WSC1 ST Year NSQFFinal

WORKSHOP CALCULATION
& SCIENCE
(As Per NSQF)

1st Year
Common for All Engineering Trades under CTS

(For all 1 Year and 2 Year Trades)
DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING

MINISTRY OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT & ENTREPRENEURSHIP
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
NATIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL
MEDIA INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
Post Box No. 3142, CTI Campus, Guindy, Chennai - 600 032
(i)
Workshop Calculation & Science (NSQF) - 1st Year
Common for All Engineering Trades Under CTS
(For All 1 year & 2 year Trades)
Developed & Published by
National Instructional Media Institute

Post Box No.3142
Guindy, Chennai - 32
INDIA
Email: Chennai-nimi@nic.in
Website: www.nimi.gov.in
Printed by
National Instructional Media Institute
Chennai - 600 032
First Edition :December 2019 Copies : 5,000
Rs.195/-
(ii)
FOREWORD
The Government of India has set an ambitious target of imparting skills to 30 crores people, one out of
every four Indians, by 2020 to help them secure jobs as part of the National Skills Development Policy.
Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs) play a vital role in this process especially in terms of providing skilled
manpower. Keeping this in mind, and for providing the current industry relevant skill training to Trainees,
ITI syllabus has been recently updated with the help of comprising various stakeholder's viz. Industries,
Entrepreneurs, Academicians and representatives from ITIs.
The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI), Chennai, has now come up with instructional material to
suit the revised curriculum for Workshop Calculation & Science 1st Year (For All 1 year & 2 year
Trades) NSQF Commom for all engineering trades under CTS will help the trainees to get an international
equivalency standard where their skill proficiency and competency will be duly recognized across the
globe and this will also increase the scope of recognition of prior learning. NSQF trainees will also get the
opportunities to promote life long learning and skill development. I have no doubt that with NSQF the
trainers and trainees of ITIs, and all stakeholders will derive maximum benefits from these IMPs and that
NIMI's effort will go a long way in improving the quality of Vocational training in the country.
The Executive Director & Staff of NIMI and members of Media Development Committee deserve appreciation
for their contribution in bringing out this publication.
Jai Hind
RAJESH AGGARWAL
Director General/ Addl. Secretary
Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship,
Government of India.
New Delhi - 110 001
(iii)
PREFACE
The National Instructional Media Institute(NIMI) was set up at Chennai, by the Directorate General of Training,
Ministry of skill Development and Entrepreneurship, Government of India, with the technical assistance
from the Govt of the Federal Republic of Germany with the prime objective of developing and disseminating
instructional Material for various trades as per prescribed syllabus and Craftsman Training Programme(CTS)
under NSQF levels.
The Instructional materials are developed and produced in the form of Instructional Media Packages (IMPs),
consisting of Trade Theory, Trade Practical, Test and Assignment Book, Instructor Guide, Wall charts,
Transparencies and other supportive materials. The above material will enable to achieve overall improvement
in the standard of training in ITIs.
A national multi-skill programme called SKILL INDIA, was launched by the Government of India, through a
Gazette Notification from the Ministry of Finance (Dept of Economic Affairs), Govt of India, dated 27th
December 2013, with a view to create opportunities, space and scope for the development of talents of
Indian Youth, and to develop those sectors under Skill Development.
The emphasis is to skill the Youth in such a manner to enable them to get employment and also improve
Entrepreneurship by providing training, support and guidance for all occupation that were of traditional
types. The training programme would be in the lines of International level, so that youths of our Country can
get employed within the Country or Overseas employment. The National Skill Qualification Framework
(NSQF), anchored at the National Skill Development Agency(NSDA), is a Nationally Integrated Education
and competency-based framework, to organize all qualifications according to a series of levels of Knowledge,
Skill and Aptitude. Under NSQF the learner can acquire the Certification for Competency needed at any
level through formal, non-formal or informal learning.
The Workshop Calculation & Science 1st Year (For All 1 year & 2 year Trades) (Comon for All Engineering
Trades under CTS) is one of the book developed by the core group members as per the NSQF syllabus.
The Workshop Calculation & Science (Common for All Engineering Trades under CTS as per NSQF)
1st Year (For All 1 year & 2 year Trades) is the outcome of the collective efforts of experts from Field
Institutes of DGT, Champion ITI’s for each of the Sectors, and also Media Development Committee (MDC)
members and Staff of NIMI. NIMI wishes that the above material will fulfill to satisfy the long needs of the
trainees and instructors and shall help the trainees for their Employability in Vocational Training.
NIMI would like to take this opportunity to convey sincere thanks to all the Members and Media Development
Committee (MDC) members.
R. P. DHINGRA
Chennai - 600 032 EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
(iv)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) sincerely acknowledge with thanks the co-operation and
contribution of the following Media Developers to bring this IMP for the course Workshop Calculation & Science
(1st Year (For All 1 year & 2 year Trades)) as per NSQF.
MEDIA DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS
Shri. M. Sangara pandian - Training Officer (Retd.)

CTI, Guindy, Chennai.
Shri. G. Sathiamoorthy - Jr.Training Officer (Retd.)

Govt I.T.I, DET - Tamilnadu.
NIMI CO-ORDINATORS
Shri. Nirmalya Nath - Deputy General Manager,

NIMI, Chennai - 32.
Shri. G. Michael Johny - Assistant Manager,

NIMI, Chennai - 32.
NIMI records its appreciation of the Data Entry, CAD, DTP Operators for their excellent and devoted services in
the process of development of this IMP.
NIMI also acknowledges with thanks, the efforts rendered by all other staff who have contributed for the development
of this book.
(v)
INTRODUCTION
The material has been divided into independent learning units, each consisting of a summary of the topic and an
assignment part. The summary explains in a clear and easily understandable fashion the essence of the mathematical
and scientific principles. This must not be treated as a replacment for the instructor’s explanatory information to be
imparted to the trainees in the classroom, which certainly will be more elaborate. The book should enable the
trainees in grasping the essentials from the elaboration made by the instructor and will help them to solve independently
the assignments of the respective chapters. It will also help them to solve the various problems, they may come
across on the shop floor while doing their practical exercises.
The assignments are presented through ‘Graphics’ to ensure communications amongst the trainees. It also assists
the trainees to determine the right approach to solve the problems. The required relevent data to solve the problems
are provided adjacent to the graphics either by means of symbols or by means of words. The description of the
symbols indicated in the problems has its reference in the relevant summaries.
At the end of the exercise wherever necessary assignments, problems are included for further practice.
Time allotment:
Duration of 1st Year : 80 Hrs
Time allotment for each title of exercises has been given below. Common to all 1 year and 2 year Engineering
Trades.
S.No Title Exercise No. Time in Hrs
1 Unit, Fractions 1.1.01 - 1.1.07 4

2 Square root, Ratio and Proportions, Percentage 1.2.08 - 1.2.14 6
3 Material Science 1.3.15 - 1.3.19 8
4 Mass, Weight, Volume and Density 1.4.20 & 1.4.21 4
5 Speed and Velocity, Work, Power and Energy 1.5.22 - 1.5.25 12
6 Heat & Temperature and Pressure 1.6.26 - 1.6.32 12
7 Basic Electricity 1.7.33 - 1.7.38 12
8 Mensuration 1.8.39 - 1.8.43 10
9 Levers and Simple machines 1.9.44 & 1.9.45 6
10 Trigonometry 1.10.46 - 1.10.49 6
80 Hrs
LEARNING / ASSESSABLE OUTCOME
On completion of this book you shall be able to
• Demonstrate basic mathematical concept and principles to perform

practical operations.
• Understand and explain basic science in the field of study including
simple machine.
(vi)
CONTENTS
Exercise No. Title of the Exercise Page No.
Unit, Fractions
1.1.01 Unit - Classification of unit system 1
1.1.02 Unit - Fundamental and Derived units F.P.S, C.G.S, M.K.S and SI units 2
1.1.03 Unit - Measurement units and conversion 4
1.1.04 Factors, HCF, LCM and problems 13
1.1.05 Fractions - Addition, substraction, multiplication & division 14
1.1.06 Decimal fractions - Addition, subtraction, multiplication & division 18
1.1.07 Solving problems by using calculator 22
Square root, Ratio and Proportions, Percentage
1.2.08 Square root - Square and square root 26

1.2.09 Square root - Simple problems using calculator 27
1.2.10 Square root - Applications of pythagoras theorem and related problems 28
1.2.11 Ratio and proportion 29
1.2.12 Ratio and proportion - Direct and indirect proportions 31
1.2.13 Percentage 35
1.2.14 Precentage - Changing percentage to decimal 38
Material Science
1.3.15 Material science - Types of metals, types of ferrous and non ferrous metals 39
1.3.16 Material science - Physical and mechanical properties of metals 41
1.3.17 Material science - Introduction of iron and cast iron 44
1.3.18 Material science - Difference between iron & steel, alloy steel and carbon steel 47
1.3.19 Material science - Properties and uses of rubber, timber and insulating materials 49
Mass, Weight, Volume and Density
1.4.20 Mass, volume, density, weight and specific gravity 52

1.4.21 Related problems for mass, volume, density, weight and specific gravity 54
Speed and Velocity, Work, Power and Energy
1.5.22 Speed and velocity - Rest, motion, speed, velocity, difference between speed
and velocity, acceleration and retardation 60
1.5.23 Related problems on speed & velocity 64
1.5.24 Work, power, energy, HP, IHP, BHP and efficiency 68
1.5.25 Potential energy, kinetic energy and related problems 71
Heat & Temperature and Pressure
1.6.26 Heat & Temperature - Concept of heat and temperature, effects of heat,
difference between heat and temperature, boiling point & melting point of
different metals and non-metals 73
(vii)
Exercise No. Title of the Exercise Page No.
1.6.27 Heat & Temperature - Scales of temperature, celsius, fahrenheit, kelvin and
conversion between scales of temperature 75
1.6.28 Heat &Temperature - Temperature measuring instruments, types of
thermometer, pyrometer and transmission of heat - Conduction, convection
and radiation 77
1.6.29 Heat & Temperature - Co-efficient of linear expansion and related problems
with assignments 79
1.6.30 Heat & Temperature - Problem of heat loss and heat gain with assignments 81
1.6.31 Heat & Temperature - Thermal conductivity and insulators 85
1.6.32 Pressure - Concept of pressure and its units in different system 87
Basic Electricity
1.7.33 Basic electricity - Introduction and uses of electricity, molecule, atom, how
electricity is produced, electric current AC,DC their comparison, voltage,
resistance and their units 97
1.7.34 Basic electricity - Conductor, insulator, types of connections - series and parallel 101
1.7.35 Basic electricity - Ohm’s law, relation between V.I.R & related problems 107
1.7.36 Basic electricity - Electrical power, energy and their units, calculation with
assignments 111
1.7.37 Basic electricity - Magnetic induction, self and mutual inductance and EMF
generation 114
1.7.38 Basic electricity - Electrical power, HP, energy and units of electrical energy 117
Mensuration
1.8.39 Mensuration - Area and perimeter of square, rectangle and parallelogram 120
1.8.40 Mensuration - Area and perimeter of Triangles 124
1.8.41 Mensuration - Area and perimeter of circle, semi-circle, circular ring, sector
of circle, hexagon and ellipse 129
1.8.42 Mensuration - Surface area and volume of solids - cube, cuboid, cylinder,
sphere and hollow cylinder 137
1.8.43 Mensuration - Finding the lateral surface area, total surface area and capacity
in litres of hexagonal, conical and cylindrical shaped vessels 144
Levers and Simple machines
1.9.44 Simple machines - Effort and load, mechanical advantage, velocity ratio,
efficiency of machine, relationship between efficiency, velocity ratio and
mechanical advantage 147
1.9.45 Lever & Simple machines - Lever and its types 149
Trigonometry
1.10.46 Trigonometry - Measurement of angles 153

1.10.47 Trigonometry - Trigonometrical ratios 155
1.10.48 Trigonometry - Trigonometrical tables 161
1.10.49 Trigonometry - Application in calculating height and distance
(Simple applications) 172
(viii)
SYLLABUS
1st Year Common for all Engineering trades under CTS Duration: One Year
S.no. Syllabus Time in Hrs
I Unit, Fractions 4
1 Classification of Unit System

2 Fundamental and Derived Units F.P.S, C.G.S, M.K.S and SI Units
3 Measurement Units and Conversion
4 Factors, HCF, LCM and Problems
5 Fractions – Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division
6 Decimal Fractions - – Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division
7 Solving Problems by using calculator
II Square Root: Ratio and Proportions, Percentage 6
1 Square and Square Root

2 Simple problems using calculator
3 Application of Pythagoras Theorem and related problems
4 Ratio and Proportions
5 Direct and Indirect proportion
6 Percentage
7 Changing percentage to decimal
III Material Science 8
1 Types of metals
2 Physical and Mechanical Properties of metals
3 Types of ferrous and non-ferrous metals
4 Introduction of iron and cast iron
5 Difference between iron and steel, alloy steel and carbon steel
6 Properties and uses of rubber, timber and insulating materials
IV Mass, Weight, Volume, and Density 4
1 Mass, volume, density, weight & specific gravity

2 Related problems for mass, volume, density, weight & specific gravity
V Speed and Velocity, Work Power and Energy 12
1 Rest, motion, speed, velocity, difference between speed and velocity, acceleration
and retardation
2 Related problems on speed and velocity
3 Potential energy, Kinetic Energy and related problems
4 Work, power, energy, HP, IHP, BHP and efficiency
(ix)
S.no. Syllabus Time in Hrs
VI Heat & Temperature and Pressure 12
1 Concept of heat and temperature, effects of heat, difference between heat and
temperature
2 Scales of temperature, Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin and Conversion between scales
of temperature
3 Temperature measuring instruments, types of thermometer, pyrometer and
transmission of heat - Conduction, convection and radiation
4 Co-efficient of linear expansion and related problems with assignments
5 Problem of Heat loss and heat gain with assignments
6 Thermal conductivity and insulators
7 Boiling point and melting point of different metals and Non-metals
8 Concept of pressure and its units in different system
VII Basic Electricity 12
1 Introduction and uses of electricity, molecule, atom, how electricity is produced,

electric current AC, DC and their comparison, voltage , resistance and their units
2 Conductor, Insulator, types of connections- Series and Parallel,
3 Ohm’s Law, relation between VIR & related problems
4 Electrical power, energy and their units, calculation with assignments
5 Magnetic induction, self and mutual inductance and EMF generation
6 Electrical Power, HP, Energy and units of electrical energy
VIII Mensuration 10
1 Area and perimeter of square, rectangle and parallelogram

2 Area an Perimeter of Triangle
3 Area and Perimeter of Circle, Semi-circle , circular ring, sector of circle, hexagon
and ellipse
4 Surface area and Volume of solids- cube, cuboid, cylinder, sphere and
hollow cylinder
5 Finding lateral surface area , total surface area and capacity in litres of hexagonal,
conical and cylindrical shaped vessels
IX Levers and Simple Machines 6
1 Simple machines, Effort and load, mechanical advantage, velocity ratio, efficiency
of machine, relation between efficiency, velocity ratio and mechanical advantage
2 Lever and its types
X Trigonometry 6
1 Measurement of Angle, Trigonometrical Ratios, Trigonometric Table

2 Trigonometry-Application in calculating height and distance (Simple Applications)
Total 80
(x)
Unit - Classification of unit system Exercise 1.1.01
Necessity
Fundamental units and derived units are the two classifica-
All physical quantities are to be measured in terms of tions of units.
standard quantities.
Length, mass and time are the fundamental units in all the
Unit systems (i.e) F.P.S, C.G.S, M.K.S and S.I. systems.
A unit is defined as a standard or fixed quantity of one kind Example
used to measure other quantities of the same kind.
Length: What is the length of copper wire in the roll , if the
Classification roll of copper wire weighs 8kg, the dia of wire is 0.9cm and
Fundamental units and derived units are the two classifica- the density is 8.9 gm/cm3?
tions. Solution
Fundamental units mass of copper wire in the roll = 8kg (or)8000grams
Units of basic quantities of length, mass and time. Dia of copper wire in the roll = 0.9cm
Density of copper wire = 8.9 gm/cm3
Derived units
Area of cross section of copper wire
Units which are derived from basic units and bear a
constant relationship with the fundamental units.E.g. area,  d2   (0.9 2 )
volume, pressure, force etc. =   0.636cm 2
4 4
Systems of units Volume of copper wire
Mass of copper wire 8000grams
– F.P.S system is the British system in which the basic    898.88cm3
units of length, mass and time are foot, pound and Density of copper wire 8.9 gm/cm3
second respectively. Length of copper wire
– C.G.S system is the metric system in which the basic Volume of copper wire 898.88cm 3
units of length, mass and time are centimeter, gram and = 
seconds respectively.
Area of cross section of copper wire 0.636cm 2
= 1413.33 cm
– M.K.S system is another metric system in which the
basic units of length, mass and time are metre, kilo- Length of copper wire =1413cm.
gram and second respectively. Time: The S.I. unit of time, the second, is another base
– S.I. units are referred to as Systems International units units of S.I., it is defined as the time interval occupied by
which is again of metric and the basic units, their a number of cycles of radiation from the calcium atom. The
names and symbols are as follows. second is the same quantity in the S.I. in the British and in
the U.S. systems of units.
Fundamental units of F.P.S, C.G.S, M.K.S and S.I
S.No. Basic quantity British units Metric units International units
F.P.S Symbol C.G.S Symbol M.K.S Symbol S.I Units Symbol
1 Length Foot ft Centimetre cm Metre m Metre m

2 Mass Pound lb Gram g Kilogram kg Kilogram Kg
3 Time Second s Second s Second s Second s
4 Current Ampere A Ampere A Ampere A Ampere A
5 Temperature Fahrenheit °F Centigrade °C Centigrade °C Kelvin K
6 Light intensity Candela Cd Candela Cd Candela Cd Candela Cd
1
2
Unit - Fundamental and Derived units F.P.S, C.G.S, M.K.S and SI units Exercise 1.1.02
Derived units of F.P.S, C.G.S, M.K.S and SI system
S.No Physical quantity British units Metric units International units
FPS Symbol CGS Symbol MKS Symbol SI Units Symbol
1 Area Square foot ft2 Square centimetre cm2 Square metre m2 Square metre m2
2 Volume Cubic foot ft3 Cubic centimetre cm3 Cubic metre m3 Cubic metre m3
3 Density Pound per cubic lb/ft3 Gram per cubic g/cm3 Kilogram per cubic kg/m3 Kilogram per cubic Kg/m3
foot centimetre metre metre
4 Speed Foot per second ft/s Centimetre per second cm/sec Metre per second m/sec Metre per second m/sec
5 Velocity (linear) Foot per second ft/s Centimetre per second cm/sec Metre per second m/sec Metre per second m/sec
6 Acceleration Foot per square ft/s2 Centimetre per cm/sec2 Metre per square m/sec2 Metre per square m/sec2
second square second second second
7 Retardation Foot per square ft/s2 Centimetre per cm/sec2 Metre per square m/sec2 Metre square second m/sec2
Second square second second
8 Angular velocity Degree per second Deg/sec Radian per second rad/sec Radian per second rad/sec Radian per second rad/sec
9 Mass Pound (slug) lb Gram g Kilogram kg Kilogram kg
10 Weight Pound lb Gram g Kilogram weight kg Newton N
11 Force Pounds lbf dyne dyn Kilogram force kgf Newton N(kgm/sec2)
12 Power Foot pound per ft.lb/sec Gram.centimetre/sec g.cm/ kilogram metre per kg.m/ - -
second sec second sec
Horse power hp Erg per second watt W watt W(J/sec)
2 2 2
13 Pressure,Stress Pound per square inch lb/in Gram per square g/cm Kilogram per kg/m Newton per square N/m2
centimetre square metre metre
14 Energy, Work Foot.pound ft.lb Gram centimetre g.cm Kilogram metre kg.m joule J(Nm)
15 Heat British thermal unit BTU calorie Cal joule J joule J(Nm)
16 Torque Pound force foot lbf.ft Newton millimetre N mm Kilogram metre kg.m Newton metre Nm
17 Temperature Degree Fahrenheit °F Degree Centigrade °C Kelvin K Kelvin K
18 Specific heat BTU per pound degree BTU/lb°F Calorie per gram Cal/g°C Joule per kilogram J/(kgK) Joule per J/(kgK)
fahrenheit degree Celsius kelvin kilogram kelvin
S.No Physical quantity British units Metric units International units
FPS Symbol CGS Symbol MKS Symbol SI Units Symbol
19 Frequency Cycle per second 1/s Hertz Hz Hertz Hz Hertz Hz

2 2 2
20 Moment of inertia Pound force foot lbf.ft.s Gram square g.cm Kilogram kg.m Kilogram square Kg.m2
square second centimetre square metre metre
21 Momentum Pound second lb.s Gram centimetre g.cm/sec Kilogram metre kg.m/sec Kilogram metre Kg.m/
per second per second per second sec
22 Moment of force Pounds foot lbs.ft Gram centimetre g.cm Kilogram metre kg.m Newton metre Nm
23 Angle degree deg degree deg degree deg Radian rad
24 Specific volume Cubic foot per pound ft3/lbs Cubic centimetre per Cm3/g Cubic metre per m3/kg Cubic metre per m3/kg
gram kilogram kilogram
25 Specific resistance Ohm foot  ft Ohm centimetre  cm Ohm meter m Ohm meter m
26 Specific weight Pound per cubic foot lbf/ft3 Gram per cubic g/cm3 Kilogram per cubic kg/m3 Newton per cubic N/m3
centimetre metre metre
27 Fuel consumption Miles per gallon m/gal Centimetre per cubic cm/cm3 Kilometre per litre km/l Metre per cubic metre m/m3
centimetre
28 Dynamic viscosity Pound force per lbf/ft2 Centi poise CP pascal second Pa.s pascal second Pa.s
square foot
29 Surface tension Poundal per foot pdl/ft dyne per centimetre dyn/cm Newton per metre N/m Newton per metre N/m
0 0
30 Entropy British thermal unit BTU/ F Calorie per degree Cal/ c Joule per kelvin J/K Joule per kelvin J/K
per degree Fahrenheit centigrade
31 Electric current Columb per second C/s Biot Bi Ampere A Ampere A
Workshop Calculation & Science : (NSQF) Exercise 1.1.02

32 Electric voltage Volt V Volt V Volt V Volt V
33 Electric resistance Ohm  Ohm  Ohm  Ohm (V/A)
34 Electric Mho, Siemens s Mho s
 Siemens s Siemens s
conductance
35 Light intensity Candela Cd Candela Cd Candela Cd Candela Cd
36 Specific gravity No unit - No unit - No unit - No unit -
3
Unit - Measurement units and conversion Exercise 1.1.03
Units and abbreviations
Quantity Units Abbreviation of unit
Calorific value kilojoules per kilogram kJ/kg
Specific fuel kilogram per hour per newton kg/hr/N
consumption
Length millimetre, metre, kilometre mm, m, km
Mass kilogram, gram kg, g
Time seconds, minutes, hours s, min, h
Speed centimetre per second, cm/s, m/s

metre per second
kilometre per hour, miles km/h, mph
per hour
Acceleration metre-per-square second m/s2
Force newtons, kilonewtons N,kN
Moment newton-metres Nm
Work joules J
Power horsepower, watts, kilowatts Hp, W, kW
Pressure newton per square metre N/m2

kilonewton per square metre kN/m2
Angle radian rad
Angular speed radians per second rad/s

radians-per-square second rad/s2
revolutions per minute Rpm
revolutions per second rev/s
Decimal multiples and parts of unit
Decimal power Value Prefixes Symbol Stands for

1012 1000000000000 tera T billion times
10 9
1000000000 giga G thousand millintimes
106 1000000 mega M million times
10 3
1000 kilo K thousand times
102 100 hecto h hundred times
101 10 deca da ten times
10 -1
0.1 deci d tenth
10-2 0.01 centi c hundredth
10 -3
0.001 milli m thousandth
10-6 0.000001 micro  millionth
10-9 0.000000001 nano n thousand millionth
10-12
0.000000000001 pico p billionth
4
SI units and the British units:
Quantity SI unit  British unit British unit  SI unit
Length 1 m = 3.281 ft 1 ft = 0.3048 m

1 km = 0.621 mile 1 mile = 1.609 km
Speed 1 m/s = 3.281 ft/s 1 ft/s = 0.305 m/s

1 km/h = 0.621 mph 1 mph = 1.61 km/h
Acceleration 1 m/s2 = 3.281 ft/s2 1 ft/s2 = 0.305 m/s2
Mass 1 kg = 2.205 lb 1 lb = 0.454 kg
Force 1 N = 0.225 lbf 1 lbf = 4.448 N

1 MN 1 million newtons
Torque 1 Nm = 0.738 lbf ft 1 lbf ft = 1.355 Nm
Pressure 1 N/m2 = 0.000145 lbf/in2 1 lbf/in2 = 6.896 kN/m2

1 Pa = 1 N/m2
1 bar = 14.5038 lbf/in2 1 lbf/in2 = 6.895 kN/m2
Energy, work 1 J = 0.738 ft lbf 1 ft lbf = 1.355 J

1 J = 0.239 calorie 1 calorie = 4.186 J
1 kJ = 0.948 BTU 1 BTU = 1.055 kJ
(1 therm = 100 000 BTU)
1 kJ = 0.526 CHU 1 CHU = 1.9 kJ
Power 1 kW = 1.34 hp 1 hp = 0.7457 kW
Fuel consumption 1km/L = 2.82 mile/gallon 1 mpg = 0.354 km/L
Specific fuel 1 kg/kWh = 1.65 lb/bhp h 1 lb/bhp h = 0.606 kg/kWh

consumption 1 litre/kWh=1.575 pt/bhp h 1 pt/bhp h = 0.631 litre/kWh
Calorific value 1 kJ/kg = 0.43 BTU/lb 1 BTU/lb = 2.326 kJ/kg

1 kJ/kg = 0.239 CHU/lb 1 CHU/lb = 4.188 kJ/kg
Workshop Calculation & Science : (NSQF) Exercise 1.1.03 5

Units in measuring practice with definitions
Quantity Unit Explanation
Force F Newton N 1 Newton is equal to the force which imports an
acceleration of 1m/s2 to a body of mass 1 kg
1N = 1 kg m/s2
Pressure P Newton N 1 Newton per square metre (1 pascal)
per square m2 is equal to the pressure with which
metre the force of 1 N is exercised perpendicular
to the area of 1 m2
Pascal Pa 1Pa = 1 N/m2. 1 Bar (bar) is the special name

for 100 000 Pa.
Normal stress Newton per 1 Newton per square metre (1 pascal)
tensile or square N to the mechanical stress with which the
compressive metre m2 force of 1 n is exercised on the area of 1 m2.
stress, Shear stress In many branches of engineering the mechani-
cal stress and strength are specified in N/m2.
1 N/m2 = 1000 000 Pa = 1 MPa
Heat Energy W Joule J 1 Joule is equal to the work that is done when
Quantity of heat the point of application of the force of 1 N is
shifted by 1 m in the direction of the force.
1 J = 1 Nm = 1 Ws = 1 kgm2/s2
3600 000 J = 1 kWh
Moment of a force Newton Nm 1 Newton is equal to the moment of a force

(torque) M metre which results from the product of the force
joule J of 1 N and the lever arm of 1 m.
1 Nm = 1 J = 1 Ws = 1 kgm2/s2
Power P Watt W 1 Watt is equal to the power with which the
Energy flow energy of 1 J is converted during the time of 1s.
Heat flow ø The unit watt is also called volt ampere in

the specification of apparent electric power
1 W = 1 J/s = 1 Nm s = 1 VA
Specific Joule per J 1 Joule per kilogram is equal to the quantity of

H
heat value kilogram kg heat which on complete burning of the mass of
1 kg releases the energy of 1 J
Fuel gram per g 1 gram per kilowatt-hour is equal to the fuel

consumption P kilowatt- kwh consumption of the mass of 1 g for the work
hour of 1 kWh.
1
Temperature T Kelvin K The kelvin is defined as the fraction 273.16 of
the thermodynamic temperature of the triple
point of water.
Electric current I Ampere A 1 Ampere is the strength of a current which
would bring about an electrodynamic force of
0.2.10 N per 1 m length between two parallel
conductors placed at a distance of 1 m.
6 Workshop Calculation & Science : (NSQF) Exercise 1.1.03

Electric voltage V Volt V 1 Volt is equal to the electric voltage between
two points of a metallic conductor in which a
power of 1 W is expended for a current of 1 A
strength.
Electric resistance R Ohm  1 Ohm is equal to the electric resistance be-
tween two points of a metallic conductor in
which an electric current of 1 A flows at a
voltage of 1 V.
Electric conductance G Siemens S 1 Siemens is equal to the electric conductance

of a conductor of electric resistance of 1ohm
Quantity Q Coulomb C 1 Coulomb is equal to the quantity

of electricity ampere-second As of electricity which flows through the conductor
cross-section during the time of 1 s at an
electric current of 1A.
Prefixes for decimal multiples and submultiples
Units of physical quantities
Use
1 Megapascal = 1 MPa = 1000000 Pa
1 Kilowatt = 1 kW = 1000 W
1 Hectolitre = 1 hL= 100 L
Decanewton = 1 daN = 10 N
Units of length
Decimetre = 1 dm = 0.1 m
Micron 1 = 0.001 mm
1 Centimetre = 1 cm = 0.01 m
Millimetre 1 mm = 1000 
1 Millimetre = 1 mm = 0.001 m Centimetre 1 cm = 10 mm
1 Micrometre = 1 um = 0.000001 m Decimetre 1 dm = 10 cm
Metre 1m = 10 dm
Kilometre 1 km = 1000 m
Conversion factors
Inch 1" = 25.4 mm
1 inch = 25.4 mm Foot 1" = 0.305 m
1 mm = 0.03937 inch Yard 1 Yd = 0.914 m
1 metre = 39.37 inch Nautical mile 1 NM = 1852 m
1 micron = 0.00003937" Geographical mile 1 = 1855.4 m
1 kilometre = 0.621 miles
1 pound = 453.6 gr
1 kg = 2.205 lbs
1 metric ton = 0.98 ton

Units of area
Units of volume and capacity

Cubic millimetre 1 mm3
Square millimetre 1 mm2
Square centimetre 1 cm2 = 100 mm2 Cubic centimetre 1 cm3 = 1000 mm3
Square decimetre 1 dm2 = 100 cm2 Cubic decimetre 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3
Square metre 1 m2 = 100 dm2 Cubic metre 1m 3
= 1000 dm3
Are 1a = 100 m2 Litre 1l = 1 dm3
Hectare 1 ha = 100 a Hectolitre 1 hl = 100 l
Square kilometre 1 km2 = 100 ha Cubic inch 1 cu. in = 16.387 cm3
Square inch 1 sq.in = 6.45 cm2 Cubic foot 1 cu. ft = 28317 cm3
Square foot 1 sq.ft = 0.093 m2 Gallon (British) 1 gal = 4.54 l
Square yard 1 sq.yd = 0.84 m2
1cubic metre 1 m3 = 1000 litres
Square metre 1 m2 = 10.76 ft2
1000 Cucm 1000 cm3 = 1 litre
Acre 1 = 40.5 a 1 cubic foot 1 ft3 = 6.25 Gallon
1 Acre = 100 cent 1 Hectare = 2.47 acres 1 litre 1It = 0.22 Gallon
1 Cent = 436 Sq. ft. 1 acre = 0.4047 Hec
Angle
1 Ground = 2400 Sq.ft. tare
1 Hectare = 10000 sq.
metre
Units of weight
1 Centessimal unit
1 Right Angle = 100 grade (100g)
1 grade (1g) = 100 Minute (100’)
Milligram - force 1 mgf 1 minute (1’) = 100 second (100”)
Gram-force 1 gf 1000 mgf 2 Sexagesimal unit
Kilogram-force 1 kgf = 1000 gf 1 Right angle = 90 Degree (90°)
Tonne 1t = 1000 kgf 1 Degree (1°) = 60 minutes (60’)
Ounce 1 = 28.35 gf 1minute (1’) = 60 seconds (60”)
Pound 1 lbs = 0.454 kgf 3 Circular unit
Long ton 1 = 1016 kgf Radian
Short ton 1 = 907 kgf Relationship between Radian and Degree

180°
1 Radian =
Time 
1800 = Radian;

1 Degree = Radian
180
Second 1s
Minute 1 min 60 s
Hour 1 hr = 60 min

Work Power
Kilogram-force metre/second
Kilogram-force 1 kgfm = 9.80665 J
1 kgfm/s = 9.80665 W
Metre 1 kgfm = 9.80665 Ws
Kilowatt 1 kW = 1000 W = 1000 J/s
Joule 1J = 1 Nm
= 102 kgfm/s (approx.)
Watt-second 1 Ws = 0.102 kgfm
Metric horse power 1 HP = 75 kgfm/s
Kilowatt hour 1 kWh = 3.6 x 106 J
= 0.736 kW
= 859.8456 kcalIT
1 Calorie = 4.187J
I.T.Kilocalorie 1 kcalIT = 426.kgfm
I.T.Kilocalorie/hour = 1 kcalIT/h = 1.163 W
Pressure
Pascal 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 1 atm = 101325 Pa
101325
Bar 1 bar = 10N/cm2 = 100000 Pa–Torr 1 torr =  133.32 pa
760
Atmosphere 1 atm = 1 kgf/cm2 1 kgf/cm = 735.6 mm of mercury
2
Geometrical quantities
Symbol Physical quantity Conventional Units S.I.Units Symbol
S.I. units
l Length m Metre m
h Height m Metre m
b Width, breadth m Metre m
r Radius m Metre m
d Diameter m Metre m
d, Wall thickness m Metre m
S Length of path m Metre m
A (S) Area m2 Square metre m2
V (v) Volume m3 Cubic metre m3
 etc Angle ° Radian (1 rad = 57.3°) rad
 Wave length km Kilometre km
l,la Second moment of area cm4 Metre to the fourthpower m4
MASS
m Mass kg Kilogram kg
 Density g/cm3 Kilogram per cubicmetre kg/m3
l,J Moment of inertia kg, m2 Newton metre

TIME
T Time or time interval s Second s
nu Rotational frequency l/min Reciprocal second l/s
u,v,w,c Velocity speed m/min Metre per second m/s
 Angular velocity rad/s Radian per second rad/s
g Acceleration of freefall m/s2 Metre per second square m/s2
a Acceleration m/s2 Metre per second square m/s2
Retardation m/s2 Metre per second square m/s2
FORCE AND PRESSURE

F Force kgf Newton (1kgf = 9.80665N) N
G(P,W) Weight kgf Newton N
 Specific weight kgf/m3 Newton per cubic metre N/m3
M Moment of force kgf.m Newton metre N.m
(force x distance)
p Pressure (force/ area) kgf/cm2 pascal, Newton per Pa,N/m2
square metre
p Normal stress kgf/mm2 bar (1 bar = 10 N/m)
 p Shear stress kgf/mm2 bar
E Modulus of elasticity kgf/mm2 Newton per square metre N/m2
G Shear modulus kgf/mm2 Newton per square metre N/m2
 Co-efficient of friction No Unit
TEMPERATURE
Scale Freezing point Boiling point

Centigrade (°C) 0°C 100°C
Fahrenheit (°F) 32°F 212°F
Kelvin (K) 273K 373K
Reaumur (°R) 0°R 80°R
°R °C
= 100 = K- 273 = °F- 32
 100 180

HEAT, WORK, ENERGY,FORCE
A,W Work kgfm Joule (1 Joule=1 N.m) J (Nm)

P Power kgfm/s Watt W (J/s)
E,W Energy kgfm Joule J (Nm)
 Efficiency - - -
W,A,E,Q Quantity of heat kcal Joule J
C Specific heat kcal/kgf°C Joule per newton per J/N.°K
degree Kelvin
Thermal conductivity kcal/mh°C Joule per metre per J/ms°K
second per degree
Kelvin
Force In C.G.S. System : Force (Dyne) = Mass (gm)XAcceleration (cm/sec2)
In F.P.S. System : Force (Poundal) = Mass (Ib) X Acceleration (ft./sec2)
In M.K.S System : Force (Newton) = Mass (Kg) x Acceleration (mtr./sec2)
1 Dyne = 1 gm x1 cm/sec2
1 Poundal = 1 Ib x 1 ft/sec2
1 Newton = 1 kg x 1 mtr/sec2 = 105 dynes
1gm weight = 981 Dynes
1 Ib weight = 32 Poundals
1 kg weight = 9.81 Newtons
ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES
V Electric potential V Volt V(W/A)

E Electromotive force V Volt V(W/A)
I Electric current A Ampere A
R Electric resistance  Ohm V/A)
e Specific resistance m Ohm metre Vm/A
G Conductance  -1 Siemens S
Assignment - Conversion of length, mass, force, work, power and energy
1 Convert the following as indicated c 5 ounces into grams ______

a 5 yards into metres ______ d 16 tons into kilograms ______
b 15 miles into kilometres ______ 3 Convert
c 7 metres into yards ______ a 40 inches into centimetres ______
d 320 kilometres into miles ______
b 12 feet into metres ______
2 Convert
c 5 metres into inches ______
a 5 pounds into kilograms ______
d 8 metres into feet ______
b 8.5 kilograms into pounds ______

4 Convert iii 8 g = ______ dg
a 234 cubic metres into gallons ______ iv 120 mg = ______ g
b 2 cubic feet into litres ______ v 8 dag = ______ mg
c 2.5 gallons into litres ______ vi 2.5 g = ______ mg
d 5 litres into gallons ______
vii 2.5 g = ______ kg
5 Answer the following questions
viii 20 cg = ______ mg
a 120°C = ______ °F.
ix 0.05 Mt = ______ kg
b 8 mm = ______ inches
12 mm = ______ inches c Force
6 Convert and find out i 1.2 N = ______ kg

A car consumes fuel at the rate of one gallon for a travel ii 2.6 N = ______ kg
of 40 miles. iii 800 N = ______ KN
The same car travels a distance of 120 kilometer. what iv 14.5 kg = ______ N
is the consumption of fuel in litres.
v 25 kg = ______ N
7 Write equivalent British units for the given metric units
a Seconds, minutes, Hours d Work, energy, amount of heat
b Grams, Kilograms i 2 Nm = ______ Ncm

ii 50 Ncm = ______ Nm
c Litres, Cubic meters
iii 120 KJ = ______ J
d Square centimeter, Square kilometer
iv 40 J = ______ KJ
8 Expand the abbreviations of the following
v 300 wh = ______ kwh
a km/l
e Power
b N/m2
i 200 mW = ______ W
c KW
ii 0.2 kW = ______ W
d m/s2
iii 300 kW = ______ mW
e RPM
iv 2.10 W 6
= ______ mW
9 Convert the following S.I. units as required. v 6.10-4 kW = ______ W
a Length vi 2W = ______ KW
i 3.4 m = ______ mm vii 350 W = ______ kW
ii 1.2 m = ______ cm viii 0.08 W = ______ kW
iii 0.8 m = ______ mm ix 2 x 10 kW =______ W
-3
iv 0.02 km = ______ cm x 0.04 W = ______ mW

v 10.2 km = ______ mile f Convert as required.
vi 6 m = ______ km i 3 Nm = ______ J
vii 18 m = ______ mm ii 2J = ______ Ws
viii 450 m = ______ km iii 12 J = ______ KJ
ix 85 cm = ______ km iv 3 Nm/s = ______ J/s
x 0.06 km = ______ mm v 5N = ______ KN
b Mass vi 3 KJ = ______ Nm
i 650 g = ______ kg vii 18 J/s = ______ W

viii 12 W = ______ J/s
ii 300 cg = ______ g
ix kJ/s = ______ Nm/s

Factors, HCF, LCM and problems Exercise 1.1.04
Prime Numbers and whole Numbers 2 128
2 64
Factor 2 32
A factor is a small number which divides exactly into a 2 16
bigger number.e.g. 2 8
2 4
To find the factors of 24, 72, 100 numbers 2
24 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 3
Factors of 128 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2
72 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 3
100 = 2 x 2 x 5 x 5 • Select prime numbers from 3 to 29
The numbers 2,3,5 are called factors.
3,5,7,11,13,17,19,23,29
Definition of a prime factor
Prime factor is a number which divides a prime number into • Find the HCF of the following group of numbers HCF of
factors.e.g. 78, 128, 196
57 = 3 x 19 2 78
The numbers 3 and 19 are prime factors. 3 39
13
They are called as such, since 3 & 19 also belong to prime
number category. 78 = 2 x 3 x 13
Definition of H.C.F 2 128

2 64
The Highest Common Factor
2 32
The H.C.F of a given group of numbers is the highest 2 16
number which will exactly divide all the numbers of that 2 8
group.e.g. 2 4
To find the H.C.F of the numbers 24, 72, 100 2
24 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 128 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2
72 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 3
2 196
100 = 2 x 2 x 5 x 5
2 98
The factors common to all the three numbers are 49
2 x 2 = 4. So HCF = 4. 196 = 2 x 2 x 49
Definition of L.C.M HCF = 2
Lowest common multiple • Find LCM of 84,92,76
The lowest common multiple of a group of numbers is the LCM = 2 84, 92, 76
smallest number that will contain each number of the given 2 42, 46, 38
group without a remainder.e.g. 3 21, 23, 19
• Factorise the following numbers 7, 23, 19
7,17,20,66,128 LCM = 2 x 2 x 3 x 7 x 23 x 19 = 36708
7,17 - These two belong to Prime numbers. Hence no • To find out the LCM of 36, 108, 60
factor except unity and itself.
2 36, 108, 60
2 20 2 18, 54, 30
2 10 3 9, 27, 15
5 3 3, 9, 5
1, 3, 5
Factors of 20 = 2 x 2 x 5
LCM of the number
2 66
36, 108, 60 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 5 = 540
3 33
11 The necessity of finding LCM and HCF arises in subtraction
and addition of fractions.
Factors of 66 = 2 x 3 x 11
13
Fractions - Addition, substraction, multiplication & division Exercise 1.1.05
Description Division
A minimal quantity that is not a whole number. For e.g. . When a fraction is divided by another fraction the dividend
is multiplied by the reciprocal of the divisor. (Fig 4)
1
A vulgur fraction consists of a numerator and denomi-
5
nator.
Numerator/Denominator
The number above the line in a vulgar fraction showing how
many of the parts indicated by the denominator are taken
is the numerator. The total number of parts into which the Addition and Subtraction
whole quantity is divided and written below the line in a
vulgar fraction is the denominator. e.g. The denominators of the fractions should be the same
when adding or subtracting the fractions. Unequal
1 3 7 denominators must first be formed into a common
, ,
4 4 12 denominator. It is the lowest common denominator and it
is equal to the product of the most common prime numbers
1,3,7 - numerators 4,12 - denominators of the denominators of the fractions in question.(Fig 5)
Fraction: Concept
Every number can be represented as a fraction.e.g.
1 5
1  , A full number can be represented as an apparent
4 4
fraction.e.g. (Fig 1)
Examples
3 2
• Multiply by ,
4 3
3 2 6 1
  
4 3 12 2
Fraction: Value
The value of a fraction remains the same if the numerator 3 3
• Divide by ,
and denominator of the fraction are multiplied or divided by 8 4
the same number.(Fig 2)
3 3 3 4 1
  x 
8 4 8 3 2
3 2
• Add and ,
4 3
3 2 9 8 17 5
    1
Multiplication 4 3 12 12 12 12
When fractions are to be multiplied, multiply all the 7 17
numerators to get the numerator of the product and multiply • sub from
all the denominators to form the denominator of the 16 32
product. (Fig 3) 17

7

17

14

17  14   3
32 16 32 32 32 32
Types of fractions
• Proper fractions are less than unity. Improper fractions
have their numerators greater than the denominators.
• A mixed number has a full number and a fraction.
14
Addition of fraction Solution
Step 1: Add whole numbers = 3 + 6 - 4 = 5
1 1 5
Add  
2 8 12 3 7 5 9
Step 2: Add fractions =   
4 8 16 32
To add these fractions we have to find out L.C.M of
denominators 2,8,12. L.C.M of 4,8,16,32 is 32
Find L.C.M of 2,8,12
Step 1 L.C.M 24  28  10  9
32
2 2,8,12
52  19
2 1,4,6 
32
1,2,3
33 1
 1
Factors are 2,2,2,3 32 32
Hence L.C.M = 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 = 24
Step 3: Adding again with the whole number
Step 2
3 3
we get 5  1 6
1 1 5 12 3 10 32 32
    
2 8 12 24 24 24 Examples
12  3  10 25 1
  1 . Common fractions
24 24 24
• Multiply
Subtraction of fraction 3 4 3 4 3
by  x  2 3 5 5
a b x x 
15 9 9 15 8 7 8 7 14 3 4 8 16
subtract 9 from17 or(17 9 )
32 16 16 32 • Division
Step 1: Subtract whole number first 17 - 9 = 8 5 5 5 32
a   x 2
Step 2: L.C.M of 16,32 = 32 16 32 16 5
Since number 16 divides the number 32 2 1 14 22 14 7 49 16

b 4 3    x  1
3 7 3 7 3 22 33 33
3
Subtracting fractions = • Addition
32
Adding with whole number from Step 1 1 1 1
 
2 4 8
3 3
we get 8  8 L..C.M  2,4,8  8
32 32
1 1 1 4  2 1 7
Common fractions    
2 4 8 8 8
Problems with plus and minus sign
• Subtraction
Example
3 7 5 9 1 3 1 3
solve 3 6 4  5 3  53 
4 8 16 32 4 4 4 4
1 3 1 3
Rule to be followed  2  2 
4 4 4 4
1 Add all whole numbers 9 3 93
  
2 add all + Numbers 4 4 4
3 Add all - Numbers 6 3 1
  1
4 Find L.C.M of all denominators 4 2 2

Assignment
1 Convert the following into improper fractions. 3 Place the missing numbers.
2 11 x
a 1  __________ a  __________
7 13 91
3 3 42
b 4  __________ b  __________
5 5 x
3 9 x
c 3  __________  __________
5 c
14 98
7 4 Simplify.
d 5  __________
8
45
a  _________
1 60
e 3  _________
3
8
b  __________
3 12
f 5  ______
4
12
c  __________
3 14
g 7  __________
7
56
d  __________
1 72
h 182  __________
74
6
e  __________
2 Convert the following into mixed numbers. 14
12 3 5 11 2 14
a  __________ x x x x  __________
11 f
4 7 3 4 6
36
b  __________ 5 Multiply.
14
2
a 5x  __________
18 3
c  __________
10
3
b x 2  __________
25 4
d  __________
3
3 5
c x  __________
84 4 6
e  __________
13 1
d 3 x 3  __________
4
32
f  __________
21 1 1
e 2 x 3  __________
4 4
18
g  __________ 1
16 f 5x6  __________
4
75
h  __________
4

6 Divide
3 4 3
c    _________
1 3 5 5 8
a   _________
4 4 1 7 7
d 6  1  3  _________
4 12 9
3
b 6   ________ 9 Subtract
4
4 2
a   _________
3 2 5 5
c   __________
4 7
5 3
b   _________
1 6 4
d 3  4  __________
6 10 Simplify
1 1 6 3 1 1
e 5 2  ________ a 2   1  _________
2 7 7 8 3 16
1 2 5
f 8 3 _________ b 2   8  ________
4 7 6
7 Place the missing numbers. 7 3 3 1

c 3  1 2  _________
9 5 4 2
2 1
a  x_________ 11 Express as improper fractions
3 12
3
14 1 a 5
b  x________ 4
24 12
5
7 1 b 3
c  x_________
8 12 64
2 1 5
d  x_________ c 1
36 12 12
12 Reduce to mixed number or whole number
52 1
e  x_________
36 12 163
a
4
11 1
f 3  x_________
24 12 12
b
4
3 1
g  x_________
4 12 144
c
60
7 1
h  x_________ 13 Reduce to lowest terms
6 12
12
8 Add the followings: a
64
3 7
a   _________ 12
4 12 b
48
7 3
b   _________ 144
8 4 c
60

Decimal fractions - Addition, subtraction, multiplication & division
Exercise 1.1.06
Description Divide 0.75 by 0.25
Decimal fraction is a fraction whose denominator is 10 or
0.25 0.75
powers of 10 or multiples of 10 (i.e.) 10, 100, 1000, 10000
etc. Meaning of a decimal number:- 0.75 100 75
x 
12.3256 means 0.25 100 25
(1 X 10)  (2 X 1) 
3

2

5

6 25 75  3
10 100 1000 10000
Representation Move the decimal point in the multiplicand to

the right to one place if the multiplier is 10, and
The denominator is omitted. A decimal point is placed
to two places if the multiplier is 100 and so on.
at different positions of the number corresponding to the
When dividing by 10 move the decimal point
magnitude of the denominator
one place to the left, and, if it is by 100, move
5 35 127 3648 them point by two places and so on.
Ex.  0.5,  0.35  0.0127,  3.648
10 100 10000 1000
Example
Addition and subtraction
Arrange the decimal fractions in a vertical order, placing the Allowing 3 mm for cutting off each pin how many pins, can
decimal point of each fraction to be added or subtracted, in be made from a 900 mm long bar? How much material will
succession one below the other, so that all the decimal be left out?
points are arranged in a straight line. Add or subtract as
you would do for a whole number and place the decimal Length of pin
point in the answer below the column of decimal points.
= 2.25 + 55.36 + 12.18
Decimal fractions less than 1 are written with a zero before
the decimal point. Example: 45/100 = 0.45 (and not simply = 69.79 mm
.45)
Add 0.375 + 3.686
0.375
3.686
4.061
Subtract 18.72 from 22.61

22.61 Length of the bar = 900 mm
18.72 Step 1
3.89 Let the number of pins to be made = x
Multiplication Length of x number of pins = x x 69.79 mm
Ignore the decimal points and multiply as whole numbers. Step 2
Find the total number of digits to the right of the decimal
Waste for each pin = 3 mm
point. Insert the decimal point in the answer such that the
number of digits to the right of the decimal point equals to Waste for x number of pins = 3 x x mm=3x mm
the sum of the digits found to the right of the decimal points
Adding step (1) + step (2) and equating to length of bar
in the problem.
69.79x mm + 3x mm = 900 mm
Multiply 2.5 by 1.25
= 25 x 125 = 3125. The sum of the figures to the right x (69.79mm + 3mm) = 900mm
of decimal point is 3. Hence the answer is 3.125. x (72.79mm) = 900mm
Division x = 900  72.79
Move the decimal point of the divisor to the right to make
Hence Number of pins to be made = 12
it a full number. Move the decimal point in the dividend to
the same number of places, adding zeroes if necessary.
Then divide.
18
Secondly
7
Left out materials • Convert to a decimal
8
= Total length of bar - Length for 12 pins+ wastage of
cutting 0.875
= 900mm - (12 x 69.79 + 12 x 3)mm 8 7000
64
= 900 - (837.48 + 36)mm
60
= 900 - 873.48mm 56
=26.52mm 40
Left out material 26.52 mm 40
Conversion of Decimals into fractions and vice-versa 0
• Convert decimal into fractions

7
Example  0.875
8
Convert 0.375 to a fraction
Recurring decimals
Now place 1 under the decimal point followed by as many While converting from fraction to decimals, some fractions
zeros as there are numbers can be divided exactly into a decimal. In some fractions the
quotient will not stop. It will continue and keep recurring.
These are called recurring decimals.
Examples
1 2 1
• convert , ,
3 3 7
• Convert fraction into decimal
Example 1 10000
a   0.3333  Recurring
3 3
• Convert to a decimal
2 20000
Proceed to divide in the normal way of division but put b   0.666  Recurring
3 3
zeros (as required) after the number 9 (Numerator)
 1 10000 
   0.14285714 2  Recurring 
c  7 7 
These are written as below with a dot over the figure

.
0.3333 ——> 0.3
.
0.6666 ——> 0.6
. .
0.14857142 —> 0.14857
Note the dots marked over numbers.
We normally carry the decimal points upto 4 places in

Engineering calculations.
= 0.5625
Approximations in Measured Value calculations
In Measured Value calculations 4 places of decimals are
sufficient and in many dimensions of parts even 3 decimal
places are near enough to complete the maintenance job
operations.

