checkout Release should be filled out by the drafting office to show
• Installation procedure that the sheet has been released and is OK to send to the
shop or outside vendors. (Fig 7 & 8).
• Welding (including EBW) and /or braze joint design
• Utilities integration Fig 7
Cornell Laboratory for Accelerator - based Sciences
and Education
The author or originator of the design is responsible for
consultation and review of the afore mentioned properties
and obtain explicit approvals where applicable. Revision History (Upper Right Corner of Sheet)
Once a drawing has been released and issued into the
CLASSE design office it is very important to understand
Fig 8
Title Block
Cornell Laboratory for Accelerator - based Sciences author communicates to the design - drafting office when
and Education the revisions have been approved and are ready to be
released and issued. At this time, the title block and
Changing any drawing after it has been released
revision history sections of the drawing have been edited
necessitates writing a revision to the affected sheet(s).
to show an incremental revision letter distinguishing the
This revision could be as minor as adding a missing
revised sheet from the initial release. The plot date is also
dimension or as major as total part re - designs. The
changed to reflect this revision release date, further
same approval process for releasing drawings initially is
distinguishing it from the initial release. (Fig 9,10)
also followed for approving the revised drawings. The
Fig 9
Revised Title Block
Cornell Laboratory for Accelerator - based Sciences and This process is repeated each time released drawing
Education needs to be revised.
It is the author’s responsibility to secure approval for the
revisions from the original drawing approver (if available) Fig 10
and to secure any relevant system approvals for SR
power, Aperture Checkout, HOM heating, Vacuum
properties and Installation procedure if/when applicable.
It is then the responsibility of the author to make sure a
hard copy of the revised drawing goes to the Newman
Machine shop or the CLASSE purchasing office for relay
to the outside vendor. If requested by the designated
Revision History updated
contact person for the order, the CLASSE Design -
drafting office will forward these drawings electronically
to the vendor. The CLASSE purchasing Office will be
copied on this electronic transfer and , if needed, a
change order will be negotiated and issued.
Numbering of drawings and standard parts(Familiarization with SP:46-2003)

• explain scope and item references.
Scope
This section gives guidance and recommendations on
establishment of item reference and item list for use with
technical drawings.
Item References
The item references should be assigned in sequential
order to each component part shown in an assembly
and /or each detailed item on the drawing. Further
identical parts shown in the same assembly should have
the same item reference. All item references shall be
shown in an item list (Fig 1 and Table 1)
Table 1 Leader lines shall not intersect. They should be kept as
short as practicable and generally should be drawn at an
Item Quantity Description Reference Material
angle to the item reference. In case of encircled item
1 1 Base references, the leader line shall be directed towards the
centre of the circle.
2. 1 Bottom
housing Item references of related items may be shown against
the same leader line (Fig 2, Items 8,9, 10 and 11). These
3 1 Top housing
item reference may be separated from each other by a
4 1 Bearing short--when written horizontally.
5 1 Filling plug Item references of identical items need only by shown
6 2 T-bolt once, provided there is no risk of ambiguity.
7 2 Hex nut Item List
8 4 Washer Item lists are complete lists of the items constituting an

assembly (or a sub-assembly), or of detailed parts,
9 2 T-bolt presented on a technical drawing. It is not necessary for
10 2 Castle nut all these items to be detailed on an end-product drawing.
The association between the items on an item -list and
11 2 Split pin their representation on the relevant drawing (or on other
12 1 Drain plug drawings) is given by the item references.
The item lists may be included on the drawing itself or be
Presentation a separate document.
Item references should generally be composed of Arabic When the item list is included in the drawing, the sequence
Item reference shall be placed outside the general outlines shall be form bottom to top, with headings of the column
of the items concerned. immediately underneath with separate item lists, the
All item references on the same drawing shall be of the sequence shall be from top to bottom with headings at the
same type and height of lettering. They shall be clearly top.
distinguishable from all other indications. This can be When included on the drawing, the position of the item list
achieved, for example by: should be such as to be read in the viewing direction of
a using characters of a larger height for example, twice the drawing. The list may be in conjunction with the title
the height as used for dimensioning and similar block. Its outlines may be drawn with continuous wide
indications; lines.
b encircling the characters of each item reference, in Where the item list is shown on a separate document, this
that case all such circles shall have the same diameter shall be identified by the same number as that of the
and to be drawn with continuous narrow line (Fig 2) parent drawing.
c combining methods (a) and (b) However, to distinguish this identification from that of the
parent drawing, it is recommended that the item list
number be preceded by the prefix item list (or a similar
term in the language used on the documents)
Layout
It is recommended that the item list be arranged in
columns by means of continuous wide or narrow lines to
allow information to be entered under the following
headings (the sequence of these is optional):
a item
b description,
Item reference shall be placed outside the general outlines
of the items concerned. c quantity,
Each item reference should be connected to its associated d reference, and

item by a leader line (Fig 2(i), 2(ii) and 2(iii)) e material.
If necessary, more columns can be added to
cover specific requirements.
Graphic language
• the importance of graphical language
• explain production drawing and machine drawing
• describe classification of drawings.
Introduction Need for Correct Drawings