Method of writing approximations in decimals
2 7 3
1.73556 = 1.7356 Correct to 4 decimal places  (4  100)  (5  10)  (3  1)   
5.7343 = 5.734 Correct to 3 decimal places 10 100 100
0.9345 = 0.94 Correct to 2 decimal places 273
 453
1000
Multiplication and division by 10,100,1000
• Write the representation of decimal places in the given
Multiplying decimals by 10 number 0.386
A decimal fraction can be multiplied by 10,100,1000 and so 3 - Ist decimal place
on by moving the decimal point to the right by as many 8 - IInd decimal place
places as there are zeros in the multiplier. 6 - IIIrd decimal place
• 4.645 x 10 = 46.45 (one place)
• Write approximations in the following decimals to 3
• 4.645 x 100 = 464.5 (two places)
places.
• 4.645 x 1000 = 4645 (three places)
a 6.9453 ——> 6.945
Dividing decimals by 10
b 8.7456 ——> 8.746
A decimal fraction can be divided by 10,100,1000 and so
on, by moving the decimal point to the left by as many
• Convert fraction to decimal
places as required in the divisor by putting zeros
Examples 21 7
  0.875
• 3.732 ÷ 10 = 0.3732 (one place) 24 8
• 3.732 ÷ 100 = 0.03732 (two places)
• 3.732 ÷ 1000 = 0.003732 (three places) • Convert decimal to fraction
Examples 625 5 1
0.0625   
• Rewrite the following number as a fraction 10000 80 16
453.273
453.273
Assignment
1 Write down the following decimal numbers in the 4 Convert the following fraction into decimals
expanded form. 3
a 514.726 a
5
b 902.524 10
b
4
2 Write the following decimal numbers from the expansion.
3 2 9 54
500  70  5    c 24
a 1000
10 100 1000
12
1 3 5 d
b 200  9    25
10 100 1000
e 8
3 Convert the following decimals into fractions in the 25
simplest form. 3
f 1
a 0.72 25
b 5.45 5 Addition of decimals
c 3.64 a 4.56 + 32.075 + 256.6245 + 15.0358
d 2.05 b 462.492 + 725.526 + 309.345 + 626.602

6 Subtract the following decimals
0.168
a 612.5200 – 9.6479 c
1.2
b 573.9246 – 215.6000
1.54
c 968.325 – 16.482 d
1.1
d 5735.4273 – 364.2342
27.2
e
7 Add and subtract the following 1.6
a 56.725 + 48.258 – 32.564 f 31.5 ÷ 10.5

b 16.45 + 124.56 + 62.7 - 3.243 g 1.54 ÷ 1.1
h 4.41 ÷ 2.1
8 Multiplication of decimals
a By 10,100,1000 11 Change the fraction into a decimal
i 3.754
5
ii 8.964 x 100 i 1
8
iii 2.3786 x 1000
12
iv 0.005 x 1000 ii
25
b By whole numbers 12 Find the value

i 8.4 x 7 20.5 x 40 ÷ 10.25 + 18.50
ii 56.72 x 8
13
c By another decimal figure (use calculator)
i 15.64 x 7.68
ii 2.642 x 1.562 A = 12.613 mm
9 Divide the following X = __________mm.
62.5
a 14
25
14.4
b
9
64.56
X = __________mm.
c
10
0.42 15
d
100
48.356
e
1000 X = __________mm.
25.5
f
15
10 Division 16
16.8
a
1.2
1.68
b
1.2 B = __________mm.

Solving problems by using calculator Exercise 1.1.07
A pocket calculator allows to spend less time in doing
+ Addition key
tideous calculations. A simple pocket calculator enables
to do the arithmatical calculations of addition, substraction,
multiplication and division, while a scientific type of calculator Subtraction key
-
can be used for scientific and technical calculations also.
No special training is required to use a calculator. But it is x Multiplication key
suggested that a careful study of the operation manual of
the type of the calculator is essential to become familiar ÷ Division key
with its capabalities. A calculator does not think and do.
It is left to the operator to understand the problem, interpret = Equals key to display the result
the information and key it into the calculator correctly.
Constructional Details (Fig 1) • Function keys
 Pi key
x Square root key
% Percentage key
+/- Sign change key
x2 Square key
The key board is divided into five clear and easily recogniz
able areas and the display 1 Reciprocal key
X
• Data entry keys
The entry keys are from ..............to • Memory keys

0 9
and a key for the decimal point . M Store the display number
• Clearing keys
These keys have the letter ‘C’ M+ The displayed value is added to the memory
M- The displayed value is subtracted from the

C CLR Clear totally memory
MR RCL The stored value is recalled on to the

CE display
Clear entry only
CM , MC Clear memory
22
Further functional keys included in Scientific calculators Rules and Examples:
are as shown in Fig 2.
• Addition: Example 18.2 + 5.7
Sequence Input Display
Input of the 1st term 1 8 . 2 18.2

of the sum
Press + key + 18.2
Input 2nd term of the
sum. the first term 5 . 7 5.7
goes into the register
Press the = key = 23.9
• Subtraction: Example 128.8 - 92.9

Sin Cos Tan ( ) For trigonometric functions and
for brackets
Enter the subtrahend 1 2 8 . 8 128.8
Exp Exponent key
Press - key - 128.8
Some of the keys have coloured lettering above or Enter the minnend.
INV below them. To use a function in coloured lettering, The subtrahend goes 9 2 . 9 92.9
press INV key. INV will appear on the display. into the register
Then press the key that the coloured lettering
identifies. INV will disappear from the display. Press the = key = 35.9
• Multiplication: Example 0.47 x 2.47

log , INV 10x to obtain the logarithm of the dis-
played number and the antilogarithm of the displayed value. Enter multiplicand . 4 7 0.47
Press x key x 0.47
INV R–P to convert displayed rectangular coordinates
Enter multiplier,
into polar coordinates. multiplicand goes 2 . 4 7 2.47
to register
INV P–R to convert displayed polar coordinates into Press = key = 1.1609
rectangular coordinates.
• Division: Example 18.5/2.5
• The display
The display shows the input data, interim results and
answers to the calculations. Enter the dividend 1 8 . 5 18.5
The arrangement of the areas can differ from Press ÷ Key ÷ 18.5
one make to another. Keying in of the numbers
is done via. an internationally agreed upon set Enter the divisor
of ten keys in the order that the numbers are goes to the register 2 . 5 2.5
written. Press = key = 7.4

• Multiplication & Division: • Percentage: Example 12% of 1500
Example : 2.5 x 7.2 / 4.8 x 1.25
Enter 2.5 2 . 5 2.5
Enter 1500 1 5 0 0 1500
Press x key x 2.5
Press x key x 1500
Enter 7.2 7 . 2 7.2
Press ÷ key ÷ 18 Enter 12 1 2 12
Enter 4.8 4 . 8 4.8 Press INV % INV % 12

Press x key x 3.75
Press = key = 180
Remember:Before
input of thefirst value
under the fraction 1.25 • Square root: Example
1 . 2 5 2  35
line, the x keymust
be operated = 3.0 Sequence Input Display
Enter 1.25 Enter 2 2 2
Press = key a
Press a key 2
• Store in memory Example (2+6) (4+3)
Press + key + .
Sequence Input Display Press bracket key ( .
Workout for the first 2 2 Enter 3 3 3

bracket
+ 2 Press a key a .
6 6
Press x key x .
= 8 Enter 5 5 5
Store the first result in STO , M 8 Press a key a .
x or M+ Press bracket close key ) .
Workout for the 4 4 Press = key = 5.2871969

2nd bracket
+ 4 2 + ( 3 x 5 ) = 5.2871969
3 3
2  35  5
= 7
• Common logaritham: Example log 1.23
Press x key x 7 Sequence Input Display
Recall memory RCL or MR 8 1 . 2 3 log = 0.0899051
Press = key = 56
• Power: Example 123 + 302
1 2 3 + 3 0 INV X2 = 1023

• Before starting the calculations be sure to • Never use volatile fluids such as lacquer,
press the ‘ON’ key and confirm that ‘0’ is thinner, benzine while cleaning the unit.
shown on the display.
• Take special care not to damage the unit by
• Do not touch the inside portion of the calcu- bending or dropping.
lator. Avoid hard knocks and unduly hard
pressing of the keys. • Do not carry the calculator in your hip pocket.
• Maintain and use the calculator in between

the two extreme temperatures of 0° and 40°
C.
Assignment
771 Using calculator solve the following (389  12.2)x(842  0.05  2.6)
b  _________
a 625 + 3467 + 20 + 341 + 6278 = ______ (3.89  0.021)x(28.1  17.04)
b 367.4 + 805 + 0.7 + 7.86 + 13.49 = ______ 7 2a = 450 mm(major axis)
c 0.043 + 1.065 + 13.0 + 34.76 + 42.1 = ______ 2b = 250mm(minor axis)
d 47160 + 1368.4 + 0.1 + 1.6901 + 134.267 = Perimeter of the ellipse
_______
A = _____metre2
2 Using calculator simplify the following Hint A =  x a x b
a 24367 - 4385 = ______ unit2
b 9.643 - 0.7983 = ______ 8 ø = 782 mm
c 4382.01 - 381.3401 = ______  = 136°
d 693.42 - 0.0254 = ______ Area of the sector

A = ______
3 Using calculator find the values of the following
a 23 x 87 = ______
b 1376 x 0.81 = ______ π x d2 α
Hint A  x
c 678 x 243 = ______ 4 360
d 0.75 x 0.24 = ______ 9 d = 1.25 metre

V = ______ dm3
4 Using calculator solve the following
Volume of sphere
a 22434 ÷ 3 = ______
4 3
b 4131 ÷ 243 = ______ Hint V  πr
3
c 469890 ÷ 230 = ______
d 3.026 ÷ 0.89 = ______
10 L = 1.2 metres
5 Solve the following
B = 0.6 metre
1170x537.5 H = 0.5 metre
a = ________
13x215 '‘ (rho) density of steel
28.2 x18 x 3500 ________ = 7.85 kg/dm3'

b 
1000 x 3 x 0.8 m = ______ kg
6 Solve the following (mass ‘m = V x )
(634  128)x(384  0.52)

a  ________
8x0.3

Square root - Square and square root Exercise 1.2.08
a basic number Extracting the square root procedure
2 exponent
• Starting from the decimal point form groups of two
radial sign indicating the square root. figures towards right and left. Indicate by a prime
a 2 square root of 'a' squared symbol. 46,24.00
a2 radicand • Find the root of the first group, calculate the difference,
bring down the next group.
Square number
• Multiply the root by 2 and divide the partial radicand.
The square of a number is the number multiplied by itself.
• Enter the number thus calculated in the divisor for the
Basic number x basic number = Square number multiplication.
a x a = a2
4 x 4 = 42 = 16
If there is a remainder, repeat the procedure.

68
6 46,24
36
128 1024
1024
Splitting up
0
A square area can be split up into sub-areas. The largest
square of 36 is made up of a large square 16, a small 46,24  68
square 4 and two rectangles 8 each.
Large square 4 x 4 = 16 a2 Basic number x basic number = Square
Two rectangles 2 x 4 x 2 = 16 2ab Square number  basic number
Small square 2 x 2 = 4 b2
Example
Sum of sub-areas = 36 = a + 2ab + b2
2
The cross-section of a rivet is 3.46 cm2. Calculate the

36  a 2  2ab  b2 diameter of the hole.
Rivet cross-section is the hole cross-section.

To find ‘d’,
3.46 cm2
Given that Area = 3.46 cm2 d2 
0.785
Area = 0.785 x d2 (formula) 3.46
3.46 cm2 = d2 x 0.785 d cm
Result: In order to find the square root, we split up the 0.785
square numbers. d  2.1 cm (or) 21mm
26
Square root - Simple problems using calculator Exercise 1.2.09
1 a 2916  .
6 A = 807.77 cm2
b 45796  . d = 140 mm
D= mm
c 8.2944  .
d 63.845  .
2 A = 2025 mm2 7 a x a = 543169 mm2

a= mm
a= mm
3 A = 176.715 mm2 8 d : l = 1:1.5

d= mm A = 73.5 mm2
d= mm
4 A = 65031 mm2 9 increase in area

d = 140 mm A = 12.7%
D= mm A = 360 mm2
d= mm
(d = diameter after the
increase in area)
5 I = 58 cm
b = 45 cm
A1 = A2
a= cm
27
Square root - Applications of pythagoras theorem and related problems
Exercise 1.2.10
1 What is the side AC if AB = 15 cm, BC = 25 cm. 5 What is the value side AC if AB = 6.45 cm, BC = 8.52
AC = AB + BC
2 2 2 cm.
= 152 + 252 AC2 = AB2 + BC2
= 225 + 625 = 850 AC2 = 6.452 + 8.522

AC2 = 41.60 + 72.59
AC = 850 = 29.155 cm
= 114.19
2 What is the side BC if AB = 10 cm, AC = 30 cm.
AC = 114.19 = 10.69 cm
AC2 = AB2 + BC2
302 = 102 + BC2 6 What is the value of side AB if BC = 3.26 cm, AC = 8.24
cm.
900 = 100 + BC2
AC2 = AB2 + BC2
BC2 = 900 - 100 = 800
8.242 = AB2 + 3.262
BC = 28.284 cm
67.9 = AB + 10.63
3 What is the side AB if BC = 20 cm, AC = 35 cm. AB2 = 67.9 - 10.63
AC2 = AB2 + BC2 = 57.27
35 2
= AB + 20
2 2
AB = 57.27 = 7.57 cm
1225 = AB + 400
AB2 = 1225 - 400 = 825 7 What is the value of side AB if AC = 12.5 cm, BC = 8.5
cm.
AB = 28.72 cm
AC2 = AB2 + BC2
4 What is the value of side BC if AB = 8 cm, AC = 24 cm. 12.52 = AB2 + 8.52
AC2 = AB2 + BC2 156.25 = AB + 72.25
24 = 8 + BC
2 2 2
AB2 = 156.25 - 72.25
576 = 64 + BC 2
= 84
BC = 576 - 64 = 512
2
AB = 84 = 9.17 cm
BC = 572 = 22.63 cm
Assignment
1 What is the value of side AB, in a right angled triangle 4 What is the value of side AC, in a right angled triangle
of side AC = 12.5 cm and BC = 7.5 cm. of side AB = 7 cm and BC = 5 cm.
2 What is the value of side AC, in a right angled triangle 5 What is the value of side BC, in a right angled triangle
of side AB = 6.5 cm and BC = 4.5 cm. of side AC = 13.25 cm and AB = 8.75 cm.
3 What is the value of side BC, in a right angled triangle

of side AC = 14.5 cm and AB = 10.5 cm.
28
Ratio and proportion Exercise 1.2.11
Ratio
•
Introduction
It is the relation between two quantities of the same kind •
and is expressed as a fraction.
Expression •
a, b two quantities of the same kind. a or a:b or a  b or

b •
a in b is the ratio.
Ratio - relation of two quantities of the same kind.
Ratio is always reduced to the lowest terms. Proportion - equality between two ratios.
Example
Example
• A steel plate of 800 x 1400 mm is to be drawn to a scale

of 1:20. What will be the lengths in the Fig 1
Proportion
It is the equality between the ratios, a : b is a ratio and c:
d is another ratio. Both ratios are equal. Then
a :b :: c : d or
Example
250 : 2000 :: 1 : 8
Proportion fundamentals
If then
The reduction ratio is .
• ad = bc
B is reduced from 800 to 800 x = 40 mm.

•
L is reduced from 1400 x = 70 mm.

•
• Find the number of teeth of the larger gear in the gear
transmission shown in the Fig 2.
•
3:4::6:8 or
• 3x8=6x4
29
Speed ratio = 400 : 300 Find the ratio of A:B:C
Teeth ratio = 24:T If A:B= 2:3 and B:C=4:5
A:B = 2:3
B:C = 4:5
A:B = 8 :12 (Ratio 2:3 multiply by 4)
B:C = 12:15 (Ratio 4:5 multiply by 3)
 A:B:C = 8:12:15
Assignment
1 l1 : l2 = 2:3 5 D : d = 1.75: 1
L = 2.75 metres D = 35 mm
l1 = ______ metres d = ______ mm
l2 = ______ metres
2 d: L of shaft = 2:7 6 a:s = 5:1

d = 40 mm s = 1.5mm
L = ______ mm a =______ mm
7 A:B=9:12
3 D : L=1:10
B:C=8:10
L=150mm
Then A:B:C=___________
D=______ mm
8 A:B=5:6
B:C=3:4
Then A:B:C= ______
9 A:55=9:11
4
A = __________
I = 140 mm
h = _____ mm 10 15:9.3=40:x
x = __________

Ratio and proportion - Direct and indirect proportions Exercise 1.2.12
Proportion
Description
It is the equality between the ratios, a:b is a ratio and c:d
is another ratio. Both ratios are equal. Then
a : b::c : d or e.g. 250 : 2000::1 : 8
Rule of three
A three step calculation
statement
single
multiple.
Example
Direct proportion
Four turners finish a job in 300 hours. How much time will
The more in one the more in the other - An increase in one
6 turners take to do the same job?
denomination produces an increase in the other. (Fig 1)
Solution procedure in three steps:
Statement
4 turners taken = 300 hours
The time will reduce if 6 turners to do the same job.
Therefore this is inverse propotion.
Multiple fraction
6 Turners = 200 hours

Result - The more the less.
Problems involving both
Example
Example
4 turners earn 300 Rupees. How much will 6 Turners earn?
Statement Two turners need three days to produce 20 pieces. How
4 turners = 300 Rupees long does it take for six turners to produce 30 such pieces?
Statement
Single
2 turners, 20 piece = 3 days
1 Turner = 75 Rupees 6 turners, 30 pieces = how many days.
Multiple
6 Turners = 6 x 75 = 450 Rupees First step (Fig 3)
Result - The more the more. Statement 2 turners for 20 pieces = 3 days
1 turner for 20 pieces = 3 x 2 = 6 days
Indirect or inverse proportion
The more in one the lesser other - Increase in one quantity
Multiple 6 turners for 20 pieces = = 1 day
will produce a decrease in the other. (Fig 2)
31
Inverse proportion - The more the less. Example
Second step (Fig 4) If 5 Fitter take 21 days to complete overhauling of 6 vehicles

how long 7 Fitters will take to over haul 8 vehicles (Assume
time of overhauling each vehicle is constant)
In this both direct and indirect proportions are used.
• 1 Fitter will over haul 1 vehicle in days (shorter time).
• Quantities (No. of days) are taken in last as that is
the answer required in this case.
Statement 6 turners for 20 pieces = 1 day Ans: 7 Fitters will overhaul 8 vehicles in 20 days.
Single 6 turners for 1 piece = days
Inverse proportion
Multiple 6 turners for 30 pieces = x 30 = 1.5 days
Some times proportions are taken inversely.
Direct proportion - The more the more.
Examples
Solve the probÎem by first writing the statement • If one water pump fills the fuel tank in 12 minutes, two
and proceed to single and then to the multiple pumps will take half the time taken.
according to the type of proportion that is
involved. The time should not be doubled.
• If two pumps take 30 minutes to fill up a tank how long
Introduction
will 6 similar pumps take this to fill this tank.
Proportional fundamentals, as applicable to motor vehicle
calculations are discussed below. Ans: Time taken by 6 pumps =
Simple Proportion
Proportional parts in combustion equation
• Proportion
Introduction
This is an equality between two ratios
Proportion of quantities form an important factor in the
Examples combustion process of a fuel. The following happens during
the combustion process.
• If one vehicle fleet uses 30 litres of petrol per day how
much petrol is used by 6. Vehicles operating under Fuel is a hydro carbon substance. The combustion air is
similar condition. supplied from atmosphere and contains oxygen and nitro-
gen. Now the following chemical changes take place during
One vehicle uses petrol = 30 litres per day. combustion of a fuel.
Then six vehicles will use = 6 Times as much • Carbon burns with oxygen and forms Co and Co2
= 6 x 30 = 180 litres/day. (Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.)
• If 4 vehicles of a fleet use 120 gallons of petrol per day • Hydrogen burns with oxygen and becomes water (H2O)
how much petrol will be used by 12 vehicles operating
• Sulphur burns with oxygen and becomes sulphur
under the same condition.
dioxide.
4 vehicles use 120 gallons per day
• Nitrogen is an inert gas and does not take part in
combustion.
1 Vehicle will use = 30 gallons/day
Method of finding proportional parts in one lb of a
12 vehicles will use 12 x 30 = 360 gallons/day substance
Both examples are called simple proportion To be found out now

because only two quantities were used and the • Proportion of oxygen and hydrogen in one lb/Kg of
day is common for both ratios. water.
Compound and Inverse proportions • Proportion of hydrogen and carbon in one lb/kg of fuel.
• Compound proportions

Examples (by wt) are required for this purpose to supply sufficient
quantity of oxygen.
• The chemical formula for water is H2O. This means 2
atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen combined 2
• For complete combustion of 1kg of carbon = 2 Kgs
to make one molecule of water. If oxygen atom weighs 3
16 times as much as hydrogen find out the proportions of oxygen
in one kg of water.
• For complete combustion of 1 kg of hydrogen = 8kgs
Solution
of oxygen
Parts by weight of water are as below
• For complete combustion of 1 kg of sulphur = 1 kg
Oxygen = 16/2 = 8kg
of oxygen
Hydrogen = 1/1 = 1kg
Total = 8+1= 9kg
• Formula for calculation of mass of air for
• A hydrocarbon fuel has formula C6H14. This shows one complete combustion.
molecule of fuel contain 6 atoms of carbon and 14 Air contains 23% oxygen and 77% nitrogen
atoms of hydrogen. If the carbon atom weighs 12 times
Mass of air = Mass of oxygen x for each constituent
as the hydrogen atom, find the proportionate parts of
hydrogen and carbon in one kg of fuel.
2 100
Solution For Carbon  2   11.6kg.of air
3 23
Parts of carbon by weight
= 6 x 12 = 72 100
For hydrogen  8   34.8kg.of air
Parts of hydrogen by weight = 14. 23
Total No. of parts = 72 + 14 = 86. 100
For sulphur  1  4.35 kg.of air
23
Weight of Carbon = 72/86 = 0.8372 kg
Weight of Hydrogen 14/86 = 0.1628 kg Total 50.75 Kg
Ratio and Proportion
Hence 50.75 kg of air is to be supplied to the engine for
Proportion of air quantity required for combustion combustion of 1 kg of fuel.
process
As the combustion process is not even more
Mass of air required for complete combustion of fuel
quantity of air than 50.7 kg is to be supplied to
depends on the following factors and is called Air - fuel
the engine.
Ratio
The calculations involved in the combustion
• Carbon, Hydrogen, Sulphur are to burn with oxygen equations is beyond the scope of ITI students
in the combustion process. as it involves chemistry and physics for comput-
ing the proportions of different elements.
• It has been found that the following quantities of air

Assignment
1 Length = 6.1 metre 9 In a gearing arrangement of a vehicle a gear having 26

teeth is meshing with a gear of 52 teeth. The dia of 52
Weight = 32 kgf
teeth gear is 200mm. Find out the diameter of 26 teeth
Weight of 1 metre of gear wheel.
the same channel =
10 If two water pumps take 45 minutes to fill up a tank how
_______ kgf
long will 4 similar pumps will take to fill this tank.
11 In a belt-pulley drive the driving pulley is of 12 cm
2 d1 = 120 mm diameter and rotates at 360 rpm. Find the rpm of driven
d2 = 720 mm pulley whose diameter is 20 cm.
n1 = 1200 rpm 12 To overhaul a gear box, 12 mechanics are needed to

complete the work in 5 days. If only 7 mechanics are
n2 = ______ rpm available, how many days they will be able to complete
the overhauling work.
13 Express in simple ratios the following
3 Z1 = 42 T
n2 = 96 rpm a 45  60 b 40 paise  Rs4.00
n1 = 224 rpm
Z2 = _______ T 20mm
c d 4 C  100C
4 metres
4 14 Air contains 22% oxygen and 78% nitrogen by mass

(weight). Calculate the quantity of air (mass of air)
D = 50 mm required for complete combustion of unit mass fuel (The
H = 80 mm main constitutents that take part in combustion proc-
ess are carbon, hydrogen and sulphur)
h = 36 mm
Note: Given the following data (Solve the problem)
d = ______ mm
a 1 kg of carbon requires kg of oxygen.
5 If a mechanic assembles 8 machines in 3 days, how
b 1 kg of hydrogen requires 8 kg of oxygen.
long he will take to assemble 60 machines.
c 1 kg of sulphur requires 1 kg of oxygen.
6 In an autoshop the grinding wheel makes 1000 rpm and
the driven pulley is 200 mm dia. If the driving pulley is 15 A fuel is a hydro carbon substance of C7H14. This shows
150 mm dia. Find out the rpm of the driving pulley. each molecule of fuel contains 7 atoms of carbon and
14 atoms of hydrogen. If carbon atomic weight is 12
7 In a gearing of a vehicle the following facts are found.
times greater than hydrogen atom, find out the propor-
A 180 mm dia of gear meshes with 60mm dia gear. If the tionate parts of hydrogen and carbon in one kg of fuel.
bigger gear makes 60 rpm. What will be the rpm of
16 A vehicle worth Rs.20,000/- can be insured at a cost of
smaller gear.
Rs.150/-. How much will it cost to insure a vehicle worth
8 A vehicular job is completed by 5 mechanics in 4 days. Rs.24000/- for one year and 3 month at the same rate.
If only 3 mechanics are available, in how many days the (Compound proportion)
work can be completed.

Percentage Exercise 1.2.13
Percentage Analyse the given data and proceed to arrive at
Percentage is a kind of fraction whose denominator is the answer through the unit.
always 100. The symbol for percent is %, written after the
number. e.g. 16%. Example
16 A fitter receives a take-home salary of 984.50 rupees.
Ex.  0.16
100 If the deduction amounts to 24%, what is his total salary?
In decimal form, it is 0.16. Percentage calculation also (Fig 3)
involves rule of three. The statement (the given data), for Total pay 100%
unit, and then to multiple which is for calculating the
answer. (Fig 1)
Deduction 24%
Take home salary 76%
Example
If the take home pay is Rs.76, his salary is 100.
The amount of total raw sheet metal to make a door was 3.6
metre2 and wastage was 0.18 metre2. Calculate the % of
1
wastage. (Fig 2) For 1% it is
76
1
For Rs.984.50, it is x 984.50.
76
984.50
For 100% it is X100  1295.39
76
100% i.e. gross pay = Rs.1295.40.
Solution procedure in three steps.
Example 1
Statement: 75 litres of oil is taken out from a oil barrel of 200 litres
capacity. Find out the percentage taken in this.
Area of door (A) =3.6 m2 = 100 %.
Solution
Wastage = 0.18 m2
% of oil taken = Oil taken out (litres) / Capacity of Barrel
100 (litres) x 100
Single: 1 m2
3.6
75
 x 100  37 21 %
100 200
Multiple: for 0.18 m2= x 0.18.
3.6 Example 2
Wastage = 5%. A spare part is sold with 15%. Profit to a customer, to a
Conclusion price of Rs.15000/-. Find out the following (a) What is the
purchase price (b) What is the profit.
The three steps involved are,
Solution: CP = x,
step one : describe the situation (availability) CP = cost price
step two : decide for unit SP = sale price
step three : proceed for the multiple. SP=CP+15%of CP
15000= +
35
= Original Price = 18000 x
Profit = SP-CP = 15000-13043.47 = 1956.53 = Rs.19565

Purchase price = Rs.13,043/,Profit = Rs. 1957
Example 5
Example 3
A Motor vehicle uses 100 litres of Petrol per day when
Out of 80000 cars, which were tested on road, only 16000 travelling at 30 kmph. After top overhauling the consump-
cars had no fault. What is the percentage in this accep- tion falls to 90 litres per day. Calculate percentage of
tance. saving.
Solution
=
Percentage of saving = Decrease in consumption/Original
consumption x 100
Example 4
The price of a motor cycle dropped to 92% of original price = (100 – 90) x100
and now sold at Rs.18000/- What was the original price.
Solution =
Present price of Motor cycle Rs.18000
= 10% Saving in fuel.
This is the value of 92% of original price
Assignment
1 a = 400mm (side of 5 Weight of alloy = 140

square) Kgf
d = 400 mm Weight of Sn 40%
Wastage = ______ %. Pb = ______ Kgf
Sn = ______ Kgf.
2 d = 26mm 6 Shaded portion

= ______ %.
'a' depth of u/cut =
2.4mm
reduction of area at
cross-section
= ______ %
7 Compression length =
3 Percentage of increase ______ %.
= 36%
Value of increase
= 611.2 N/mm2
Original tensile strength
8 d = 360 mm
= ______ N/mm . 2
a = 0.707 x d
4 Copper in alloy = 27 kg Wastage = ______ %.
Zinc in alloy = 18 kg
% of Copper
= _______ %
% of Zinc = _______%.

9 Cu = 36 Kg 2 Average consumption per mile.
Zn = 24 Kg 3 Using the average consumption express maximum

consumption as a percentage of the average correct
Cu = ______ % to two decimal places. If the total petrol consump-
tion of car on 4 different journeys each of 200 miles
Zn = ______ % are found to be as 6.65, 7.5, 6.85,7.05 gallons
respectively.
10 Cu = 42.3 Kg 17 In a Transport workshop, the following expenditure was
Sn = 2.7 Kg found to be occuring on the capital income.
1 40% income spent on tyres
Cu ______ %
2 30% income spent on fuel and lubricants
Sn = ______ %.
3 10% income spent on spare parts
11 What is the selling price, If a trader buys a spare part If the month end saving comes to Rs.2000/- what is the
for Rs.195/- This is 65% of selling price. total income?
12 What is the purchase price if 25% profit is added to it, 18 What is the final weight of the machined job if a casting
If a Motor cycle tyre is sold for Rs.300/-. weighs 80kg. During preliminary machining weight is
13 How many m3 of elements of air present in 120 m3 of air, reduced by 4% and final machining by 5%.
If the composition of Air is 23% of Oxygen and 77% of 19 What is the weight of zinc, copper and tin, casting
Nitrogen. weight is 25kg. If a casting has 35% zinc, 40% copper
14 How many kg of each of these elements are found. If an and 25% tin.
Engine bearing made of alloy of 40 kg consists of the 20 What is the total weight of a solder, if solder consists
following constitutents. of 35% tin 65% lead, and tin consists 14 grams.
a Copper (Cu) - 86% 21 What is the total annual income of the salesman, if a
b Tin (Sn) - 10% salesman gets a monthly pay of Rs.1000 and a com-
mission of 2.5% on his sale. In one year sale amount
c Zinc (Zn) - 4% is Rs.60,000.
15 How much weight of these elements are found to exist. 22 What is the total income of a man, if he spends 15% of
If a solder consists of 35%. Tin and 65% Lead. In a his income on agriculture, 21% on family, 24% on
solder of 40 kg. education of children and he saves Rs.360.
16 Find out the following: 23 What is the percentage of his savings, if a person’s
1 Average consumption per journey. monthly salary is Rs.450 and saves Rs.90 every month.

Precentage - Changing percentage to decimal Exercise 1.2.14
Conversion of Fraction into Percentage Conversion of Decimal Fraction into Percentage
1 1 Convert 0.35 into percentage.

1 Convert into percentage.
2 Solution: 0.35 x 100
1 = 35%
Solution: x 100
2 2 Convert 0.375 into percentage.
= 50% Solution: 0.375 x 100
1 = 37.5%
2 Convert into percentage
11
Convert the following Decimal Fraction into Percentage
1 100 1 0.2
Solution: x 100 =
11 11
2 0.004
= 9.01%
3 0.875
Convert the following fraction into percentage. 4 0.052
1 Conversion of Percentage into Decimal fraction

1
4
1 Convert 30% into decimal fraction.
1
2 30
5 Solution: = 0.3
100
2
3 1
3 2 Convert 33 % into decimal fraction.
3
3
4 1 100
8 33
Solution: 3 = 3  100  1
Conversion of Percentage into Fraction 100 100 3 100
1 Convert 24% into fraction.
1
= = 0.333
24 6 3
Solution: =
100 25 Convert the following percentage into decimal fraction
1 1 15%
2 Convert 33 % into fraction.
3 2 7%
1 100 1
33 3 12 %
Solution: 3 = 3  100  1 2
100 100 3 100
4 90%
1
=
3
Convert the following percentage into fraction
1 15%
1
2 87 %
2
3 80%
4 12.5%
38
Material science - Types of metals, types of ferrous and non ferrous metals
Exercise 1.3.15
Types of metals Manganese steel can be used to harden the outer surface
for providing a wear resisting surface with a tough core.
The metals is of two types:
Manganese steel containing about 14% manganese is
1 Ferrous metal 2 Non-ferrous metal used for making agricultural equipment like ploughs and
blades.
1 Ferrous metals : The metals that contains major part
of iron and contain carbon sre called ferrous metals such Silicon (Si)
as pig iron, mild steel, nickel etc., they have iron properties Addition of silicon for alloying with steel improves resis-
such as rusting, magnetisations etc. tance to high temperature oxidation.
2 Non-ferrous metals : The metals that do not contains This also improves elasticity, and resistance against
iron or carbon and do not have the property of iron are called corrosion. Silicon alloyed steels are used in manufacturing
non-ferrous metals such as copper, aluminum etc. springs and certain types of steel, due to its resistance to
Ferrous and Non ferrous alloys corrosion. Cast iron contains silicon about 2.5%. It helps
in the formation of free graphite which promotes the
Alloying metals and ferrous alloys machineability of cast iron.
An alloy is formed by mixing two or more metals together Tungsten (W)
by melting.
The melting temperature of tungsten is 3380° C. This can
For ferrous metals and alloys, iron is the main constituent be drawn into thin wires.
metal. Depending on the type and percentage of the
alloying metal added, the property of the alloy steel will Due to this reason it is used to make filaments of electric
vary. lamps.
Metals commonly used for making alloy steels Tungsten is used as an alloying metal for the production of
high speed cutting tools. High speed steel is an alloy of
Nickel (Ni) 18% tungsten, 4% chromium and 1% vanadium.
This is a hard metal and is resistant to many types of Stellite is an alloy of 30% chromium, 20% tungsten, 1 to
corrosion rust. 4% carbon and the balance cobalt.
It is used in industrial applications like nickel, cadmium Vanadium (Va)
batteries, boiler tubes, valves of internal combustion en-
gines), engine spark plugs etc. The melting point of nickel This improves the toughness of steel. Vanadium steel is
is 1450°C. Nickel can be magnetised. In the manufacture used in the manufacture of gears, tools etc. Vanadium
of permanent magnets a special nickel steel alloy is used. helps in providing a fine grain structure in tool steels.
Nickel is also used for electroplating. Invar steel contains Chrome-vanadium steel contains 0.5% to 1.5% chromium,
about 36% nickel. It is tough and corrosion resistant. 0.15% to 0.3% vanadium, 0.13% to 1.10% carbon.
Precision instruments are made of Invar steel because it
has the least coefficient of expansion. This alloy has high tensile strength, elastic limit and
ductility. It is used in the manufacture of springs, gears,
Nickel-steel alloys are available containing nickel from 2% shafts and drop forged components.
to 50%.
Vanadium high speed steel contains 0.70% carbon and
Chromium (Cr) about 10% vanadium. This is considered as a superior high
Chromium, when added to steel, improves the corrosion speed steel.
resistance, toughness and hardenability of steel. Chro- Cobalt (Co)
mium steels are available which may contain chromium
up to 30%. The melting point of cobalt is 1495°C. This can retain
magnetic properties and wear- resistance at very high
Chromium, nickel, tungsten and molybdenum are alloyed temperatures. Cobalt is used in the manufacture of
for making automobile components and cutting tools. magnets, ball bearings, cutting tools etc. Cobalt high
Chromium is also used for electroplating components. speed steel (sometimes known as super H.S.S.) contains
Cylinder liners are chrome-plated inside so as to have wear about 5 to 8% cobalt. This has better hardness and wear
resistance properties. Stainless steel contains about 13% resistance properties than the 18% tungsten H.S.S.
chromium. Chromium-nickel steel is used for bearings.
Molybdenum (Mo)
Chrome-vanadium steel is used for making hand tools like
spanners and wrenches. The melting point of molybdenum is 2620°C. This gives
high resistance against softening when heated. Molybde-
Manganese (Mn)
num high speed steel contains 6% of molybdenum, 6%
Addition of manganese to steel increases hardness and tungsten, 4% chromium and 2% vanadium. This high
strength but decreases the cooling rate. speed steel is very tough and has good cutting ability.
39
Cadmium (cd) Bronze of different compositions are available for various
applications.
The melting point of cadmium is 320°C. This is used for
coating steel components. Lead and its alloys
Alloying Metals and Non Ferrous Alloys Lead is a very commonly used non-ferrous metal and has
Non-ferrous Metals And Alloys a variety of industrial applications.
Copper and its alloys Lead is produced from its ore ‘GALENA’. Lead is a heavy
metal that is silvery in colour when molten. It is soft and
Metals without iron are called non-ferrous metals. Eg.
malleable and has good resistance to corrosion. It is a
Copper, Aluminium, Zinc, Lead and Tin.
good insulator against nuclear radiation. Lead is resistant
Copper to many acids like sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid.
This is extracted from its ores ‘MALACHITE’ which con- It is used in car batteries, in the preparation of solders etc.
tains about 55% copper and ‘PYRITES’ which contains It is also used in the preparation of paints.
about 32% copper.
Properties Lead Alloys
Reddish in colour. Copper is easily distinguishable be- Babbit metal
cause of its colour.
Babbit metal is an alloy of lead, tin, copper and antimony.
The structure when fractured is granular, but when forged It is a soft, anti-friction alloy, often used as bearings.
or rolled it is fibrous.
An alloy of lead and tin is used as ‘soft solder’.
It is very malleable and ductile and can be made into sheets
Zinc and its alloys
or wires.
Zinc is a commonly used metal for coating on steel to
It is a good conductor of electricity. Copper is extensively
prevent corrosion. Examples are steel buckets, galvanized
used as electrical cables and parts of electrical apparatus
roofing sheets, etc.
which conduct electric current.
Zinc is obtained from the ore-calamine or blende.
Copper is a good conductor of heat and also highly
resistant to corrosion. For this reason it is used for boiler Its melting point is 420o C.
fire boxes, water heating apparatus, water pipes and
It is brittle and softens on heating; it is also corrosion-
vessels in brewery and chemical plants. Also used for
resistant. Due to this reason it is used for battery con-
making soldering iron.
tainers and is coated on roofing sheets etc.
The melting temperature of copper is 1083o C.
Galvanized iron sheets are coated with zinc.
The tensile strength of copper can be increased by ham-
Tin and tin alloys
mering or rolling.
Tin
Copper Alloys
Tin is produced from cassiterite or tinstone. It is silvery
Brass
white in appearance, and the melting point is 231o C. It is
It is an alloy of copper and zinc. For certain types of brass soft and highly corrosion-resistant.
small quantities of tin or lead are added. The colour of brass
It is mainly used as a coating on steel sheets for the
depends on the percentage of the alloying elements. The
production of food containers. It is also used with other
colour is yellow or light yellow, or nearly white. It can be
metals, to form alloys.
easily machined. Brass is also corrosion-resistant.
Example: Tin with copper to form bronze. Tin with lead to
Brass is widely used for making motor car radiator core and
form solder. Tin with copper, lead and antimony to form
water taps etc. It is also used in gas welding for hard
Babbit metal.
soldering/brazing. The melting point of brass ranges from
880 to 930oC. Aluminium
Brasses of different composition are made for various Aluminium is a non-ferrous metal which is extracted from
applications. ‘BAUXITE’. Aluminium is white or whitish grey in colour. It
has a melting point of 660o C. Aluminium has high electrical
Bronze
and thermal conductivity. It is soft and ductile, and has low
Bronze is basically an alloy of copper and tin. Sometimes tensile strength. Aluminium is very widely used in aircraft
zinc is also added for achieving certain special properties. industry and fabrication work because of its lightness. Its
Its colour ranges from red to yellow. The melting point of application in the electrical industry is also on the increase.
bronze is about 1005oC. It is harder than brass. It can be It is also very much in use in household heating appliances.
easily machined with sharp tools. The chip produced is
granular. Special bronze alloys are used as brazing rods.

Material science - Physical and mechanical properties of metals
Exercise 1.3.16
Metal:
Metal is a mineral used in all types of engineering works
such as machineries, bridges, aero planes etc., so we
must have basic knowledge about the metals.
Understanding the physical and mechanical properties of
metals has become increasingly important for a machinist
since he has to make various components to meet the
designed service requirements against factors, such as
the raise of temperature, tensile, compressive and impact
loads etc. A knowledge of different properties of materials
will help him to do his job successfully. If proper material/
metal is not used it may cause fracture or other forms of
failures, and endanger the life of the component when it is
put into function.
Fig 1 shows the way in which the metals get deformed
when acted upon by the same load.
Note the difference in the amount of deformation.
Physical properties of metals

Conductivity (Figs 4 and 5)
– Colour
– Weight/specific gravity Thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity are the
measures of ability of a material to conduct heat and
– Structure electricity. Conductivity will vary from metal to metal.
– Conductivity Copper and aluminium are good conductors of heat and
– Magnetic property electricity.
– Fusibility
Colour
Different metals have different colours. For example,
copper is distinctive red colour. Mild steel is blue/black
sheen.
Weight
Metals may be distinguished, based on their weights for
given volume. Metals like aluminium lighter weight (Specific
gravity 2.7) and metals like lead have a higher weight.
(Specific gravity 11.34) Magnetic property
Structure (Figs2 and 3) A metal is said to possess a magnetic property if it is
Generally metals can also be differentiated by their internal attracted by a magnet.
structures while seeing the cross-section of the bar through Almost all ferrous metals, except some types of stainless
a microscope. Metals like wrought iron and aluminium steel, can be attracted by a magnet, and all non-ferrous
have a fibrous structure and metals like cast Iron and metals and their alloys are not attracted by a magnet.
bronze have a granular structure.
41
Fusibility (Fig 6)
It is the property possessed by a metal by virtue of which
it melts when heat is applied. Many materials are subject
to transformation in the shape (i.e) from solid to liquid at
different temperatures. Lead has a low melting temperature
while steel melts at a high temperature.
Tin melts at 232°C.
Tungsten melts at 3370°C.
Mechanical properties
– Ductility
– Malleability Hardness (Fig 10)
– Hardness Hardness is a measure of a metal's ability to withstand
– Brittleness scratching, wear and abrasion, indentation by harder
bodies. The hardness of a metal is tested by marking by
– Toughness
a file etc.
– Tenacity
– Elasticity
Ductility (Fig 7)
A metal is said to be ductile when it can be drawn out into
wires under tension without rupture. Wire drawing depends
upon the ductility of a metal. A ductile metal must be both
strong and plastic. Copper and aluminium are good
examples of ductile metals.
Malleability (Figs 8 and 9)
Malleability is the property of a metal by which it can be
extended in any direction by hammering, rolling etc.
without causing rupture. Lead is an example of a malleable
metal.

Brittleness (Fig 11) Toughness (Fig 12)
Brittleness is that property of a metal which permits no Toughness is the property of a metal to withstand shock or
permanent distortion before breaking. Cast iron is an impact. Toughness is the property opposite to brittleness.
example of a brittle metal which will break rather than bend Wrought iron is an example of a tough metal.
under shock or impact.
Tenacity
The tenacity of a metal is its ability to resist the effect of
tensile forces without rupturing. Mild steel, Wrought Iron
and copper are some examples of tenacious metals.
Elasticity
Elasticity of a metal is its power of returning to its original
shape after the applied force is released. Properly heat-
treated spring is a good example for elasticity.

Material science - Introduction of iron and cast iron Exercise 1.3.17
Ferrous Metals Cast Iron (Manufacturing process)
Metals which contain iron as a major content are called The pig-iron which is tapped from the blast furnace is the
ferrous metals. Ferrous metals of different properties are crude form of raw material for the cupola, and should be
used for various purposes. further refined for making castings. This refining is carried
Introduction of Iron, Cast Iron, wrought Iron and steel out in the cupola furnace which is a small form of a blast
furnace.
The ferrous metals and alloys used commonly are:
Generally cupolas are not worked continuously like blast
• Pig-iron furnaces but are run only as and when required.
• Cast Iron Cast Iron (Types)
• Wrought Iron Cast iron is an alloy of iron, carbon and silicon. The carbon
• Steels and Alloy steels content ranges from 2 to 4%.
Different processes are used to produce iron and steel. Types of cast iron
Pig-iron (Manufacturing process) The following are the types of cast iron.
Pig-iron is obtained by the chemical reduction of iron ore. • Grey cast iron
This process of reduction of the iron ore to Pig-iron is known • White cast iron
as SMELTING.
• Malleable cast iron
The main raw materials required for producing Pig-iron are:
• Nodular cast iron
• Iron ore
Grey cast iron
• Coke
This is widely used for the casting of machinery parts and
• Flux can be machined easily.
Iron ore Machine base, tables, slideways are made of cast iron
The chief iron ores used are: because it is dimensionally stable after a period of aging.
• magnetite Because of its graphite content, cast iron provides an

excellent bearing and sliding surface.
• hematite
The melting point is lower than that of steel and as grey cast
• limonite iron possesses good fluidity, intricate casting can be
• carbonite. made.
These ores contain iron in different proportions and are Grey cast iron is widely used for machine tools because of
naturally available. its ability to reduce vibration and minimize tool chatter.
Coke Grey cast iron, when not alloyed, is quite brittle and has
relatively low tensile strength. Due to this reason it is not
Coke is the fuel used to give the necessary heat to carry used for making components subjected to high stress or
on the reducing action. The carbon from the coke in the impact loads.
form of carbon monoxide combines with the iron ore to
reduce it to iron. Grey cast iron is often alloyed with nickel, chromium,
vanadium or copper to make it tough.
Flux
Grey cast iron is weldable but the base metal needs
This is the mineral substance charged into a blast furnace preheating.
to lower the melting point of the ore, and it combines with
the non-metallic portion of the ore to form a molten slag. White cast iron
Limestone is the most commonly used flux in the blast This is very hard and is very difficult to machine, and for this
furnace. reason, it is used in components which should be abrasion-
resistant.
Properties and use of Pig-iron
White cast iron is produced by lowering the silicon content
Pig-iron is, therefore, refined and remelted and used to and by rapid cooling. When cooled in this manner, it is
produce other varieties of iron and steel. called chilled cast iron.
White cast iron cannot be welded.
44
Malleable cast iron 11.13 Types of steel
Malleable cast iron has increased ductility, tensile strength Main two types of steel are:
and toughness when compared with grey cast iron.
1 Plain steel
Malleable cast iron is produced from white cast iron by a
2 Alloy steel
prolonged heat-treatment process lasting for about 30
hours. 1 Plain steel. In this carbon and iron are mixed. Accoring
to the percentage of carbon plain steels are classified
Nodular cast iron
as:
This is very similar to malleable cast iron. But this is
A Low carbon steel
produced without any heat treatment. Nodular cast iron is
also known as: Nodular Iron - Ductile Iron - Spheroidal B Medium carbon steel
Graphite Iron C High carbon steel
This has good machinability, castability, resistance to A Low carbon steel: It is also called mild steel. In
wear, low melting point and hardness. this. the percentage of carbon is from 0.15%to0.25%.
Mealleable and nodular castings are used for machine Due to less quantity of carbon is sufficiently soft and
parts where there is a higher tensile stress and moderate tolerates the strain. It can be put in different shapes
impact loading. These castings are less expensive and are through forging and rolling. This is not very hard or
an alternative to steel castings. strong. This cannot be hardened or tempered by
ordinary methods. Nuts, bolts, rivets, sheets,
Wrought Iron (Manufacturing process) (Fig 1)
wires, T-iron and angle iron etc. are made out of it.
Wrought iron is the purest form of iron. The analysis of
B Medium carbon steel: The carbon content is from
Wrought iron shows as much as 99.9% of iron. (Fig 1)
0.25% to 0.5%. Due to excess of carbon, it is harder
When heated, wrought iron does not melt, but only becomes
and tougher than mild steel. The tenacity is more.
pasty and in this form it can be forged to any shape.
This can be hardened or tempered. Various things
are made by forging and rolling. This is used for
making high tensile tubes, wires, agricultural
implements, connecting rods, cam shafts, spanners,
pulleys etc.
C High carbon steel: It has carbon content from
0.5% to 1.5%. It is very hard and wears least. This
can be hardened by heat treatment. This can
neither be cast nor rolled. This is very hard and
tough. It acquires permanent magnetic properties.
This is used for making pointed tools, springs,
pumps, files, cutleries, cold chisels press die etc.
2 Alloy Steel
When the steel is mixed with other metals like vinoleum,
manganese tungsten etc., it is called an alloy steel. Alloy
Modern methods used to produce wrought iron in large
steel has properties of its ingredients.
quantities are the
Types of Alloy Steel
– puddling process
Two types of alloy steel are:
– aston or Byers process
A Low alloy steel
Steel
B High alloy steel
This is pure iron. Carbon content is more. Due to
excessive carbon it is harder and tougher. Carbon content A Low Alloy steel: Besides carbon other metals are
is from 0.15 to 1.5%. Besides there are other impurities in lesser quantity. Its tensile strength is more. The
like sulphur, phosphorous etc. are there which cannot be welding can work on it. This can also be hardened
separated. This is hardened and tempered by heating it to and tempered. It is used in manufacturing various
a definite temperature and cooling it in oil or water. parts of an aeroplane and cam shaft etc.
The following methods are adopted for making different B High Alloy Steel: Besides carbon it has a high
types of steel: percentage of the metals higher than low steel alloy.
This is classified into following types:
1 Cementation process 2 Crucible process
3 Bassemer process 4 Open hearth process
5 Electro thermo process 6 High frequency process.

a High Speed Steel: It is also called high tungsten and 0.4 to 0.5% carbon. It is hard and less wear. It
alloy steel because it has more quantity of tungsten. is not affected by magnet. It is used in grinders and
According to the quantity of tungsten it is classified rail points etc.
into three types:
e Stainless Steel: Along with iron it contains 0.2 to
1 Tungsten 22%, Chromium4%, Vanadium 1% 90.6% carbon, 12 to 18% chromium, 8% nickel and
2% molybdenum. It is used for making knives,
2 Tungsten 18%, Chromium 4%, Vanadium 1%
scissors, utensils, parts of aeroplane, wires, pipes
3 Tungsten 14%, Chromium 4%, Vanadium 1% and gears etc.
Cutting tools are made out of it because it is very Properties of stainless steel:
hard but becomes soft at low critical temperature.
1 Higher corrosion resistance
This temperature is raised out of cutting process of
tool, then the cutting tool becomes useless and is 2 Higher cryogenis toughness
unfit for work. But due to high percentage of
3 Higher work hardening rate
tungsten it keeps working upto high temperature. It
is used for cutting tools, drills, cutters, reamers, 4 Higher hot strength
hacksaw blades etc. 5 Higher ductility
b Nickel Steel: In this 0.3% carbon and 0.25 to 6 Higher strength and hardness
0.35% nickel is pressent. Due to nickel its tensile
strength, elastic limit and hardness is increased. It 7 More attractive appearance
does not catch rust. Its cutting resistance increases 8 Lower maintenance
6 times more than plain carbon and steel due to
0.35% nickel present in it. This is used for making f Silicon Steel: It contains 14% of silicon. Its uses
rivets, pipes, axle shafting, parts of buses and are multiferrous according to the percentage of
aeroplanes. If 5% of cobalt is mixed with 30-35% silicon. 0.5% to 1% silicon, 0.7 to 0.95% manganese
nickel, it becomes invar steel. It is mainly used for mixture is used for construction work. 2.5 to 4%
making precious instruments. silicon content mixture is used for manufacturing
electric motors, generators, laminations of
c Vanadium Steel: It contains 1.5% carbon 12.5% transformers. In chemical industries 14% silicon
tungsten, 4.5% chromium, 5% vanadium and 5% content mixture is used.
cobalt. Its elastic limit, tensile strength and ductility
is more. It has strength to bear sharp jerks. It is g Cobalt Steel: High carbon steel contains 5 to 35%
mainly used to manufacture of tools. cobalt. Toughness and tenacity is high. It has
magnetic property therefore used to make permanent
d Manganese Steel: It is also called special high magnets.
alloy steel. It contains 1.6 to 1.9% of manganese

Material science - Difference between iron & steel, alloy steel and carbon
steel Exercise 1.3.18
Difference between iron and steel: Steel Plants in India
S.No Basic Iron Steel S.No Name of the Steel plant State
distinction
1 Tata Iron Bihar
1 Formation Pure substance Made up of
iron and 2 Indian Iron Steel West Bengal
carbon 3 Visweshvaraiah Iron Steel Karnataka
2 Types Cast iron, Carbon steel 4 Bhilai Steel Plant Chattisgarh
Wrought and alloy 5 Durgapur Steel Plant West Bengal
iron and steel steel
6 Alloy Steel Plant (Durgapur) West Bengal
3 Rusting Quickly gets Have different
7 Bokaro Steel Plant Bihar
oxidised and elements that
result in rust protect from 8 Rourkela Steel Plant Orissa
rusting 9 Salem Steel Plant Tamilnadu
4 Surface Its surface Its surface 10 Vishakapatnam Steel Plant Andhra Pradesh
is rusty stays shiny
5 Usage Used in Used in
buildings,tools buildings,
and automobiles cars,
railways
and
automobiles
6 Existence Available in Has to be
nature formed
Comparison of the Properties of Cast Iron, Mild Steel and steel

Property Cast Iron Mild Steel Steel
Composition Carbon contents Carbon contents Carbon contents
from 2 to 4.5% from 0.1 to 0.25% from 0.5 to 1.7%
Strength – High – Moderate – High
compressive strength compressive strength compressive strength
– Poor tensile strength – Moderate tensile strength – High tensile strength
– Poor shearing strength – High shearing strength – High shearing strength
Malleability Poor High High
Ductility Poor High High
Hardness Moderately hard and can be Mild Hard
hardened by heating to
hardening temperature and
quenching
Toughness Possesses poor toughness Very tough Toughness varies
with carbon content
Brittleness Brittle Malleable Malleable
Forgeability Cannot be forged Can be forged Can be forged
Weldability Cannot be welded with Can be welded very easily Can be welded
difficulty
Casting Can be easily cast Can be cast but not easily Can be cast
Elasticity Poor High High
47
Ferrous metals Non Ferrous metals Difference between metals and non-metals
1 Iron content is more 1 Iron content is missing Metals Non Metals
2 The melting point is 2 The melting point is low. Shiny dull
high Usually good conductors Usually poor conductors of
3 This is of brown and 3 This is of different colours of heat and electricity heat and electricity
black colour
Most are ductile not ductile
4 This catches rust 4 This doesn’t catch rust.
Opaque (opposite of Transparent when as a thin
5 This can be 5 This cannot be ‘transparent’) sheet
magnetised magnetised
Most are malleable Usually brittle when solid
6 This is brittle in cold 6 This becomes brittle in hot
state. state. Form alkaline oxides Form acidic oxides
Sonorous (make a bell not sonorous
Difference between cast Iron and steel -like sound when struck)
Cast Iron Steel Usually have 1-3 valency Usually have 4-8 valency
electrons electrons
1 Carbon content is high Carbon content is less
Most corrode easily
2 Carbon is in free state Carbon is mixed
Usually high melting
3 Melting point is low Melting point is high points (usually solid at
4 It cannot be magnetised It can be magnetised room temperature
except for mercury)
5 Because it is brittle, In can be forged
it cannot be forged
6 It rusts with difficulty It rusts quickly
7 It cannot be welded It can be welded

Material science - Properties and uses of rubber, timber and insulating
materials Exercise 1.3.19
Properties and uses of rubber • Cannot be used for high-voltage insulation.
Rubber • Low operating temperature (as it becomes brittle and

develops cracks at a temperature of 60°C)
Rubber is an elastic material. It can be classified into
• Sulphur in rubber reacts with copper. Hence, copper
• Natural rubber wires are to be tinned.
• Hard rubber Hard rubber
• Synthetic rubber By increasing the sulphur content and prolonged
Natural rubber vulcanization, a rigid rubber product called hard rubber or
ebonite is obtained. It possesses good electrical and
It is obtained from the secretion of plants. It softens on mechanical properties.
heating, becomes sticky at 30°C and hardens at about
5°C. Uses
Sulphur is added to rubber and the mixture is heated. This It is used for battery containers, panel boards, bushing,
process is called vulcanising. By this process, stronger, ebonite tubes, etc.
harder and more rigid rubber is obtained. Further, it Synthetic rubber
becomes less sensitive to changes of temperature and
does not dissolve in organic solvents. Its oxidisation is also This is similar to natural rubber and is obtained from
minimised by increasing its weathering properties. thermoplastic vinyl high polymers. Some of the important
synthetic rubbers are:
By adding carbon black, oil wax, etc, the deformation
properties are minimised. Rubber is moisture-repellent and • Nitrite butadience rubber
possesses good electrical properties. The main disadvan- • Butyl rubber
tages of the rubber are as given under.
• Hypalon rubber
• Low resistance to petroleum oils.
• Neoprene rubber
• Cannot be exposed to sunlight.
• Silicon rubber
Sl.No. Name Properties Uses
1 Nitrite Good resilience, wear resistance, flexibility at low Automobile tyre inner tubes.
butadiene temperature, resistance to ageing, oxidation, low
rubber tensile strength, high thermal conductivity, low
hygroscopicity
2 Butyl It is attacked by petroleum oils, gases and alcoholic Used as insulation in hot and wet
solvents. It has thermal and oxidation stability and conditions, used as tapes in repair
high resistance to ozone. work.
3 Hypalon Resistance to deterioration when exposed to sunlight Used in jacketing of electric wires
rubber and temperature (up to 150°C). and cables
4 Neoprene Better resistance to ageing, oxidation and gas Used for wire insulation and cable
rubber diffusion, better thermal conductivity and flame sheating.
resistance, poor mechanical properties.
5 Silicon High operating temperature (200°C) flexibility, moisture Insulation for power cables and
and corrosion resistance, resistance to oxidation, control wires of blast furnace coke
ozone, arcing, good insulating properties and thermal ovens, steel mills and nuclear
conductivity. It is a good insulator. power stations high frequency
generators, boiler, airport lighting
cranes.
49
Properties and uses of timber Uses
General properties Soft timber
Timber should have the following properties • Because of its cheapness it is used for low grade
furniture, doors and windows for cheap type of houses.
• Straight fibres.
• Used as fuel.
• Silky lustre when planed.
• Some timbers are used for baskets and mat making.
• Uniform colour.
• The bark is used as garment is some places.
• Regular annual rings.
Hard timber
• Heaviness.
• Used for high quality furniture such as chairs, tables,
• Firm adhesion of fiber and compact modulary rays. sofas, dewans, beds, etc.
• Sweet smell. • Used for door, window frames for high quality houses as
• It should be free from loose or dead knots and shakes. they can take good polish and painting finish.
• The surface should not clog the teeth of the saw on • Used for manufacturing katha.
cutting but should remain bright. Wood as an electrical insulator
Classification Wood is impregnated with oil or other substance, for use
• Timbers are classified as as insulator.
a Softwood Example
b hardwood It is used in electrical machine windings, as slot wedges.
Softwood timber Insulating materials
• Usually all trees with needle leaves of softwood and Description
those with broad leaves are of hard-wood. These are the materials which offer very high resistance to
• The wood contains resins and turpentines. the flow of current and make current flow very negligible or
nil. These materials have very high resistance - usually of
• The wood has a fragrant smell. may megohms (1 Megohm = 106 ohms) are centimetre
• Fibres are straight. cubed. The insulators should also posseses high dielectric
strength. This means that the insulating material should
• Texture is soft and regular.
not break down or puncture even on application of a high
• Tough for resisting tensile stresses. voltage (or high electrical pressure) to a given thickness.
• Weak across the fibres. Properties of insulators
• Annual rings are distinct, having one side soft, porous The main requirements of a good insulating material are:
and light coloured. The other side is dense and dark.
• High specific resistance (many megohms/cm cube) to
• The general colour of the wood is pale tinted or light reduce the leakage currents to a negligible value.
such as pine spruce, fir, ash, kail, deodar etc.
• Good dielectric strength i.e. high value of breakdown
Properties of hardwood voltage (expressed in kilovolts per mm).
• The wood generally contains a large percentage of acid. • Good mechanical strength, in tension or compression
(It must resist the stresses set up during erection and
• It is brightly coloured.
under working conditions.)
• Annual rings are not distinct.
• Little deterioration with rise in temperature (The insulating
• It is difficult and hard to work with. properties should not change much with the rise in
temperature i.e. when electrical machines are loaded.)
• It resists shearing stress.
• Non-absorption of moisture, when exposed to damp
• Fibre are overlapped.
atmospheric condition. (The insulating properties,
• The general colour is dark brown such as oak, walnut, specially specific resistance and dielectric strength
teak, mahagony, sishim, babul, sal etc. decrease considerably with the absorption of even a
slight amount of moisture.)

Products and insulators
Insulators Uses in electric field

1 Mica In elements or winding (Slot insulation)
2 Rubber Insulation in wires
3 Dry cotton Winding
4 Varnish Winding
5 Asbestos In the bottom of irons and kettles, etc.
6 Gutta Submarine cables
parcha
7 Porcelain Overhead lines insulators
8 Glass -do-
9 Wood dry Cross arms in overhead lines
10 Plastic Wires insulation or switches body
11 Ebonite Bobbin of transformer
12 Fibre Bobbin making and winding insulation
13 Empire Winding insulation
cloth
14 Leathroid -do-
paper
15 Millimax -do-
paper
16 P.V.C. Wire insulation
17 Bakelite Switch etc. making, for insulation
18 Shellac -do-
19 Slate Making panel board
20 Paraffin Sealing
Wax

Mass, volume, density, weight and specific gravity Exercise 1.4.20
Mass Weight (Fig 2)

Mass of a body is the quantity of matter contained in a Weight is the force with which a body is attracted by the
body. The unit of mass in F.P.S system is pound (lb), in earth towards its centre. It is the product of the mass of the
C.G.S. system gram (gr) and in M.K.S and S.I systems body and the acceleration due to gravity. The weight of a
kilogram (kg). 1ton which is 1000 kg is also used sometimes. body depends upon its location.
The conversion factor is 1000. Three decimal places are
shifted during conversion.E.g.1 ton =1000 kg 1g = 1000mg.
m - mass of a body
g - acceleration due to gravity in metre/sec2 = 9.81 m/
sec 2
V - volume of the body
 - density (pronounced as `rho')
W or FG - weight or weight force
Mass (Fig 1)
weight = W or FG = mass x gravitational force

= mxg
System Absolute Derived Conversion

unit unit
F.P.S. system 1 poundal 1 Lb wt 32.2 poundals
(1 lb x 1 ft/sec2
= 1 pound)
C.G.S. system 1 dyne 1 Gr.wt 981 dynes
1 gr x 1
cm/sec2
Density
M.K.S. Newton 1 kg.wt 1 Newton =
Density is the mass of a body per unit volume. Hence its
unit will be gr/cm3 or kg/dm3 or ton/m3. S.I.system Newton Newton 1 kg x 1 m/sec2
1 kg.wt = 9.81 Newton 1 Newton = 105 dynes.

Density = ( approximately 10N)
52
Difference between mass and weight
S. No Mass Weight
1 Mass is the quantity Weight is measure
of matter in a body (ie) of amount of force
measurement of acting on mass due
matter in a body to acceleration
due to gravity
2 It does not depend on It depends on the
the position or space position, location Unit
and space The density is measured as below
3 Mass of an object will Weight of an object MKS/SI= Kg/m3, CGS - 1 gm/cm3 FPS–lbs/c ft
not be zero will be zero if gravity
Solids gm/cc Liquids gm/cc
is absent
1 Aluminum 2.7 Water 1.00
4 It is measured using It is measured using
by physical balance by spring balance 2 Lead 11.34 Petrol 0.71
3 Cast iron 6.8 to 7.8 Oxygen 1.43
5 It is a scalar quantity It is a vector quantity
4 Steel 7.75 to 8.05 Diesel Oil 0.83
6 When immersed in When immersed in
water mass does not water weight will The specific gravity of a substance is also called its relative
change change density.
7 The unit is in grams The unit is in Formula
and kilogram kilogram weight, Specific gravity
a unit of force (or) Relative density
Mass and weight are different quantities.

Mass of a body is equal to volume x density.
Weight force is equal to mass x acceleration Comparison Between Density And Specific Gravity
due to gravity. (Relative Density)
Density Relative density or
Weight , Density and Specific gravity Specfiic gravity
It is now seen that the mass of a substance is measued by Mass per unit volume of The density of substance
its weight only without any reference to volume. But if equal a substance is called its to density of water at 4°C
weights of lead & aluminium, are compared the volume of density is its relative density
lead is much smaller than volume of aluminium. So we can Its unit is gm per cu cm; It has no unit of measure-
now say that lead is more dense than aluminium,. i.e In lbs per cu.ft and kg/cubic ment simply expressed in
other words the density of lead is greater than aluminium. meter a number
(Fig 3 & 4)
Density = Relative density
Solids Sp.gy Liquids Sp.gy

1 Aluminium 2.72 Petrol 0.71
2 Lead 11.34 Battery acid 1.2 to 1.23
3 Cast iron 6.8 to 7.8 Water 1.00
4 Steel 7.82 Diesel Oil 0.83
The relation of mass and volume is called density.
From the above table, we can calculate the weight of any
The density expresses the mass of volume E.g. 1 dm3 of given volume of a substance (say Diesel oil) in any units
water has the mass of 1kg - thus the density of 1kg/dm3 provided we know the specific gravity of the substance.
(Fig 2) Also vice-versa for volume of density is known.

Related problems for mass, volume, density, weight and specific gravity
Exercise 1.4.21
1 Calculate the mass in kg of a rectangular steel plate of 1 Gr. wt. = 981 dynes
dimensions 220 x 330 x 15 mm (Fig 1) (density of
steel = 7.82 gm/cm3) 15 dynes = Gr.wt
Mass = Volume x density
Force = m x acceleration produced by the force
= 22 x 33 x 1.5cm3 x 7.82 gm/cm3
Gr.wt = mass x 2.5 cm/sec2
= 1089 cm3 x 7.82 gm/cm3
gr.cm/sec2 = mass x 2.5 cm/sec2
mass = 8.516 kg
mass = grams =
mass = 0.00612 gram

4 A force of 2 N acts on a mass of 10 kg. Find the
acceleration produced by the force on the mass.
Force = 2 N ( 1 N = 1kg.m/sec2)
Force = mass x acceleration
2 kg.metre/sec2 = 10 kg x acceleration produced
2 A storage container holds 250 litres of water. What
2 x 1 kg.metre/sec2 = 10 kg x acceleration
weight in N will this amount of water exert on the surface
produced
on which it is standing?(Fig 2)
( 1 litre of water = 1 kg of water )
acceleration produced = metre/sec2
Density of water 1 gm/cm3 or 1 kg/dm3
= 0.2 metre/sec2
5 Calculate the weight of a body having a mass of 1 kg if
the acceleration due to gravity is 9.81 metre/sec2
Weight force = mass x acceleration due to gravity
= 1 kg x 9.81 metre/sec2
(1 kg.metre/sec2 = 1 N)
9.81 kg metre/sec2 = 9.81 N
In the examples solved the value of `g' is taken
as 10 metre/sec2, unless specifically men-
tioned otherwise.
• The outside and inside diametres of a hollow sphere are

150 & 70mm respectively. Calculate its mass if the
density of material is 7.5 gm/cm3. (Fig 3)
Acceleration due to gravity is taken as 10
metre/sec2 (approximation).
Capacity = 250 litres = 250 dm3 in volume.

Mass of water = volume x density of water
= 250 dm3 x 1 kg/dm3 = 250 kg
Weight extended = mass x acceleration due to gravity
= 250 kg x 10 metre/sec2
= 2500 kg.metre/sec2 = 2500 N( 1 kg.m/sec2=1N) Mass = Volume x Density
3 A force of 15 dynes acting on a mass of `m' produces = Volume x 7.5 gm/cm3
an acceleration of 2.5 cm/sec2. Find the mass.
D= 150 mm = 15cm R= 7.5 cm
54
d = 70mm = 7 cm r = 3.5 cm
Now, density of battery acid

= Specific gravity x Density of water
= 1.3 x 1000 gm/cm3
=1587.5 cm3
= 1300 gm/cm3
Mass = 1587.5 cm X 7.5 gm/cm
3 3
Determination of specific gravity of a substance

= 11906.6 gm=11.9kg say 12kg
6 A car has a mass of 800 kg. Find out its weight force The specific gravity of a substance may be determined by
(Take 9.81 m/sec2) 1 Archemedies principle
( 1n = 1kg.m/sec2) 2 Hydrometer
The Wt. force of a car=Mass of car x gravitational
Archemedies Principle
acceleration
= 800 x 9.81 N Archemedies principle states that when a body is fully or
partially immersed in a liquid, the amount of liquid dis-
= 7848 Newtons placed by the body is equal to the loss of weight of the body
in the liquid.
7 A cylindrical tank 2m dia x 3.5 m deep is filled with
petrol. Find the weight of petrol in Tonnes, Assume Weight of a body in a liquid = total weight of the body
density of petrol 720 Kg/m3.(Fig 4) - weight of the liquid displaced by the body
This quantity if it is zero then the body will float. It is
negative the body will rise up till the weight of liquid
displaced by the immersed portion of the body is equal and
equal to the weight of the body. If it is positive the body will
sink. Specific gravity of solids soluble in water
Volume of Tank
specific gravity of solids soluble in water
3.14 x 3.5 m3 = 10.99 m3

Since 1 m3 = 1000 litres specific gravity of a liquid
Volume of Tank = 10.99 x 1000 litres
Density of petrol = 720 Kg/m3 .
Weight of Petrol in Kg =10.99x1000 litresx720Kg
The solid chosen should be such that it is
= 720 x 10990 Kg
insoluble in both water and the liquid whose
Weight of Petrol in Tonnes specific gravity is to be determined.
Example
(Metric Units)
1 An iron piece weighs 160 kgf in air and 133 kgf when
it is fully immersed in water. Determine the volume and
Weight of Petrol = 7912.8 Tonnes specific gravity of the iron piece.
8 If the battery acid specific gravity is 1.3, and this is Weight of the solid in air = 160 kgf
being filled up into a cylindrical tank. Find out its Weight of the solid in water = 133 kgf
density.
Loss of weight in water = 27 kgf
(Density of water = 1000 gm/cm3 )
By Archemedies principle the loss of weight of a solid
Specific gravity or Relative density in water = volume of water displaced.
Volume of water displaced = 27 cm3

Volume of the solid= 27 cm3 Weight of metal and wax in water = 17 kgf
Weight of metal piece only in water = 19 kgf
weight of wax in water = (17 -19) kgf
= - 2 kgf
loss of weight of wax in
water = (21 - (-2)) kgf
Specific gravity of iron piece = 5.93 = 23 kgf
2 A metal piece weighs 6.5 kgf in air and 3.5 kgf in water.
Find its weight when it is fully immersed in a liquid specific gravity of wax
whose specific gravity is 0.8 and also the S.G of the
metal.
Weight of metal piece in air = 6.5 kgf Sl.No Metal Density gm/cc
Weight of metal piece in water= 3.5 kgf
Loss of weight in water = 3.00 kgf (6.5 - 3.5) 1 Aluminium 2.7
Specific gravity of metal 2 Cast Iron 6.8 - 7.8
3 Copper 8.92
4 Gold 19.32
By applying the principle of Archemedes the above 5 Iron 7.86
results are derived.
6 Lead 11.34
By using a hydrometer also, the specific gravity of a
liquid is determined. The most common type of 7 Nickel 8.912
hydrometer is the Nicholson’s hydrometer which is a 8 Silver 10.5
variable weight but constant immersion type.
9 Steel 7.75 - 8.05
Specific gravity of a liquid
10 Tin 7.31
wt. of hydrometer+ wt. required to sink the
hydrometer in the liquid to a fixed mark 11 Zinc 7.14
------------------------------------------------------------------------- 12 Diamond 3.51
wt. of hydrometer+ wt. required to sink the
hydrometer in water up to the same mark 13 Bismuth 9.78
Let the weight of the metal piece in the liquid = W 14 Brass 8.47
loss of weight of the metal in the liquid = 6.5 kgf_W 15 Phosphrous 8.7 - 8.9
Bronze
16 Ice 0.93
17 Air 0.0013
18 Mercury 13.56
19 Petrol 0.71
w = 6.5 kgf - 3 kgf x 0.8 = 4.1 kgf 20 Diesel 0.83
loss of weight of the metal in the liquid = 4.1 kgf. 21 Kerosene 0.78 - 0.81
3 A solid of wax weighs 21 kgf in air. A metal piece 22 Water 1.0
weighing 19 kgf in water is tied with the wax solid and
both are immersed in water and the weight was found
to be 17 kgf. Find the specific gravity of wax.
Weight of wax in air = 21 kgf

Assignment
1 l = 1800 mm
7 L = 200 mm
b = 65 mm
l 1 = 75 mm
h = 12 mm
l 2 = 50 mm
 = 7.85 g/cm3
B = 80 mm
m = ______ kg
H = 110 mm
h = 45 mm
2 Capacity = 36 litres
 = 2.7 gm/cm3
d = 32 cm
m = ______ kg
H = ______ cm
8 V = 320 cm3
ρ = 8.9 gm/cm3
3 D = 74 mm
g = 9.80665
d = 68 mm metre/ sec2
l = 115 mm m = ______ kg
 = 8.6 gm/cm 3
FG = ______ N
m = ______ gms
9 Capacity = 35 litres
g = 10 metres/sec2
4 D 1 = 80 mm FG = ______ N
D 2 = 61 mm
d = 39 mm
L = 112 mm
l = 90 mm 10 (m 1 ) mass of chain
= 150 kg
 = 7.85 gm/cm3
Total FG = 8 KN
m = ______ kg
Load = ______ N
5 D = 44 mm mass m2 = _____kg
d = 20 mm
L = 120 mm
l 1 = 60 mm 11 W (FG) = 22.5 N
l 2 = 40 mm V (volume) = ______
 = 7.85 gm/cm3
m = ______ kg
6 L = 120 mm
12 F = 250 d N
B = 90 mm
b 1 = 60 mm side of cube
b 2 = 30 mm = ______ mm
d = 55 mm (cubical counter
H = 42 mm weight balances `F')
h = 18 mm
 = 7.85 gm/cm3
m = ______ kg

13 unbalanced load in 19 V = 4 dm3
the set up = 16 cN
FG = 10.8 daN
ø of balancing weight
 = ______ gm/cm3
= 20 mm
l of balancing weight
= ______ mm
14 d 1 = 40 mm 20 l = 500 mm
m 1 = 9 x 10 –2 kg b = 300 mm
r1=r2 H = 250 mm
d 2 = 60 mm  of oil = 0.9 gm/cm3
FG 2 = ______ N m = 2.5 kg
h = ______ mm
21 Engine cooling
Data given
Water in Radiator = 10
litres
Find
15 l x b = 1 m2 Mass of water =
__________ kg
FG = 7.85 x 10–2 kN
(Assume 1 litre = dm3
s = ______ mm in volume)
Density of water = 1 kg/
dm3
16
F = 400 N 22 Cylinder Liner Dimen-
sion
m = ______ kg
Data given
OD = 111 mm
ID = 103 mm
Length = 240 mm
17 m 1 = 200 gms
Material = C.I
FG = 16 N
Density of C.I = 7.259
F = ______ dN gm/cm3
Find its mass___ in kg
23 Gudgeon Pin (Solid)

Data given
18 R = 14 kN Dia = 200 mm
m = ______ kg Length = 70 mm
Material = M.S
Density = 7.85 gm/cm3
Find its mass = ___ gm

24 Data given 28 Conversion of vehicle weights
Dia = 80 mm Take g = 10 m/sec2
Length = 100 mm Weight force Mass
Density of Aluminum = a 480 Newton _______
2.7 g/cm3
b 14800 N _______
Find its Mass _______
c 2000 N _______
in kg
d 7000 N _______
25 Hollow sphere (Cast

Brass) 29 Coversion of mass of vehicle
Data given Take g = 9.81 m/sec2
O.D = 150 mm Mass of Vehicle Its weight
I.D = 120 mm a 1200 kg ________ N
Density of Brass = 6.89 b 800 kg ________ N
gm/cc c 700 kg ________ N
d 900 kg ________ N
Use Vol = ( (R3)3)
Find 30 Fill up the blanks

Mass of Hollow sphere Comparison of Metals & Liquids
= _______ kg
Material Sp.gy Density
a Lead 11.34 _______
26 Diesel Tank
b Copper 8.92 _______
Data given
c Cast Iron 7.20 _______
Diameter = 400 mm
d Petrol 0.71 _______
Depth of filling (h)
= 600 mm e Diesel 0.83 _______
Spongy of oil = 0.8 f Sulphuric

Acid 1.84 _______
Density of water = 1000
kg/dm3
Find 31 Fill in the blanks with correct statement in a & b
Mass of oil in Tank = a The density of water - 1000 kg/dm3 specific gravity
______ in kg of nitric acid = 1.2. The density of nitric acid = _____
b Material Density Specific gravity
27 Definition i Water 1000 kg/dm _______

3
Define the following term ii Aluminium 2.7 g/cm3 _______
a Mass iii Iron 8 g/cc _______
b Weight iv Copper 8.7 g/cc _______
c Density c Mass of a body = Volume x _______
d Specific gravity d Weight force = Mass x _______

e Give abbreviation for
i Mega newton _______
ii Kilo newton per square metre _______
f 1 litre of water = _______kg.

Speed and velocity - Rest, motion, speed, velocity, difference between speed
and velocity, acceleration and retardation Exercise 1.5.22
Body at rest unit = m/s2 (metre per square second)
When a body does not change its position, with respect to u = Initial velocity in metre per second(m/sec)
its surroundings, it is said to be at rest. v = Final velocity in metre per second(m/sec)
Body at motion
s = Distance in metre (m)
When a body changes its position, with respect to its
surroundings, it is said to be in motion. The motion may t = Time in second (sec)
be linear if the body moves in a straight line or it may be a = Acceleration m/sec2 (positive value)
circular when it moves in a curved path.
R = Retardation m/sec2 (negative value of acceleration)
Terms relating to motion
Equations of motion
Displacement
Then v = u + at
When a body is in motion from one place to another, the
displacement is the distance from the starting position to s = ut + at2 and v2 – u2 = 2as
the final position.
Speed v2 = u2 + 2as
It is the rate of change of displacement of a body in motion. Retardation

It has got no direction and it is a scalar quantity. When the body has its initial velocity lesser than its final
velocity it is said to be in acceleration. When the final
Speed = distance travelled per unit time velocity is lesser than the initial velocity the body is said to
be in retardation. Then the three equation of motion will be
Unit = m/s, km/Hr.mile/Hr.
v = u – at
Velocity s = ut – at2
It is the rate of change of displacement of a body in motion u2–v2 = 2as
in a given direction. It is a vector quantity and can be
Average speed
represented both in magnitude and direction by a straight
line. Velocity may be linear or angular. The unit of linear Vm - Average speed in metre/min, (metre/sec)
velocity is metre/sec,
n - Revolutions per minute or number of strokes per
minute
Velocity =
s - Distance travelled, length of stroke.
Unit = m/s, km/Hr,mile/Hr.
Stroke speed (Fig 1)
Difference between speed & velocity
For one revolution of the point k, of the crank pin the
Speed Velocity distance the power saw blade moves = 2 x s
The rate of change of The speed in a definite Therefore ‘n’ revolutions in a minute the distance = 2 x s x
place of an object is direction is called velocity. n. Since the stroke of the blade will be given in metre to
its speed. determine the average speed
In the speed, direc- Both the magnitude and di- Vm = 2 x s x n
tion is not indicated. rection are expressed.
Only the magnitude is
expressed.
Speed Velocity
Acceleration
Rate of change of velocity is known as acceleration or it is
the change of velocity in unit time. Its unit is metre/sec2. Piston speed (Fig 2)
It is a vector quantity.
As the piston moves backward and forward, its speed
constantly changes between the upper and lower dead
m/sec2 centres. Hence in this case also the average speed Vm =
60
2 x s x n. Since s is expressed in mm and n in number of Motion under gravity
revolutions/per minute and since Vm is given in metre/sec,
A body falling from a height, from rest, has its velocity goes
we have
on increasing and it will be maximum when it hits the
ground. Therefore a body falling freely under gravity has a
Vm = 2 x s x metre/min. uniform acceleration. When the motion is upward, the
body is subjected to a gravitational retardation. The
acceleration due to gravity is denoted with ‘g’.
=
Momentum
It is the quantity of motion possessed by a body and is
equal to the product of its mass, and the velocity with which
it is moving. Unit of momentum will be kg metre/sec.
Momentum = mass x velocity
Newton’s laws
First law
Every body continues to be in a state of rest or of uniform
motion in a straight line unless it is compelled to change
that state of rest or of uniform motion by some external
force acting upon it.
If s is given in metres then Second law

The rate of change of momentum of a moving body is
Vm = 2 x s x =sx metre/sec. directly proportional to the external force acting upon it and
takes place in the direction of the force.
2 x s denotes a double stroke.
Third law
In case of the reciprocating motion the average
speed is taken into account for calculations. To every action there is always an equal and opposite
reaction.
Vm = 2 x s x n metre/min if s is given in metres
In the rivet joint equal forces act on the strap and they
Example (Fig 3) opposite force F2. (Fig 4)
An extrusion press has a crank radius of 20 cm and an rpm
of 30/min. Calculate the average speed in metre/min,
metre/sec.
s = The diameter = 40 cm.
One crank revolution makes the piston to travel in 2s=80cm
Vm = 2 x 400 x metre/min.
= 24 metre/min = 0.4 metre/sec Law of conservation of momentum

When two moving bodies have an intentional or uninten-
tional impact, then sum of the momentum of the bodies
before impact = sum of the momentum after impact, or the
change in momentum after the impact is zero.
m1 - mass of one body and
v1 - velocity with which it moves
m2 - mass of second body
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
v2 - velocity with which it moves
Equations of motions under gravity
Momentum = m x v= mass of the body x its velocity
Upward Downward
Rate of change of momentum = force acting on the body
V = u – gt v = u + gt
s = ut – gt2 s = ut + gt2
u2–v2 = 2gs v2–u2 = 2gs force = mass x acceleration

Momentum of two bodies before impact = momentum after
impact
m1 x v1 + m2 x v2 = (m1 + m2)V
Terms - Some Examples in vehicles
Displacement
The piston displacement is the space between 2 dead
centres (TDC and BDC) where in the piston moves in the
cylinder. (Fig 5)
Example
In circular motion bodies (like shafts, axles, gear-wheels,
pulleys, flywheels, grinding wheels) turn with constant
speed around its axis.
The angular of circular motion is also called Angular
velocity or Peripheral speed.
Expressed in Metre/sec or Radians per second.
Bodies at rest and in motion
Speed Terms related to brake system
This is reckoned in 2 ways in a vehicle Every vehicle has a brake system. When brakes are
– Vehicle speed in kmh/mph applied on a moving vehicle (with certain velocity) its
velocity is reduced and vehicle is decelerated and it stops
– Engine speed in rpm at a certain distance. So the definition of the terms related
Velocity to Brake application are set forth below.
A motor vehicle, normally changes its speed and direction Deceleration (a) (Fig 8)
on road. Hence used in velocity calculation.
Acceleration (Fig 6)
When the speed of the vehicle is increased on road, it is
said to be accelerated.
Deceleration (Fig 6)
Deceleration or Retardation (this is further explained)
During the application of brakes of a vehicle the speed of the
vehicle is decreased. Then it is said to be decelerated or
retarded.
This is the decrease in velocity within a certain time. e.g

A car travelling at 90 kmph stops after 10 Sec.
The deceleration = 90 x x 1/10
= 25 m/s/10 sec
= 2.5 m/sec2
Deceleration time
Circular or Angular motion (Fig 7) The time 10 seconds is called the above time to stop the
When a body rotates about an axis, it is said to have vehicle.
angular motion or circular motion.

Stopping distance Bodies at rest or in Uniform motion
During the deceleration time the car travels a distance The diesel engine piston remains at rest at TDC or BDC due
called i.e Stopping distance ‘d’. to its inertia. Expansion of gas pressure or flywheel
momentum moves the piston from TDC or BDC.
But the total stopping distance is reckoned as equal to
normal stopping distance and distance travelled by the car Second law (with examples) (Fig 10)
during reaction time of the driver.
The rate of change of momentum of a moving body (say
The reaction time is explained as below Engine part or Vehicle)is directly proportinal to external
force acting take place in the direction of force.
During the application of brakes, the driver takes sometime
to recognise the danger and then apply the brakes. The – A connecting rod in motion is brought to rest at BDC.
time (thus elapsed) is called reaction time. During this time – The direction of movement of a vehicle is altered by force
the vehicle travels some more distance before coming to a of wind.
stop. So the total stopping distance actually varies due to
– When a vehicle travels in a down gradient its speed
the reaction time of the driver and it is longer than the
increases.
normal stopping distance. The reaction time varies be-
tween driver to driver. – The speed of vehicle is decreased when travelling up
gradient.
Example
A car is travelling with a speed of 72 kmph and its
acceleration (a) = 5 m/sec2. The reaction time of driver to
apply brakes is 1.5 seconds. calculate the total stopping
distance.
Solution
Velocity of car = 72 kmph Third law (with examples) (Fig 11&12)
= 20 m/sec
acceleration = 5 m/sec2
Normal stopping distance S = (m)
Total stopping distance

= 40 metre + Velocity x Reaction time
= 40 m + (20 x 1.5) m
= 70 metres.
Newon's Law of Motion
Some Examples in vehicles
First law (with examples) (Fig 9)
To every action there is always an equal and opposite

reaction.
All upward force = All downward forces
– Jack is lifting a differential
– Crane rope is lifting an engine.