Graphic language The drawings prepared by any technical person must be
clear, unmistakable in meaning and there should not be
General any scope for more than one interpretation, or else
A technical person can use the graphic language as litigation may arise. In a number of dealings with contracts,
powerful means of communication with others for the drawing is an official document and the success or
conveying ideas on technical matters. However, for failure of a structure depends on the clarity of details
effective exchange of ideas with others, the engineer provided on the drawing. Thus, the drawings should not
must have proficiency in (i) language, both written and given any scope for mis-interpretation even by accident.
oral, (ii) symbols associated with basic sciences and (iii) It would not have been possible to produce the machines/
language. Engineering drawing is a suitable graphic automobiles on a mass scale where a number of
language from which any trained person can visualise assemblies and sub-assemblies are involved, without
the required object. As an engineering drawing display clear, correct and accurate drawings. To achieve this, the
the exact picture of an object, it obviously conveys the technical person must gain a thorough knowledge of both
same ideas to every trained eye. the principles and conventional practice of draughting. If
Irrespective of language barriers, the drawings can be these are not achieved and or practiced, the drawings
effectively used in other countries, in addition to the prepared by one may convey different meaning to others,
country where they are prepared. Thus, the engineering causing unnecessary delays and expenses in production
drawing is the universal language of all engineers. shops.
Machine drawing
Engineering drawing has its origin sometime in 500 BC in
the regime of King Paros of Egypt when symbols were Hence, an engineer should posses good knowledge, not
used to convey the ideas among people. only in preparing a correct drawing but also to read the
drawing correctly. The course content of this book is
Importance of Graphic Language expected to meet these requirements.
The graphic language had its existence when it become The study of machine drawing mainly involves learning to
necessary to build new structures and create new sketch machine parts and to make working and assembly
machines or the like, in addition to representing the drawings. This involves a study of those conventions in
existing ones. In the absence of graphic language, the drawings that are widely adopted in engineering practice.
ideas on technical matters have to be conveyed by Classification of drawings
speech or writing, both are unreliable and difficult to Machine drawing
understand by the shop floor people for manufacturing.
This method involves not only lot of time and labour, but It is pertaining to machine parts or components. it is
also manufacturing errors. Without engineering drawing, presented through a number of orthographic views, so
it would have been impossible to produce objects such as that the size and shape of the component is fully
aircrafts, automobiles, locomotives, etc., each requiring understood. Part drawings and assembly drawings belong
thousands of different components. to this classification. An example of a machine drawing is
given in Fig 1
Production drawing some cases the drawings of related components may be
given on the same sheet. Fig 2 represents an example of
A production drawing, also referred to as working drawing,
a production drawing.
should furnish all the dimensions, limits and special
finishing processes such as heat treatment, honing, Part drawing
lapping, surface finish, etc., to guide the craftsman on the
Component or part drawing is a detailed drawing of a
shop floor in producing the component. The title should
component to facilitate its manufacture. All the principles
also mention the material used for the product, number of
of orthographic projection and the technique of graphic
parts required for the assembled unit, etc.
representation must be followed to communicate the
Since a craftsman will ordinarily make one component at details in a part drawing. A part drawing with production
a time, it is advisable to prepare the production drawing details is rightly called as a production drawing or working
of each component on a separate sheet. However, in drawing.
Assembly drawing Parts List

A drawing that shows the various parts of a machine in Part No. Name Material Qty
their correct working locations is an assembly drawing 1 Crank Forged steel 1
(Fig 1.3). There are several types of such drawings. 2 Crank pin 45C 1
Design assembly drawing 3 Nut MS 1
When a machine is designed, an assembly drawing or a 4 Washer MS 1
design layout is first drawn to clearly visualise the
performance, shape and clearances of various parts
comprising the machine.
Detailed assembly drawing
It is usually made for simple machines, comprising of a
relatively smaller number of simple parts. All the
dimensions and information necessary for the construction
of such parts and for the assembly of the parts are given
directly on the assembly drawing. Separate views of
specific parts in enlargements, showing the fitting of parts
together, may also be drawn in addition to the regular
assembly drawing.
Sub-assembly drawing
Many assemblies such as an automobile, lathe, etc., are
assembled with many pre-assembled components as
well as individual parts. These pre-assembled units are
known as sub-assemblies.
A sub assembly drawing is an assembly drawing of a
group of related parts, that form a part in a more
complicated machine. Examples of such drawings are:
lathe tail-stock, diesel engine fuel pump, carburettor, etc.
Installation assembly drawing Assembly drawings for catalogues
On this drawing, the location and dimensions of few Special assembly drawings are prepared for company
important parts and overall dimensions of the assembled cataloguers. These drawings show only the pertinent
unit are indicated. This drawing provides useful information details and dimensions that would interest the potential
for assembling the machine, as this drawing reveals all buyer. Fig 1.4 shows a typical catalogue drawing, showing
parts of a machine in their correct working position. the overall and principal dimensions.
Assembly drawings for instruction manuals