Related problems on speed & velocity Exercise 1.5.23
Examples Time taken = 1 sec (t)
• A body travels a distance of 168 metres in a straight line
in 21 secs. What velocity the body is travelling. = ut + gt2 0 x 1 sec= x 9.81 m/sec2 x 12 sec
Velocity = distance travelled/time
= 168 metre / 21 sec = 0 x 1 sec + x 9.81 metre/sec2 x 1 sec2
= 8m/sec
1 Sec2 = 4.905 metres. s = 4.905 metres
• A train covers a distance of 150 kilometres, between
• A force of 30 N acts on a body at rest. The mass
two stations, in 2 1/2 hours. Determine the average
of the body is 50 kg. Determine the velocity of the body
velocity with which the train is moving.
after 4 secs, the distance it covers during that period
Average velocity = Distance travelled/time taken and the acceleration
150 2 F=mxa
 150 
= 150 Km/2 1/2 hrs = 5 5 Km/hr 30 N = 50 kg x a
2 3 kg x metre/sec2 = 50 kg x a
= 60 Km/hr
 acceleration = 3/50 metre/sec2
• A vehicle accelerates uniformly from a velocity of 8 km/
= 0.06 metre/sec2 a = 0.06 m/sec2
hr to 24 km/hr in 4 secs. Determine the acceleration
and the distance travelled by it during that time. v = u + at
Initial velocity = 8 km/hr (u) = 0 + 0.06 metre/sec2 x 4 sec = 0.24 metre/sec

s = ut + 1/2 at2 = 0 + 1/2 x 0.06 metre/sec2 x 16 sec2
Final velocity = 24 km/hr (v)
= 0.48 metre s = 0.48 metre
time = 4 sec (t) acceleration (a)
• A stone is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity
v = u + at
of 120 metre/sec. Determine (a) the maximum height
24 km/hr = 8 km/hr + a x 4 sec to which it travels before starting to return to earth. (b)
(24km/hr - 8km/hr - 16km/hr) The total time taken by the stone to go up and come
down. (c) The velocity with which it will strike the
 4a sec = 16 km/hr = 16000 metre/3600 sec ground.
 acceleration (a) = 16000 metre/3600 x 4 sec2 Initial velocity of throw = 120 metre/sec (u)
4a = 4.44
Final velocity = 0 metre/sec (v) (taken g = 10 m/sec2)
Acceleration (a) = 1.1 metre/sec 2
Retardation due to gravity = 10 metre/sec2
Distance travelled (4a) = 4 x 1.1m = 4.4 m
u2–v2 = 2g.s
• A car moving with a velocity of 50 km/hr is brought to
rest in 45 secs. Find out the retardation.  1202 metre2/sec2 – 0 = 2 x 10 metre/sec2 x s
Initial velocity = 50 km/hr (1km= 1000 metres)

 s = 120 x120/2 x 10 metre =
Final velocity = 0 km/hr (1 Hour = 3600 seconds)
Time = 45 secs = 720 metre
5 when it comes down its velocity at start = 0 metre/sec.
v = u – at 50km/hr x m/sec  13.88 m/sec
18
0 = u – at The acceleration due to gravity = 10 metre/sec2 and the
v 13.88 m/sec 2 distance travelled = 720 metre
a   0.3m/sec
u = at t 45 sec
 v2– u2 = 2as v2-0 = 2x 10 m/sec2 x 720 m
50000/3600 metre/sec = a x 45 sec
v2– 0 = 2 x 10 x 720 metre2/sec2
Retardation = 50000/3600 x 45 metre/sec2
= 0.30 metre/sec2  v = 120 metre/sec
• A body falling freely under the action of gravity reaches Time taken to go up and reach a velocity of 0 metre/sec
the ground in one second. Determine the height from = u/g = 120 metre/sec/10 metre/sec2 = 12 sec.
which the body fell. Take g = 9.81 metre/sec2. Time taken to start from rest and attain a velocity of 120
Initial velocity = 0 metre/sec (U) metre/sec = v/g = 12 sec.
Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 metre/sec2 (g)  Total time taken = 24 sec.
64
• Calculate the Angular velocity in radian/second of Since wheel turns 120° angle, 120° = 120 x 2/360
an engine flywheel when it is rotating at 2800 rpm.
= 2.094 radians
(Fig 1 & 2)
Distance moved by a point on tyre S – re
Angular velocity (W) = This is the rate of change of
displacement or angle turned through per unit time. [where r = 270 mm
Solution  = 2.094 radian]
Angular velocity of flywheel W= 2N/60 rad/sec. S = 270 x 2.094 mm
[N = 2800 rpm] = 565.38 mm
= 2 x 2800/60 radian/sec. Circumferential distance moved by the point = 565.38
= 293.3 radian/sec. mm
• The rear wheels of a car have diameter of 600 mm. The

rear axle makes 250 rpm. Find out the peripheral speed
of rear wheels in m/sec.
Solution
πdN 1
Peripheral speed V =  (m/s)
1000 6
3.14  600 250

   7.85 m/sec
60 1000
• Calculate the stopping distance of a car travelling with
a speed of 72 km/h and being accelerated with
a - 5 m/ sec2.
Solution
Va (initial speed of a car) = 72 kmph
1000 5
(1 kmph  m/sec)  72 m/sec
3600 18
• A motor car road wheel of dia 540 mm turns through an = 20 metres/sec
angle of 120°. Calculate the distance moved by a point Va 2
on tyre thread of the wheel. Stopping distance S = (metre)
2a
Solution
20 2 400
There are 2 radians in one turn of wheel. i.e 2 radians  
25 10
= 360°
 40metre

Assignment
1 S = 180 mm 7 Vm = 0.35 metre/sec
n = 65 (double stroke) s = 200 mm
Vm = _____metre/min n = ______ rpm
Vm is average cutting
speed)
8
2 V = 16 metre/min s = 650 mm
s = 210 mm Vm = 90 metre/min
n = ______ n = ______ rpm
9 Vm1 = 5.2 metre/sec

Increased to
(V is the cutting speed) Vm2= 6.3 metre/sec
3 n = 22 strokes (Double Increase in n (rpm) = ______ %
stroke)/min
10 s = 250 mm
V = 18 metre/min
n = 45 (double
s = ______ mm strokes)
V = ______metre/min
4 s = 240 mm 11 Is : Vm = 25 : 1
n = 30 (working stroke) n =_____(double
V = ______ metre/min strokes)
Is = rack travel
Vxm = stroke speed/
min
5 n = 50 cutting strokes
V = 32 metre/min
12 Vm = 10 metre/min.
d = ______ mm
n = 12.5 / min.
Rack travel = ______
6 s = 64 mm
n = 3600 rpm
13 dia of crank = 100 mm
Vm = _____metre/sec
Rack
Vm is the average
piston speed) speed = 12 metre/min
Crank disc 'n'' = _____
rpm

14 spindle 'n' = 250 rpm 20 Car wheel
Average stroke speed n = 720 rpm
= 30 metre/min
Peripheral speed
stroke length = = 18.84 m/sec
________mm
d = ________
21 Angular speed
n = 2000 rpm
15 Car Speed = 90 km/hr
Angular velocity
Time to stop = 10 sec = _______ radians/sec
Deceleration Use
= ________ metre/
sec2 W = 2N/60 rad/sec
22 Piston Velocity/Speed
16 Car speed = 80 km/hr S = 74 mm
Distance stopped = 60 n = 4500 rpm
metre
Mean velocity =
Deceleration of car _______ m/sec
=________ metre/sec2
Maximum velocity =
_______ m/sec
17 Deceleration = 4.5 m/ (Average Speed of
sec2 Piston)
Stopping distance = 50
metres V2
23 Total Stopping Distance   velocity  reaction time
2a
Velocity of car
=________ km/hr (Use = V2/2a)
V = Vehicle speed = 80 km/hr
18 Distance travelled by Deceleration = 5m/sec2
car = 600 km Reaction Time of driver = 2 seconds
Time = 8 hrs 20 min Total Stopping Distance = _______ meter
Average velocity
= ________ km/hr
19 Average velocity
= 56.3 km/hr
Distance travelled
= 464.475 km
Travelling time
= ________ hrs

Work, power, energy, HP, IHP, BHP and efficiency Exercise 1.5.24
Work(Fig 1) CGS = 1 gm x 1cm/second2
Work is said to be done by a force, when it moves, its point = Dyne
of application through a distance. Applied force ‘F’ moves
a body through a distance’s. MKS = 1 kg x 1m/second2
Work done ‘W’ = F x s. = Newton.
The S.I. unit of work is 1 joule which is the work done by a 1 Newton = 105 dynes
force of moving the body through a distance of 1 metre. 1kg wt = 9.81N
Therefore joule = 1 N x 1 metre = 1 Nm 1 pound = 4.448N,
Also 1 joule = 1 Nm = 105 dynes x 100 cm = 107 dynes cm Newton = 0.225 pound.
= 107 ergs.
Absolute units
In C.G.S. system unit of work = 1 erg = 1 dyne x 1 cm
In F.P.S system unit of work = 1 Foot poundal = 1 poundal
x 1 foot
In M.K.S. system unit of work = 1 joule = 1 Newton x 1
metre
Derived units
C.G.S. system 1 Gm Wt x 1 cm = 981 ergs.
F.P.S. system 1 ft LB = 981 foot poundal
M.K.S. system 1 kgf metre = 981 joule.
F - force or weight force in N Power(Fig 2)
s - distance the body on which force acts is moved in It is the work done in unit time.
metres
t - time in seconds
v - speed in metre/sec
w - work done by the force in joules
P - Power in Watts
Pout - Power output
Pin - Power input
Force
A Force is that which changes or tends to change the state
of rest or motion of a body.
Force = Mass x Acceleration
F = Ma
Unit
F =Mxa
= kg x m/sec2
= 1 Newton (SI unit)
(Newton: If 1 kg of mass accelerates at the rate which is equal to 1 Watt. Power in watts = w/t = F.s/t
of 1m/sec2 then the force exerted on the mass =FxV
is 1 newton)
In M.K.S. system the unit is 1 kgf meter/sec. One horse
FPS = 1 pound x 1 Feet/second 2 power is = 75 kg metre/sec or 4500 kgf metre/min.
= 1 pound
68
1HP (metric) = 735.5 Watts
power output
1HP (British) = 746 Watts = 0.746 KW efficiency   100%
power input
1 KW = 1.34 HP
Energy
Power input is the power given to a machine to do work.
The energy of a body is its capacity to do work. It is equal
Power output is what we get out of the machine. Power
to power x time. Hence the unit of energy is the same as
output is always less than power input due to friction in the
the unit of work in all systems.
machine. The ratio between power output to power input
is efficiency of the machine and it is expressed in Forms of energy
percentage.(Fig 3)
Mechanical energy, Electrical energy, Atomic energy,
Heat energy, Light energy, Chemical energy, sound en-
ergy. Energy of one form can be transformed into energy
of another form.
Law of conservation of energy
– The energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
– Total energy possessed by a body remains the
same.(Fig 4)
Depending upon the position of the body or body in motion,
power output mechanical energy possessed by the body may be
efficiency   100%
power input potential energy or kinetic energy respectively.
Indicated Horse Power and Brake Horse Power

The power actually generated by the engine or generator is
the indicated horse power which is indicated on the plate.
The Brake horse power is the power available to do useful
work. B.H.P is always less than I.H.P. due to losses to
overcome frictional resistance.
B.H.P
 mechanical efficiency   100%
I.H.P
Work done by a force = Magnitude of the force x distance
moved by the body
Power = Total work done / total time taken

Assignment
1 m= 55 kg 7 d = 3 metre
a) s = 1.82 metres H = 2 metre
W = ______ joules
t = 20 minutes
b) s = 1.40 metres
W= ____ joules s = 6 metres
c) s = 0.85 metres P = ______ kW
W =Joules Water filled in the

tank. s is the pumping
2 t = 8 secs height
a) P = _____ Watts 8 d = 200 mm
b) P = _____ Watts n = 750 rpm
c) P = _____ Watts F = 700 N

P = _____ kW
3 W = 1312.5 Joules
m = 350 kg 9 P input = 4 kW
s = _____ metres P output

= 3450 Joules/sec

10 Volume of water
4 m = 75 kg
‘V’ = 10 metre3
s = 100 metres H = 18 metres
t = 12 secs t = 20 sec
W = ______ Nm 
P = ______ Watts P output
= ______ kW
11 d = 225 mm
5 V = 1 m3/min s = 450 mm
H=2m Piston pressure
‘P’ = 4.5 bar
= 0.75
V = 2.5 metre/sec
Power input = ______
(piston speed)
kW

Power input
= _____ kW
6 P = 12 kw
12
s = 4 metres
‘V’ of water pumped
t = 20 secs
= 3 metre3/min
m = ______ kg
H = 6 metre
 = 0.8
Power input
= ______ kW

Potential energy, kinetic energy and related problems
Exercise 1.5.25
Potential energy P.E = 10 kg x 9.81 metre/sec2 x 1.4 metre (Fig 1)
Potential energy is the energy possessed by a body by = 137.3 N metre ( 1N = 1kg.m/sec2)
virtue of its position. A body of mass ‘m’ kept at a height
‘h’ from a datum possesses a potential energy of mgh or
Wh or Fh; where W or F are the Weight force. When the K.E = x 10 kg x 5.242
body is allowed to fall it will be able to do a useful work of
Fh. = 137.3 N metre.
Example
• Water stored in a Tank
• Coil Spring.
Kinetic energy
It is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion.
If a body of mass ‘m’ starting from rest attains a velocity of
‘v’ after covering a distance of ‘s’, by the action of an applied
force ‘F’, then work done on the body=F x s But F= m x a.
Therefore work done on the body = m x a x s.
V2
But a x s = because the body is starting from rest.
2
Examples
1 2
Therefore Work done on the body = mv . • A pulley is used to lift a mass with a force of 900 N to
2
a height of 10 metres in 2 minutes. Find the work done
Since work done on the body = The energy possessed by
by the force and also the power.(Fig 2)
the body
1 2
Kinetic Energy = mv .
2
Energy possessed by a body = work done on the body
Potential energy = mgh

1
Kinetic energy = mv2
2
If friction is neglected potential energy = Kinetic energy
Example
• Rolling vehicle
Work done = F x s = 900N x 10 metre
• Rotating fly wheel
= 9000 Nm = 9000 joules.
• Flowing water
• Falling weight Power
Potential energy
Hammer head drops from height ‘h’ . m = 10 kg.
h = 1.4 m.
metre
u0
sec • Determine the horse power required to drive a lift in
raising a load of 2000 kgf at a speed of 2 metre/sec, if
V2 = 2 gs the efficiency is 70%.
V2 = 2 x 9.81 x 1.4
Useful workdone to raise the lift in 1 sec
V2 = 27.468 Force = 2000 kgf
V2 = 5.24 m/sec Work = F x d
71
F  d 2000  2
Power  
t 1
= 4000 w
Power output = 4000 w
Power input = Power output
4000
  5714 w
0.7 K.E.developed by a vehicle during acceleration
Output • A motor vehicle of 1200 Kg mass is being accelerated
  100%
Input from 36 km to 48 km/hr speed. Calculate the increase
in K.E during its acceleration.
5714
HP   7.659  7.6 HP Solution
746
Power input = 7.6 HP Mass of motor vehicle= 1200 kg
K.E. of the vehicle at 36 km/hr speed
• A mass of 100 gm is allowed to fall from a height of 10
metres. Determine the amount of Kinetic energy
gained by the body. (Take the value of g as 10 metre/ = x 1200 x 362J KE= mv2 J
sec2
Since initial velocity is 0 and distance travelled is 10
metres. final velocity2 v= 36km/hr =36 x = 10m/sec
=V2 = 2 x g x s = 2 x 10x10 metre2/sec2

K.E of the vehicle at 48 km/hr speed
1 2 1 2 2
 K.E  mv   100 gm  200 metres /sec = x 1200 x 482J ( 1kg.m/sec2 = 1N)
2 2
2 2
 10000 gm metre /sec ( 1Nm = 1J)
7
 10  10 ergs
 10 Joules. v= 48 km/hr =48 x= m/sec
K.E. developed by the vehicle at a constant speed

KE = x1200 x 10 x10=60000J
• A motor vehicle of one tonne is travelling at 60 km/hr.
Calculate K.E of the vehicle at this speed.
1 KE = x1200 x x =106666.67 J
K.E of the vehicle = mv2
2
Increase in K.E of the vehicle = 106666.67 J - 60000J
Where m = one tonne or 1000 kg = 46666.67 J
= 46.666 KJ.
v = 60 km/hr
Workdone in vehicle operation
Solution
The Mechanical Work performed by the motor vehicle for its
Changing v into meter/sec we get,
propulsion on road can generally be classified into two
major categories of work done.
( 1km = 1000m)
– Workdone by the IC engine in developing full power
( 1hour = 3600sec) under all condition of speed and load.
– Workdone by the motor vehicle in performing different
operations on road like hill climbing/acceleration/braking/
towing and reversing operation.

Heat & Temperature - Concept of heat and temperature, effects of heat,
difference between heat and temperature, boiling point & melting point of
different metals and non-metals Exercise 1.6.26
Heat Calorific value: The amount of heat released by the

complete combustion of unit quantity of the fuel (Mass or
It is a form of energy. Heat energy can be transformed into
volume) is known as calorific value of fuels.
other forms of energies. Heat flows from a hotter body to a
colder body. (Fig 1) Water equivalent
It is the mass of water which will absorb the same amount
of heat as the given substance for the same temperature
rise. Water equivalent = Mass of the substance x specific
heat of the substance.
Therefore water equivalent = ms
Types of heat
1 Sensible heat and
2 Latent heat
1 Sensible heat
Sensible heat is the heat absorbed or given off by a
Units of heat
substance without changing its physical state. It is
Calorie: It is the quantity of heat required to raise the sensible and can be obsorbed by the variation of temperature
temperature of 1 gram of water through 1°C. in the thermometers.
BTHU: It is the quantity of heat required to raise 1 lb of water 2 Latent heat
through 1°F. (British thermal unit).
The heat gained or given by the substance during a change
C.H.U; It is the quantity of heat required to raise 1 lb of of state (from solid to liquid to gas) is called latent heat or
water through 1°C. hidden heat. The heat absorbed or given off does not cause
any temperature change in the substance.
Joule : S.I. Unit (1 Calorie = 4.186 joule)
Types, 1. Latent heat of fusion of solid
Effects of heat
2. Latent heat of vaporisation of solid.
• Change in temperature
1 Latent heat of fusion of solid
• Change in size
The amount of heat required per unit mass of a substance
• Change in state
at melting point to convert it from the solid to the liquid state
• Change in structure is called latent heat of fusion of solid. Its unit is cal/gram.
• Change in Physical properties Latent heat of fusion of ice
Specific heat The amount of heat required to convert per unit mass of the
The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one ice into water at 00C temperature is called latent heat of
gm of a substance through 10C is called specific heat. It fusion of ice.
is denoted by the letter ‘s’. Latent heat of fusion of ice(L) = 80 cal/gram
Specific heat of water =1 2 Latent heat of vapourisation of liquid
Aluminium = 0.22 The amount of heat required to vaporise a unit mass of liquid
Copper = 0.1 at its boiling point is called latent heat of vapourisation.
Iron = 0.12 Latent heat of vaporisation of water or latent heat of
Thermal capacity: steam
It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of The amount of heat required to convert into steam of a unit
a substance through 10C is called the thermal capacity of mass of water at its boiling point (1000C) is called latent
the substance. heat of vaporisation of water or latent heat of steam.
Thermal capacity = ms calories. Latent heat of steam(L) = 540 cal/gram
73
Temperature
It is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. The
temperature is measured by thermometers.
Difference between heat and temperature
Heat Temperature
1 It is a form of energy. This tells the state of heat.
2 Its unit is calorie. Its unit is degree.
3 Heat is measured by calorimeter. Temperature is measured by thermometer.
4 By adding quantity of heat of two substances their By adding two temperatures we cannot find the
total heat can be calculated. temperature of the mixture.
5 By heating a substance the quantity of heat is Two substances may read the same temperature though
increased regardless of increase in temperature. they might be having different amount of heat in them.
Boiling point Melting point

Any substance starts turning into a gas shows the The temperature at which any solid melts into liquid or
temperature at which it boils this is known as the boiling liquid freezing to solid is called the melting point of
point. The boiling point of water is 1000C. substance. ` The melting point of ice is 00C.
List of melting point and boiling point of metals and Non -metals
Metals and Melting Boiling Metals and Melting Boiling

Non-metals point °C point °C Non-metals point °C point °C
Aluminium 660.25 2519 Manganese 1246 2061
Argon -189.19 -185.85 Mercury -38.72 357
Arsenic 817 614 Molybdenum 2617 4639
Barium 729 1897 Nickel 1453 2913
Beryllium 1287 2469 Nitrogen -209.86 -195.79
Bromine -7.1 58.8 Oxygen -226.65 -182.95
Cadmium 321.18 767 Phosphorus (white) 44.1 280
Calcium 839 1484 Plutonium 640 3228
Carbon (diamond) 3550 4827 Potassium 63.35 759
Carbon (graphite) 3675 4027 Radium 700 1737
Chlorine -100.84 -34.04 Silicon 1410 3265
Cobalt 1495 2927 Silver 961 2162
Copper 1084.6 2562 Sodium 98 883
Gold 1064.58 2856 Sulfur 115.36 444.6
Helium - -268.93 Tin 232.06 2602
Hydrogen -259.98 -252.87 Titanium 1660 3287
Iodine 113.5 184.3 Tungsten (wolfram) 3422 5555
Iridium 2443 4428 Uranium 1132 4131
Iron 1535 2861 Zinc 419.73 907
Lead 327.6 1749
Lithium 180.7 1342
Magnesium 650 1090

Heat & Temperature - Scales of temperature, celsius, fahrenheit, kelvin and
conversion between scales of temperature Exercise 1.6.27
Temperature Scales 2 Convert -400 C into 0F
Temperatures are caliberated between two fixed reference
F  32
0 0
C
points namely the freezing point of water, and the boiling 
point of water. These two fixed points on different tempera- 180 100
ture scales are: 0
C
F  32   180
0
Scale Freezing point Boiling point
100
Centigrade (°C) 0°C 100°C
 40
F  32   180
0
Fahrenheit (°F) 32°F 212°F
100
Kelvin (K) 273°K 373°K
F - 32 = -72
Reaumur (°R) 0°R 80°R
°F = -72 + 32
Heat is a form of energy. Temperature is the
= -400F
degree of hotness or coldness of a body. The
relationship for conversion from one tempera- -400C = -400F
ture scale to the others is
3 Convert 370 C into K
K  273 F  32
0 0 0 0
R C
   0
C
0
K  273
80 100 100 180 
100 100
°K-273 = C
°K = C + 273
°K = 37 + 273
= 310 K
37 C = 310K
0
4 Convert 700 C into Reaumer

0 0
C R

100 80
1 Convert 00 C into 0F
C
R  80
0
F  32
0 0
C 100

180 100
70
R  80  56
0
0
C 100
F  32   180
0
100
700C = 560R
0
F  32   180
0
100
°F = 0 + 32
= 320F
00C = 320F
75
5 Convert -250 F into 0C 6 Convert 98.60 F into 0C
F  32 F  32
0 0 0
C
 C  100
0
100 180 180
C  25  32 98.6  32
 0
C  100
100 180 180
- 57 66.6
C  100
0
  100
180 180
 285
0
C  31.66 6660
  37 C
0
9
180
- 250F = -31.70C
98.60F = 370C
Assignment
Convert the following

1 10.50C = ___0F 13 4280F = ___0C
2 400C = ___0F 14 -2100F = ___0C
3 600C = ___0F 15 880F = ___0C
4 800C = ___0F 16 1100F = ___0C
5 1050C = ___0F 17 720F = ___0C
6 1000C = ___0F 18 500F = ___0C
7 -800C = ___0F 19 9000F = ___0C
8 2000C = ___0F 20 720R = ___0C
9 6050C = ___0F 21 1430C = ___K
10 12500C = ___0F 22 3730K = ___0C
11 770F = ___0C 23 7460K = ___0F
12 200F = ___0C 24 At what temperature will the reading of a fahrenheit

thermometer be double of a centigrade one.

Heat &Temperature - Temperature measuring instruments, types of
thermometer, pyrometer and transmission of heat - Conduction, convection
and radiation Exercise 1.6.28
Measuring heat energy • Ear thermometers (tympanic)
Energy can be released in chemical reactions as light, • Forehead thermometers (temporal)
sound or electrical energy. But it is most often released as
• Digital thermometers
heat energy. This allows us to easily measure the amount
of heat energy transferred. • Mom's hand or lips
They are based on the principle that liquids and solids
expand when they are subjected to heat. Mercury and
alcohol expand uniformly. When heat is applied the volume
of the liquid increases and the liquid rises in the capillary
tube integral with the container. Mostly mercury is used in
this type of thermometers because of its properties (Shiny
and will not adhere to the glass tubes and we can measure
up to 3000c.
The bimetal thermometer consists of metals with different
coefficient of expansion. The bimetal is twisted into a spiral
which curls when the temperature rises.
The apparatus used to measure the amount of heat by

mixer method is called calorimeter. It is nothing but
cylindrical shaped vessel and a stirrer made out of mostly
copper.
In a calorimeter when the hotter solid/liquid substance are
mixed with the cooler solid/liquid substances, heat transfer
takes place until both substances reach the same tem-
perature. By the same time calorimeter also reaches the
same temperature. By mixing rule,
Loss of heat⎤ ⎡Heat absorb ed by⎤ Pyrometer

⎥ = ⎢ solid / liquid ⎥ + ⎡Heat absorb ed⎤
⎥ ⎢⎣by calorimeter ⎥⎦
by solid/
⎥ ⎢ Thermoelectric pyrometer is based on the principle that the
liquid ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ substance ⎥⎦ soldering point between the wires of different metals, when
heated a contact voltage is generated. The voltage depends
Measurement upon the temperature difference between the hot measuring
point and the cold end of the wire. Thermocouple elements
Temperature is generally measured in degrees Celsius. In
this system the freezing point of water is defined as 0°C and are constructed of copper and Constant (up to 600°C) or of
the boiling point of water is defined as 100°C. The Kelvin platinum and platinum-rhodium (up to 1600°C)
temperature scale begins from absolute 0. i.e.— 273°. The Radiation pyrometers are used to measure temperatures
temperature intervals are the same. of red hot metals up to 3000°C. These concentrate thermal
 273K = 0°C, 20°C = 273K + 20°K = 293K. rays through an optical lens and focus them on to a thermo
element. The scale of the ammeter is calibrated in degrees
Instruments Celsius or Kelvin.
The instruments used to measure and read temperature
takes into account changes in the properties of materials,
electrical phenomena incandescence, radiation and
melting.
Thermometer
Types of thermometer
• Forehead strips
• Wearable thermometers
• Pacifier thermometers
77
Radiation
Transmission of Heat
Heat is radiated or transmitted from one object to the other
Heat is a form of energy and is capable of doing work. Heat in space without actually being in contact, by means of
flows from a hot body to a colder body or from a point of high electro-magnetic waves. These waves are similar to light
temperature to a point of low temperature. The greater is waves and radio waves. They can be refracted by lenses
the temperature difference the more rapidly will be the heat and reflected by mirrors. This radiation is called infrared. It
flow. Heat is transmitted in three ways. requires no medium to carry the radiation. (e.g) The heat of
• By Conduction the sun travels through the space.
• By Convection
• By Radiation
Conduction
Conduction is the name given to the transmission of heat
energy by contact. The heat source is in contact with the
Conductor. (metal rod). The rod is in contact with a
thermometer. Due to Conduction heat is transferred from
the heated end to the free end. In general good electrical
conductors are also good heat conductors and good
electrical insulators are also good heat insulators. A good
heat insulator does not necessarily withstand high
temperature.
Transmission of heat takes place in three ways
Conduction, Convection and Radiation.
Expansion due to heat

When a solid, liquid or gaseous substance is heated, it
expands and volume is increased. Similarly when it is
cooled, it contracts (shrinks) and volume is decreased.
E.g : small gaps are left in between the lines of railway track
to allow for expansion during summer. If this is not done,
the rails would expand and bend there by causing derail-
ment of trains.
Except a few substances, all solids, liquids and gases
expand. For the same amount of heat given, the expansion
of liquids is greater than solid and expansion of gas is more
Convection than liquid.
Convection is the name given to the transmission of heat Volume of water is reducing while heating from 00C to 40C.
energy by the up-ward flow. When heated, the fluid (liquid/ After that volume is increasing. The data at 40C of water will
gas) becomes less dense and because of its mobility, is be taken as reference point for any calculations relating
displaced upwards, by a similar but colder and more dense with water.
fluid. e.g., The domestic hot water system, The cooling
system in motor cars.

Heat & Temperature - Co-efficient of linear expansion and related problems
with assignments Exercise 1.6.29
Expansion of solids Co-efficient of cubical expansion
= 3 x linear expansion
A solid substance shows the following types of expansion
when heated. 
1 Linear expansion Examples
2 Superficial expansion and Find the co-efficient of linear expansion. If an 8 metre
3 Cubical expansion long metal rod is heated from 300C to 800C. So that it
may produce an elongation of 0.84 mm.
1 Linear expansion Initial length (l) = 8m
When a solid is heated, its length increases. This is called Increased length = 0.84 mm
linear expansion. It depends upon the material, original
length and change in temperature. Increased temperature(t) = 80 - 30 = 500C
Co-efficient of linear expansion Co - efficient of linear  Increased length


expansion( )  Initial length  Increased temp
The co-efficient of linear expansion is the change in length
per unit original length per degree rise in temperature. It is
0.84
represented by (Alpha). 
8000  50
Length of the solid at t10C = l1
Length of the solid at t20C = l2 0.84

Change in Temperature = t2 - t1 C 0 400000
Change in length = l2 - l1 = 2.1 x 10-6 /0C
l2  l1 If iron bridge is 100 metre long at 00C. What will be

l1  t 2  t1  the length of bridge if the temperature is 400C and
 l2  l1 the co-efficient of linear expansion is 12 x 10-6 per
 t 2  t1  t  degree.
l1t
Initial length of iron bridge = 100 m
Co − efficient of ⎫ Change in length
⎬= Increased temperature = 40 - 0 = 400C
linear expansion⎭ Original length x change in temperature
Increased length l2-l1 = l1t Co - efficient of linear  Increased length


expansion( )  Initial length  Increased temp
Final length l2 = l1(1 + t)
2. Superficial expansion
6 Increased length
When a solid is heated, its area increases is called su- 12  10 
100  40
perficial expansion.
Co-efficient of superficial expansion 12
Increased length   100  40
The increase in area per unit original area per degree rise 1000000
in temperature is called co-efficient of superficial expan-
sion. It is represented by (Beta). = 0.048 m
Co-efficient of superficial Iron bridge at 400C = 100 + 0.048 = 100.048 m

Expansion = 2 x linear expansion The length of a metal rod is 100 cm at 300C and 100.14
= 2 cm at 1000C. Calculate the co-efficient of linear ex-
3. Cubical expansion pansion and the rod length in 00C.
When a solid is heated, its volume increases is called Initial length at 300C = 100 cm
cubical expansion. Final length at 1000C = 100.14 cm
Co-efficient of cubical expansion Increased length = 0.14 cm
The increase in volume per unit original volume per degree Increased temperature = 100 - 30 = 700C
rise in temperature. It is represented by (Gama)
79
Increased length = 10 x 10-6 x 100 x 15
Co - efficient of linear  Increased length

expansion( )  Initial length  Increased temp 10  100  15

1000000
0.14

100  70 15
  0.015cm
1000
14

100  70  100 Find out the temperature that the rod will extend by
0.54 mm in linear direction when a piece of metal
2 rod is 2.5 metre long in 200 C and the co-efficient of
 linear expansion is 10.4 x 10-6 per degree centigrade.
100000
Initial length = 2.5 m = 2500 mm
= 2 x 10-5
Increased length = 0.54 mm
To find the length at 00C
Initial temperature = 200C
l1 = l0 (1 + t)
Co-efficient of linear = 10.4 x 10-6
100 = l0 (1 + 2 x 10 x 30)
-5
expansion ()
100 = l0 (1 + 0.0006)
Co - efficient of linear  Increased length

100 
l0  expansion( )
1  0.0006  Initial length  Increased temp
Length at 0°C = 99.94 m 0.54

6
10.4  10 
Find the change in length of metallic rod 100 cm 2500  Increased temp
long, when its temperature is increased from 250C to
400C and the co-efficient of linear expansion is 10 x 0.54
10-6 / 0C. Increased temperature = 6
2500  10.4  10
Initial length = 100 cm
Increased temperature = 40 - 25 = 150C 0.54  1000000

Co-efficient of linear = 10 x 10-6/0C 2500  10.4
expansion ()
5400
  20.77 C
0
Co - efficient of linear  Increased length 260


expansion( )  Initial length  Increased temp Final temperature = 20 + 20.77
= 40.770C
6 Increased length
10  10 
100  15
Assignment
Co-efficient of linear expansion
1 Calculate the co-efficient of linear expansion of rod. If 4 Find the increase in length 100 cm iron rod if the tem-
rod is found to be 100m long at 200C and 100.14m long perature raise from 400C to 900C. The co-efficient of
at 1000C. linear expansion of the iron is 10x10-6/0C
2 Find the change in length if the co-efficient of linear 5 If micrometer reading is standardised at 150C. What
expansion of rod is 0.00024/oC and the temperature of will be the true reading of the micrometer if the reading
a rod of 3.6m length is raised by 1200C, taken at 350C is 20.20 mm?
3 Find the change in length if the co-efficient of linear The co-efficient of linear expansion of material of mi-
expansion of rod is 0.00024/0C. If the temperature of a crometer is 11 x 10-6/0C.
rod of 6m length is raised by 1200C,

Heat & Temperature - Problem of heat loss and heat gain with assignments
Exercise 1.6.30
Mixing of heat m1 - Mass of first substance

s1 - specific heat of first substance
m2 - mass of 2nd substance
s2 - specific heat of 2nd substance
tm - temperature of mixture
m - mass
Q - Quantity of heat
t/t - temperature difference
tm - temperature of the mixture.
Unit of amount of heat

The derived unit for the amount of heat in S.I. unit is 1
joule (j).
Specific heat
It is also expressed as the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of unit mass of a substance through 1°C.
In S.I. unit in order to heat a mass of 1 kg of water through
1°C,
the amount of heat needed or the
mechanical equivalent of heat = 4186 joules
= 4.2 kj/kg°C.
Quantity of heat needed for a substance to rise the
temperature
The amount of heat needed for heating 1 kg of the
substance through 1°C is equal to the specific heat of the
substance ‘s’. For heating a mass of ‘m’ kg of the
substance to attain a temperature difference of t,
the quantity of heat needed = m x s x t
Therefore Q = m x s x t.
Mixing
When there is an exchange of temperatures, there is an
exchange in the amount of heat. When hotter bodies
involve with colder substances, heat transference takes
81
place from hotter substances to the colder substances 300 gram of water at 25°C is mixed with 200 gram of
until the mixture or both the substances acquire the same water at 850C. Find out the final temperature of the
temperature. mixture assuming that no heat escapes.
Heat lost by the bodies at higher temperature i) Weight of water = 300 gram
= Heat gained by the bodies at lower temperature and Initial temperature = 250C
hence the total amount of heat of the component Final temperature = Assume ‘X’
substances
Temperature gained = x - 250C
= amount of heat in the mixture.
ii) Mass of water = 200 gram
Heat loss by hot substance =
Initial temperature = 850C
Heat gained by colder substance
Temperature lost = 850C - x
S of the component amounts of heat =
Heat gained by 300 gram water =mst
amount of heat in the mixture
= 300 x 1 x (x - 25)
m1 x s1 x t1 + m2 x s2 x t2 = (m1s1 + m2s2)tm.
= 300 x -7500 cal.
Example
Heat lost by 200 gram water = m s t
A bath tub contains 40 litres of water at 15°C and 80 litres
of water at 60°C is poured to it. What is the temperature = 200 x 1 x (85 - x)
of the mixture. = 17000 - 200 x cal.
m1 x s1 x t1 + m2 x s2 x t2 = (m1s1 + m2s2)tm. Heat gained = Heat lost
4.2 kj 4.2 kg 300 x -7500 = 17000 - 200 x
 40 kg x x 15C  80 kg x x 60C
kgC kgC 300 x + 200 x = 17000 + 7500
500 x = 24500
 4.2kj 4.2kj 
  40kg  0
 15  80kg  0
 60  t m
 kg C kg C  24500
x =  49C
500
22680
tm 
0
C  45 C
0
Final temperature = 490C
120  4.2
20gm of common salt at 910C immersed in 250 gram
Examples of turpentine oil at 130C. The final temperature is
found to be 160C. If the specific heat of turpentine oil
A container contains 25 kg of water. Initial tempera-
is 0.428. Calculate the specific heat of common salt.
ture of container and water is 250C. Calculate the
heat required to heat the water to the boiling Mass of the salt(m) = 20 gram
temperature of water. Assume water equivalent of Initial temperature(t) = 910C
container = 1 kg.
Mass of the turpentine(m) = 250 gram
Mass of the water (m) = 25 Kg.
Initial temperature(t) = 130C
Initial temperature of water and container = 250C Specific heat of turpentine(s) = 0.428
Final temperature of water and container = 1000C Final temperature of mixture = 160C
Increased temperature (t) = 100 - 25 Heat gained by turpentine(Q) = m s t
= 750C = 250 x 0.428 x (16-13)
Water equivalent (m s) = 1 Kg. = 250 x 0.428 x 3
Required amount of heat to container =mst = 321 calories.
= 25 x 1 x 75 Heat lost by salt (Q) = m s t
= 1875 K.cal. = 20 x s x (91-16)
Required amount of heat to container =mst = 20 x s x 75
= 1 x 75 = 1500 s calories
= 75 K.cal. Heat lost = Heat gained
Total required amount of heat = 1875 + 75 1500 s = 321
=1950 K.cal.

80x (-1600) + 20x (-400) = 4000 - 100x
321
s
1500 100x -2000 = 4000 - 100x
Specific heat of salt = 0.214 100x+100x = 4000 + 2000
If copper calorimeter contains 80 gram of water at 200x = 6000

200C. The water equivalent of calorimeter is 20 gm. 6000
What will be be resultant temperature of the mix- x
ture, when 100 gm of water at 400C is added to the 200
mixture? = 30
Mass of the water in calorimeter = 80 gram Final temperature = 300C
Temperature = 20 C0
Find the amount of heat required to boil 15 gram of

Final temperature of the mixture = Assume ‘x’ ice at -80C. Latent heat of ice = 336 joule/gm. Latent
Temperature raised in water = x - 20 heat of steam = 2268 J/gm. Relative specific heat of
ice = 0.5
Specific heat of calorimeter(ms) = 20 gram
Heat of ice cube
Mass of water added = 100 gram
-80C to 00C Ice Q = mct kJ
Temperature = 400C
= m x s x 4.2 x t kJ
Temperature lost = 40 - x
= 0.015 x 0.5 x 4.2 x 8 kJ
Heat gained
= 0.252 kJ
Heat gained by water in calorimeter = m s t
00C Ice to 00C water = m x h s f kJ
= 80 x 1 x (x - 20)
= 0.015 x 336 kJ
= 80 x (-1600)
= 5.04 kJ
Heat gained by calorimeter =mst
00C water to 1000C water = m c t kJ
= 20 x (x - 20)
= 0.015 x 4.2 x 100 kJ
= 20 x (-400)
= 6.3 kJ
Heat lost
100 C water to 100 C steam Q= m x hsfg kJ
0 0
Heat lost by added water =mst

= 0.015 x 2268 kJ
= 100 x 1 x (40 - x) = 34.02 kJ
= 4000 - 100x Total amount of heat Q = 0.252 + 5.04 + 6.3 + 34.02 kJ
Heat gained = Heat lost Answer = 45.612 kJ
Assignment
Mixing of Heat
2 m 1 =80 litres of water
1 m = 120 litres m 2 =40 litres of water
t 1 = 20°C t 1 = 10°C
t 2 = 85°C t 2 = 70°C
s = 4.2 t m = ______ °C
Q = ______ kj

3 m1 = 25 litres of water 8 m1 = 60 gms of water
t 1 = 12°C m = 70 gms of
t 2 = 70°C calorimeter
t m = 33.75°C m2 = 80 gms of metal
m 2 = ______ litres t1 = 200C
t2 = 95 0 C
tm = 250C
4 m1 = 100 kg of water s = 0.2
t1 = 12°C
m2 = 50 kg of steel s1 = 1
t2 = 600°C s2 =_____
kj
S1  4.2 9 m1 = 250 gms of oil
KgC
t1 = 15oC
kj
S  0.46 m2 = 150 gms of brass
2 KgC
t2 = 900C
Rise in temperature
=_____°C of water tm = 25°C
s2 = 0.09 water
5 m1 = 250 litres of water equivalent of = 3 gms
m2 = 150 kg of steel calorimeter
t1 = 15°C s1 = ______ gms
tm = 70°C
t2 = ______ °C Heat loss and heat gain
1 Calculate the amount of heat required to raise the
temperatureof 85.5 g. of sand from 200C to 350C. Spe-
cific heat of sand = 0.1
6 m1 = 20 litres of 2 How much quantity of heat will be rejected in one hour,
machine oil
if the rate of flow of water is 11 kg/min and the raise of
m2 = 30 kg of steel temperature of water is 120C.
t2 = 160°C
3 Find out its specific heat. If we require 510 calories to
tm = 60°C
raise the temperature of 170/ gm of material 500C to
800C.
density of oil
gr 4 Calculate the specific heat of metal piece. If 500gm
t1 = ______ °C = 0.91 3 metal piece at 3000C is dropped in 5 kg of water. Its
cm temperature raises from 300C to 750C (There is no heat
loss).
7 m1 = 10 litres 5 Find out the final temperature of mixture, assuming

that no heat escapes. If 300gm of water at 250C is
kj mixed with 200gm of water at 850C.
S = 4.2
1 K g°C 6 What will be the resultant temperature of the mixture,
kj when 100gm of water at 400C is added to the mixture.
S = 0.46 If copper calorimeter contains 80 gm of water at 200C.
2 K g°C The water equivalent of calorimeter is 20 gm.
m2 = 0.5 kg
t1 = 18°C
t2 = 780°C
Rise in
temperature =___°C
of water

Heat & Temperature - Thermal conductivity and insulators Exercise 1.6.31
Insulating materials: Heat will flow from high tempera- Expanded polystyrene(Thermocole): it is available as
ture to low temperature. Heat flow by radiation, conduc- a rigid board, beads, moulded into shape for pipe/curved
tion and convection method through the wall, door, ceiling surface, can be cut easily with a saw, light weight allows
and glass door to the refrigerated space. relatively low vapour transmission.
The material which restricts such heat flow is called insu- Polyurethane: available as a rigid board, flexible board,
lating materials liquid can be sprayed on surfaces and allowed to foam,
can be used for in site applications.
Properties of insulating materials
Wood shaving/Saw dust: It needs good supporting com-
- It has low conductivity
partment, can easily settle down. Fairly high conductivity
- Resistance to fire absorbs moisture/water.
- Less moisture absorption Phenotherm: Available slabs with different facings, and
- Good rigidity as performed pipe sections, can be easily cut with a saw.
- Odourless Insulting materials and properties/specifications:
- Vapour permeability There are many insulating materials used in refrigeration

and air conditioning field. For our water tank only few of
- Light in weight them were in use.
Selection of insulating material: The following factors Now-a-days the following insulating materials were in broad
are the prime importance in the selection of a proper insu- use.
lating material.
- Thermocole
- Low thermal conductivity: Thermal conductance
- Glasswool/Tar felt
value of a material is a measure of its effectiveness to
allow the flow of heat through it by conduction, obvi- - Puf
ously an insulating material should have a very low
- Fiberglass
thermal conductivity.
Thermocole: It is one of the insulting materials in normal
- Resistance to fire.
use. It is available in low and high density. This is avail-
- Mechanical strength able in various thicknesses ranging 0.25" to 5".
- Low moisture absorption capacity Thermocole is available in various shapes (moulded) of
- Easy to lay necessity.
- Cost Thermocole allows (Characteristically) low transmission

of vapour, thereby heat entry through is cut short. This
- Easy of handling may vary with its low/high density.
- Low cost It can be cut very easily even with knife to a required shape.
Types of insulating materials Thermocole withstands cool/heat for a longer time.
Glass wool, PUF, Cork sheet, Thermocole, Insulating foil, The 'K' factor of an insulation material follows (thermocole).
fiber glass. Thermocole -0.20 btu/hr Ft2 deg.f°/inch
Types of insulating materials: Basic types of insulating Fibreglass: Also one of the insulating materials used for
materials are inorganic fibrous or cellular materials. is manufactured from inorganic materials (sand, dolomite,
Example, glass wool, slag wool ceramic products, limestone). Glass fibre insulation does not shrink due to
asbestos, etc. Organic fibrous materials, cork, cotton, temperature variation.
rubber foam, saw dust, rice husk, polystyrene,
polyurethane, phenotherm, etc. The type and form available This insulation materials used for higher temperatures also
as the applications of various insulations as follows. upto 450°C (842°F).
Glass wool: Available as semi-rigid, resin bonded slabs/ Fibreglass products does not absorb moisture from the
sheets of different densities -higher density gives strength ambient air.
and lower conductivity but allows vapour transmission. Glass wool: Normally glass wool material is heavily thin
Available with foil or other coverings. weighted object in layers, soft (touching). It comes off in
various sizes (thickness from 0.5" to 2.5". it comes in
Cork: Compressed and moulded into a rigid block, light
white, yellow colours mixed up with broken glass pieces.
but strong, can be cut easily with a saw, resists water but
allows relatively high rate of water vapour transmission.
85
Handling glass wool is hazardous and harmful (if it is The evaporator tank should be covered well with wooden/
breathed). Always it is advisable to handle glass wool with steel boards with required gaps for insulation tightened all
gloves and goggles (eye) while working on it. It also comes the corners well giving small gaps to pour the solution.
off in various densities.
Method of laying duct insulation: when there is no
Glass wools are of two types of uses. One type of glass chance of moisture condensation on the duct, glass wool
wool used for low temperature refrigeration/air condition- can be used. Since it is economical and fire resistant.
ing purpose. The other type is used for boiler materials However if moisture condensation can occur greater care
(heat prevention) purposes. should be exercised in case of glass wool. First a uniform
coat of bitumen is applied to the duct surface and the
The 'K' factor of insulation material:
wool is stuck to the bitumen. The insulation is then cov-
Glasswool: 0.230-.27 Btu/Hr ft2 deg. F°/inch. ered with a polythene sheet which acts as a vapour bar-
Puf: The other mode of insulating materials used in water rier. The surface can be plastered after spreading chicken
cooler at the evaporator tank's external body. wire mesh as reinforcement.
For this kind of insulation two chemicals used namely Expanded polystyrene can be laid easily as it is rigid.
isocyanide-R11., Both available in liquid form in bottles Bitumen is applied on the duct and the insulation is stuck
(for lesser capacities) and cans (for higher capacities). joints are also sealed with bitumen. No separate vapour
barrier is needed other than a coat of bitumen. The insula-
Both the liquids (chemicals) should always kept cool. When tion can be finished with cement and plaster or metal clad-
both of them added in a container and stirred in few min- ding.
utes it becomes foamy (initially with thin and becomes
thicker and becomes hard (sticks with the unit). Purpose of false ceiling: The conditioned air arrives
through the ducts at the supply air diffusers and enters
We should be careful that there is no air gap in the tank the conditioned space. Most diffusers are attached to the
covered. It foams out with high density and uneven finish false ceiling and a variety of diffusers are available for dif-
at the outer level. ferent air spreading needs. The return air grills will be fixed
Puf (materials) insulations are widely used by our to the false ceiling. The false ceiling prevents mixing of
manufacturer's for their products as it keeps the tempera- conditioned air and return air.
ture for a longer period. Return air usually flow into the plenum or return air box
The main disadvantage of the insulation is as soon as the through grill placed in the false ceiling. Since substantial
chemicals are mixed and stirred it should be poured over amount of energy goes into the air in the first place. It is
the evaporator coil (or) outside the evaporator tank within a practice to recycle the air. The air is therefore brought
the shortest period. If the time exceeds the solution starts back to the air conditioning. Plant room it is common to
framing at the container itself and becomes useless. route the return air through the gap between the false ceil-
ing and the main ceiling. A space referred to as a plenum,
the false ceiling is also known as a return air duct.

Pressure - Concept of pressure and its units in different system
Exercise 1.6.32
Concept of pressure Measuring Instruments
Continuous physics force exerted on or against an object I Manometers
by something in contact with it.
a Simple manometer
Definition
i Piezometer
Pressure is an expression of force exerted on a surface
per unit area, i.e., the force applied is perpendicular to the ii 'U' tube manometer
surface of object per unit area. iii single column manometer
Force Newton F 2
b Differential manometer
Pressure   P N/m
Area sq.meter A i 'U' tube differantial manometer
As the amount of gas increases assuming the volume of
ii Inverted 'U' tube manometer
chamber and the temperature remain constant the pressure
increases. II Mechanical Gauges
Unit: Standard unit and also the S.I. unit of pressure is a Diaphragm pressure gauge
Pascal (Pa) and Metric unit of pressure is Bar. b Bourdon's tube pressure gauge
1 Pascal is defined as a force of one newton per square c Dead weight pressure gauge
metre
d Bellows pressure gauge
i.e., 1 Pascal = 1 N/m2
Example
1 Bar = 105 N/m2
A liquid gives force of 100 N over an area of 2m2. What is
Pressure units in different systems the pressure?
British unit Pounds per square inch lb/in2 Force = 100 N

FPS Area = 2 m2
Metric units Gram per square centimetre g/cm2 Pressure = ?
CGS
F
MKS Kilogram per square metre kg/m2 P = = 100
A 2
International Newtons per square metre N/m2
= 50 N/m2
circuits SI
Types of Pressure
Unit of pressure N/m2, 1 N/m2 = 1 pascal.

This unit is too small (Pressure of a fly on a area of 1 cm2).
Hence ‘bar’ is introduced as the unit of pressure.
1 bar = 105 pascal.
5 N N
105 Pa = 10 = 10 = 1 bar
2
m cm2
1 Absolute pressure 1 bar = 1000 mbar. [SI unit of Pressure is Pascal (Pa) and
2 Atmosphere pressure Metric unit of Pressure is bar]
3 Gauge pressure Properties of Pressure
1 The pressure in a liquid increases with increase in
depth.
87
2 The pressure at a point increases with the density of • The gaseous layer of air around the earth is known as
the liquid. atmosphere
3 The pressure is same in all directions about a point in Pressure Relationship
liquid at rest
• Atmospheric pressure : The air surrounding the earth
4 Upward pressure at a point in a liquid is equal to exerts a pressure on the earth's surface. The pressure
downward pressure prevailing directly on the earth's surface is known as
atmospheric pressure.
Pascal's Law
• The atmospheric pressure is also referred to as
A French scientist, Pascal stated that the pressure applied reference pressure. Normally it considers the sea level
at any point in liquid, at rest is transmitted equally in all as its reference point.
directions. This is known as Pascal' law.
• The atmospheric pressure may be calculated from the
Applications of Pascal's law fundamental principle of barometer which states that
Pascal's law is applied in many devices like the siphon, the barometer reads the pressure due to the height of
hydraulic press, hydraulic lift, brahma press, air mercury (Hg) in the tube and its weight.
compressor, rotary pump and hydraulic brake. These  Atmospheric pressure =  g h
hydraulic machines are based on the principle of
transmission of pressure in liquids. Where (rho)  = Density of Hg = 13600 kg/m3
Principle of Hydraulic press g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2,
and
Two cylinders having different cross sectional area are
connected to each other by a horizontal connecting tube. h = height of Hg column = 760 mm of Hg at
The apparatus is filled with a liquid. The two cylinders are normal sea level.
fitted with air tight piston . Substituting the above values in equation, we get
By giving a small input force on a plunger of a small cross Atmospheric pressure = 13600 x 9.81 x 0.76
sectional area cylinder a large output force are produced = 1,01,396 N/m2
on the ram of large cross sectional area cylinder. According
to Pascal's law, small input pressure exerted on plunger = 1.013 bar
is transmitted by the liquid to the ram without any loss. But for easy and simple calculation, we take the
Therefore a small force can be used to lift a much large atmospheric pressure as 1 bar.
force or weight. (Fig 2) 1 Absolute pressure: absolute pressure is defined as
the pressure which ismeasured with reference in absolute
vacuum pressure.
2 Gauge pressure: It is defined as the pressure which
is measured with the help of a pressure measuring
instrument in which the atmospheric pressure is taken an
datum. The atmospheric pressure on the scale is marked
a zero.
3 Vacuum pressure: It is defined as the pressure below
the atmospheric pressure.
Mathematically:
i) Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge
pressure
Force on plunger(F) Weight on the ram(W) Pab = Patm + Pg
=
Plunger area(a) Ram area(A) ii) Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure - Vacuum
pressure
F W
= Pab = Patm - Pvacc
a A iii) Vacuum pressure = Atmospheric pressure – Absolute
FxA pressure
Weight on the ram (W) =
a 1 Atmospheric pressure = 76 cm of mercury = 33.91 ft
Properties of Air of water
= 76 x 13.6 gm/cm2
• Actually speaking, air is a mixture of gases. Air is
invisible, colourless, odourless, and tasteless. = 76 x 13.6 x 10-3 kg/cm2
= 76 x 13.6 x 10-3 x 9.8 N/cm2
• Composition: The main constituents of air by volume
are 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% other gases = 10.13 N/cm2
such as argon and carbon dioxide. = 1.013 bar
= 1013 mbar [1 bar = 1000 mbar] Effects of altitude on atmospheric pressure
1 Pascal = 1 N/m 2
Atmospheric pressure changes according to altitude a
1 bar = 10 Pascal = 10 N/m = 10 N/cm
5 5 2 2 tabulation is shown here with variations.
1 bar = 0.986923 atmosphere
For every 11 meter above sea level drop in air
1 millibar = 0.01 N/cm2 = 10-2 N/cm2 pressure is 1.3 m bar.
1 atmospheric Pressure (FPS) = 14.7 Pound/inch2 (psi) For every 1000 ft above sea level drop in air
1 atmospheric Pressure (Metric) = 1.0336 Kg/cm2 pressure is 1” Hg (mercury)
1 atmospheric Pressure (Metric) = 1.014 x 106 dyne/cm2
S. No. Place Unit of Pressure Mercury column Inch units
1 Sea level 1013 m bar 750 mm 14.7 psi

2 520 metres 951.5 m bar 700 mm 13.7 psi
above sea level
Pressure gauges For a barometer reading with reference to an atmospheric

pressure of 1 bar we have
They are instruments or devices used to measure the
pressure of liquid steam or gas contained in a vessel. Pa = 1 + Po (shown in Fig 3)
There are also known as mark meters.
Pa = 1 - Pu (shown in Fig 4)
Types of manometers
• Open tube
• Closed tube
• Differential type
• Inverted type
Mechanical pressure gauges
• Bourden's pressure gauges
• Diaphragm pressure gauges
• Dead weight pressure gauges
Open tube manometer (Fig 3)
Example (Fig 5)
A manometer is connected to an air pressure tank and it
indicates an over pressure of 615 mm pressure head. The
external air pressure is 1015 mbar. Calculate the absolute
pressure in bar and in Pascal (Fig 5).
It is more suitable to measure pressure in vessels which

is having little variation to atmospheric pressure. It is a 'u'
shaped tube containing mercury having its one end
connected to the vessel container in which the liquid is
there whose pressure is to be determined. The other end
is open. The manometer will show a difference in both the
limbs of the tube when the pressure inside the vessel is
more or less than the air pressure outside.

Absolute Pressure = External Air Pressure + Over Pressure • Over-pressure: The gas pressure of the tyre is bigger
than the pressure of the atmosphere. In the tyre we
Pa = 1015 mbar + 100 mbar x 615 mm/750 mm have over pressure.
= 1835 mbar • Under-pressure : The gas pressure in the cylinder
Pa = 1.835 bar = 1.835 x 105 Pascal during the suction process is smaller. There is under
pressure in the cylinder.
If the barometer reading is in mm, it is always • Absolute pressure: The absolute pressure = air
necessary to convert into m bar. pressure + over-pressure. The pressure in vacuum is
0 bar.
Pressure and Vacuum gauges
The manometer indicates the over-pressure. The absolute
Bourdon tube pressure gauges (Fig 6) pressure on the earth is normally 1 bar. The measured
pressure plus 1 bar is the absolute pressure in normal
conditions.
The unit for gas pressure is bar.
Pa = absolute pressure
Po = over pressure
Pu = under pressure
Air pressure in technical calculations is assumed to be 1
bar.
Rules and examples
In I.C. Engines, Bourdon tube pressure gauges are widely
employed for measurement of pressure, temperature and Absolute pressure = over-pressure + air pressure
vacuum. In these gauges, a Bourdon tube which is a Pa = Po + 1 bar
tempered, one is used and it attempts to straighten out
under pressure and temperature and contact under vacuum. Over-pressure = absolute pressure - air pressure
The working is briefly described here refer to figure. A Po = Pa - 1 bar

phosphor bronze tube or elliptical cross section is used Under-pressure = air pressure - absolute pressure
and bent to an arc of a circle. The free end of the tube is
sealed under internal pressure (or temperature), it attempts Pu = 1 bar - Pa
to straighten out. During this process, it operates sector, Absolute pressure = air pressure - under-pressure
pinion and needle which indicates pressure or temperature
over a calibrated dial. The entire unit is mounted on a Pa = 1 bar - Pu
casing and covered with glass and frame and around it. Examples
Vacuum gauges • What pressure is 2 bar over-pressure?
These are also of Bourdon tube type gauges where the Pa = 2 bar + 1 bar = 3 bar
tube attempts to contract under vacuum thus recording
vacuum of the engine in mm Hg (millimeters of mercury) • What over-pressure is 4 bar?
Po = 4 bar - 1 bar = 3 bar over-pressure
A reading of 760 mm Hg is prefect vacuum (zero
absolute pressure) • How many bar under pressure is 0.7 bar?
A zero of say 300 mm Hg means to say that 300 Pu = 1 bar - 0.7 bar = 0.3 bar under-pressure.
mm of vacuum is equivalent to (760-300) 460 • How many bar is 0.3 bar under-pressure?
milliHg absolute pressure.
0.7 bar.
• Vacuum gauges are often used by service mechanics Properties of gases
to find out the mechanical condition of the engine and
whether valves, ignition timing and carburettor setting 1 Charle’s law
are correct and carry out fine adjustments to obtain First law or law of volume
the best performance of the engine.
At constant pressure the volume (V) of a given mass of
• Vacuum in Diesel Engine governors: This is gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature(T)
measured by water column methods in fuel injection
test bench
V T V = K (K - Constant)
• Vacuum in manifolds of an engine: This can be T
measured by using vacuum gauge

Second law or law of pressure P1V1 P2 V2 P3 V3 PV
= = = .......... .... n n
At constant volume the pressure (P) of a given mass of T1 T2 T3 Tn
gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature
In the perfect gas law, the P and T represents
(T).
absolute pressure and absolute temperature
(in °K) respectively.
P T P = K (K - Constant)
T 1 1 kg of air at 5 kgf/cm2 and 30°C is expanded to
atmospheric pressure and 20°C. What will be the
2 Boyle’s law or Gas law
volume occupied?
At constant temperature the volume (V) of a given mass of
Solution: Assuming atmospheric pressure is 1.033 kgf/
gas is inversely proportional to its pressure. (P)
cm2 and gas constant
V  1 ; PV = K (K - Constant) R = 29.27 kg m/kg/°K;
P
P1 = 5 kgf/cm2 = 5 x 104 kg/m2
3 Perfect gas equation
T1 = 30°C = 30 + 273 = 303° Kelvin
Since boyle’s law and charle’s law can not be applied
independently due to changes in pressure, volume and Mass of air = m = 1 kg
temperature a combined law called “gas equation” has Applying formula:
been formulated. Gas equation is relating to pressure,
P1V1 = m.R.T1
volume and temperature of perfect gas which obeys both
the boyle’s law and charle’s law. A gas which obeys boyle’s m.R.T1
V1 =
and charle’s law is called ideal gas. P1
As per boyle’s law
= 1 x 29.27 x 303
5 x 10 4
1
V  PV = K (Constant) P1V1 = P2V2 = K = 0.1774 cubic metre
P
The following information is ready:
As per charle’s law
P1 = 5 x 104 kg/metre2
V V V
V T = K (Constant) 1 = 2 = K V1 = 0.1774 cubic metre
T T1 T2
T1 = 303°K
Combining the above two laws,
P2 = 1.033 kgf/cm2 = 1.033 x 104 kg/metre2
P1V1 P2 V2 T2 = 20°C = 20 + 273 = 293°K
= = R [R = gas constant]
T1 T2
Let V2 = Volume occupied = To Find
P = Pressure (KN/m2)
PV V = Volume (m3) Applying formula:
=R m = Mass (Kg)
T R = gas constant (Kgf.m/kg/k)
P1V1 P2 V2
PV = RT
T = absolute temperature (K) =
T1 T2
If mass of the gas is m, then
P1V1T2
PV = mRT V2 =
P2 T1
Gas constant R = 29.27 kgf.m / kg/ k
(5 x 10 4 ) x 0.1774 x 293
= 287 joule/Kg/k =
(1.033 x 10 4 ) x 303
True gas and its properties
= 0.8303 cubic metre
1 It has mass and volume. So, it has weight.
Volume occupied = 0.8303 cubic metre
2 It can be compressed or expanded into a container.
3 It is invisible. 2 Find the volume of a gas, if its absolute
temperature doubled and the pressure is reduced
4 General Gas Law
to one half.
Boyle's, Charles', and Gay-Lussac's laws can be combined
Solution: At initial stage:
to obtain the general gas law is given by,
Let initial pressure = P1
PV
= Constant (or)
T Initial Volume = V1
Initial temperature = T1
At final stage: 5 The column of mercury in a barometer is 76 cm. If
instead of mercury the kerosene oil is filled in the
P2 = Final pressure
barometer, what would be the state of column
Since pressure is reduced to one half of initial pressure, when relative density of kerosene oil is 0.8?
we can say
Solution: Suppose the height of column of kerosene in
1 the mercury tube is h2, then the pressure of column of
P2 = P
2 1 kerosene = pressure of column of mercury. Assuming
T2 = Final temperature relative density of mercury = 13.6
Since temperature is doubled, we can say h2d2g = h1d1g
T2 = 2T1 h1d1g h1d1
h2 = =
V2 = Volume of gas required = To Find d2 g d2
Applying formula 76 x 13.6
=
0.8
P1V1 P2 V2
= = 1292 cm
T1 T2
= 12.92 metres
P1V1T2
V2 =
T1P2 6 The volume of a gas at 770 mm pressure is 403 cc.
Find the pressure when the volume is reduced to
P1V12T1
= 341 cc.
1
T1 P1 As per Boyles Law
2
= 4V1 P1V1 = P2 V2
V2 = 4V1 770 x 403 = P1 x 341
Final volume = 4 times of initial volume
770 x 403
P1 =
3 Find the pressure at the depth of 40 metres below 341
the surface of a lake in dynes per sq. cm., the
Pressure when volume is reduced = 910 mm
atmospheric pressure being neglected.
Solution: 7 At 80 cm pressure the volume of a gas is 800 cu.
cm. How much pressure be increased to bring the
Depth of water level  = 40 m = 4000 cm volume of gas at 200 cu. cm?
Density of water d = 1 gram/cc
Pressure P1 = 80 cm
Acceleration due to gravity g = 980 cm/sec2
Volume V1 = 800 cu. cm
Pressure below the surface of lake is given by the formula
= .d.g. Volume V2 = 200 cu. cm
As per Boyle's law
Pressure = .d.g
= 4000 x I x 980 P1V1 = P2V2
= 3920000 dynes per sq. cm. 80 x 800 = P2 x 200
4 At 5 atmospheric pressure 0.2 cu. metre air is filled P2 = 80 x 800 = 640 = 320 cm
in a container. If the same air is filled at constant 200 2
temperature in a 1 cu. metre volume of container
Pressure to be increased = 320 - 80 = 240 cm
then calculate the air pressure in the container.
= 2.4 metres
Solution: At constant temperature the gas follows Boyle's
Law
8 A gas has a pressure of 2 kg/cm2 and volume of
P1V1 = P2V2
5m3. What will be the volume of gas if the pressure
Here, P1 = 5, V1 = 0.2 cu. metre, V2 = 1 cu. metre is reduced to 1 kg/cm2 keeping the temperature
constant?
P1V1 = P2V2
Gas pressure P1 = 2 kg/cm2
5 x 0.2 = P2 x 1.0
Volume V1 = 5 m3
5 x 0.2
P2 = =1 Pressure P2 = 1 kg/cm2
1.0
Air pressure in the container = 1 atmospheric.
As per Boyle's law 10 An automobile tyre contains 0.14 kg of air at 2 kg/
cm2 gauge pressure at 27°C. What is the volume
P1V1 = P2V2
of air in cubic cm?
P1 x V1 2 x 5
V2 = = In this sum gauge pressure is given. To solve it absolute
P2 1 pressure is necessary. Atmospheric pressure = 1.033 kg/
Volume of gas = 10m3 cm2
Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric
9 A gas at 1.5 kgf/cm2 occupying 0.2 m3 is at 20°C. It
pressure
is compressed to a pressure of 5 kgf/cm2 such that
its volume becomes 0.03m3. What will be final = 2 + 1.033
temperature of the gas?
= 3.033 kg/cm2
Temperature T1 = 20°C = 20 + 273 = 293° Kelvin
Pressure P = 3.033 kg/cm2
Volume of gas V1 = 0.2 m 3
= 3.033 x 104 kg/m2
Pressure of gas P1 = 1.5 kgf/cm 2
Weight of air m = 0.14 kg

= 1.5 x 104 kgf/m2
Temperature T = 27°C = 27+273
Volume V2 = 0.03 m3
= 300° Kelvin
Pressure P2 = 5 kgf/cm2
Gas constant R = 29.27 kgm kg/ Kelvin
= 5 x 104 kgf/m2
(or) 287 Joule / kg/ Kelvin
As per perfect gas equation
AS per perfect gas equation
P1V1 P2 V2
=
T1 T2 PV = mRT
P2 V2 T 0.14 x 29.27 x 300

T2 = x 1 V =
T2 P1V1 3.033 x 10 4
1229.34
293 = = 0.0405 cu.m
= 5 x 104 x 0.03 x 30330
1.5 x10 4 x0.2
= 0.0405 x 106
43.95
= Volume of air = 40532 cu. cm
0 .3
T2 = 146.5 Kelvin
= 146.5 - 273
Final temperature of gas = -126.5° C
Assignment A
1 At 5 atmospheric pressure 0.2 cu. metre air is filled in 4 1 kg of air at 5 kgf /cm2 and 30°C is expanded to
a container. If the same air is filled at constant atmospheric pressure and 20°C. What will be the
temperature in a 1 cu. metre volume of container then volume occupied?
calculate the air pressure in the container
5 5 litre of air at 30°C and 1.1 atmospheric pressure is
2 The volume of a gas at 770 mm pressure is 403 cc. compressed to one litre and 10 atmospheric pressure.
Find the pressure when the volume is reduced to 341cc. Calculate the temperature after compression.
3 A gas is transferred from one container of volume 100
cc. of a pressure of 1.5 kg/cm2 into another container
of capacity 200 cc. Find the pressure in the new
container.

Assignment B
1 P = 1 bar 8 Po pressure head = 450
mm
(Rho) p = 103 kg/metre3
Barometer reading =
g = 9.81 metre/sec2 1040 m bar
h of water a) Absolute pressure =
______ m bar
= ________ metre
Po = 500 mm
2 P = 1 bar (Air pressure) P1 = 1010 m bar
(Rho_ ‘p’ = 13.6 x 103 b) Pa = ______ m bar
kg/metre3
9 Pu = 540 mm
g = 9.81 metre/sec2
P1 = 1015 m bar
h of mercury
Pa = ______ m bar
= _______ metre
Pu = 615 mm
3 Air Pressure = 1 bar P1 = 1.02 bar
Force on 1 cm2 = ________ N Pa = ______ m bar
Force on 1 metre2 = _______ N
10 Po = 1.5 bar
4 Pressure head ‘h’ =
= ______ KN/m2
a) 540 mm
= _______ mbar
b) 510 mm
= _______ mbar
c) 615 mm
11 Initial pressure
= _______ mbar
Po = 0.966 bar
5 Absolute pressure ‘Pa’ Pressure drop = 0.08
= 1.75 bar bar
Barometer reading = Final pressure = _____
1040 m bar bar
Over pressure ‘Po’ = 12 Determine the missing values
________ pascal bar N/Cm2 mbar Pascal

1 - - -
6 External atmospheric - - - -
pressure P1 = 1010 m - 5 - -
bar - - 1.3x103 -
- - - 2x105
Over pressure ‘Po’ =
16N/cm2 13 Pa = 2.2 bar
Absolute pressure Pu = _______ bar
Pa = _______ m bar Po = _______ bar
7 Barometer reading =
995 m bar
under pressure Pu = 14 Pressure head = 120
320 m bar mm
Absolute pressure ‘pa’ Pressure = _____ m
= _____ m bar bar

15 P1 = 1 bar 19 Bourdon Tube Pres-
sure gauge
Po = 220 mm head
Pressure shown by
Pa = ______ m bar gauge = 500 kPa
Barometer pressure =
985 mBar
Absolute Pressure = ________ kPa
16 P1 = 1 bar 20 Gas equation
Pu = 180 mm head Cylinder volume at BDC
Pa = ________ m bar = 480 cm3 of gas
Gas pressure at BDC =
96 kPa (Abs)
Temperature of gas
17 Boyles Law 700°C
Cylinder Volume at Cylinder volume at TDC
BDC - 400 CCS = 80 cm3 of gas
Cylinder Volume at TDC
- 50 CCS Gas pressure at TDC =
725 kPa (Abs)
Compression Ratio -
8:1 Temperature of gas at
Absolute Pressure P1 TDC = ___________
= 101.3 kPa
Pressure at TDC =
__________ 21 Calculate the missing values in the table
Note: Assume Temperature is constant a Data from Running Engine
18 Tyre pressure Details A B C
Front wheel tyre pres- Force (Newtons) X 2380 5030
sure = 1.8 Bar Dia (mm) 83 78 X
Rear wheel tyre pres- Pressure(Bar) 42 X 10
sure = 2.2 Bar b Areas
Pressure Increase dur- Dia of Piston = 84 mm
ing driving = 15% Piston Head Area = ________
Over pressure Total Area for 6 Piston heads = _________
c Piston force
(a) Front tyre ______ Bar
Dia of Piston (D) = 84 mm
(b) Rear tyre _______ Bar Combustion Pressure (P) = 50 Bar over pressure
Piston force FK = _______ Newtons
C MCQ
1 What is force per unit area. 3 What is the name of law if pressure applied at any
point in a liquid at rest is transmitted equally in all
A Pressure B Force
directions.
C Work D Power
A Boyles B Charles
2 How much pascal value for 1 bar. C Pascal D Ohms
A 10 4
B 10 5
4 What is the height of mercury for one atmospheric
C 106 D 107 pressure.
A 0.76 cm B 0.076 cm
C 7.6 cm D 76 cm

5 What is the name of law if at constant pressure the 8 How much milli bar is equal to 1 bar.
volume of a given mass of gas is directly proportional
A 10 B 100
to its absolute temperature
C 1000 D 105
A Charles law B Boyles law
C Gay-lussac’s law D Newton’s law 9 What is equal to Gauge pressure + Atmospheric
pressure.
6 Which degree scale used for absolute temperature is
A Absolute pressure B Gauge pressure
calculated in perfect gas equation.
C Vacuum pressure D Over pressure
A degree celsius B degree kelvin
C degree fahrenheit D degree reumer 10 How much bar equal to one atmospheric pressure.
A 0.1013 B 0.01013
7 Which principle of law works in brahma press.
C 10.13 D 1.013
A Boyles law B Charles lay
C Pascal law D Gay-lussacs law
Key Answers
A 17 Use of boyles law (Temperature constant)
1 1 atmospheric Pressure at T.D.C of the engine = 810.4 kPa(Abs)
2 910 mm 18 Tyre pressure (Charles law)
3 0.75 kg/cm2 a Over pressure in front wheels = 2.07 bar
4 0.8303 m 3
b Over pressure in rear wheels = 2.53
5 278ºC 19 Bourdon tube
Absolute pressure = 598.5 KPa
B
20 Gas equation
1 10.19 metre
Temperature at the end of compression = 196.5ºC
2 0.749 metre
21 a Force A = 22.7245 Newton
3 10 N, 105 N
Diameter - C = 80 mm
4 a 720 b 680 c 820
Pressure - B = 5 bar over pressure
5 71000 Pascal
b Piston head area (AK) = 55.42 cm2
6 2610 m bar
Total piston head area (6 cylinder) = 332.51 cm2
7 675 mbar
c Piston force = 25/20 N
8 a 1040 m bar b 1676 m bar
9 a 295 m bar b 200 m bar C MCQ
10 150 kN/m2 1 A
11 1.88 bar 2 B
12 bar N/cm 2
mbar pascal 3 C
1 10 1000 105 4 D
20 200 20000 20 x 10 5
5 A
0.5 5 500 0.5 x 105 6 B
1.3 13 1.3 x 103 1.3 x 105 7 C
2 20 2000 2 x 10 5
8 C
13 1.2 bar, 0.4 bar 9 A
14 160 m bar 10 D
15 1290 m bar
16 760 m bar

Basic Electricity - Introduction and uses of electricity, molecule, atom, how
electricity is produced, electric current AC,DC their comparison, voltage,
resistance and their units Exercise 1.7.33
Electricity is a kind of energy. It is the most useful sources 2. Magnetic effect
of energy which is not visible but its presense can be felt
by its effects. Electricity is obtained by conversion of When an electric current passes through a coil, a mag-
other forms of energy like heat energy, chemical energy, netic field is produced around it.
nuclear energy, mechanical energy and energy stored in E.g. : Electromagnet Motor, Generator, Electric bell
water etc.,
3. Chemical effect
To understand electricity, one must understand the struc-
When an electric current passes through an electrolyte,
ture of an atom.
chemical action takes place. Because of that, an electri-
Basically an atom contains electrons, protons and neu- cal energy is stored in a battery as a chemical energy.
trons. The protons and neutrons are located in the centre
E.g.: Electroplating, Cells and battery charging, refining
of an atom and the electrons, a negative electric charge
of metals etc.,
particle revolving around the nucleus in an atom. The pro-
ton has a positive charge. Neutrons are neutral and have 4. Heating effect
no charge.
When an electric current passes through any conductor,
Sources of electricity heat is produced in the conductor due to its resistance.
Battery E.g. : Electric heater, Electric iron box, Electric lamp,
Geycer, Soldering iron, Electric kettles, Electric welding
Battery stores electrical energy in the form of chemical
etc.,
energy and it gives power when required. Battery is used
in automobiles and electronics, etc., 5. X-ray and Laser rays effect
Generator When a high frequency voltage is passed through a vacuum
tube, a special type of rays come out, which is not visible.
It is a machine which converts the mechanical enregy into
These rays are called x-rays. Laser rays also can be
electrical energy.
produced by electric current.
When a conductor rotates between a magnetic field using
6. Gas effect
prime mover an emf will be induced. By using this method
all types of AC and DC generator - generates power. When electrons pass through a certain type of sealed
glass shell containing gas, then it emits light rays.
E.g. Thermal power station
Hydro power station E.g: Mercury vapour lamp, Sodium vapour lamp, Fluores-
cent lamp, Neon lamp etc.,
Nuclear power station
Wind power station Uses of Electricity
Solar power station 1. Lighting - Lamps
2. Heating - Heaters, ovens
Thermo couple 3. Power - Motor, fan
If two dissimilar pieces of metals are twisted together and 4. Traction - Electromotives, lift, crane
its joined end is heated in a flame, then a potential differ- 5. Communication - Telephone, telegraph, radio,
ence or voltage will be induced across the ends of the wireless
wires. Such a device is known as a Thermo couple. 6. Entertainment - Cinema, radio, T.V.
Thermo couple is used to measure very high temperature 7. Medical - x-rays, shock traeatment
of furnaces. 8. Chemical - Battery charging, electroplating
9. Magnetic - Temporary magnets
Effects of electric current 10. Engineering - Magnetic chucks, welding,
When an electric current flows through a medium, its pres- x-rays of welding
ence can be felt by its effects, which are given below. Classification
1. Physical effect • Static electricity
Human body is a good conductor. when the body touches • Dynamic electricity
the bare current carrying conductor, current flows through STATIC ELECTRICITY
the human body to earth and body gets severe shock or
cause even death in many cases. If a dry glass rod is rubbed with silk cloth the glass rod gives
out negative electrons, and therefore, becomes positively
charged. The silk cloth receives negative electrons and
97
therefore it becomes negatively charged. They acquire the Types of electric current
property of attracting small pieces of paper etc. because
• Direct current
like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.
The electric charge on the silk cloth is stationary and is • Alternating current
called static electricity. This type of electricity cannot be Direct current
transmitted from one place to another.
In direct current (DC) the direction and magnitude of the
DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY current does not change (Fig 2). The steady current flow
The electrons in motion are called current electricity or will be from the positive terminal to the negative terminal.
electric current. This type of electricity is carried through (Fig 3)
wires and cables. Therefore, this electricity can be
transmitted from one place to another. This type of Examples
electricity can be produced by cells, batteries, generators DC Sources : Cells, batteries and DC generators (Fig 3)
alternators etc.
What is the difference between an atom and an element?
How are molecules different from atoms? I am often asked
these questions in my sessions over and over again and
so I finally decided to write a comprehensive post on them.
Find answers to all your questions in this section that is
designed to help students explore and understand the
relationship between atoms, elements, molecules,
compounds and mixtures in a manner that is simple and
easy to understand. so, let’s begin!
What is an Atom?
atoms-imgAll the matter in the universe is made of tiny
particles called atoms. There are 92 different kinds of
atoms in nature. These 92 different atoms combine with
one another to form different kinds of matter that we see in
nature. (Fig 1)
Gold, for example, is made of only gold atoms. When
matter is made of only one kind of atom, it is called an
element. In the same way, silver is another element which Altermating current (Fig 4)
is made of only silver atoms. Because there are 92 different
kinds of atoms in nature, there are 92 different kinds of The current flow will be from the phase terminal to the
elements. Other examples of an atom are K (potassium) Neutral terminal. In the alternating current (AC) both the
and Fe (iron). direction and magnitude of the current will be changing at
definite intervals of time. The graph shows how an AC
current or voltage changes with time. The current in-
creases to the maximum value in one direction, falls to zero
and increases to the maximum value in the other (opposite)
direction before falling to zero again. Thus a cycle is one
complete series of changes. The normal supply frequency
is 50 cycles per second.
What is a Molecule?
molecule-imgA molecule is the smallest unit of a chemical
compound and it exhibits the same chemical properties
of that specific compound. As molecules are made up of
atoms jointly held by chemical bonds, they can vary greatly
in terms of complexity and size. The oxygen we breathe
has a molecular formula O2. Should we consider this as
an element or compound? When two or more atoms of
the same elements combine together, we call them
Molecules. So, we call O2 as an oxygen molecule. In the
same way, we find hydrogen molecules H2, chlorine
molecules Cl2 and others in nature.

Difference between AC and DC
AC DC
1. It is generated in the ranges of 6,600 V, 11000 V and It is generated up to 6,600 V only
33,000 V.
2. Voltage can be stepped up or stepped down by using It is not possible
transformer
3. Transmission cost is less Cost High
4. Less maintenance High maintenance
5. Power up to 5,00,000 kw can be generated in a single Power up to 10,000 kw can be generated in a single
alternator. generator
6. AC generator can run at high speeds. So, speed It can’t run at high speeds. Speed control is easy.
control is not easy.
7. Slip rings and brushes are used to collect the current. Commutator and brushes are used to collect the
current
Advantages of A.C. Electro motive force (EMF)
i In transmission there is saving in copper wire. It is the force which causes to flow the free electrons in any
closed circuit due to difference in electrical pressure or
ii Since there is no spark in A.C. machine there is no potential. It is represented by ‘E.’ Its unit is Volt.
interference in Radio sound.
Potential difference (P.D)
iii This can be produced to maximum voltage i.e. 33000
volts. This is the difference in electrical potential measured
across two points of the circuit. Potential difference is
iv Voltage can be dropped or raised with the help of always less than EMF. The supply voltage is called
transformers. potential difference. It is represented by V.
v Its mechanism is simple and cheap. Voltage
vi Output is more due to availability of more than one It is the electric potential between two lines or phase and
phase. neutral. Its unit is volt. Voltmeter is used to measure
Disadvantages of A.C.: voltage and it is connected parallel between the supply
terminals.
i A single phase motor is not self-starter.
Volt
ii Due to thin wire in A.C., the voltage drop is more.
It is defined as when a current of 1 ampere flows through a
iii It cannot be used for electroplating and in charging resistance of 1 ohm, it is said to have potential difference
secondary cells. of 1 volt.
iv The speed of motors run by it is difficult to change. Current
v There is danger to security due to high voltage. It is the flow of electrons in any conductor is called current.
Electrical terms and units It is represented by I and its unit is Ampere. Ammeter is
used to measure the current by connecting series with the
Quantity of electricity circuit.
The strength of the current in any conductor is equal to the Ampere
quantity of electrical charge that flows across any section
of it in one second. If ‘Q’ is the charge and ‘t’ is the time When 6.24 x 1018 electrons flow in one second across any
taken cross section of any conductor, the current in it is one
Q ampere.(or) If the potential difference across the two ends
then I= Q=I x t of a conductor is 1 volt and the resistance of conductor is
t
1 ohm then the current through is 1 ampere.
The SI unit of current is coulomb. Coulomb is equivalent to Resistance
the charge contained in nearly 6.24 x 1018 electrons.
It is the property of a substance to oppose to the flow of
Coulomb electric current through it, is called resistance. Symbol: R,
In an electric circuit if one Ampere of current passes in one Unit : Ohm (), Ohm meter is used to measure the
second, then it is called one coulomb. It is also called resistance.
ampere second (As). Its larger unit is ampere hour (AH)
1 AH = 3600 As (or) 3600 coulomb

Ohm 4 depends on the temperature of the conductor
If the potential difference across the two ends of conductor 1 L L
is 1 volt and the current through it is 1 ampere, then the R α L ; R α ; R α ; R = ρ
A A A
resistance of the conductor is 1 Ohm.
Specific resistance
Laws of resistance
The specific resistance of a material is the resistance
The resistance offered by conductor depends on the offered to a current it passed between the opposite faces
following factors. of the unit cube of the material. Specific resistance is
The resistance of the conductor measured in Ohm - m or micro ohm - cm.
1 is directly proportional to the length of the conductor Each mateiral has its own specific resistance or
(R  L) resistivity.
2 Varies inversely proportional to its cross sectional area E.g. : Copper - 1.72  cm, Silver - 1.64  cm,
Eureka - 38.5  cm, Iron - 9.8  cm,
⎛ 1⎞
of the conductor ⎜ R α ⎟ Aluminium - 2.8  cm, Nickel - 7.8 cm.
⎝ A⎠
3 Depends on the material with which it is made. ρl

R = ohm cm
A
R = Resistance in ohms
l = Length of the conductor in cm
r = Specific Resistance in ohm cm
(symbol pronounced as rho)
A = Area of cross - section in cm2

Basic electricity - Conductor, insulator, types of connections - series and
parallel Exercise 1.7.34
Conductors Aluminium
Some materials and metals readily allow passage for It is a metal light in weight. It is also ductile, malleable and
electric current to flow. In such materials, called conduc- a good conductor of electricity. Nowadays, it is more
tors, electrons are able to pass readily from atom to atom. widely used (since it is cheaper than copper) for wires and
cables. All aluminium conductors (AAC) and aluminium
Properties of conductors conductors (steel reinforced) (ACSR) are used in overhead
A good conductor should have the following properties. and transmission lines. (More details on copper and
aluminium are furnished under the topic ‘non-ferrous
Electrical properties
metals and alloys as applicable to electrical trades’).
• The conductivity must be good.
RESISTANCE WIRES
• Electrical energy spent in the form of heat must be low.
These are conductors with very high resistance for specific
• Resistivity must be low (to reduce voltage drop and applications like filaments of incandescent lamps, heating
loss). elements etc. The following are a few examples:
• Increase in resistance with temperature must be low. 1 Tungsten 2 Nichrome 3 Eureka
Mechanical properties 4 German silver 5 Manganin 6 Platinum
• Ductility (the property of being drawn into thin wires). 7 Mercury 8 Carbon 9 sBrass.
• Solderability: the joint should have minimum contact The resistance values of the metallic resistances will
resistance. increase with increase in temperature.
• Resistance to corrosion: should not get rusted when insulators
used outdoors.
Description
• Should withstand stress and strain.
These are the materials which offer very high resistance to
• It should be easy to fabricate. the flow of current and make current flow very negligible or
nil. These materials have very high resistance - usually of
Economical factors many megohms (1 megohm = 106 ohms) per centimetre
• Low cost. cube. The insulators should also posseses high dielectric
strength. This means that the insulating material should
• Easy availability.
not break down or puncture even on application of a high
• Easy to manufacture. voltage (or high electrical pressure) to a given thickness.
Classification of conductors Properties of insulators
Conductors The main requirements of a good insulating material are:
• high specific resistance (many megohms/cm cube) to
Metallic Electrolytic Gaseous reduce the leakage currents to a negligible value
The best conductors are metallic. The commonly used • good dielectric strength i.e. high value of breakdown
conductors in electrical appliances and machines are voltage (expressed in kilovolts per mm)
described hereunder.
• good mechanical strength, in tension or compression
Silver (It must resist the stresses set up during erection and
under working conditions.)
It is a soft and extremely malleable metal. Even though it
is the best conductor, its use is limited because of its high • little deterioration with rise in temperature (The insulat-
cost. ing properties should not change much with the rise in
temperature i.e. when electrical machines are loaded.)
Copper
• non-absorption of moisture, when exposed to damp
It is a very good conductor. It is mealleable and ductile, and
atmospheric condition. (The insulating properties,
also has high resistance to corrosion by liquids. Therefore,
specially specific resistance and dielectric strength
it is widely used for wires, cables, overhead conductors,
decrease considerably with the absorption of even a
busbars and conducting parts of various electrical appli-
slight amount of moisture.)
ances.
101
Classification of insulators (Fig 1)
Air is an example of a gaseous insulator. Other examples

are hydrogen, nitrogen and inert gases.
Liquid insulators
Mineral oils, synthetic liquids, resins and varnishes are the
liquid insulators.
Transformer oil
In transformers the oil is used as an insulator and also
forcooling of the transformer windings by convection.
Therefore, the transformer oil should be dry and purified,
since the presence of moisture will reduce the dielectric
strength of the oil. According to ISI specifications, the oil should be able to
withstand 40 kV for one minute with a gap (4 mm ± 0.02
Purpose of transformer oil mm) between the electrodes and with the diameter of the
• Transfer of heat by convection, from winding and core to electrodes as 13 mm.
the cooling surfaces. Moisture test : In this test, an oil sample is cooled in a
• It maintains the insulation of winding and also closed vessel down to 15-25°. A dry test tube, 12.5 mm in
extinguishes fire that occurs due to faults occurring in diameter and 125 mm long, is taken and an adequate
the windings. quantity of oil is poured into it.
Precaution The tube containing the oil is heated rapidly with the help
of an electric heater till the oil begins to boil. During the
The insulating value of a transformer oil is reduced due to process, oil should not produce cracking.
the formation of sludge as a result of oxidation due to air and
temperature. To minimise oxidation, the oil should not be The other tests are:
exposed to air. • acidity test
Sludge is also formed due to the presence of acids and • sludge resistance test.
alkalis.
Electrical insulating varnishes
Sludge formation
They are of two types
• Reduces the rate of heat transfer.
Oil and resin varnishes.
• Blocks the ducts.
Solid insulators/insulating materials
• Increases the operating temperature.
Sl. Classification Examples
To prevent moisture from entering the oil, the whole No.
apparatus is made airtight, and calcium chloride, silicagel
fillets are used. 1 Mineral insulators Mica, marble, slate.
Testing of transformer oil as per ISI Standard (Fig 2) 2 Vitreous materials Glass, quartz, procelain.
Dielectrical strength test (Refer to Fig 2) : The oil should be 3 Rubber and rubber Rubber, vulcanised
40 mm above and 40 mm below the electrodes. The gap products (India) rubber (V.I.R)
between the two electrodes should be kept at 4 mm ± 0.02 ebonite
mm). 4 Waxes and compounds Paraffin wax, bitumen.
A high voltage is applied across the electrodes through a 5 Fibrous materials Asbestos, paper, wood,
step-up transformer, and increased till there is a spark in Press pahn, leatheroid,
between the electrodes. The voltage noted on the voltmeters, cotton, silk, tapes etc.
when the spark occurs, is the breakdown voltage or
dielectric strength of the oil. This is the maximum voltage 6 Synthetic products Bakelite, shellac, oil
the oil can withstand. (for Transformer,
Switchgear etc).