These drawings in the form of assembly drawings, are to
be used when a machine, shipped away in assembled
condition, is knocked down in order to check all the parts
before reassembly and installation. These drawings have
each component numbered on the job. Fig 1.5 shows a
typical example of such a drawing.
Exploded assembly drawing
In some cases, exploded pictorial views are supplied to
meet instruction manual requirements. These drawings
generally find a place in the parts list section of a company
instruction manual. Fig 1.6 shows drawings of this type
which may be easily understood even by those with less
experience in the reading of drawings; because in these
exploded views, the parts are positioned in the sequence
of assembly, but separated from each other.
Schematic assembly drawing Machine shop drawing
It is very difficult to understand the operating principles of Rough castings and forgings are sent to the machine
complicated machinery, merely from the assembly shop for finishing operation (Fig 1.8). Since the machinist
drawings. Schematic representation of the unit facilitates is not interested in the dimensions and information of the
easy understanding of its operating principle. It is a previous stages, a machine shop drawing frequently
simplified illustration of the machine or of a system, gives only the information necessary for machining.
replacing all the elements, by thier respective conventional Based on the same principle, one may have forge shop
representations. Fig 1.7 shows the schematic drawing, pattern shop drawing, sheet metal drawing, etc.
representation of a gearing diagram.

Draughtsman Mechanical 2nd Year (Volume II of II TT

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Draughtsman Mechanical 2nd Year (Volume II of II TT

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Draughtsman Mechanical

2nd Year (Volume II of II)

SECTOR: Capital Goods and Manufacturing

DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING

Developed & Published by

National Instructional Media Institute

Copyright © 2020 National Instructional Media Institute, Chennai

Directorate General of Training

New Delhi - 110 001

MEDIA DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS

Shri. V. Dhivagar _ ATO, Govt, ITI, Guindy

Shri. C.S. Kumar _ ATO, Govt, ITI, North Chennai

Shri. C.Selvam _ ATO, Govt, ITI, North Chennai

Shri. Nirmalya nath _ Deputy General Manager,

Shri. V. Gopalakrishnan _ Assitant Manager,

Module 1 - Detailed and assembly drawing

Module 2 - Drawing of machine parts

Module 3 - 2D/3D Modeling

Module 4 - Production Drawing

Lesson No. Title of the Lesson Learning Page No.

Module 1 : Detailed and assembly drawing

4.1.115 - 116 Description of valves and working principle of safety valve 1

Description and working principle of dead weight safety valve 4

Description and working principle of rams bottom safety valve 4

4.1.117 Simple stationary fire tube boiler, boiler mountings 9

4.1.118 - 119 Hydraulic system - components - working principle 11

Description and working principle of hydraulic jack 12

Different types of actuator 13

Hydraulic directional valve symbol 14

Pneumatic Actuator Basics 1 17

4.1.120 Different types of pump systems 19

Description and working principle of reciprocating pump 23

4.1.121 Clamping devices 25

4.1.122 Workholding and toolholding in mass production 27

4.1.123 - 124 Different clamping devices on milling operation 33

4.1.125 Inter changeability in the manufacturing products 35

The Indian Standard System of Limits & Fits - Terminology 36

Fits and their classification as per the Indian Standard 39

The BIS System of limits and fits 41

4.1.126 - 127 Parts of press tool and their function 42

4.1.128 Die casting types of moulding process 44

4.1.129 Different parts of petrol engine 54

Some more main parts of an automobile engine 57

4.1.130 Design manufacture and operation of pressure vessels 61

Module 2 : Drawing of machine parts

4.2.131 Proper measurement practice in workshop 2 63

Types of gauges and their essential features 67

4.2.132 Layout of machine foundations and types of machine foundations 70

Consideration of ergonomics human factor for the layout 75

Module 3 : 2D/3D Modeling

4.3.133-135 User interface, menu bar, command manager 79

4.3.136 Extrude bosses and revolved features 4 84

4.3.137 - 138 Components configuration in an assembly, subassembly, interference 90

4.3.139 Manufacture drawing 95

Module 4 : Production Drawing

4.4.142 - 144 Detail information of production drawing 5 114

Sl.No Learning Outcome Lesson No.

1 Construct detailed and assembled drawing applying

Reference Professional Skills Professional Knowledge

118. Create library folder containingblocks of Brief description of atypical

121. Draw assembly and detailed drawing Different clamping devices on

122. Construct detailed &assembly drawing Description of different job

123. Construct detailed drawing of a milling Different clamping devices on