Paper tops of the batteries etc. It is waterproof, but it will crack
Various grades of insulating paper are available for use in under certain conditions. It can be valcanised in the same
capacitors, cables, etc. Paper, if moist, loses its insulat- manner as rubber.
ing property. Therefore, it is used in an impregnated Mica
condition.
It is a mineral and available as large slabs. It can be easily
Wood separated into thin sheets. It is fireproof, waterproof, and
It is impregnated with oil or other substance for use as an is a good insulator. It should be used carefully since it is
insulator. liable to crack. It is used in heating elements of electric iron
etc.
For example, in machine windings, bamboo wood is used
as slot wedges. Marble and slate
Press board Marble and slate are mechanically strong insulators and
are non- hygroscopic. When polished they form good
It is widely used in windings to insulate parts which support
mountings for switchboards, switches, resistance frames,
windings. It is also used as spacers in electrical devices
etc. Slate is used generally for low voltages.
and transformers.
Micanite
Asbestos
A fibrous, incombustible, fireproof material - used for panel It is made by sticking together pieces of mica with
boards and as frames for winding resistance wires of insulating cement like shellac. It can be bent to any shape
regulators, rheostats etc. by heating and pressing. Therefore, it is used as insulator
for slots of armatures and to insulate the commutator from
Cotton the shaft.
It is soaked in paraffin to avoid moisture. It is a good Paraffin wax
insulator for low voltages. It is used in conductors for
armatures and field coils. It melts at 55°C and does not absorb water. It is used to
impregnate paper, wood, pressboard etc to reduce their
Silk moisture absorption.
Like cotton, it is used for small jobs like telephone coils.
Bakelite
Tapes
It can be moulded to any shape. It is heat-resistant and
Tapes of various types are used, such as cotton, silk, jute highly insulating. It will not absorb oil and moisture. It is
etc either pure or in impregnated form. used for bodies of switches, plugs, holders, regulators etc.
Empire cloth Rubber
It is made by varnishing a cotton cloth, silk or paper. It is It has high insulating properties. It is used mainly on
not effected by moisture. It is available in yellow and black lighting cables and for flexible cables. It deteriorates
colours in different sizes. It is used as slots insulation in gradually when exposed to atmosphere. Rubber is being
winding works and for coil insulation. replaced now by elastic plastics such as PVC or polyeth-
Press pahn ylene which can resist alkalis, acids and mineral oils.
Press pahn is a form of paper made from hemp, rags, and Valcanised India Rubber (VIR)
wood pulp by special chemical treatment. It is widely used This is manufactured by treating pure rubber with sulphur.
for lining armature slots, insulating coil sides, etc. It is stronger than pure rubber and is not affected much by
Leatheroid change in temperatures. It is used as coverings for low and
It is a tough material made from cotton rags with chemical medium voltage wires and cables.
treatment. It is unaffected by grease or oil and is used for Ebonite or vulcanite
slot and coil insulation, transformer core coverings, etc.
Ebonite or Vulcanite is vulcanised rubber containing about
Adhesive tape 30% to 50% of sulphur, and subjected to a prolonged
It is used widely for taping of ends of conductors, leads and heating at 150°C. The material is hard and can be moulded
connections. Adhesive tape is made from cotton fabric into different shapes. It is less affected by chemicals and
coated with a compound of rubber, bitumen, resin, gum, moisture. It is used for making containers of lead acid
batteries, cases for instruments and switchgears, terminal
plates and low voltage panel boards etc. It should not be
etc. It dries when exposed to air. It is available in sizes ",
subjected to heat.
3/4", 1" etc. These are also available as P.V.C. adhesive Shellac
tape, cotton and bitumen tapes.
It is a good varnish which is used to improve the insulation
Bitumen and moisture resisting properties of paper, cloth, wood,
It is used for filling cable jointing boxes and for sealing the slate etc.

Enamel Class C – maximum temperature above 180°C
By this, an insulation coating is given on winding wires. Mica, porcelain and other ceramics, glass, quartz, asbes-
tos, treated glass fibre textile, treated asbestos, built up
Polychloroprene (PCP)
mica treated with silicone resins possessing superior
It is a plastic material used for insulation of cables. It is thermal stability (limited stability up to 225°C).
resistant to oil and petrol. It can be used in conditions of
Series Connection
exposure to sulphur fumes, steam, ammonia, lactic acid
and direct sunlight. The total resistance is equal to the sum of all the resis-
tances. In a series connection the end of the first load is
Glass
connected to the beginning of the second load and all loads
It is heat-resistant and suitable for high temperatures. It is are connected end to end. (Fig 3)
used as insulators, envelopes for lamps, radio tubes etc.
Quartz
Quartz (Silica) is a good insulator. As it has a very low
temperature coefficient of expansion, it does not crack with
sudden variations in temperature. It is used for pyrometer
sheaths, for heating elements, sparking plugs, etc.
Porcelain
Porcelain is not so brittle as glass and is very widely used
for carrying bare conductors, for making fuse carriers and
other electrical fittings.
Red fibre
Mainly used in motor and transformer winding work, for slot Features of series connection:
insulation, separators etc. • The same current flows through all the loads.
Insulators classified according to their temperature • The voltage across each load is proportional to the
limits resistance of the load.
The permissible temperature limit at which the insulators • The sum of the voltages across each load is equal to the
may be worked safely without deterioration, depends upon applied voltage.
the type and class of the insulation as detailed below.
(IS:1271/1958) • The Total resistance is equal to the sum of all the
resistances.
Class Y – maximum temperature 90°C
l = l1 = l2 = ...
Cotton, silk, paper products, press board, wood, valcanised
fibre - not impregnated or immersed in oil. V = V1+ V2+ ...
Class A – maximum temperature 105°C R = R1+ R2+ ...
Cotton, silk, paper products, wood, valcanised fibre when Example

impregnated or immersed in liquid dielectric, varnished Three resistances of 3 ohms, 9 ohms and 5 ohms are
paper and wire enamel (class A). connected in series. Find their resultant resistance.
Class E – maximum temperature 120°C Solution
Wire enamel, cotton fabric and paper laminates treated R = R1 + R2 + R3
with oil, modified asphalt and synthetic resins, varnished
polyethylene, textile treated with suitable varnish. =3+9+5
Class B – Maximum temperature 130°C Total resistance = 17 
Glass fibre, asbestos, varnished glass fibre, textile, var- Parallel connection
nished asbestos, built up mica treated with synthetic resin In a parallel connection the beginning and the ends of the
varnishes. loads are connected together.
Class F – maximum temperature 155°C Features of parallel connection:
Similar to class B materials but treated with silicone • The current flowing through each load depends upon
resins. the resistance of the load.
Class H – maximum temperature 180°C • The voltage across each load is the same and is equal
Same as class F materials but treated with silicone resins to the voltage applied to the circuit.
of higher thermal stability than class F.

24
Therefore R  ohms = 2.4 ohms
10
Example
Two resistors of 2 and 4 ohms are switched in parallel
to a 6V battery
– Calculate the total resistance
– Find the total current and partial current.
• The total resistance of a parallel connection is always Solution

smaller than the smallest resistance in the circuit.
• In parallel connection the reciprocal of the total Total resistance
resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of all
resistances in the circuit. 1 1 1
= +
R tot R1 R 2
l = l1 + l2 + ...
1 1 2 +1
V = V1 = V2 ... = + =
2 4 4
1 1 1 3 Ω
   .......... =
R R R 4
1 2 4 1
R tot = = 1 Ω
Example 3 3
Two resistances of 4 ohms and 6 ohms are connected in I Total = I1 + I2 current

parallel. Determine the total resistance.
U 6V
1 1 1 But I 1 = = = 3A
   R1 2Ω
R R R (since parallel connection)
1 2 U 6V
I2 = = = 1.5A
R2 4Ω
1 1 1 10
Therefore    I total = 3A + 1.5A
R 4 6 24
= 4.5 Amp
Assignment
1 R1 = 12 ohms 3 V = 220 v
R2 = 22 ohms R1 = 40 ohms
R3 = 24 ohms in series V1 = 100 v
R = ______ ohms (in series) R2
= ______ ohms
2 R1 = 15 ohms
R2 = 25 ohms 4 V = 80 v
I =2A
V = 220 v
V1 = ______ v R1 = 30 ohms
V2 = ______ v (in series)
R2 = ______ ohms

5 Vt = 3.5 v 9 R1 = 6 ohms
I = 0.2 A R2 = 12 ohms
V = 60 v R3 = 18 ohms
Series Resistor R = ______ ohms
RV = ______ ohms
6 R1 = R2 = 484W in 10 R = 6 ohms
series R1,R2,R3 are in parallel
V = 220 v R1 = 12 ohms
R = ______ ohms R2 = 16 ohms
V1 = ______ v R3 = ______ ohms
V2 = ______ v
7 VL = 40 v 11 R1 = 40 ohms
RL = 20 ohms R2 = 60 ohms
V = 220 v V = 220 v
Vv = ______ v I = ______ A
(in series) I1 = ______ A
Rv = ______ ohms I2 = ______ A
8 Ri = 10 k W 12
Vv = 80 v R2 = ______ W
increased to V = 240 v R = ______ W
Series resistance
Rv = ______ k W

Basic electricity - Ohm’s law, relation between V.I.R & related problems
Exercise 1.7.35
Ohm’s law
V - Voltage in volts
l - Current in Ampere
R - Resistance in ohms.
In any closed circuit the basic parametres of electricity
(Voltage, Current and resistance) are in a fixed relationship
to each other.
Basic values
To clarify the basic electrical values, they can be compared
to a water tap under pressure
Water pressure - electron pressure - Voltage Relationships
Amount of water - electron flow - Current If the resistance is kept constant and the voltage is
throttling of tap - obstruction to - Resistance increased, the current is increased
electron flow IV
If voltage is constant and the resistance is increased,
current is decreased
l 
Ohm’s law
From the above two relationships we obtain Ohm’s law,
which is conveniently written as V = R.I.
Ohm’s law states that at constant temperature

the current passing through a closed circuit is
directly proportional to the potential differ-
ence, and inversely proportional to the resis-
tance.
By Ohm’s law
EXAMPLE
A bulb takes a current of 0.2 amps at a voltage of 3.6 volts.
Determine the resistance of the filament of the bulb to find
R. Given that V = 3.6 V and l = 0.2 A.
To find ‘R’. Given that V = 3.6V and I = 0.2 A

Therefore V = l x R
3.6 V = 0.2 A x R
Therefore
107
Example Resistance connections
The voltage supply to a filament lamp is 10.8V. The voltage V - Voltage (in volts)
should be 12V. Find out loss of voltage.(Fig 5)
R - Resistance (in ohms)
I - Current intensity (in Amperes)
Series Connection
The total resistance is equal to the sum of all the resis-
tances. In a series connection the end of the first load is
connected to the beginning of the second load and all loads
are connected end to end.
Voltage drop = 12V – 10.8 = 1.2V

The supply voltage is called Potential differ-
ence.
Example
The Internal resistance of a dynamo is 0.1 ohm. The
voltage of dynamo is 12V. What is the Voltage of dynamo
when a current of 20 amps being supplied to an outside
circuit.
Features of series connection:
Solution
• The same current flows through all the loads.
Voltage drop = Current x Internal resistance
• The voltage across each load is proportional to the
= 20 x 0.1 volts resistance of the load.
= 2 volts • The sum of the voltages across each load is equal to the
Example (Fig 6) applied voltage.
The Internal resistance of a Battery is 2 ohms. When a • The Total resistance is equal to the sum of all the
resistance of 10 ohms is connected to a battery it draws 0.6 resistances.
amps. What is the EMF of the battery. l = l1 = l2 = ...
P.D = Current flowing x Resistance V = V1+ V2+ ...
= 0.6 A x 10 R = R1+ R2+ ...
= 6 volts Example
V.D = Current flowing x Internal resistance of battery Three resistances of 3 ohms, 9 ohms and 5 ohms are
= 0.6 x 2 volts connected in series. Find their resultant resistance.
= 1.2 volts Solution
EMF of the Battery = (6.00 + 1.2)V R = R1 + R2 + R3
= 7.2 volts =3+9+5

Total resistance = 17 
Parallel connection
In a parallel connection the beginning and the ends of the
loads are connected together.
Features of parallel connection:
• The current flowing through each load depends upon
the resistance of the load.
• The voltage across each load is the same and is equal
to the voltage applied to the circuit.

Example
Two resistors of 2 and 4 ohms are switched in parallel
to a 6V battery
– Calculate the total resistance
– Find the total current and partial current.
Solution
• The total resistance of a parallel connection is always Total resistance

smaller than the smallest resistance in the circuit.
1 1 1
• In parallel connection the reciprocal of the total = +
R tot R1 R 2
resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of all
1 1 2 +1
resistances in the circuit. = + =
2 4 4
l = l1 + l2 + ... 3 Ω
=
V = V1 = V2 ... 4
4 1
R tot = = 1 Ω
1 1 1 3 3
   ..........
R R R
1 2 I Total = I1 + I2 current
Example U 6V
But I 1 = = = 3A
R1 2Ω
Two resistances of 4 ohms and 6 ohms are connected in
parallel. Determine the total resistance. U 6V
I2 = = = 1.5A
R2 4Ω
1 1 1
   I total = 3A + 1.5A
R R R (since parallel connection)
1 2 = 4.5 Amp
1 1 1 10 Assume the given resistors in the assignment

Therefore    as bulb with filaments and other current con-
R 4 6 24
suming devices like Horn, Wiper etc of the
24 vehicle.
Therefore R  ohms = 2.4 ohms
10
Assignment
1 R = 40 Ohms 2 V = 6 Volts
I = 6.5 Amps I = 0.5 Amps
V = ______ Volts R = ______ Ohms

3 V = 220 Volts 7 R = 250 Ohms
R = 820 Ohms I = 0.44 Amps
I = ______ Amps V = ______ Volts
4 I = 4.5 Amps 8 I = 11.5 Amps

V = 220 Volts V = 380 Volts
R = ______ Ohms R =______ Ohms.
5 R = 50 Ohms
9 R = 22 Ohms
V = 220 Volts
= 7.8 Amps
I = _____ Amps
(Voltage drop)
V = ______ Volt
6 V = 110 Volts
I = 4.55 Amps
R =_____ Ohms

Basic electricity - Electrical power, energy and their units, calculation with
assignments Exercise 1.7.36
Electric Power
In mechanical terms we defined power as the rate of doing
work. The unit of power is Watt. In an electrical circuit also
the unit of electrical power is 1 Watt. In mechanical terms
1 Watt is the work done by a force of 1 N to move the body
through 1 metre in one second. In an electrical circuit, the
electromotive force overcomes the resistance and does
work. The rate of doing work depends upon the current V - Voltage (Volts) V
flowing in the circuit in amperes. When an e.m.f of one volt
causes a current of 1 ampere to flow the power is 1 Watt. i - Current Intensity (Ampheres) A
Hence Power = Voltage x Current P - Power (Watts, Kilowatts) W, kW
P= V x l W - Work, Energy (Watt hour, Kilowatt hour) wh, Kwh
Power in Watts = Voltage in Volts x Current in Amperes t - time (hours) h
Electric work, energy
Electrical work or energy is the product of electrical power
and time
Work in Watt seconds = Power in Watts x time in sec
seconds
W=Pxt
Since 1 joule represents 1 Watt x 1 sec, which is very
small, larger units such as 1 Watt hour and 1 kilowatt hour
are used.
1 W.h = 3600 Watt sec.
1 Kwh = 1000 Wh = 3600000 Watt sec
Note: The charge for electric consumption is
the energy cost per Kwh and it varies according
to the country and states.
Table of analogies between mechanical and electrical quantities
Mechanical quantity Unit Electrical quantity Unit
Force 'F’ N Voltage ‘V’ V

Displaceme nt
Velocity v = m/s Current I A
Time
Time t seconds Time t seconds
m
Power P = F x v N Power P = V x i W=VxA
sec
Energy = F x v x t j = Nm Energy W = V x i x t j=Wxs
W = VI V = IR
= I2 R W
=
V 2 I
=
R = WR
V V
R = I =
I R
V2 W
= =
W V
W W
= =
I 2 R
111
Example
V
Current (I) =
1 Calculate the power rating of the lamp in the R
circuit, if 0.25 amperes of current flows and the
220
voltage is 240 volts. = 2 amperes
110
P=VxI Power (w) = VxI
V = 240 Volts = 220 x 2
I = 0.25 Amperes = 440 watts
Therefore Power = 240 Volts x 0.25 Amperes 6 Find the total power if four 1000 W, 180 volt
= 60 Volts Ampere heaters are connected in series across 240 V
But 1 Watt = 1 Volt x 1 Amphere supply and current carrying capacity is 15 amp.
Find the total power.
Therefore Power = 60 Watts
Connection = Series
2 A current of 15 amperes flow through a resistance No. of heaters = 4
of 10 Ohms. Calculate the power in kilowatts
consumed. Heater power (W) = 1000 watts
Given that R = 10 and I = 15A Heater voltage = 180 V
Power = V x I = I x R x I = I2 x R Supply voltage = 240 V
Therefore Power = 152 x 10 = 2250 Watts = 2.25 kW V2
Heater resistance (R) =
3 At a line voltage of 200 Volts a bulb consumes a W
current of 0.91 ampheres. If the bulb is on for 12 180 x 180 324
hour calculate the work in Wh to find the work = =
1000 10
given that V = 200 Volts.
= 32.4 ohms
I = 0.91 Amps.
Total resistance = 32.4 x 4 = 129.6 ohms
t = 12 hours
V
Total current (I) =
R
240
= = 1.85 amperes
129.6
Total Power (W) = VxI
= 240 x 1.85 = 444 watts
7 If a 40 watt fluorescent lamp draws a current of
0.10 ampere. How much voltage will be required
to illuminate it?
Lamp power (W) = 40 watt
Therefore Power=V x I = 200 Volts x 0.91 Amps Current (I) = 0.10 ampere
= 182 Watts W
Voltage (V) =
Therefore Work = P x t = 182 Watts x 12 hours I
= 2184 Watt hour. 40
= = 400 volts
4 An adjustable resistor bears the following label: 0.1
1.5 k Ohms/0.08 A. What is its rated power?
8 Find the cost of running 15 HP motor for 15 days @
Given: R = 1.5 k Ohms; I = 0.08 A 6 hrs per day and the cost of energy is Rs. 3 per unit.
Find: P Motor power (w) = 15 HP
V = R x I = 1500 Ohms.0.08 A = 120 volts = 15 x 746 = 11,190 watts
P = V x I = 120 volts.0.08 A = 9.6 W alternatively: Consumption per day = 11,190 x 6
P = 12.R = (0.08 A)2.1500 Ohms = 9.6 W.
= 67140 = 67.14 KWH
5 Find the current and power consumed by an
Consumption for 15 days = 67.14 x 15
 resistance when feed
electric iron having 110
from a 220 v supply = 1007 KWH (or) unit
Resistance of electric iron (R) = 110 ohms Cost per unit = Rs. 3
Voltage (V) = 220 volts Cost for total energy = 3 x 1007 = Rs. 3021

Assignment
1 Current Consumed 9 P = 100 W

I = 0.136 A t = 1 hour
Voltage ‘V’ = 220 V Energy consumption
P = _____ Watts = ______ kWh
10 Energy consumed
2 P = 500 Watts ‘W’ = 1 kWh
I = 2.27 A Power ‘P’ = 100 W
V = ______ v t = ______ hr
11 W = 1.5 kWh
3 P = 750 W
t = 45 min.
V = 220 v
P = ______ kW.
I = ______ A
4 P = 60 W 12 Energy metre reading

W1 = 6755.3 kWh
V = 200 v Increases to W2
R = ______ W = 6759.8 kWh
t = 45 min.
P = ______ kW.
5 I = 0.455 A 13 Power consumed

R = 484 ohms ‘P’ = 6.2 kW
t = 8 hours
P = ______ Watts
Charge per kwh
= 1.25 Rupees
6 P = 550 W Total cost
R = 22 ohms = ______ Rupees
I = ______ A
14 I = 5.45 A
V = 220 v
7 P consumed = 1.8 kW Energy consumed
R = 8 ohms
= 1 kWh
V = ______ v
t = ______ hr.
8 I consumed = ____ A
P = 2 kW
V1 = 220V (Heating
element voltage)
R = ______ W

Basic electricity - Magnetic induction, self and mutual inductance and EMF
generation Exercise 1.7.37
Magnetic induction Self-induction: The production of an electromotive force in
a circuit, when the magnetic flux linked with the circuit
When a magnet is brought near to an iron bar is brought
changes as a result of the change in a current inducing in
near to a magnet, a magnetism is produced in the iron bar.
the same circuit.
The phenomenon is known as magnetic induction. Actu-
ally, before attracting an iron bar towards it, a magnet At any instant, the direction of the magnetic field is
induces an opposite polarity in the iron bar and then due to determined by the direction of the current flow.
attraction between unlike poles, magnet attracts the iron
With one complete cycle, the magnetic field around the
bar. The magnet need not to touch the iron bar for magnetic
conductor builds up and then collapses. It then builds up
induction.
in the opposite direction, and collapses again. When the
In various electrical measuring instruments, soft iron pole magnetic field begins building up from zero, the lines of
pieces are used along with bar magnets in order to given the force or flux lines expand from the centre of the conductor
desired shape to the magnet used, such pole piece work outward. As they expand outward, they can be thought of
on the principle of magnetic induction. cutting through the conductor.
Intensity of magnetic field Self induction
The force acting on a unit pole placed in a magnetic field According to Faraday’s Laws, an emf is induced in the
(attractive or repulsive force) is called the intensity of conductor. Similary, when the magnetic field collapses,
magnetic field. It is denoted by letter H and its unit is the flux lines cut through the conductor again, and an emf
Wb/m. is induced once again. This is called self-induction (Fig 1).
Principles and laws of electromagnetic induction
Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction are also
applicable for conductors carrying alternating current.
Faraday’s laws of elctromagnetic induction
Faraday’s first law states that whenever the magnetic
flux is linked with a circuit changes, an emf is always
induced in it.
The second law states that the magnitude of the induced
emf is equal to the rate of change of flux linkage.
Dynamically induced EMF
Accordingly induced emf can be produced either by moving Mutual induction
the conductor in a stationery magnetic field or by changing When two or more coils one magnetically linked together
magnetic flux over a stationery conductor. When conductor by a common magnetic flux, they are said have the
moves and produces emf, the emf is called as dynamically property of mutual inductance. It is the basic operating
induced emf Example: Generators. principal of the transformer, motor generators and any
Statically induced EMF other electrical component that interacts with another
magnetic field. It can define mutual induction on the current
When changing flux produces emf the emf is called as flowing in one coil that induces as voltage in an adjacent
statically induced emf as explained below. coil.
Example:Transformer.
In the Fig 2 current flowing in coil L1 sets up a magnetic field
Statically induced emf: When the induced emf is pro- around it self with some of its magnetic field line passing
duced in a stationery conductor due to changing magnetic through coil L2 giving in mutual inductance coil one L on
field, obeying Faraday’s laws of electro magnetism, the has a current of I, and N, turns while coil two L2, has N2
induced emf is called as statically induced emf. turns therfore mutual inductance M, of coil two that exists
There are two types of statically induced emf as stated with respect to coil one L, depend on their position with
below: inspect to each other.
1 Self induced emf produced with in the same coil. The mutual inductance M that exists between the two coils
can be greately measured by positioning them on a
2 Mutually induced emf produced in the neighbouring common soft iron cone or by measuring the number of turns
coil. of either coil on wound be found in a transformer.
114
permanently closed or opened, the flux produced by coil 1
becomes static or zero respectively and no emf will be
induced in coil 2. EMF will be induced only when there is
a change in flux which happens during the closing or
opening of the circuit of coil 1 by the switch in a DC circuit.
Alternatively the battery and switch could be removed and
coil 1can be connected to an AC supply as shown in Fig4.
Then an emf will be induced in coil 2 continuously as long
as coil 1 is connected to an AC source which produces
alternating magnetic flux in coil 1 and links with coil 2. THis
principle is used in transformers.
The two coils are tightly wound one on top of the other over
a common soft iron core unit said to exist between them as
any losses due to the leakage of flux will be extremely
small. Then assuring a perfect flux leakage between the
two coils the mutual inductance M.
Dynamically induced EMF
Generator: An electrical generator is a machine which
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Principle of the Generator: To facilitate this energy
conversion, the generator works on the principle of Faraday’s
Laws of Electromagnetic induction.
Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction: There
are two laws
The first law states:
• whenever the flux linking to a conductor or circuit
changes, an emf will be induced.
The second law states:
• the magnitude of such induced emf (e) depends upon
the rate of change of the flux linkage.
Types of emf: According to Faraday’s Laws, an emf can
be induced, either by the relative movement of the conduc-
tor and the magnetic field or by the change of flux linking
on a stationary conductor.
Dynamically induced emf: In case, the induced emf is
due to the movement of the conductor in a stationary
magnetic field as shown in Fig 3a or by the movement of the
magnetic field on a stationary conductor as shown in Fig
3b, the induced emf is called dynamically induced emf.
As shown in Fig 3a & 3b, the conductor cuts the lines of Production of dynamically induced emf: Whenever a
force in both cases to induce an emf, and the presence of conductor cuts the magnetic flux, a dynamically induced
the emf could be found by the deflection of the needle of the emf is produced in it. This emf causes a current to flow if
galvanometer ‘G’. This principle is used in DC and AC the circuit of the conductor is closed.
generators to produce electricity. For producting dynamically induced emf, the requirements
Statically induced emf: In case, the induced emf is due are:
to change of flux linkage over a stationary conductor as • magnetic field
shown in Fig 2, the emf thus induced is termed as statically
induced emf. The coils 1 and 2 shown in Fig 2 are not • conductor
touching each other, and there is no electrical connection • relative motion between the conductor and the mag-
between them. netic field.
According to Fig 4, when the battery (DC) supply is used If the conductor moves with a relative velocity ‘v’ with
in coil 1, an emf will be induced in coil 2 only at the time of respect to the field, then the induced emf ‘e’ will be
closing or opening of the switch S. If the switch is
= BLV Sin Volts
where pattern of induced emf in a conductor when it rotates under
N and S poles of uniform magnetic field.
B = magnetic flux density, measured in tesla
The emf induced by this process is basically alternating in
L = effective length of the conductor in the field in metres
nature, and this alternating current is converted into direct
V = relative velocity between field and conductor in current in a DC generator by the commutator.
metre/second.
Fleming’s right hand rule: The direction of dynamically
 = the angle at which the conductor cuts the magnetic induced emf can be identified by this rule. Hold the thumb,
field. forefinger and middle finger of the righ hand at right angles
to each other as shown in Fig 6 such that the forefinger is
in the direction of flux and the thumb is in the direction of
the motion of the conductor, then the middle finger indi-
cates the direction of emf induced, i.e. towards the ob-
server or away from the observer.
Likewise for every position of the remaining conductors in

the periphery, the emf induced could be calculated. If these
values are plotted on a graph, it will represent the sine wave

Basic electricity - Electrical power, HP, energy and units of electrical energy
Exercise 1.7.38
Electric Power Therefore Power=V x I = 200 Volts x 0.91 Amps
In mechanical terms we defined power as the rate of doing = 182 Watts
work. The unit of power is Watt. In an electrical circuit also
the unit of electrical power is 1 Watt. In mechanical terms Therefore Work = P x t = 182 Watts x 12 hours
1 Watt is the work done by a force of 1 N to move the body = 2184 Watt hour.
through 1 metre in one second. In an electrical circuit, the
electromotive force overcomes the resistance and does 4 What is its rated power if an adjustable resistor
work. The rate of doing work depends upon the current bears the following label: 1.5 k Ohms/0.08 A?
flowing in the circuit in ampheres. When an e.m.f of one volt Given: R = 1.5 k Ohms; I = 0.08 A
causes a current of 1 amphere to flow the power is 1 Watt. Find: P
Hence Power = Voltage x Current V = R.I = 1500 Ohms.0.08 A = 120 volts
P= V x l P = V.I = 120 volts.0.08 A = 9.6 W alternatively:
Power in Watts = Voltage in Volts x Current in Ampheres
P = I2.R = (0.08 A)2.1500 Ohms = 9.6 W.
Electric work, energy
5 Find the current and power consumed by an
Electrical work or energy is the product of electrical power electric iron having 110 resistance when feed
and time from a 220 v supply
Work in Watt seconds = Power in Watts x time in sec- Resistance of electric
onds iron (R) = 110 ohm
W=Pxt Voltage (V) = 220 volt
Since 1 joule represents 1 Watt x 1 sec, which is very V
small, larger units such as 1 Watt hour and 1 kilowatt hour Current (I) =
R
are used.
220
1 W.h = 3600 Watt sec. = 2 ampere
110
1 Kwh = 1000 Wh = 3600000 Watt sec Power (w) = VxI
EXAMPLE = 220 x 2
1 Calculate the power rating of the lamp in the = 440 watt

circuit, if 0.25 ampheres of current flows and the 6 Find the total power if four 1000 W, 180 volt heaters
voltage is 240 volts. are connected in series across 240 V supply and
P=VxI current carrying capacity is 15 amp.
V = 240 Volts Connection = Series
I = 0.25 Amperes No. of heaters = 4
Therefore Power = 240 Volts x 0.25 Amperes Heater power (W) = 1000 watt
= 60 Volts Ampere Heater voltage = 180 V
But 1 Watt = 1 Volt x 1 Amphere Supply voltage = 240 V
Therefore Power = 60 Watts
V2
2 Calculate the power in kilowatts consumed. if a Heater resistance (R) =
W
current of 15 amperes flow through a resistance of
10 Ohms. 180 x 180 324
= =
Given that R = 10 and I = 15A 1000 10
Power = V x I = I x R x I = I2 x R = 32.4 ohm
Therefore Power = 152 x 10 = 2250 Watts = 2.25 kW Total resistance = 32.4 x 4 = 129.6 ohm
3 calculate the work in Wh to find the work given V

Total current (I) =
that V = 200 Volts if a line voltage of 200 Volts a bulb R
consumes a current of 0.91 ampheres. If the bulb 240
is on for 12 hour = = 1.85 ampere
129.6
I = 0.91 Amps.
Total Power (W) = VxI
t = 12 hours = 240 x 1.85 = 444 watt
117
7 How much voltage will be required to illuminate Electric iron power (W) = 500 watt
if a 40 watt florescent lamp draws a current of 0.10
Voltage (V) = 220 volt
ampere?
Lamp power (W) = 40 watt V2
Resistance (R) =
Current (I) = 0.10 ampere W
W 220 x 220 484

= =
Voltage (V) = 500 5
I
= 96.8 ohm
40
= = 400 volt Circuit total resistance (R) = 96.8 + 10 = 106.8 ohm
0.1
8 Find the cost if running 15 HP motor for 15 days @ V
Current (I) =
6 hrs per day. If the cost of energy is Rs. 3 per unit. R
Motor power (w) = 15 HP 220
= 106.8 = 2.06 ampere
= 15 x 746 = 11,190 watt
Consumed power (W) = I2 R
Consumsion per day = 11,190 x 6
= 2.06 x 2.06 x 106.8
= 67140 = 67.14 KWH
= 453 watt
Consumsion for 15 days = 67.14 x 15
Reduction in power
= 1007 KWH (or) unit consumsion = 500 - 453 = 47 watt
Cost per unit = Rs. 3
47
Cost for total energy = 3 x 1007 = Rs. 3021 Percentage = x 100 = 9.4 %
500
9 What is the percentage reduction in power
consumption and How much power is consumed Power consumed by
by series resistance if the rating of an electric iron series resistance = I2 R
is 220 V and 500 watts. The equipment appears = 2.06 x 2.06 x 10
abnormally hot. To reduce this a 10 W resistance = 42.44 watt
is connected in series?
Assignment
1 Current Consumed 4 P = 50 W
I = 0.127 A V = 200 v
Voltage ‘V’ = 220 v R = ______ W
P = _____ Watts
2 P = 500 Watts 5 I = 0.455 A

I = 2.61 A R = 242 ohms
V = ______ v
P = ______ Watts
3 P = 650 W
V = 220 v 6 P = 440 W
I = ______ A R = 22 ohms
I = ______ A

7 P consumed = 1.5 kW 9 P = 100 W
R = 8 ohms t = 2 hours
V = ______ v Energy consumption
= ______ kWh
8
I consumed = ____ A
P = 1.5 kW
10 Energy consumed
V1 = 220 v-Heating
element voltage. ‘W’ = 1 kWh
R = ______ W Power ‘P’ = 200 W
t = ______ hr

Mensuration - Area and perimeter of square, rectangle and parallelogram
Exercise 1.8.39
In Engineering field, an Engineer has to estimate the Radius - r unit
material, manpower, machinery, etc. required to prepare
the geometrical objects. Hence we must be very Semiperimeter - S unit
conversant with all relevant formulae connected with Perimeter - P unit
geometrical objects.
Circumference - C unit
Length - l unit
Area - A unit2
Breadth or width - b unit
Total surface area - T.S.A unit2
Diagonal - d unit
Lateral surface area - L.S.A unit2
Diameter - d unit
Volume - V unit3
Square
This is also a four sided figure, opposite sides are parallel. Area (A) = a2
All the four sides are equal. All the sides are inclined at = 18 x 18 = 324 cm2
90º.
Perimeter of square = 72 cm
Diagonal = 25.45 cm ; Area = 324 cm2
2. If the diagonal of a square measure 10 cm. Find the

area of the square.
Diagonal of the square (d) = 2a = 10 cm
d
Side (a) =
2
A = a2 (or) unit2
d2
P = 4a unit Area (a2) =
2
d= 2 a unit
102 100
= =
d 2 2
a= unit where 2 = 1.414
2 = 50 cm 2
Find the area of a brass sheet in the form of a square Area of the square = 50 cm2
whose perimeter is 31.2 cm. 3. The perimeter of one square is 748 cm and that of
another is 336 cm. Find the perimeter of a square
Perimeter(P) = 4a = 31.2 cm
which is equal in area of the sum of the two.
31.2
a = = 7.8 cm Perimeter
4 Side of the square (a) =
4
Area (A) = a2 1st square
= 7.8 x 7.8 = 60.84 cm 2
Perimeter of 1st square
Examples Side (a) =
4
1 Find out the circumference, diagonal and area of 748
= = 187cm
a square, whose side is 18 cm. 4
Side of the square (a)= 18 cm Area (A) = a2
Perimeter (P) = 4a = 187 x 187
= 4 x 18 = 72 cm = 34,969 cm2
2nd square
Diagonal (d) = 2xa
Perimeter of 2nd square
= 2 x 18 = 1.414 x 18 Side (a) =
4
= 25.45 cm
336
= = 84cm
4
120
Area (A) = a2
Side (a) = 42,025 = 205 cm
= 84 x 84
Perimeter (P) =4xa
= 7,056 cm2
= 4 x 205
Total area of two squares = 34,969 + 7,056
= 820 cm
= 42,025 cm 2
Perimeter of 3rd square = 820 cm
Total area of two squares = 3 square areard
3rd square area = a2 = 42,025 cm2
Assignment
1 Find the Area, Perimeter and diagonal of a square steel 4 Find its side if the area of the square field is 169 m2.
plate whose side measures 28.1 cm. 5 Find the area of the square if the diagonal of the square
2 Find the area of a square whose diagonal is equal to is 20 cm.
8.5 cm. 6 Find the perimeter of a square whose diagonal is
3 Find the area of the square if the side of the square is 144 m.
28 cm. 7 Find the area if the perimeter of a square plot is 48 m.
Rectangle
This is a four sided figure. Opposite sides are parallel. P = 2(l + b) = 42
Angles between adjecent sides are 90º .
2(l + 9) = 42
A = Area = length x breadth = l.b.unit2
l + 9 = 42  2
P = Perimeter = 2 ( l + b ) unit
l + 9 = 21
2 2
Diagonal = l +b unit l = 21 - 9
Examples l = 12 cm
1 Find the Area, Perimeter and diagonal of a rectangle
3 The perimeter of a rectangle is 48 cm and its length is
whose length and breadth are 144 mm and 60 mm
4 cm more than its width. Find the length and breadth
respectively.
of the rectangle.
Area = A = l x b unit2
P = 48 cm
= 144 x 60 = 8640 mm2
b =x
Perimeter = P = 2 (l + b) unit
l =x+4
= 2(144 + 60)
2(l + b) = Perimeter
= 2 x 204 = 408 mm
2(x + 4 + x) = 48
Diagonal = d =
2
l +b
2
unit 2(2x + 4 ) = 48
4x + 8 = 48
= 2
144 + 60
2
4x = 48 - 8
= 20736 + 3600 40
x = = 10
= 24336 = 156 mm 4
x = breadth = 10 cm
2 The perimeter of a rectangle is equal to 42 cm. If its length = x + 4 = 10 + 4 = 14 cm
breadth is 9 cm. Find the length of the rectangle.
P = 42 cm
b = 9 cm
l =?

4 How many rectangular pieces of 50 cm x 20 cm can length l = 5x
be cut out from a sheet of 1000 cm x 500 cm.
breadth b = 3x
Sheet size = 1000 cm x 500 cm
2(l + b) = Perimeter
Size of the rectangular piece to be cut = 50 cm x 20 cm
2(5x + 3x) = 320
1000 2(8x) = 320
No. of pieces to be cut in lengthwise = = 20
50 16x = 320
500 320
No. of pieces to be cut in breadthwise = = 25 x = = 20
20 16
Total no. of pieces to be cut out = 20 x 25
l = 5x = 5 x 20 = 100 m
= 500
b = 3x = 3 x 20 = 60 m
5. The perimeter of a rectangle is 320 metre. Its sides Area =lxb
are in the ratio of 5:3. Find the area of the rectangle.
= 100 x 60
Ratio = 5:3 = l : b
= 6000 m2
Assignment
1 Find the area of a rectangular plot whose sides are 24 5 What is the width of the rectangle if a rectangle has an
metres and 20 metres respectively. Also find the area of 224 cm2 and length 16 cm.
perimeter of the plot.
6 What is the length of the diagonal of a rectangle with
2 How many rectangular pieces of 5 cm x 4 cm will you sides 16 cm and 12 cm?
get out of 65 cm x 30 cm brass sheet?
7 Find the area of the rectangle if the perimeter of the
3 Find its breadth and area if the perimeter of a rectangle rectangle is 100 cm and the ratio of its length and
is 400 metre and its length is 140 m. . breadth is 3:2.
4 Find its area, if the opposite sides of a rectangle are
64 cm and 25 cm respectively.
Parallelogram
This is also a four sided figure, opposite side being parallel Examples
to each other.
1 The base and height of a paralleologram are 7.1 cm
and 2.85 cm. Calculate its area.
A = base x height units2
= 7.1 x 2.85
= 20.235 cm2
2 Find the height of a parallelogram whose area is 20

cm2 and base is 10 cm.
A = base x height units2
Area of parallelogram = base x height
area
or = 2x s (s − a) (s − b) (s − c) h =
base
Where
20
a+b+c =
s= 10
2 = 2 cm
a,b and c are adjacent sides.
P = 2(a+b)

3. Two sides of a parallelogram are 12 cm and 8 cm. The
A = 2 x 15(15 - 12)(15 - 8)(15 - 10)
diagonal is 10 cm long. Find the area of the
parallelogram.
= 2 x 15 x 3 x 7 x 5
A = 2x s (s − a) (s − b) (s − c) units2
a+b+c = 2 x 1575
s =
2
= 2 x 39.686
12 + 8 + 10
=
2 = 79.37 cm2
30
=
2
= 15
Assignment
1 Find the area of a parallelogram, if its base and height 7 Find the area of parallelogram if its base and height
are 8.1 cm and 30.8 cm respectively. are 25 cm and 12 cm.
2 Find the area of a parallelogram, if the sides of a field 8 Find the base of a parallelogram if height is 15 cm and
in the shape of parallelogram are 12 m and 17 m and area is 150 cm2.
one of the diagonal is 25 m.
9 Find the area of parallelogram if side is 5 cm, diagonal
3 Find the base of a parallelogram whose height is is 8 cm and diagonal bisects each other at right angles.
12 cm and area is 120 cm2.
10 Find the height of a parallelogram if base is 80 cm and
4 Find the height of a parallelogram whose base is 40 area is 640 cm2.
cm and area is 320 cm2.
11 Find the area of parallelogram if its base and height
5 Find the area of the land if the sides of a land in the are 15 cm and 8 cm.
shape of a parallelogram are 24 m and 28 m respectively
and one of the diagonal is 30 m. 12 Calculate the perimeter and area of parallelogram if
base, height are 12.7 cm, 5.5 cm and other side is 6.5 cm
6 What is the perimeter of parallelogram if base is 10 cm
and other side is 5 cm? 13 Find the height of parallelogram if the area is 20 cm2
and base is 10 cm

Mensuration - Area and perimeter of Triangles Exercise 1.8.40
Triangles
Tri means three. Hence triangle means three angled
figure. For construction of three angled figure, there should
be three sides. Hence triangle means three sided figure.
Sum of the three angles of any triangle = 180º.
i Any triangle.
3
Area of equilateral triangle = x side2
4
3
= x a2 unit2
1 4
Area of any triangle = x Base x Height unit2
2
Where 3 = 1.732
ii Isosceles Triangle
P = 3a unit
In this triangle two of its sides are equal.
3
P = a unit
2
iv Scalene triangle
In this triangle the sides are not equal. Angles between
the sides, are also not equal. we may also call this tri-
angle as irregular triangle.
1
Area of isosceles triangle = x Base x Height
2
Where
base = 2.b
s = One of equal sides (or) Slant height
Area of triangle =x s (s − a) (s − b) (s − c) unit2

2 2
h = Height = s − b
1 where
2 2
Area of isosceles triangle = x 2b x s − b a,b,c are sides of triangle
2
2 2 a+b+c
= b . s −b unit2 s = Semi perimeter = unit
2
(Where b= half of base)
v Right angled triangle
1 2
In this triangle, angle between one of two adjacent sides
(or) Area of Isosceles triangle = b 4a − b unit2
2
4 is 900. Right angle means ninety degrees. That’s why right

a = Equal sides angled triangle means, one of the angles of this triangle is
definitely ninety degrees.
b = Base
Area of right angled triangle
iii Equilateral triangle
1
In this triangle all the three sides are equal. Hence angle = x Base x Height
2
between adjacent sides is 60º (because no. of angles)
1
180 = bh unit2
total = 180 ; angle between sides =
º
= 60 º
2
3
124
60 x 2
h =
10
height h = 12 cm
4 Find the area of an isosceles triangle whose base is

6 cm long and each of the other two sides 5 cm long.
2 2
Hypotenuse = Base + Height
Where hypotenuse means, the diagonal or largest length
of the side of right angled triangle.
Examples
1 Calculate its area if the base and height of a triangle
are 10 cm and 3.5 cm respectively.
Base (b) = 10 cm
Height (h) = 3.5 cm
Area (A) =?
6
1 Base (b) = 6 cm = = 3 cm
A = xbxh 2
2
Equal sides or
1 slant height ‘s’ = 5 cm
= x 10 x 3.5
2 Area (A) =?
= 17.5 cm 2
2 2
A = b x s −b
2 Calculate the base of a triangle having an area of
15 cm2 and height is 3.5 cm.
=3x 2
5 −3
2
Area (A) = 15 cm2
Height (h) = 3.5 cm = 3 x 25 − 9
Base (b) =?
=3x 16
1 =3x4
xbxh = A
2 = 12 cm2
1
x b x 3.5 = 15 or
2
1
15 x 2 A = b 4a 2 − b 2
b = 4
3.5
= 8.57 cm 1 2 2
= x 6 4x5 − 6
4
3 Calculate the height of a triangle whose area is
60 cm2 and base is 10 cm. 1
= x6x8
Area (A) = 60 cm2 4
Base (B) = 10 cm = 12 cm2
Height (h) =? 5 Find its height if an isosceles triangle has base of 200
1 mm and its area is 2000 mm2.
xbxh = A
2 Base = 200 mm
1 Area = 2000 mm2
x 10 x h = 60
2 h =?

= 1939.4375
= 44.03 cm2
9 Find the cost of polishing on both sides of a triangular

metal plate has sides 60 cm, 50 cm and 20 cm at the
rate of Rs.1.35 per 100 cm2
a+b+c
Semi Perimeter = unit
2
60 + 50 + 20 130
= =
2 2
1
xbxh = A
2 = 65 cm
1
x 200 x h= 2000 Area A =x s (s − a) (s − b) (s − c) unit2
2
2000 x 2
h = 65(65 - 60)(65 - 50)(65 - 20)
200 =
= 20 mm
= 65 x 5 x 15 x 45
6 Find the area of an equilateral triangle whose side is
5 cm. = 468.4 cm2
Area of polish on both sides = 2 x 468.4
3
Area = a2 unit2 = 936.8 cm2
4
Cost of polish per 100 cm2 = Rs. 1.35
1.732
= x5x5 936.8
4  Cost of polish is 936.8 cm2 = x 1.35
100
= 10.825 cm 2
= Rs. 12.65
7 Calculate its perimeter if one side of an equilateral 10 Find the area of the right angled triangle with base 20
triangle is 55 mm long. cm and height 8 cm.
Side = 55 mm Base b = 20 cm
Perimeter =? Equal sides or
P = 3a unit slant height = 8 cm
= 3 x 55 Area A =?
= 165 mm 1
Area A = x base x height unit2
8 Find the area of the triangle having its sides 9cm, 10cm 2
and 12 cm. 1
= x 20 x 8
a+b+c 2
Semi Perimeter = unit
2 = 80 cm2
9 + 10 + 12 31 11 Find the area of the right angled triangle if the sides

= =
2 2 containing the right angle being 10.5 cm and 8.2 cm.
= 15.5 cm 1
Area A = x base x height unit2
Area A =x s (s − a) (s − b) (s − c) unit2 2
1
= 15.5(15.5 - 9)(15.5 - 10)(15.5 - 12) = x 10.5 x 8.2
2
= 15.5x 6.5 x 5.5 x 3.5 = 43.05 cm2

12 Calculate the perpendicular height of the triangle if the 1 Calculate the hypotenuse of a right angled triangle
area of the right angled triangle is 19.44 m2 and its one whose base is 5 cm and height 12 cm.
of the adjacent side containing the right angle being
5.4 m.
1
x base x height unit2 = Area A
2
1
x 5.4 x h = 19.44
2
19.44 x 2
h =
5.4
As per pythagoras theorem,
= 7.2 m
AC2 = AB2 + BC2
13.Calculate the base of a right angled triangle having an = 122 + 52
area of 15 cm2. If its height is 3.5 cm.
= 144 + 25
1 = 169
x base x height unit2 = Area A
2
AC = 169
1
x b x 3.5 = 15 = 13 cm
2
2 What is the length of the hypotenuse of a right angled
15 x 2 triangle, when the sides containing the right angles
b =
3.5 are 10 cm and 12 cm.
= 8.57 cm
Pythagoras theorem
As per pythagoras theorem,

AC2 = AB2 + BC2
= 102 + 122
= 100 + 144
In a right angled triangle the area of the square drawn with
= 244
the hypotenuse as the side is equal to the sum of the
areas of the squares drawn with the other two sides.
AC = 244
∠B = 90º
= 15.62 cm
AC = Hypotenuse
3 Find the height of a right angled triangle whose base is
AB & BC = Adjacent sides 15 cm and hypotenuse is 21 cm.
As per pythagoras theorem, As per pythagoras theorem,
AC2 = AB2 + BC2 AB2 + BC2 = AC2
 AC = 2
AB + BC
2

AB2 + 152 = 212
AB2 = 441 - 225
= 216
AB = 216
= 14.7 cm
Assignment
I 4 Find the area and perimeter of the triangle if the three
1 Find the area of a triangle whose base is 85.4 mm and sides of a triangle are 5 mm, 12 mm and
its height 29 mm respectively. 13 mm respectively.
2 The area of a triangle is 30 sq. cm. Its base is 10 cm. 5 Find the area and perimeter of the triangle if the sides
Find its height. of a triangle are 15 mm, 17 mm and 8 mm respectively.
3 Calculate the base of a triangle having an area of V

80 cm2 and height 8 cm. 1 Find the area of a right angled triangle whose base is
4 Calculate the height of triangle whose area is 160 cm 2 15 cm and perpendicular height is 21 cm.
and base is 20 cm. 2 Find the area of a right angled triangle has its base
II side 60 mm and height 75 mm.
1 Find the area of an isosceles triangle whose base is 3 Find the area of a right angled triangle the adjacent
16 cm long and each of the other two sides are 10 cm sides to the right angle being 13.7 cm and 9.2 cm.
long. 4 Calculate the height of triangle whose area is 60 cm2
2 Find the area of an isosceles triangle whose side is 7 and base is 10 cm.
cm and base is 5 cm. 5 Calculate the height of triangle whose area is 160 cm2
3 Find the area of an isosceles triangle whose side is 10 and base is 20 cm.
cm and base is 8 cm. 6 Calculate the base of a triangle having an area of
III 80 cm2 and height is 8 cm.
1 Find out the area of an equilateral triangle whose base VI

is 2.8 cm. 1 What is the length of the third side in a right angled
2 Find the area of an equilateral triangle whose sides are triangle the two small sides are 30 cm and 40 cm.
8 cm each. 2 Find the length of the hypotenuse of a right angled
3 Find the area of an equilateral triangle whose one side triangular frame having 60 cm base and 18 cm height.
is 64 mm. 3 Find the height of an equilateral triangle whose side is
4 Find the area of a triangle whose all sides are equal 60 cm.
and sum of the three sides is equal to 12 cm. 4 ABC is a right angled triangle. If AB = 15 cm and
IV BC = 17 cm. Find the length of AC.
1 Find the area of a triangle whose sides are 6 cm, 5 Find out the length of AC in a right angled triangle ABC,
7 cm and 9 cm. AB=30 cm, BC = 40 cm.
2 Calculate the area of the triangle if sides of a triangle 6 Find the height of a right angled triangle whose base is
are 3 cm, 4 cm and 6 cm. 20 cm and hypotenuse is 30 cm.
3 Find the area of a triangle whose sides are 20 cm,

16 cm and 10 cm

Mensuration - Area and perimeter of circle, semi-circle, circular ring, sector
of circle, hexagon and ellipse Exercise 1.8.41
Circle
It is the path of a point which is always equal from its r = 196
centre is called a circle. = 14 m
r = radius of the circle C = 2r unit
d = diameter of the circle
22
22 =2x x 14
= = 3.14 7
7
= 88 m
Area of the circle = r2
3 Find the side of square into which it can be bent if a
wire is in the form of a circle of radius 49 cm.
radius of circle r = 49 cm
side of square =?
Perimeter of the square = Perimeter of the circle
4a = 2r
22
4a =2x x 49
π 7
(or) = d2 unit2
4 4a = 308
Circumference of the circle 2r (or) d unit
308
Examples a =
4
1 Find the area of a circle whose radius is 1.54 m. Also
find its circumference. = 77 cm
radius r = 1.54 cm 4 Find its radius if the difference between the

Area A =? circumference and diameter of a circle is 28 cm.
Circumference C =? Circumference - Diameter = 28 cm
A = r2 unit2 2r - d = 28

2r - 2r = 28
22
= x 1.54 x 1.54 2r ( - 1) = 28
7
= 7.4536 m2 22
2r ( - 1) = 28
C = 2r unit 7
22 22 - 7
=2x x 1.54 2r ( ) = 28
7 7
= 9.68 m
15
2 Find out the circumference if the area of a circular shape 2r x = 28
of land is 616 m2. 7
A = r2 unit2
28x7
616 r =
r2 = 15x2
π
= 6.53 cm
616x7
=
22
= 196
129
5 What is the side of the largest square cut out from a 1
circle of 50 cm dia.? = x 50 x 16 cm2
2
Diagonal of a square = Diameter of the circle = 400 cm2
2a = 50 πr 2
Area of Semi circle = unit2
2
50
a = 2 1
2 = π x 15 x cm2
2
50 = 353.57 cm2
=
1.414 Area of the figure = 500 + 400 + 353.57
= 35.36 cm = 1253.57 cm2
6 Calculate the area of the figure given below. 7 Find the area of remaining steel plate if in a rectangular
steel plate 16 cm x 12 cm, there are 6 holes each 4
cm in diameter.
Area of a rectangular plate = length x breadth unit2
= 16 x 12
= 192 cm2
No. of holes =6
Radius of hole = 2 cm
Area of 6 holes = 6 x r2 unit2
Area of rectangle = lb unit2
22
= 25 x 20 cm2 =6x x 2 x 2 unit2
7
= 500 cm2
= 75.43 cm2
1 Area of remaining plate = 192 - 75.43
Area of Trapezium = x (a + b) h
2
= 116.57 cm2
1
= x (30 + 20) 16 cm2
2
Semi circle
A semi circle is a sector whose central angle is 180º. 2πr
Length of arc of semi circle. Perimeter of a semi circle = + 2r
2
180 =r + 2r
Length of arc = 2r x
360 =r ( + 2) unit
1 Examples
= 2r x
2 1 Calculate the circumference and area of a semi circle
= r unit whose radius is 6 cm.
πr 2 radius r = 6 cm
Area of semi circle = Sq. units
2
Area A =?
Circumference c = ?
πr 2
A = unit2
2
22 1
= x x 62
7 2

22 1
Area (A) = x x 36
7 2
396
= = 56.57 cm2
7
22
Perimeter of a semicircle = 6( 7 x 2)
Plate length AB = 100 mm

⎛ 22 + 14 ⎞
= 6⎜ ⎟ Breadth BC = 50 mm
⎝ 7 ⎠
Radius = 50 mm
36
=6x Waste area = Plate area - Area of semi circle
7
πr 2
= lb -
216 2
=
7 22 x 50 x 50
= 30.86 cm = 100 x 50 -
7x2
2 From the figure given below ABCD is a steel plate, a = 5000 - 3928.57
semi circular plate of radius 50 mm has been prepared = 1071.43 mm2
by gas cutting. Find the waste area.
Circular ring
Solution:
Area of cross section of pipe =  (R + r) (R - r) unit2
=  (8.5 + 7) (8.5 - 7)
= x 15.5 x 1.5 cm2

R = Outer radius of circular ring
= 73 cm2
r = Innner radius of circular ring
2 Find the distance between the boundaries and the area
of the circular ring, if the circumference of two concentric
Area of circular ring =  (R 2 2
 r ) unit 2
circle are 134 cm and 90 cm.
or
A=  (R + r) (R - r) unit2 Given:
1 Calculate the area of cross section of pipe having Circumference of outer circle = 134 cm
outside dia of 17 cm and inside dia of 14 cm. Circumference of inner circle = 90 cm
Given: To find:
Outer dia of pipe = 17 cm Distance between the circles = ?
Area of circular ring = ?
Outer radius of pipe (R) = = 8.5 cm
Solution:
Inner dia of pipe = 14 cm
Circumference of outer circle = 134 cm
Inner radius of pipe (r) = = 7 cm 2 R = 134 cm
To find:
R =
Area of cross section of pipe = ?
Circumference of inner circle = 90 cm
2 r = 90 cm
4 Calculate the length of material required , if a piece of
r = 12mm dia bar is to be bent round to form a ring 150 mm
inside dia.
Distance between the circle = R - r Given:
= 21.32 - 14.32 cm dia of bar = 12 mm
= 7 cm inner diameter = 150 mm
Area of circular ring =  (R + r) (R - r) unit2 To find:
=  (21.32 + 14.32) (21.32 - 14.32) cm 2 length of bar =?
Solution:
= x 35.64 x 7 cm2
Inner diameter = 150 mm
= 784.08 cm2 Outer diameter = dia of bar + inner diameter

+ dia of bar
3 Calculate the inner and outer diameter of the circular
ring. If the area of a circular ring is 176 cm2 and width of = 12 + 150 + 12 = 174 mm
the circular ring is 4 cm. inner diameter  outer diameter
Given: Average diameter =
2
Area of circular ring = 176 cm 2
150  174 324
width = 4 cm =   162 mm
2 2
To find:
162
Outer diameter = ?, Inner diameter = ? Average radius = = 81 mm
2
Solution:
Length of the material required = average circumference
Inner radius (r) = x cm
= 2r unit
Outer radius (R) = inner radius + width
= 2 x  x 81 mm
= x + 4 cm
= 509 mm
 (R + r) (R - r) = area
5 A wire can be bend in the form of a circle of radius 56
 (x + 4 + x) (x + 4 - x) = 176 cm2
cm. If it is bend in a form of a square, find the side.
 (2x + 4) (4) = 176 cm2
Given:
x 4 x (2x + 4) = 176 cm2 Radius of circle = 56 cm

To find:
Side of square =?
x (2x + 4) = 176 cm2
Solution:
176  7 Radius of circle = 56 cm
2x + 4 = = 14
88 Circumference of circle = 2r unit
2x = 14 - 4 = 10
= 2 x 56 cm
10
x = = 5 cm Side of square = x cm
2
Wire can be bend from the form of round to square
inner radius (r) = x = 5 cm
Perimeter of square = circumference of circle
outer radius (R) = x + 4 = 5 + 4 = 9 cm
4xa = 352 cm
inner diameter = 2 x 5 = 10 cm
outer diameter = 2 x 9 = 18 cm a =

Sector of Circle 2 Find the radius of the circle if the angle is 600 and the
area of a sector of a circle is 144 cm2,
Given:
Area of sector of circle (A) = 144 cm2
Angle of sector of circle  = 600
To find:
Radius of circle = ?
Solution:
 = Angle of sector of circle
Area (A) = x r2 unit2
l = Arc length
r = radius
144 = x x r2 cm2
Length of Arc = x2 r unit
r2 = 274.91 cm2
Perimeter P = 2r + unit
r = = 16.58 cm
Area = x r2 unit2
3 Find the area of the sector whose angle is 1050, and the
or
perimeter of sector of circle is 18.6 cm.
A = unit2 Given:
Perimeter of a sector of a circle = 18.6 cm
1 Find the perimeter and area of a sector of circle of radius
7 cm and its angle is 1200. Angle of sector of circle = 1050
Given: To find:
Angle of sector of circle = 1200 Area = ?
Radius = 7 cm Solution:
To find:
Length of Arc ( ) = x 2r unit
Perimeter = ? , Area = ?
Solution:
= x2x xr
Length of arc ( ) = x 2  r unit
= 1.83r
Perimeter (P) = + 2r unit
= x2x x 7 cm
18.6 = 1.83r + 2r
= 14.67 cm 3.83r = 18.6 cm
Perimeter = 2r + unit
= 2 x 7 + 14.67 cm r = = 4.86 cm
= 28.67 cm
Area A = x r2 unit2
Area = x r2 unit2
= x (4.86) cm2
= x x 7 cm 2
= 21.65 cm2
= 51.33 cm2

4 Find the area, if the radius is 12.4 cm and the perimeter
of a sector of a circle is 64.8 cm.
Given:
Perimeter P = 64.8 cm
Radius r = 12.4 cm
To find:
Area A = ?
Solution:
Perimeter P =  + 2r unit Length  A = x2 r unit
 = P - 2r unit
210 0
= 64.8 - 2 (12.4) cm = x2x x 30 = 110 cm
360 0
= 64.8 - 24.8 = 40 cm
r Length  B = x2 r unit
Area A = unit2
2
40  12.4 105 0
= = 248 cm2 = x2x x 5 = 91.7 cm
2 360 0
=  A +  B + 2 x 214 cm
5 Find out the length of the belt , if the arrangement of a
belt is shown in the figure below. = 110 + 9.17 + 428 cm
Solution: = 547.17 cm
Hexagon
To Find: P = ?, A = ?, DAF = ?, DAC = ?
Solution:
Perimeter of hexagon (P) = 6a unit
= 6a unit = 6 x 2 cm = 12 cm
Side = a unit 3 2
Area of hexagon A = 6  a unit2
Perimeter P = 6a unit 4
1.732 2
3 2 = 6 2
Area A = 6   a units2 (Area of 6 equilateral triangle) 4
4
= 10.392 cm2
DAF (Distance Across Flats) = 3  a unit DAF (Distance Across
DAC (Distance Across Cormers) = 2 x a unit Flats) = 3  a unit
1 Find out the perimeter, area, DAF and DAC of a regular
= 3  2 = 1.732 x 2
hexagon whose side is 2cm.
(DAF - Distance Across Flats) = 3.464 cm
(DAC - Distance Across Corners) DAC (Distance Across

Corners) = 2 x a unit
Given: Side of hexagon (a) = 2cm
= 2 x 2 = 4 cm

Ellipse Minor axis 2b = 8 cm
8
b = = 4 cm
2
Area A =  x a x b unit2
= x 6 x 4 cm2
= 75.43 cm2
Major axis AB = 2a
Half of Major axis OB = a, Perimeter (P) = unit
Minor axis CD = 2b
Half of Minor axis OC = b
= unit
Area of ellipse A =  x a x b unit2
Perimeter of ellipse P = unit

= unit
1 Find its area and perimeter, if the major and minor axis
of an ellipse are 12 cm and 8 cm respectively.
=
Solution:
Major axis 2a = 12 cm
=2x x 5.1 = 32.06 cm
a = = 6 cm
Assignment
Circle 10 Calculate the side of the largest square that can be
1 Find the circumference and area of a circle whose radius obtained if a 150 mm dia. round bar is milled to a square
is 10.00 metre. bar.
2 Find its diameter if the area of a circle is 330 cm2. 11 What is the maximum size of square which can be cut
from a circular sheet of diameter 100 mm?
3 Find its radius if area of a circle is 498 m2.
12 From a brass sheet 270 cm x 100 cm. Calculate how
4 Find its area if the circumference of a circle is 50 cm. many pieces of size 15 cm x 10 cm may be cut.
5 Find its area if the circumference of a circle is 44 cm. 13 Find the area of remaining plate if in a 48 cm x 18 cm
6 Find out the area and circumference of a circle of rectangular plate there are 5 holes of 4 cm diameter.
diameter is 50 cm. 14 Find the area of remaining steel plate if in a rectangular
7 A wire is in the form of a circle whose radius is 42 cm. steel plate 36 cm x 24 cm. There are 54 holes of 4 cm
Find the side of that square which can be made by in diameter.
bending the same wire. 15 Find the radius of circle if a rectangle with sides 14
8 A square of side 22 cm is made from a wire. Calculate metre length and 11 metre breadth has area equal to
the diameter of circle which will be made from the same that of circle.
length of wire as that of square. Semi circle
9 Find its radius if the difference between the 1. Calculate the circumference and area of semi circle
circumference and diameter of a circle is 30 cm. whose radius is 14 cm.

2. Find the area of the figure given below. 5 What length of rod did you require to make a ring of
300cm inside dia out of 12 mm round bar?
Sector of circle
1 Find the perimeter and area of a sector of a circle of
radius 5cm and its angle is 960.
2 Find the radius of the circle if the angle is 900 and the
area of sector of a circle is 196 cm2.
3 Find the area of a sector of a circle whose perimeter is
82.4 mm and radius is 16.2 mm.
4 Find out the length of the saw blade, if the arrangement
3. Calculate the area of the given figure. of a band saw is shown in the figure below.
4. Calculate the area of the figure given below.

Hexagon
1 Find out the Area, perimeter, DAF,and DAC of hexagon
of side 4cm.
2 Find the area of cross section of a regular hexagon rod
whose side is 7.5 cm.
3 Find out the size across the flats of a hexagonal piece
having 15 mm each sides.
4 Find out the distance across the flats, if the distance
across the c orners of a hexagonal bar 40 mm.
Circular ring
5 What will be the area of a largest hexagon which is
1 Find out area of a ring washer, whose inner radius and inscribed in a circle of radius 10 cm?
outer radius are 13 cm and 15 cm respectively.
Ellipse
2 Find the area of a ring portion of a washer whose outer
1 Find the area of the biggest ellipse that can be inscribed
dis is 30 m and inner dis is 20 m. Also calculate the
in a rectangle of length 18 cm and breadth 12 cm. Also
difference between the circumference of circles.
calculate its perimeter.
3 Find the thickness of the pipe and area of cross section
2 How much fenching will be required to enclose an
of the pipe, if the outside and inside circumference of the
elliptical plot of ground the axes of the ellipse being 200
steel pipe is 70 cm and 45 cm.
and 170 meter respectively.
4 Calculate the inner and outer diameter of the washer.if
the cross sectional area of a washer is 264 cm2 and the
width of the washer is 2cm.

Mensuration - Surface area and volume of solids - cube, cuboid, cylinder,
sphere and hollow cylinder Exercise 1.8.42
Cube 2 π 2
Volume of cylinder = π r h or d h
All sides of cube are same i.e length,breadth and height 4
have same value. It is bounded by six equal square faces.
Volume of cube = side x side x side
= a3 unit3
Lateral surface area = 4a2 unit2
Total surface area = 6 x side x side
= 6a2 unit2
Rectangular solid (or) cuboid
Rectangular soild is bounded by six rectangular surfaces
and opposite surfaces are equal and parallel to each other.
Curved area of cylinder = 2rh unit2
Total surface area of cylinder = 2r(h+r) unit2
r = Radius of base
d = Diameter of base
h = Height of cylinder
Hollow cylinder
Hollow means empty space. In hollow cylinder there is an
empty place. Water pipe is an example of hollow cylinder.
Volume of rectangular solid

= Length x breadth x height
= l . b . h unit3
Lateral surface area = 2h(l+b) unit2
Total surface area = 2lb + 2bh + 2hl
= 2(lb+bh+hl) unit2
Volume of hollow cylinder = (R2 - r2) h (or)

= (R + r) (R - r) h (or)
l = length π
= (D2 - d2) h unit3
b = breadth 4
π
h = height = (D + d)(D − d) h
4
Cylinder Total surface area of hollow cylinder =
This is a prism whose top and bottom surfaces are equal Inner + outer curved area + area of top
and circular. and bottom circular part
 TSA : 2Rh + 2rh + 2(R2 - r2)
137
R = outer radius L.S.A = 4a2 unit2
r = inner radius = 4 x 4.5 x 4.5
D = outer diameter = 81 cm2
d = inner diameter T.S.A = 6a2 unit
h = height of cylinder = 6 x 4.5 x 4.5
t = thickness = 121.5 cm2
D−d V = a3 unit3
Mean dia =
2 = 4.5 x 4.5 x 4.5
If thickness given then: = 91.125 cc.
Volume of hollow cylinder = x mean dia x thickness x
2 Calculate volume of a cube where side is 9 cm
height
a = 9 cm
Finding out volumes of solids
V =?
The space occupied by a body is known its volume. The
volume of a body indicates the capacity to hold substance V = a3
in it. =9x9x9
The general form of Lateral surface area Total surface area = 729 cm3
and Volume is :
Lateral surface area = perimeter of the base x height 3 Find out side of the cube if a cube has volume of
3375cm3.
Total surface area = LSA + 2 (base area )
V = 3375 cm3
Volume = Area of base x height
a =?
Important and commonly used solids are described below
one after another: a3
= 3375
Cube 3
a = 3375
All sides of cube are same i.e length,breadth and height
have same value. It is bounded by six equal square faces. = 3x3x3x5x5x5
Volume of cube = side x side x side
=3x5
= a3 unit3
= 15 cm
Lateral surface area = 4a2
4 Find the side of a cube, if its surface area is 216 cm2
Total surface area = 6 x side x side
Surface area = T.S.A = 216 cm2
= 6a2 unit2
6a2 = 216
Diagonal d = 3 a unit where 3 = 1.732
216
a2 =
6
= 36
a = 36
= 6 cm
5 Find the side of the square tank, if its height is 2 metre

and has the capacity to hold 50,000 litre of water.
1 Find the diagonal, lateral surface area,, total surface
area and volume of a cube of side 4.5 cm. Height of square shape tank (h) = 2m
side a = 4.5 cm Capacity = 50,000 litre
1000 litre = 1 m3
diagonal d = 3 a unit
= 1.732 x 4.5 50000
50,000 Litre =
= 7.794 cm 1000

= 50 m3 v = 10500 cm3
Capacity of tank = 50 m3 h =?
a2 x h = 50
l.b.h = volume
a x2
2
= 50
26 x 18 x h = 10500
50
a2 = = 25 m2 10500
2 h =
26 x 18
a = 25 = 5 m = 22.44 cm
Side of the square tank = 5 m
3 How many litres of water it can store if a water tank
Rectangular solid (or) cuboid has the following dimensions length = 1 metre, width =
0.8 metre and height = 1.2 metre?
Rectangular soild is bounded by six rectangular surfaces
and opposite surfaces are equal and parallel to each other. Volume = l x b x h unit3
Volume of rectangular solid = 1 x 0.8 x 1.2
= Length x breadth x height = 0.96 m3 [1 m3 = 1000 litres]

= 0.96 x 1000
= l . b . h unit3
= 960 litres of water can store in the tank.
4 Find its volume if the base of a prism is a rectangle

having 5m length, 4m breadth and the height of the
prism is 15m.
The base of prism is rectangle
Area of base = length x breadth
=5x4
= 20 square m
Lateral surface area = 2h(l+b)
Volume of prism = Area of base x Height
Total surface area = 2lb + 2bh + 2hl
= 20 x 15
= 2(lb+bh+hl) unit3
Examples = 300 cubic metres
1 Find its volume and T.S.A if a tank is 20 m long, 15 m Cylinder

broad and 12 m high.
This is a prism whose top and bottom surfaces are equal
l = 20m circular.
b = 15 m 2 π 2
h = 12 m 4
v =?
T.S.A =?
Volume v = lbh unit3
= 20 x 15 x 12
= 3600 m3
T.S.A = 2(lb + bh + hl) unit2
= 2((20 x 15) + (15 x 12) + (20 x 12)) Curved area of cylinder = 2rh
= 2 (300 + 180 + 240) Total surface area of cylinder = 2r(h+r)
= 1440 m2 r = Radius of base
2 Find out its height if the cross section is 260 mm length d = Diameter of base
and 180 mm wide rectangular and the capacity of a h = Height of cylinder
fuel tank is 10500 cm3.
l = 260mm = 26 cm
b = 180 mm =18 cm

Examples
r = 10.9
1 Find the volume and total surface are of a cylinder having
9cm diameter and 15 cm height. = 3.3 m
diameter = 9 cm diameter = 2r
radius r = 4.5 cm = 2 x 3.3
height h = 15 cm = 6.6 m
Volume V =? 5 A cylindrical vessel is to be made of 3 metre long and
T.S.A =? 1.9994 metre diameter. Calculate its surface area, if it
V = r2 h unit 3 is in a closed form on one end.
22 h = 3m
= x 4.5 x 4.5 x 15
7 d = 1.9994 m
= 954.4 cm3 r = 0.9997 m
T.S.A = 2r(h+r) unit2 T.S.A = C.S.A + Base area
22 = 2rh + r2
=2x x 4.5 (15 + 4.5)
7 22 22
= (2 x x 0.9997 x 3) + ( x 0.999972)
22 7 7
=2x x 4.5 x 19.5
7 = 18.85 + 3.14
= 551.4 cm2
= 21.99 m2
2 Calculate the radius if the curved surface area of a
6 How many litres of water a cylinder of radius 75 cm
cylindrical roller is 48 cm2 and the roller is 10 cm long
and height 100 cm can hold.
C.S.A = 48 cm2
V = r2 h unit3
length = 10 cm
= 3.142 x 75 x 75 x 100
radius =?
2rh = 48 = 1767375 cm3
2 x x r x 10 = 48 1767375
= [1000 cc = 1 litre]
48 x π 1000
r =
2 x π x 10 = 1767.375 litres.
= 2.4 cm
7 Calculate the height of cylindrical tin if a closed
3 Find its radius if the volume of a cylinder is 5544 cm3 rectangular box 40 cm long, 30 cm wide and 25 cm
and its height is 16 cm. deep has the same volume as that of cylinder tin of
r2 h =v radius 17.5 cm.
3.14 x r x 16
2
= 5544 Volume of cylinder = Volume of rectangular box
5544 r2 h =lxbxh
r2 =
3.14 x 16 22
5544 x 17.5 x 17.5 x h= 40 x 30 x 25
r2 = 7
50.24
40 x 30 x 25 x 7
= 110.35 h =
22 x 17.5 x 17.5
r = 110.35
210000
= 10.5 cm =
6737.5
4 Find the diameter of the tank if the volume of a circular = 31.17 cm

tank is 68.46 m3, its height is 2 m.
8 An oxygen cylinder is 15 cm in diameter and 100 cm
r2 h = 68.46
in length. It is filled with gas under pressure so that
68.46 every cm3 of the cylinder contains 120 cm3 of gas. How
r2 = much cc of oxygen does this hold?
3.14x2
r2 = 10.9 Volume of cylinder = r2 h unit3

22 4 22
= x 7.5 x 7.5 x 100 x x r3 = 15625
7 3 7
= 17678.57 cm3
15625 x 3 x 7
Gas contain in 1 cm3 = 120 cm3 of gas r3 =
4 x 22
Gas contain in 17678.57 cm3 = 17678.57 x 120 328125
=
= 2121428 cm 3
88
Volume of oxygen = 2121428 cc. = 3728.69
Sphere r = 3
3728.69
Sphere is a solid circular body. = 15.51 cm
diameter = 2 x radius
= 2 x 15.51
= 31.02 cm
3 How many spherical balls of 1 cm radius can be made

from a sphere of 32 cm diameter.
No. of balls x volume of small sphere = Volume of
bigger sphere
4 4
Nx x r3 = r3
4 3 3
Volume of sphere = r3 or
3 4 4
Nx x π x 13 = x π x r3
π 3 3 3
= d unit3
6 N = 16 x 16 x 16
Total surface area of sphere = 4r2 unit2 = 4096 balls
Where r = Radius of sphere
4 Three brass balls of diameters 3 cm, 4 cm and 5 cm
d = Diametre of sphere are melted and make into one solid ball, if there is no
1 wastage. Find the diameter of the solid ball.
Radius = of diameter
2
1st ball d1 = 3 cm,
Examples
r1 = 1.5 cm
1 Find the volume and surface area of a sphere of 3 cm
radius. 2nd ball d2 = 4 cm,
4 r2 = 2 cm
V = r3 unit3 3 ball d3
rd
= 5 cm,
3
r1 = 2.5 cm
= Diameter of new ball = ?
Volume of new ball = Volume of 3 spherical balls
= 113.1 cm3
Total Surface Area = 4r2 unit2 4 4 4 4
r3 = r13 + r23 + r33
22 3 3 3 3
=4x x3x3
7
= 113.1 cm2 4 4
π r3 = π (1.53 + 23 + 2.5)3
3 3
2 Find the diameter of sphere having volume of
15625 cc. r3 = 3.375 + 8 + 15.625
4 r3 = 27
r3 = Volume
3 r = 3
27
Let R = Radius of new sphere made
r = 3
3x3x3
4
r = 3 cm Volume of new sphere = πR3 cubic cm
3
Diameter of the ball = 2 x r Assuming no wastage in material, we can say
=2x3 Volume of new sphere = Total volume of two spheres
= 6 cm 4 4
πR3 = π x 54
5 Calculate the number of spheres that can be made if a 3 3
solid metal cylinder of radius 14 cm and height Deleting
4
πRfrom both sides (because of similarity),
21 cm is melted and recast into spheres, each of radius 3
3.5 cm. we can write:
Cylinder radius = 3 cm, R3 = 54

R = Cube root of 54
height = 21 cm
Sphere radius = 3.5 cm = 3 54
No. of sphere =? = 3.780 cm

Radius of new sphere formed = 3.780 cm
No. of balls x Volume of sphere = Volume of cylinder
7 Find the ratio of the total surface of all the smaller balls
4
Nx r 3
= r h
2 to that of the original one if a spherical lead ball is
3 melted and made into smaller balls of one third the
radius of the original one. (i) How many such balls can
4 be made?
Nx π x 3.53 = π x 142 x 21
3 Let the radius of the original ball = R
The radius of the small ball = R/3
14 x 14x21x3
N = 4 3
4 x 3.5x3.5x3.5 π ⋅R
Volume of the original ball =
3
12348 4 3
= And, Volume of the small ball = π ⋅ (R/3)
171.5 3
= 72 balls. 4 π ⋅ R3
= x
6 Two spheres of 3 cm radius melted together and formed 3 27
into single sphere. Find the radius of the new sphere. 4 3 4 R3
No. of small balls = π ⋅R ÷ π⋅
4 3 4 3 3 3 27
Volume of each sphere = πr = π x (3)
3 3 = 27
4 3 Now, surface of the original ball = 4. R2
Volume of 2 spheres = 2 x π x (3)
3 And, total surface of 27 small balls = 27 x 4  (R/3)2
4 Surface ratio = 4 . R2 : 27.4 (R/3)2
= π x 54 cubic cm
3 = 1:3
Assignment
1 2
V = 5832 cm3
l = 60 mm
l = ______ mm
V = ______ cm3

3 V = 1800 cm3 8 How many litres of water it can hold if a water tank has
the following dimensions of Length = 4m, breadth =
l : b = 3:1
3.2 m and height = 1400 cm?
H = 1500 mm
Cylinder
l = ______ mm
1 Find the curved surface area of cylinder where
b = ______ mm
a diameter 18 cm and height 34 cm
b diameter 28 cm and height 42 cm
4 l = 1.5 metre
2 Find the total surface area of cylinder whose
h = 0.8 metre
a diameter 24 cm and height 40 cm
b = 0.45 metre
Capacity b diameter 42 cm and height 60cm
= ______ litres c diameter 14 cm and height 35 cm
3 Find out the volume of cylinder whose
1 m3 = 1000 litres
a base is 10 cm radius and height is 40 cm
5 V = 140000 cm3 b base is 7 cm radius and height is 12 cm
l = 60 cm c base is 35 cm diameter and height is 100 cm
b = 40 cm 4 Find the volume, C.S.A and T.S.A of a cylinder having

diameter 10 cm and 20 cm height.
H = ______ cm
5 A cylindrical tank has 22000 cc water. If the depth of
water is 70 cm. Calculate the diameter of the tank.
6 Find out its radius. if the volume of cylinder is 5544
cm3 and height is 16 cm.
Cube
Sphere
1 Find the diagonal, lateral surface area, total surface
area and volume of cube, whose side is 15 cm. 1 Find the volume of sphere using the following dimension.
2 Find the volume of 10 cubes where each side is 5 cm. a 3.5 cm diameter
3 Find its volume if a solid cube has each of its sides 60 b 4 cm diameter
mm long. c 7 cm diameter
4 What is its side if the total surface area of a cube is d 20 cm diameter
384 m2.
e 5 cm diameter
5 Find out side of the cube if a cube has volume 422 cc.
2 Find the diameter of a sphere having volume of 512cc.
Cuboid
3 Find the total surface area of a sphere having
1 Find the volume of the tank in m3, if the length is
a radius 1.75 cm.
60 m, breadth 40 m and height 20 m.
b radius 12 cm
2 Find the volume of a C.I. casting of a rectangular block
having 25 cm x 20 cm x 8 cm size. c radius 56 cm
3 Calculate the total surface area of a box whose length, d diameter 20cm
width and height are 120 cm, 50 cm and 60 cm
e radius 3 cm
respectively.
4 How many spherical balls of 1 cm radius can be made
4 Find the volume of the sheet if a brass sheet is of 25
from a sphere of 16 cm diameter.
cm square and 0.4 cm thick.
5 Three balls of diameter 2m, 4cm and 6 cm are melted
5 Express its capacity in litres if a vessel measures 3m
and made into one solid ball. If there is no wastage,
x 4m x 5m.
find the diameter of solid ball.
6 A milk tank with square base has a volume of holding
6 How many solid spheres each radius 3 cm can be
10 m3 of milk. What will be the height of the tank, if its
moulded from a solid metal cylinder whose length is
side is 2.583 m.
45 cm and base radius is 2 cm.
7 Find out its height if the cross section is 420 mm length
7 Calculate the number of balls made if a ball of 10 cm
and 230 mm wide rectangular and the capacity of the
radius is to be converted into small ball of 2 cm radius.
tank is 48 litres.
Mensuration - Finding the lateral surface area, total surface area and capacity in
litres of hexagonal, conical and cylindrical shaped vessels Exercise 1.8.43
Hexagonal bar
Volume of Hexagonal bar = Area of hexagonal x heigth
Lateral surface area of hexagonal bar
= 6 x length of the bar x side of hexagon
or = 3.464 x length of the bar x flat of hexagon
Total surface area of hexagonal bar
= lateral surface area + (2 x area of hexagon)
TSA = l (R + r) + A1 + A2 unit2

π
V= h (R2 + Rr + r2) unit3
3
[A1 = Top aera ; A2 = Bottom area ]
Cylinder
This is a prism whose top and bottom surfaces are equal
Cone and circular.
Cone is a pyramid with a circular base. 2 π 2
4
1
Volume of cone = r2h
3 Curved area of cylinder = 2rh
π 2
or = d h Total surface area of cylinder = 2r(h+r)
12
Curved area =rs r = Radius of base
Total surface area = r(s+r) d = Diameter of base
Where r = radius of base h = Height of cylinder
d = diametre of base Hollow cylinder
h = vertical height of cone Hollow means empty space. In hollow cylinder there is an
empty place. Water pipe is an example of hollow cylinder.
s = slant height r 2 + h2
Volume of hollow cylinder = (R2 - r2) h (or)
Frustum of a cone = (R + r) (R - r) h (or)
When a cone is cut by a plane parallel to the base, and π
= (D2 - d2) h
upper part is removed, the formation appears, is termed 4
as frustum of a cone. Buckets, oil cans etc.are such π
frustums in shape. = (D + d)(D − d) h
4
L.S.A = l (R + r) unit2 Total surface area of hollow cylinder =
Inner + outer curved area + area of top
and bottom circular part
144
2 Calculate the height. Also find the lateral surface
area if a cone has a base diameter of 210 mm and
its volume is 3056 cm3.
1
Volume of a cone = x Area of base x height
3
1
3056 cm3 = x 0.785 x 2102mm2 x H
3
3056 x 3 x 1000 mm3

H= = 264.82 mm
0.785 x 2102 mm2
 TSA : 2Rh + 2rh + 2(R2 - r2)
R = outer radius L = Slant height =
r = inner radius
1
D = outer diameter Lateral surface area =  X 210 X 284.9mm2
2
d = inner diameter
= 94017 mm2 = 940.17 cm2
h = height of cylinder
4 Determine its diameter in mm if the height of a rod
t = thickness of 1.6 metres and its volume is 1.017 metre3.
D−d V=AxH
Mean dia =
2 1.017 metre3 = 0.785d2 x 1.6 metres
If thickness given then:
1.017
Volume of hollow cylinder = x mean dia x thickness x 0.785d2 = metre2
1.6
height
1.017
Example d2 = metre2
1.6 x 0.785
1 Find the volume of an hexagonal prism having
its side 20 cm and height 200 cm. 1.017
= metre2
1.6 x 785
Side of hexagonal prism (a) = 20 cm
Height (h) = 200 cm 10170
d = metre
Volume (V) = Base side area x Height 16 x 785
3 2 10170
= 6x xa xh =
4 12560
3 = 0.8097
= 6x x 20 x 20 x 200
4 = 0.8998
= 1,20,000 x 3
= 899.8mm
= 1,20,000 x 1.732
= 2,07,840 cm3
Volume of the hexagonal prism = 2,07,840 cm3

Assignment
1 W = 200 mm 4 d = 35 cm
H = 365 mm H = 450 mm
V = ______ mm3 Capacity

= ______ litres
2 D = 290 mm
5 D = 175 mm
d = 180 mm
d = 115 mm
H = 320 mm
H = 420 mm
Capacity
= ______ litres V = _____ mm3
3 V1 = V2
H1 = H2
l = 35 cm
d = ______ cm

Simple machines - Effort and load, mechanical advantage, velocity ratio,
efficiency of machine, relationship between efficiency, velocity ratio and
mechanical advantage Exercise 1.9.44
Introduction:
Output
A machine is a tool containing one or more parts that Efficiency =
Input
uses energy to perform an intended action. Machines are
usually powered by mechanical, chemical, thermal, or Output
% Efficiency = x 100 %
electrical means, and are often motorized. Historically, a Input
power tool also required moving parts to classify as a
machine. However, the advent of electronics has led to Relation between M.A., V.R. and 
the development of power tools without moving parts that
Output Load x Distance moved by the load
are considered machines. Efficiency = = Effort x Distance moved by
Input the effort
A simple machine is a device that simply transforms the
Load Distance moved by the load
direction or magnitude of a force, but a large number of = Effort x Distance moved by
more complex machines exist. Examples include the effort
1 Levers 1
= Mechanical advantage x
Velocity ratio
2 Screw Jack
Mechanical advantage M.A.
3 Wheel and axle Efficiency () = = %
Velocity ratio V.R.
4 Pulleys
Ideal Machine
5 Inclined plane, etc.,
In an ideal machine the mechanical advantage is equal to
Load (or) Weight the velocity ratio. so, efficiency is 100% or unity.
The force overcome by the effort is called load or weight Examples
(W). 1 Calculate, mechanical advantage, velocity ratio
Effort (or) power : and efficiency if a machine mass of 120 kg is lifted
to a height of 5 metre by a force of 60 kg. moving
The force applied to lift the load is called effort or power 15 m.
(P).
Load (w) = 120 kg
Fulcurm :
Distance moved by load = (dw) = 5 m
It is a fixed point in the machine around which the machine
rotates (F). Power (P) = 60 kg
Distance moved by power (dp) = 15 m
Mechanical advantage
In a simple machine when the effort (P) balances a load W 120 kg
MA = = =2
(W) the ratio of the load to the effort is called the mechanical P 60 kg
advantage of the machine. It is simply expressed in a dp 15
number. VR = = =3
dw 5
Load W MA
Mechanical advantage (M.A) = Effort = P Efficiency (η) = x 100%
VR
2
Velocity ratio = x 100%
3
It is the ratio between the distances moved by the effort to
the distance moved by the load. It is also experssed in a = 66.66 %
number. 2 Calculate the mechanical advantage and
efficiency of machine, if effort applied 300 kg a
Distance moved by the effort (dp)
Velocity ratio = load of 900 kg is lifted by a simple machine having
Distance moved by the load (dw)
a velocity ratio of 4.
Efficiency of Machine
Load (W) = 900 kg
The ratio of output to the input of machine is known as
Effort (P) = 300 kg
efficiency. In simple machines, the ratio of mechanical
advantage to the velocity ratio is also known as efficiency Velocity ratio (V.R) = 4
of machine. Efficiency is generally expressed in Load (W)
percentage. Mechanical advantage (M.A.) =
Effort (P)
147
900 Power = Workdone / time
=
300 = 90 m - kg / 27 s
= 3 = 90/27m-kg/s [75m-kg/sec=1HP]
M.A. = 90/27 x 1/75 H.P.
Efficiency () = x 100%
V.R.
= 0.04444 H.P.
3
= x 100% 4 Calculate the applied force if a Load of 400 kg is
4
lifted by a machine having an  of 72%. If velocity
= 75 % ratio = 6?
3 Find Mechanical advantage. Calculate the work W = 400 kg
done and horse power required if it is required to  = 72 %
be raised to a height of 6 m in 27 sec.and using a V.R. = 6
pulley block, a weight of 180 kg is raised with a
force 15 kg. M.A.
 = x 100%
V.R.
W = 180 kg
P = 15 kg M.A.
72 = x 100 %
M.A. = ? 6
Work done = ? M.A. =
72 x 6
100
HP = ?
W
Height = 6m = 4.32
P
t = 27 second
400 kg
P
= 4.32
W 180 kg
M.A. = M.A. = = = 12
P 15 kg 400
Work done = F x d (Force x Distance) Applied Force P = 4.32
= 92.59 kg.
= 15 kg x 6 m
= 90 m - kg
Assignment
1 Calculate the efficiency of a machine having velociy 5 Find the mechanical advantage if using a pulley block
ratio 5 if a force of 275 kg applied to lift a weight of a load of 350 N is raised with a force of 25N.
1100kg with the help of simple machine.
6 Calculate M.A.  of the machine, if the effort applied is
2 Calculate (i) Mechanical advantage (ii) Efficiency of 250 kg and a load of 1000 kg is lifted by a simple
machine if the effort applied is 250 kg and a load of 1000 machine having a velocity ratio 5.
kg is lifted by a simple machine having a velocity ratio
7 Find out the  of the machine of effort applied is 300 kg
of 5.
if load of 1200 kg is lifted using simple machine having
3 What effort would be required and what would be the a velocity ratio of 5.
mechanical advantage if a lifting machine having a
8 Calculate M.A. and efficiency if in a simple machine the
velocity ratio of 25, lifts a load of 40 Kg with an efficiency
velocity ratio is found to be 20. An effort of 20 kg is
of 54.4% ?
required to lift a load of 400 kg.
4 Find out the effort required if the velocity ratio of a weight
9 What is the velocity ratio, if its efficiency is 0.75 and in
lifting machine is 20. If the efficiency of the machine is
a lifting machine an effort of 31 kg just raises a load of
40%.
1000 kg?

Lever & Simple machines - Lever and its types Exercise 1.9.45
Lever
A lever is a rigid rod which rotates about a fixed point
called the fulcrum.
E.g. : Cutting plier, A pair of scissors, Crow bar, Beam
balance, Hand pump.
The distance of the load from the fulcrum is called the
load arm. The distance of the effort from the fulcrum is
called the effort arm. In this type of lever, the mechanical advantage will be
Principle of Lever greater than 1 (M.A. > 1). Less effort is used to lift more
load.
• All levers are functioning in the following principle
Load x Load arm = Effort x Effort arm Third order lever
• Classification of lever In this type, the effort lies between the fulcrum and the
load.
1 Straight lever
E.g. The human force arm, forceps, broom, fire tongs,
2 Curved lever
fishing rod.
1 Straight lever
There are three types :
1 First order lever
2 Second order lever
3 Third order lever
First order lever
In this type of lever, the mechanical advantage will be less
In this type the fulcrum lies between the load and the than 1 (M.A < 1) more effort is used to lift less load.
effort.
Bell cranked levers (Curved levers) (Fig 5)
E.g : A pair of scissors, See-saw, Crow bar, Beam bal-
ance, Hand pump, etc., In addition to the above types of levers, two rods may be
joined together at an angle to increase leverage without
utilising much space. Such levers are cranked levers and
the special form inwhich included angle is 90°, is called the
bell cranked lever.
E.g : Motor cycle breaks system clutch pedal.
In this type of lever the mechanical advantage will be equal

or less than or greater than 1 (M.A < = > 1)
Second order lever
In this type, the load lies between the fulcrum and the
effort.
E.g : Nut crakers, Wheel barrow, Paper sheet cutter, Bottle
openers, Lime squeezer, etc.,
149
Examples When load and effort are not given separately
1 Calculate the load at B, if the load is in the balance in the sum consider which one having more
condition if a rod AB is 8 metre long and has got a weight is as a load.
weight of 10 kg at A. The fulcrum is 3 metre fromB.
2 Find the effort required and mechanical advan-
Load x Load arm = Effort x Effort arm tage of the system if a weight of 3000 kg is to be
10 x 5 = Px3 lifted by a bar of length 3 metre. The load arm is
50 = 3P 1 metre and the effort arm is 2 metre.
P = 50 / 3
= 16.67 kg
As per lever principle

Load x Load arm = Effort x Effort arm
3000 x 1 = Px2
3000 = Px2
P = 3000/2
= 1500 kg

Load 3000
Mechanical advantage = =
Effort 1500
= 2
3 According to Fig. the lever has to support a 100 kg
load with a 17 kg equivalent force supplied to it.
Find the distance between the load and point of
force.
W = 2.1 kg
Tension = T kg
P x dp = 2.1 x dv
80
T kg x (80 - 15) cm = 2.1 kg x 2 cm
Solution. T x 65 = 2.1 x 40
Load = 100 kg; Effort = 17 kg.
2.1 x 40
Load arm = 50 cm T = kg.
65
Let effort arm = x cm
Tension = 1.292 kg
As per principle of levers:
5 In the figure given below in bell cranked lever AFB
Effort x Effort arm = Load x Load arm on perpendicular AF the force P is 40 kg. Weight
W is on perpendicular FB. Find the measure of W.
17x = 100 x 50
100 x 50
x = 17
= 294.1 cm
x = 294.1 cm
Distance between the load and point of force = 294.1 - 50
= 244.1 cm
= 2.4410 m
4 Find the tension of the string if an uniform bar of Solution. By principle of momentum
length 80 cm and weighing 2.1 kg is supported on
a smooth peg at one end and by a vertical string P x AF = W x BF
at a distance of 15 cm from the other end. 40 x 20 = W x 15
W = 40 x 20 160 = 53.3 kg.

=
15 3
Assignment
1 1st Order Lever (Pliers) 2 Brake Lever

Data given Foot force = 500 N
Effort at F1 = 90 N Arm r1 = 210 mm
Arm r1 = 380 mm Arm r2 = 70 mm
Arm r2 = 36 mm Find
Find Force on Master Cylin-
der = ______ N
Cutting Force F2 = _______ N

3 2nd Order Lever (Brake lever) 7 a Which order belongs to forearm of a human body.
Data given b Which order belongs to a pair of sugar tongs.
Load Arm = 60 mm c Which order belongs to carburettor Throttle Valve.
Effort Arm = 270 mm d Which order belongs to a common balance.
Foot force F1 = 600 N e Which order belongs to a pair of scissors.
f Which order belongs to a safety valve.
Find
g Which order belongs to a Crow bar.
Force on MC Piston F2 = _______ N
h Which order belongs to a Brake lever.
4 Brake Lever 8 Find out the values aganist the question mark.
Data given
Types of lever Load Effort Load Effort M.A.
Lever Arm Ratio = 250:50 arm arm
Force on MC Piston = 1800N Ist order 30 kg 20 kg 3m ? ?
Find
IInd order 25 kg 15 kg ? 2m ?
Foot force = _______N
Bell cranked ? 25 kg 1m 2m ?
lever
5 Brake Lever
Data given 9 a What is the principle of levers?
Effort Arm = 30 cm b Write two examples of first order lever.

Load Arm = 6 cm c Write two examples of second order lever.
Pedal force = 500 N d Write two examples of third order lever.
Dia of MC Piston = e Which order belongs to bell cranked lever.
3.2 cm
Find f What is the Mechanical advantage?
a Force on MC piston = _______ N g What is the Velocity ratio?

b Pressure in the line = ______ N/cm2 h What is the Efficiency?
6 a Which order both arms are equal in length.
10 A forceps of 8 cm length is used to apply a foce of 100
b Which order Effort arm is longer. gm. Find out the force required if the forceps are held
at 5 cm from the fulcurm.
c Which order Effort arm is shorter than load arm.

Trigonometry - Measurement of angles Exercise 1.10.46
Introduction: Circumference makes an angle (2r) = 360°
Trigonometry is the branch of mathematics which deals Radius of the circle makes an angle (r) = 1 Radian
with the study of measurement and relationship of the
three sides and three angles of a triangle. C 360

Units: ie : =
r 1Radian
Measurement of Angles 
2π r 360
There are three systems of measuring the angle: =
r 1Radian
(i) Sexagesimal System

360
This is called British System. In this system, one right 2 =
angle is divided into 90 equal parts which are called 1Radian
degrees.Each part is divided into 60 parts which are called 2 Radian = 360°
minutes.Each minute is divided into 60 parts which are  Radian = 180°
called seconds.The parts so divided respectively are called:

180
One degree (1°), one minute (1') and one second (1")
1 Radian =
π
It means 1 right angle = 90° (90 degrees)
1 degree (1°) = 60' (60 minutes) π
1° =  Radian
180
1 minute (1') = 60" (60 seconds)
Examples
In Trigonometry, mostly this system is used.
1 Convert 45°36’20” into degree and decimal of degree.
(ii) Centesimal System
60 second = 1 minute
This is called French System. In this system, the right
angle is divided into 100 equal parts which are called 20
grades. Each grade is divided into 100 minutes and each 20 second = = 0.333’
60
minute is divided into 100 seconds.
Parts so divided are respectively called: 60 minute = 1 degree
One grade (1 g), one minute (1' ), one second (1"). 36.333
36.333 minute = = 0.606°
It means 1 right angle = 100 grades (100g) 60
1 grade (1 g) = 100 minutes (100’) 45036’20” = 45.606°
1 minute (1') = 100 seconds (100")
2 Convert 24.59° into degree, minute and second
90° = 100g (because each is a right
1 degree = 60 minute
angle)
0.59 degree = 0.59 x 60 = 35.4’
This system is easier than Sexagesimal System. But to
use this system many other systems will have to be de- 1 minute = 60 second
vised that is why this system is not used.
0.4 minute = 60 sec x 0.4
(iii) Circular System
= 24”
In this system, the unit of measuring angles is radian. It
Therefore 24.59° = 24035’24”
is that angle which is formed at the centre and is formed
of an arc of length equal to radius in a circle.
3 Change 50037’30” into degrees
There is one constant ratio between the circumference
By changing angle degrees into decimals
and dia of a circle. This is represented by  .
30
Circumference 30” = = 0.50’
= constant point =  60
Diameter
37’30” = 37.5’
Circumference =  x dia
= 2r (where r is radius 37.5
37.5’ = = 0.6250
of the circle) 60
22 50037’30” = 50.6250
 =
7
153
4 Convert 230 25’ 32” into radians
4 180 4
We know 10 = 60’ = 3600” π radian = x π degree
7 π 7
Therefore 23025’32” = 102.9 degree
⎛ 25 32 ⎞ = 1020 0.9 x 60’
= ⎜ 23 + + ⎟ degrees = 1020 54’
⎝ 60 3600 ⎠
82800 + 1500 + 32 8 Convert 0.8357 radian into degrees
=
3600 180
84332 1 radian = degree
= π
3600
180
But 1800 = radians 0.8357 radian = π x 0.8357 degree
Therefore 23.4255 dgrees = 47.880
23.4255 = 470 0.88 x 60’
= π radians
180 = 470 52.80’
=
23.4255 22
x radians = 470 52’0.8 x 60”
180 7 = 470 52’48”
= 0.4089 radians 9 Convert 2.752 radian into degrees
5 Convert 87 19’ 57” into Radian.
0
180
1 Radian = degree
57 ′ π
19’57” = 19’ +
60
180
= 19’ + 0.95’ 2.7520 radian = x 2.752 degree
π
= 19.95’ = 157.70
19.95o = 157.70 x 60’
87°19.95’ = 87° + = 1570 42’
60
= 87° + 0.332° = 87.33° 3
10 Convent π radian into degrees
5
π
1° = radian
180 180
1 Radian = degree
π π
87.33° = x 87.33 radian
180 3 180 3
π radian = x π degree
= 1.524 radian 5 π 5
6 Convert 67°11’43” into Radian = 1080

43 ′
11’43” = 11’ +
60
Assignment
Convert into Degree
= 11’ + 0.716’
= 11.72’ 1 12 Radian
Convert into Radians
11.72o
67°11.72’ = 67° +
60 2 78o
= 67° + 0.195° 3 47020'
= 67.2° 4 520 36' 45"
π 5 250 38"
1° = radian
180
Convert into degree, minute and seconds
π
67.2° = x 67.2 radian 6 46.723o
180
= 1.173 radian 7 68.625o
4 8 0.1269 Radians
7 Convert π radian into degrees
7 9 2.625 Radians
180 10 3/5 Radians
1 radian = degree
π
Trigonometry - Trigonometrical ratios Exercise 1.10.47
Dependency AC 1 1
sec θ   
The sides of a triangle bear constant ratios for a given AB AB cos θ
definite value of the angle. That is, increase or decrease in AC
the length of the sides will not affect the ratio between them
AB 1 1
unless the angle is changed. These ratios are trigonometri- cot θ   
cal ratios. For the given values of the angle a value of the BC BC tanθ
AB
BC AC BC AB AB AC
ratios , , , , and do not change even sideBC a
AB AB AC BC AC BC sin θ  
sideAC b
when the sides AB, BC, AC are increased to AB', BC' and
AC' or decreased to AB", BC" and AC". side AB c
cos θ  
For the angle sideAC b
AC is the hypotenuse a
AB is the adjacent side sin θb a b a
  x 
BC is the opposite side. cos θ c b c c
The ratios b
side BC
=  tan θ
side AB
1 1
sin θ  or cosec θ  or sin θ.cosec θ  1
cosec θ sin θ
1 1
cos θ  or sec θ  or cos θ . sec θ  1
sec θ cos θ
1 1
tan θ  or cot θ  or cot θ . tan θ  1
cot θ tan θ
By pythogoras theorem we have, AC2 = AB2 + BC2
The six ratios between the sides have precise definitions.

BC Opposite side
Sine θ    Sin θ
AC Hypotenuse
AB Adjecent side
Cosine θ    Cos θ
AC Hypotenuse
BC Opposite side
Tangent θ    Tan θ
AB Adjecent side Dividing both sides of the euation by AC2, we have
AC Hypotenuse AC 2 AB 2 BC 2
Cosecant θ    Cosec θ 2
= 2
+ 2
BC Opposite side AC AC AC
AC Hypotenuse 2 2
Secant θ    Sec θ ⎡ AB ⎤ ⎡ BC ⎤
=
AB Adjecent side
⎢⎣ AC ⎥⎦ + ⎢⎣ AC ⎥⎦
AB Adjecent side
Cotangent θ    Cot θ 1 = (cos  ) 2 + (sin ) 2
BC Opposite side
sin 2  + cos 2 = 1
Relationship between the ratios
AC 1 1 Sine, Cosine, Tangent, Cosec, Sec and
Cosec θ    Cotangent are the six trigonometrical ratios
BC BC sin θ
AC Sin 
tan  and sin 2  + cos 2 
= 1
Cos 
155
sin2  + cos2  = 1
AB
tan C 
It can be transformed as BC
sin2  = 1 – cos2  A +B +C = 1800
sin  = A = 900 - C
1 – cos 2 
C = 900 - A
or cos2  = 1 – sin2 
B = 900
cos  = 1 – sin 2  BC
sinA = = CosC
2
AC
sin  1 - cos 
tan  = = sinA = cosC = cos (90 - A)
cos  cos
Sin  = cos (90 - )
sin 
tan  =
1 – sin 2  cos A =
AB
= Sin C
BC
We know sin2  + cos2  = 1
Cos A = Sin C = Sin ( 90- A)
Dividing both sides by cos2 .
2 2 Cos  = Sin 90 - 
sin θ cos θ 1
2
+
2 =
cos θ cos θ cos 2  The values of the trigonometrical ratios
or 1 + tan  = sec 
2 2 When  = 0° (Fig 4)
Using the same euation
sin2  + cos2  = 1.
Dividing both sides by sin2 ,
cos 2  1
1 =
2
sin  sin 2 
1 + cot2  = cosec2  When  comes closer and closer to 0°, point C approaches
1 + tan  = sec 
2 2 B closer and closer and when  = 0°, point C coincides on
B so that BC = 0 and AB = AC.
Relation between the trignometrical ratio (Fig 3)
sin0° = =0
AB
cos0° = =1
AC
BC 0
tan0° = = =0
AB AB
When  = 30° (Fig 5)
CB is extended to D to make BD = CB. AD is joined. The

two right angled triangles ACB and ADB are congruent.
AC = AD. The triangle ACD is an euilateral triangle.
If AC = x, CB = x
2
Extend AB to D such that BD = AB. Join CD . The two
3
Then AB = x triangles ACB and DCB are congruent.
2
side AC = side DC. The triangle ACD becomes an
1x euilateral triangle.
sin  = CB = 2 = 1
AC x 2 Let side AC = x ,
1 3
3x Then AB = x, and BC = x
cos  = AB 3 2 2
= 2 =
AC x 2 3x
sin  = BC 2 3
1 = =
x AC x 2
CB 1 2 1
tan  = = 2 = x = 1x
AB 3 2 3 3
2
x cos  = AB = 2 =
1
AC x 2
AC = x
1
CB = x 3
2 x
BC
tan  = = 2
3 AB 1
AB = x x
2 2
When  = 45° (Fig 6) 3 2 3

= x = = 3.
2 1 1
When  = 90° (Fig 8)
CAB = 45° ACB = 45°

Triangle ACB is a right angled isosceles triangle.
side AB = BC . Let it be x .
Then AC the hypotenuse = 2x When  becomes closer and closer to 90°, point A goes
x 1 closer and closer to B and when  = 90° point A coincides
sin = = . with B , making AC = BC and AB = 0.
2x 2
x 1
cos = = sin  = =1
2x 2
x
tan = = 1. cos  = =0
x
AB = BC = x BC BC
AC = 2x tan  = = =
AB 0
When  = 60° (Fig 7)
Ratio 0o 30o 45o 60o 90o
1 1 3
sin  0 1
2 2 2
3 1 1
cos  1 0
2 2 2
1
tan  0 1 3 ¥
3

When  increases,
Sine value increases;
Cosine value decreases;
Tangent value increases to more than 1 when the

angle is more than 45o (tan60o = 1.732)
Sine of an angle = Cosine of its complementary

angle
Cosine of an angle = Sine of its complementary

angle
Angles and ratios at four quadrants
Examples
1st quadrant (0° to 90°) (Figs 11 & 12)
1
If sin 300 = find the value of sin 600
2
By applying pythagores theorem
BC2 = AC2 - AB2
BC2 = 22 - 12
=4-1
=3
BC =
sin 600 =
3
Cosθ  Find the other trigonometrical ratios
5
By applying pythagores theorem
AB2 = AC2 - BC2
= 52 - 32 = 25 - 9
= 16
+ PQ
= + sin
+ OP
+ OQ
= + cos
AB = 16 = 4 + OP
Now + PQ
= + tan
+ OQ

2 nd quadrant (More than 90° & less than 180°) Therefore, cos  = – cos( – 180o)
sin  = sin (180o – ) tan  = tan( – 180o)
=
+ PQ
+ OP

= + sin 180 o –   =
– QP
– OQ

= + tan  – 180 o 
Therefore, sin  = + sin (180° – ) Therefore, tan  = + tan ( – 180o)
cos  = cos (180o – )
4 th quadrant (More than 270° & less than 360°)
=
– OQ
+ OP

= – cos 180 o –   Sin  = sin (360o – )
Therefore, cos  = – cos (180o – ) =

– QP
+ OP

= – sin 360 o –  
tan  = tan (180o – )
Therefore, sin  = – sin (360o – ).
=
+ QP
– OQ

= – tan 180 o –   Cos  = cos (360o – )
Therefore, tan  = – tan(180o – ) =

+ OQ
+ OP

= + cos 360 o –  
3 rd quadrant (More than 180° & less than 270°) Therefore, cos  = + cos (360o – ).
Sin  = sin ( – 180o) tan  = tan (360o – )
=
– QP
+ OP

= – sin  – 180 o  =
– QP
+ OQ

= – tan 360 o –  
Therefore, sin  = – sin ( – 180o) Therefore, tan  = – tan (360o – ).
Cos  = cos ( – 180)
– OQ
= = – cos(  – 180)
+ OP
Signs of trigonometrical functions for angles more than 900

Ratio 90 -  90 +  180 -  180 +  270 -  270 +  360 - -
sin cos cos sin - sin - cos - cos - sin - sin
cos sin - sin - cos - cos - sin sin cos cos
tan cot - cot - tan tan cot - cot - tan - tan
cosec sec sec cosec - cosec - sec - sec - cosec - cosec
sec cosec - cosec - sec - sec - cosec cosec sec sec
cot tan - tan - cot cot tan - tan - cot - cot
Simplify : tanθ 1
=   secθ
cot + tan (180+) + tan(90-) + (tan 360 -  sinθ cosθ
= cot  + tan - cot  - tan  simplify:
=0
cos 90  θ  sec  θ  tan 180  θ 
Simplify :
sec 360  θ  sin180  θ  cot 90  θ 
cos 90  θ  sec  θ  tan 180  θ 
cos (900 + ) = - sin 
sec 360  θ  sin180  θ  cos90  θ 
sec (- ) = sec 
 sin θ  x sec θ  x  tan θ  tan ( 1800 - ) = - tan 
=
sec θ  x  sin θ  x  sin θ 

sec (3600 - ) = sec  Simplify:
sin ( 1800 + ) = - sin  Cot  + tan ( 1800 + ) + tan (900 + ) + tan (3600 - )
cot (900 + ) = - tan  tan (1800 - ) = tan 
tan (900 + ) = - cot 

cos 90  θ  sec  θ  tan 180  θ 
tan (3600 - ) = - tan 
sec 360  θ  sin180  θ  cot 90  θ 
cot + tan (1800 + ) + tan (900 + ) + tan ( 3600 - )
( −sinθ)( secθ)( tanθ)
= cot + tan  - cot  - tan = 0
(sec θ)( −sinθ)( − tanθ)
=1
Assignment
1 Given sin 300 = 1/2, find the value of tan 600 9 What is the value of
2 If cos  = 4/5, find the other radios
3 If sin A = 3/5, find cos ,tan & sec 
4 If tan  = 24/7, find sin andcos  Simplify :
5 Find the value of cos  and tan if sin = 1/2 1 tan (90 + A) + (tan 180 + A) tan (90 + A)
6 If cos  = 5/13, find the value of tan  cos (90 + θ ) ⋅ sec (-θ ) ⋅ tan (180 - θ )
2
sec (360 + θ ) ⋅ sin (180 + θ ) ⋅ cot (90 + θ )
7 If sin  = 1/2, find the value of sin2cos2
What is the value of
8 i What is the value of cos  and tan 
3 Sin 1600
4
sin 4 Sin 4500
5
5 Cos 1350
ii What is the value of sin  and cos 
6 tan 2600
12
tan 
5

Trigonometry - Trigonometrical tables Exercise 1.10.48
Use of trigonometrical tables cos 43°– 41' = value for cos 43°.36 '
– the value given for
Minutes from 0 to 4 Mean difference mean difference of 5 ' = 0.7242 – 0.0010
= 0.7232
Deg. 0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 54' 1' 2' 3' 4' 5'
When reading sine value add the mean differ-
0 . .
ence value. When reading cosine value sub-
1 . . tract the mean difference value.
2 . .
Arrangement
3 . .
Values of trigonometrical ratios can be taken from math-
. . . ematical tables.
. . . The left hand vertical column consists of degrees.
The top horizontal column is arranged in minutes in steps
. . .
of 6' from 0' to 54'. In the extreme right horizontal columns
26 .. .. .. x .. .. .. 5 the mean differences are written in minutes from 1' to 5' in
steps of 1' to account for angles with minutes between the
.
interval of 6'.
.
• The values of cosine, cosecant and cotan
.
gent decrease when the value of the angle
89 increases.
• For sine, secant and tangent, the value
Sine value for 26°– 20' increases when the angle increases.
• The value of sine and cosine will never be
Refer to Natural sine table.
more than 1.
Degrees column go up to 26° down • The value of secant and cosecant will never
Minutes column 18' horizontal and under this note the value be less than 1.
which is given as 0.4431. • The value of Tan and Cot ranges from 0 to 
Under mean difference for 2' in the same horizontal line 5
EXAMPLE
is given. Add this to the extreme right number noted for
26°– 18'. From the tables obtain the cosine of 45°–20 '.
Sine 26° – 20' = 0.4431 + .0005 = 0.4436 cos 45°–18 ' = 0.7108
Cosine value for 43° – 41' mean difference for 2 ' = 0.0004
Referring to the Natural cosines table for 43° –36' it is
cos 45°– 20 ' = 0.7104
given as 0.7242 and the mean difference for 5' minutes is
given as 10.
SINE TABLE
1 Sin 250 = 0.4226

3 0
sin 17 45' 13"
23 Sin 170 5' sin 17 46' = 0.3051
0
sin 17 = 0.2924
0 sin17 45' = 0.3048
0
Difference 1’ = 0.0003
Difference 5’ = 14
sin 17 5' = 0.2938
0
Ans
161
0.6800 = sin 420 51’
0.00015 = 30”
1' (or) 60" = 0.0003
-----------------------------------
0.0003 0.68015 = sin 420 51’30”
13" = × 13
60 -----------------------------------
0.0039  = 420 51’30”
=
60
0.00039 4. sin 
= 0.84756
=
6 0.8471 = sin 570 54’
= 0.000065 0.0003 = 2’
------------------------------
sin 170 45' = 0.3048
0.8474 = sin 570 56’
13" = 0.000065 0.8476 = sin 570 57’
sin170 45'13" = 0.304865 Ans. -----------------------------
Difference 0.0002 = 1’ (or) 60”
60
0
4 sin82 14' 18" 0.00016 = X 0.00016
0.0002
= 0.9908
= 60 × 16
0
sin 82 15'
sin 82 14' = 0.9908
0
20
= 48"
Difference 1’ = 0
0.8474 = sin 570 56’
0.00016 = 48”
1' (or ) 60" = 0
-----------------------------------
sin18" = 0 0.84756 = sin 570 56’48”
sin820 14' = 0.9908 -----------------------------------
18" = 0.0000  = 570 56’48”
sin820 41'18" = 0.9908 Ans. 5. sin 
= 0.6
Finding the corresponding angles when sine 0.5990 = sin 36o 48’
values are given: 0.0009 = 4’
--------------------------------------
1. Sin  = 0.9925 0.5999 = sin 36o 52’
 = 830 0.6002 = sin 36o 53’
--------------------------------------
2. Sin  = 0.8791
difference 0.0003 = 1’ (or) 60’
0.8788 = Sin 610 30’
0.0003 = 2’ 60 60
0.0001 = x 0.0001= x1
------------------------------------------- 0.0003 3
0.8791 = Sin 610 32’
3. sin  = 0.68015 0.5999 = sin 36o 52’
0.0001 = 20”
0.6794 = sin 420 48’ ----------------------------------------------
0.0006 = 3’ 0.6000 = sin 36o 52’20”
-------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------
0.6800 = sin 420 51’  = 36o 52’ 20”
0.6803 = sin 420 52’
---------------------------------
Calculations involving tapers
Difference 0.0003 = 1’ (or) 60”
D - Big diameter of the taper
60 d - small diameter of the taper
0.00015 = X 0.00015
0.0003
C - Taper Ratio - 1:x
60 × 15
=
30
= 30"

or
1 Ratio of inclination = of the taper ratio.

Setting angle
One of the methods of turning taper is by swivelling the
compound slide to an angle known as setting angle and
feeding the tool at an angle to the axis of work.
α
NOTE: is the setting angle which is eual to half of the
2
included angle of the taper.
Taper Ratio C = 1 : x or D : l or (D –d) : l

C
Ratio of inclination =1:2x = : l or :l
2
Setting angle determination is by the formula
C
Ratio of inclination - 1:2 x
2
l - length of taper
a - included angle of taper

- setting angle
2
Taper ratio = Ratio of inclination (for wedges).
EXAMPLE
Taper ratio
A pivot in the form of a frustum of a cone has a taper ratio
The ratio between the difference in diameter to the length 1:8. If the small diameter is 30 mm and length of taper is
of the taper is known as taper ratio. D is the difference in 80 mm, find its large diameter.
larger diameter shown in the sketch as the small diameter
of taper is 0. Taper ratio is D : l . In the sectioned portion C = 1:8 =
the difference in diameter is 1 and the length of taper is
shown as x .
C = D: d = 1 : x as per Fig 1 (a), C = as per Fig 1 (b)

1 80
Ratio of inclination ∴D − d = = = 10 mm.
8 8
D – 30 mm = 10 mm
Taking half of the taper, is the difference in diameter
D = 10 mm + 30 mm = 40 mm
for a taper length of l, if d = 0.
Large diameter D = 40 mm
if the small diameter is 0

Cos Table tan Table
1 Cos 38 o
1 tan 35O 37'
Cos 38o = 0.7880 tan 35O 36' = 0.7159
2 Cos 83o 12' 1' = 0.0004
Cos 83o 12' = 0.1184 ---------------------------------------------
tan 35O 37' = 0.7163
3 Cos 26o 40'
---------------------------------------------
Cos 26o 36' = 0.8942
4' = 5 (-) 2 tan 50O 5'
--------------------------------------------
Tan 50O 0' = 1.1918
Cos 26o 40' = 0.8937
-------------------------------------------- 5' = 0.0036
---------------------------------------------
4 Cos 31o 20'
Tan 50O 5' = 1.1954
Cos 31o 18' = 0.8545 ---------------------------------------------
Find the corresponding angles when tan values are
2' = 3 (-)
given
------------------------------------------
Cos 31o 20' = 0.8542 1 tan  = 0.3972
------------------------------------------
0.3959 = tan 21O 36'
Find the corresponding angles when cos values are
0.0013 = 4'
given:
---------------------------------------------
0.3972 = tan 21O 40'
1 Cos  = 0.5150
---------------------------------------------
 = 59o 2 tan  = 1.0065
2 Cos  = 0.0192 1.0035 = tan 45O 6'
 = 88o54' 0.0030 = 5'
--------------------------------------------
3 Cos  = 0.9682
1.0065 = tan 45O 11'
0.9686 = cos 14o24' --------------------------------------------
(-) 4 = 5'
-------------------------------------------- Problems Related with Trigonometrical tables
0.9682 = cos 14o 29' 1 A 250 mm Sine bar is used to measure an angle.
-------------------------------------------- If the difference in height is 5 cm, find the angle.
 = 14o 29'
Opp.side h
4 Cos  = 0.8476 Sin θ = =
Hyp. l
0.8480 = cos 32o 0'
(-) 0.0003 = 2' 5 cm
=
-------------------------------------------- 250 mm
0.8477 = cos 32o 2'
0.8475 = cos 32o 3' 50 mm
=
-------------------------------------------- 250 mm
0.0002 = 1' (or) 60"
= 0.2000
60
0.0001 = ----------- x 0.0001  = 11o 32'
0.0002 2 Find the height of the slip gauge if a Sine bar with
60 plugs of 10" centre is set up to inspect a taper
= ------ x 1 having an included angle of 9o 56".
2
= 30" Opp.side h
0.8477 = Cos 32o 2' Sin θ = =
Hyp. l
(-) 0.0001 = 30" (+) h
---------------------------------------------------- Sin 9o56" =
10
0.8476 = Cos 32o 2' 30"
---------------------------------------------------- h = 10 x sin 9o56"

3 Find the angle which the ladder makes with the
ground if the foot of a 4.5 m long ladder is placed
at 1 m away from the wall.
In Right angled D
BC
Cos C =
AC
Sin 9o 0" = 0.1564 1m
Sin 9o 1" = 0.1567 Cos  = = 0.2222
4.5 m
--------------------------------------
1' (or) 60" = 0.0003
0.0003
56"= x 56
60
0.0168
=
60
0.00168
= Cos = 0.2222
6
0.2233 = cos 77o 6'
= 0.00028 (-) 0.0011 = 4' (+)
sin9 0' 00" = 0.1564
o
-----------------------------------
56" = 0.00028 0.2222 = cos 77o 10'
------------------------------------ ----------------------------------
sin9o 0' 56" = 0.15668  = 77o 10'
------------------------------------
h = 10 x sin9o 56"
= 10 x 0.15668
= 1.5668 cm
Height of slip gauge = 1.5668"
Assignment
I Find the values of the given angles 6 Cos  = 0.8926
1 Sin 65 o
7 Cos  = 0.11773
2 Sin 42 23'
o
8 Cos  = 0.21646
3 Sin 66 35' 32"
o
9 Tan  = 0.3411
4 Sin 7o 15' 41" 10 Tan  = 2.3868
5 Sin 27 27"
o
III
6 Cos 47 39'
o
1 Calculate its base. if the slant height of a cone is 12.25
7 Cos 47 39'
o cm and the vertex angle is 1100.
8 Cos 79o 31' 53" 2 A ladder 2.5 m long makes an angle of 600 with the
ground. Find the height of the wall where the ladder
9 Tan 28o 45' touches the wall.
10 Tan 67o 27' 36" 3 A sine bar of 200 mm is to be set at an angle of 15015'3".
II Find corrosponding angles for given values Select the slip gauge block to built up the reuired
height.
1 Sin  = 0.3062
4 In a right angled triangle ABC, C = 90o, If AB =
2 Sin  = 0.6002
50 mm and B = 75o, Find the remaining sides.
3 Sin  = 0.22453
5 Calculate the reuired length of the bar for this point if
4 Sin  = 0.04802 a centre point having an included angle of 60o is to be
5 Cos  = 0.6446 turned at the end of a 50 mm dia bar.

Natural Sines
O
0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' 2' 3' 4' 5'
0.0O 0.1O 0.2O 0.3O 0.4O 0.5O 0.6O 0.7O 0.8O 0.9O
0 0.0000 0.0017 0.0035 0.0052 0.0070 0.0087 0.0105 0.0122 0.0140 0.0157 3 6 9 12 15
1 0.0175 0.0192 0.0209 0.0227 0.0244 0.0262 0.0279 0.0297 0.0314 0.0332 3 6 9 12 15
2 0.0349 0.0366 0.0384 0.0401 0.0419 0.0436 0.0454 0.0471 0.0488 0.0506 3 6 9 12 15
3 0.0523 0.0541 0.0558 0.0576 0.0593 0.0610 0.0628 0.0645 0.0663 0.0680 3 6 9 12 15
4 0.0698 0.0715 0.0732 0.0750 0.0767 0.0785 0.0802 0.0819 0.0837 0.0854 3 6 9 12 14
5 0.0872 0.0899 0.0906 0.0924 0.0941 0.0958 0.0976 0.0993 0.1011 0.1028 3 6 9 12 14
6 0.1045 0.1063 0.1080 0.1097 0.1115 0.1132 0.1149 0.1167 0.1184 0.1201 3 6 9 12 14
7 0.1219 0.1236 0.1253 0.1271 0.1288 0.1305 0.1323 0.1340 0.1357 0.1374 3 6 9 12 14
8 0.1392 0.1409 0.1426 0.1444 0.1461 0.1478 0.1495 0.1513 0.1530 0.1547 3 6 9 11 14
9 0.1564 0.1582 0.1599 0.1616 0.1633 0.1650 0.1668 0.1685 0.1702 0.1719 3 6 9 11 14
10 0.1736 0.1754 0.1771 0.1788 0.1805 0.1822 0.1840 0.1857 0.1874 0.1891 3 6 9 11 14
11 0.1908 0.1925 0.1942 0.1959 0.1977 0.1994 0.2011 0.2028 0.2045 0.2062 3 6 9 12 14
12 0.2079 0.2096 0.2113 0.2130 0.2147 0.2164 0.2181 0.2198 0.2215 0.2232 3 6 9 11 14
13 0.2250 0.2267 0.2284 0.2300 0.2317 0.2334 0.2351 0.2368 0.2385 0.2402 3 6 8 11 14
14 0.2419 0.2436 0.2453 0.2470 0.2487 0.2504 0.2521 0.2538 0.2554 0.2571 3 6 8 11 14
15 0.2558 0.2605 0.2622 0.2639 0.2656 0.2672 0.2689 0.2706 0.2723 0.2740 3 6 8 11 14
16 0.2756 0.2773 0.2790 0.2807 0.2823 0.2840 0.2857 0.2874 0.2890 0.2907 3 6 8 11 14
17 0.2924 0.2940 0.2957 0.2974 0.2990 0.3007 0.3024 0.3040 0.3057 0.3074 3 6 8 11 14
18 0.3090 0.3107 0.3123 0.3140 0.3156 0.3173 0.3190 0.3206 0.3223 0.3239 3 6 8 11 14
19 0.3256 0.3272 0.3289 0.3305 0.3322 0.3338 0.3355 0.3371 0.3387 0.3404 3 5 8 11 14
20 0.3420 0.3437 0.3453 0.3469 0.3486 0.3502 0.3518 0.3535 0.3551 0.3567 3 5 8 11 14
21 0.3584 0.3600 0.3616 0.3633 0.3649 0.3665 0.3681 0.3697 0.3714 0.3730 3 5 8 11 14
22 0.3746 0.3762 0.3778 0.3795 0.3811 0.3827 0.3843 0.3859 0.3875 0.3891 3 5 8 11 13
23 0.3907 0.3923 0.3939 0.3955 0.3971 0.3987 0.4003 0.4019 0.4035 0.4051 3 5 8 11 13
24 0.4067 0.4083 0.4099 0.4115 0.4131 0.4147 0.4163 0.4179 0.4195 0.4210 3 5 8 11 13
25 0.4226 0.4242 0.4258 0.4274 0.4289 0.4305 0.4321 0.4337 0.4352 0.4368 3 5 8 11 13
26 0.4384 0.4399 0.4415 0.4431 0.4446 0.4462 0.4478 0.4493 0.4509 0.4524 3 5 8 10 13
27 0.4540 0.4555 0.4571 0.4586 0.4602 0.4617 0.4633 0.4648 0.4664 0.4679 3 5 8 10 13
28 0.4695 0.4710 0.4726 0.4741 0.4756 0.4772 0.4787 0.4802 0.4818 0.4833 3 5 8 10 13
29 0.4848 0.4863 0.4879 0.4894 0.4909 0.4924 0.4939 0.4955 0.4970 0.4985 3 5 8 10 13
30 0.500 0.5015 0.5030 0.5045 0.5060 0.5075 0.5090 0.5105 0.5120 0.5135 3 5 8 10 13
31 0.5150 0.5165 0.5180 0.5195 0.5210 0.5225 0.5240 0.5255 0.5270 0.5284 2 5 7 10 12
32 0.5299 0.5314 0.5329 0.5344 0.5358 0.5373 0.5388 0.5402 0.5417 0.5432 2 5 7 10 12
33 0.5446 0.5461 0.5476 0.5490 0.5505 0.5519 0.5534 0.5548 0.5563 0.5577 2 5 7 10 12
34 0.5592 0.5606 0.5621 0.5635 0.5650 0.5664 0.5678 0.5693 0.5707 0.5721 2 5 7 10 12
35 0.5736 0.5750 0.5764 0.5779 0.5793 0.5807 0.5821 0.5835 0.5850 0.5864 2 5 7 9 12
36 0.5878 0.5892 0.5906 0.5920 0.5934 0.5948 0.5962 0.5976 0.5990 0.6004 2 5 7 9 12
37 0.6018 0.6032 0.6046 0.6060 0.6074 0.6088 0.6101 0.6115 0.6129 0.6143 2 5 7 9 12
38 0.6157 0.6170 0.6184 0.6198 0.6211 0.6225 0.6239 0.6252 0.6266 0.6280 2 5 7 9 11
39 0.6293 0.6307 0.6320 0.6334 0.6347 0.6361 0.6374 0.6388 0.6401 0.6414 2 4 7 9 11
40 0.6428 0.6441 0.6455 0.6468 0.6481 0.6494 0.6508 0.6521 0.6534 0.6547 2 4 7 9 11
41 0.6561 0.6574 0.6587 0.6600 0.6613 0.6626 0.6639 0.6652 0.6665 0.6678 2 4 7 9 11
42 0.6691 0.6704 0.6717 0.6730 0.6743 0.6756 0.6769 0.6782 0.6794 0.6807 2 4 6 9 11
43 0.6820 0.6833 0.6845 0.6858 0.6871 0.6884 0.6896 0.6909 0,6921 0.6934 2 4 6 8 11
44 0.6947 0.6959 0.6972 0.6984 0.6997 0.7009 0.7022 0.7034 0.7046 0.7059 2 4 6 8 10
45 0.7071 0.7083 0.7096 0.7108 0.7120 0.7133 0.7145 0.7157 0.7169 0.7181 2 4 6 8 10
46 0.7193 0.7206 0.7218 0.7230 0.7242 0.7254 0.7266 0.7278 0.7290 0.7302 2 4 6 8 10
47 0.7314 0.7325 0.7337 0.7349 0.7361 0.7373 0.7385 0.7396 0.7408 0.7420 2 4 6 8 10
48 0.7431 0.7443 0.7455 0.7466 0.7478 0.7490 0.7501 0.7513 0.7524 0.7536 2 4 6 8 10
49 0.7547 0.7558 0.7570 0.7581 0.7593 0.7604 0.7615 0.7627 0.7638 0.7649 2 4 6 8 9
50 0.7660 0.7672 0.7683 0.7694 0.7705 0.7716 0.7727 0.7738 0.7749 0.7760 2 4 6 7 9
51 0.7771 0.7782 0.7793 0.7804 0.7815 0.7826 0.7837 0.7848 0.7859 0.7869 2 4 5 7 9
52 0.7880 0.7891 0.7902 0.7912 0.7923 0.7934 0.7944 0.7955 0.7965 0.7976 2 4 5 7 9
53 0.7986 0.7997 0.8007 0.8018 0.8028 0.8039 0.8049 0.8059 0.8070 0.8080 2 3 5 7 9
54 0.8090 0.8100 0.8111 0.8121 0.8131 0.8141 0.8151 0.8161 0.8171 0.8181 2 3 5 7 8
55 0.8192 0.8202 0.8211 0.8221 0.8231 0.8241 0.8251 0.8261 0.8271 0.8281 2 3 5 7 8
56 0.8290 0.8300 0.8310 0.8320 0.8329 0.8339 0.8348 0.8358 0.8368 0.8377 2 3 5 6 8
57 0.8387 0.8396 0.8406 0.8415 0.8425 0.8434 0.8443 0.8453 0.8462 0.8471 2 3 5 6 8
58 0.8480 0.8490 0.8499 0.8508 0.8517 0.8526 0.8536 0.8545 0.8554 0.8563 2 3 5 6 8
59 0.8572 0.8581 0.8590 0.8599 0.8607 0.8616 0.8625 0.8634 0.8643 0.8652 1 3 4 6 7

Natural Sines
O
0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' 2' 3' 4' 5'
0.0O 0.1O 0.2O 0.3O 0.4O 0.5O 0.6O 0.7O 0.8O 0.9O
60 0.8660 0.8669 0.8678 0.8686 0.8695 0.8704 0.8712 0.8721 0.8729 0.8738 1 3 4 6 7
61 0.8746 0.8755 0.8763 0.8771 0.8780 0.8788 0.8796 0.8805 0.8813 0.8821 1 3 4 6 7
62 0.8829 0.8838 0.8846 0.8854 0.8862 0.8870 0.8878 0.8886 0.8894 0.8902 1 3 4 5 7
63 0.8910 0.8918 0.8926 0.8934 0.8942 0.8949 0.8957 0.8965 0.8973 0.8980 1 3 4 5 6
64 0.8988 0.8996 0.9003 0.9011 0.9018 0.9026 0.9033 0.9041 0.9048 0.9056 1 3 4 5 6
65 0.9063 0.9070 0.9078 0.9085 0.9092 0.9100 0.9107 0.9114 0.9121 0.9128 1 2 4 5 6
66 0.9135 0.9143 0.9150 0.9157 0.9164 0.9171 0.9178 0.9184 0.9191 0.9198 1 2 3 5 6
67 0.9205 0.9212 0.9219 0.9225 0.9232 0.9239 0.9245 0.9252 0.9259 0.9265 1 2 3 4 6
68 0.9272 0.9278 0.9285 0.9291 0.9298 0.9304 0.9311 0.9317 0.9323 0.9330 1 2 3 4 5
69 0.9336 0.9342 0.9348 0.9354 0.9361 0.9367 0.9373 0.9379 0.9385 0.9391 1 2 3 4 5
70 0.9397 0.9403 0.9409 0.9415 0.9421 0.9426 0.9432 0.9438 0.9444 0.9449 1 2 3 4 5
71 0.9455 0.9461 0.9466 0.9472 0.9478 0.9483 0.9489 0.9494 0.9500 0.9505 1 2 3 4 5
72 0.9511 0.9516 0.9521 0.9527 0.9532 0.9537 0.9542 0.9548 0.9553 0.9558 1 2 3 3 4
73 0.9563 0.9568 0.9573 0.9578 0.9583 0.9588 0.9593 0.9598 0.9603 0.9608 1 2 2 3 4
74 0.9613 0.9617 0.9622 0.9627 0.9632 0.9636 0.9641 0.9646 0.9650 0.9655 1 2 2 3 4
75 0.9659 0.9664 0.9668 0.9673 0.9677 0.9681 0.9686 0.9690 0.9694 0.9699 1 1 2 3 4
76 0.9703 0.9707 0.9711 0.9715 0.9720 0.9724 0.9728 0.9732 0.9736 0.9740 1 1 2 3 3
77 0.9744 0.9748 0.9751 0.9755 0.9759 0.9763 0.9767 0.9770 0.9774 0.9778 1 1 2 2 3
78 0.9781 0.9785 0.9789 0.9792 0.9796 0.9799 0.9803 0.9806 0.9810 0.9813 1 1 2 2 3
79 0.9816 0.9820 0.9823 0.9826 0.9829 0.9833 0.9836 0.9839 0.9842 0.9845 1 1 2 2 3
80 0.9848 0.9851 0.9854 0.9857 0.9860 0.9863 0.9866 0.9869 0.9871 0.9874 0 1 1 2 2
81 0.9877 0.9880 0.9882 0.9885 0.9888 0.9890 0.9893 0.9895 0.9898 0.9900 0 1 1 2 2
82 0.9903 0.9905 0.9907 0.9910 0.9912 0.9914 0.9917 0.9919 0.9921 0.9923 0 1 1 1 2
83 0.9925 0.9928 0.9930 0.9932 0.9934 0.9936 0.9938 0.9940 0.9942 0.9943 0 1 1 1 2
84 0.9945 0.9947 0.9949 0.9951 0.9952 0.9954 0.9956 0.9957 0.9959 0.9960 0 1 1 1 1
85 0.9962 0.9963 0.9965 0.9966 0.9968 0.9969 0.9971 0.9972 0.9973 0.9974 0 0 1 1 1
86 0.9976 0.9977 0.9978 0.9979 0.9980 0.9981 0.9982 0.9983 0.9984 0.9985 0 0 1 1 1
87 0.9986 0.9987 0.9988 0.9989 0.9990 0.9990 0.9991 0.9992 0.9993 0.9993 0 0 0 1 1
88 0.9994 0.9995 0.9995 0.9996 0.9996 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9998 0.9998 0 0 0 0 0
89 0.9998 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0 0 0 0 0
90 1.0000
Quadrant Angle sinA = Examples

First 0 to 90 o
sin A sin 34 38' = 0.5683
o
Second 90o to 180o sin(180o – A) sin 145o22' = sin(180o – 145o 22')

= sin 34o38' = 0.5683
Third 180o to 270o –sin(A – 180o) sin 214o38' = –sin(214o38' – 180o)
= –sin34o38' = –0.5683
Fourth 270o to 360o –sin(360o – A) sin 325o22' = –sin(360o – 325o22')
= – sin 34o38' = –0.5683

Natural Cosines
Numbers in different columns to be subtracted, not added
O
0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' 2' 3' 4' 5'
0.0O 0.1O 0.2O 0.3O 0.4O 0.5O 0.6O 0.7O 0.8O 0.9O
0 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0 0 0 0 0
1 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9996 0.9996 0.9995 0.9995 0 0 0 0 0
2 0.9994 0.9993 0.9993 0.9992 0.9991 0.9990 0.9990 0.9989 0.9988 0.9987 0 0 0 1 1
3 0.9986 0.9985 0.9984 0.9983 0.9982 0.9981 0.9980 0.9979 0.9978 0.9977 0 0 1 1 1
4 0.9976 0.9974 0.9973 0.9972 0.9971 0.9969 0.9968 0.9966 0.9965 0.9963 0 0 1 1 1
5 0.9962 0.9960 0.9959 0.9957 0.9956 0.9954 0.9952 0.9951 0.9949 0.9947 0 1 1 1 1
6 0.9945 0.9943 0.9942 0.9940 0.9938 0.9936 0.9934 0.9932 0.9930 0.9928 0 1 1 1 2
7 0.9925 0.9923 0.9921 0.9919 0.9917 0.9914 0.9912 0.9910 0.9907 0.9905 0 1 1 1 2
8 0.9903 0.9900 0.9898 0.9895 0.9893 0.9890 0.9888 0.9885 0.9882 0.9880 0 1 1 2 2
9 0.9877 0.9874 0.9871 0.9869 0.9866 0.9863 0.9860 0.9857 0.9854 0.9851 0 1 1 2 2
10 0.9848 0.9845 0.9842 0.9839 0.9836 0.9833 0.9829 0.9826 0.9823 0.9820 1 1 2 2 3
11 0.9816 0.9813 0.9810 0.9806 0.9803 0.9799 0.9796 0.9792 0.9789 0.9785 1 1 2 2 3
12 0.9781 0.9778 0.9774 0.9770 0.9767 0.9763 0.9759 0.9755 0.9751 0.9748 1 1 2 2 3
13 0.9744 0.9740 0.9736 0.9732 0.9728 0.9724 0.9720 0.9715 0.9711 0.9707 1 1 2 3 3
14 0.9703 0.9699 0.9694 0.9690 0.9686 0.9681 0.9677 0.9673 0.9668 0.9664 1 1 2 3 4
15 0.9659 0.9655 0.9650 0.9646 0.9641 0.9636 0.9632 0.9627 0.9622 0.9617 1 2 2 3 4
16 0.9613 0.9608 0.9603 0.9598 0.9593 0.9588 0.9583 0.9578 0.9573 0.9568 1 2 2 3 4
17 0.9563 0.9558 0.9553 0.9548 0.9542 0.9537 0.9532 0.9527 0.9521 0.9516 1 2 3 3 4
18 0.9511 0.9505 0.9500 0.9494 0.9489 0.9483 0.9478 0.9472 0.9466 0.9461 1 2 3 4 5
19 0.9455 0.9449 0.9444 0.9438 0.9432 0.9426 0.9421 0.9415 0.9409 0.9403 1 2 3 4 5
20 0.9397 0.9391 0.9385 0.9379 0.9373 0.9367 0.9361 0.9354 0.9348 0.9342 1 2 3 4 5
21 0.9336 0.9330 0.9323 0.9317 0.9311 0.9304 0.9298 0.9291 0.9285 0.9278 1 2 3 4 5
22 0.9272 0.9625 0.9259 0.9252 0.9245 0.9239 0.9232 0.9225 0.9219 0.9212 1 2 3 4 6
23 0.9205 0.9198 0.9191 0.9184 0.9178 0.9171 0.9164 0.9157 0.9150 0.9143 1 2 3 5 6
24 0.9135 0.9128 0.9121 0.9114 0.9107 0.9100 0.9092 0.9085 0.9078 0.9070 1 2 4 5 6
25 0.9063 0.9056 0.9048 0.9041 0.9033 0.9026 0.9018 0.9011 0.9003 0.8996 1 3 4 5 6
26 0.8988 0.8980 0.8973 0.8965 0.8957 0.8949 0.8942 0.8934 0.8926 0.8918 1 3 4 5 6
27 0.8910 0.8902 0.8894 0.8886 0.8878 0.8870 0.8862 0.8854 0.8846 0.8838 1 3 4 5 7
28 0.8829 0.8821 0.8813 0.8805 0.8796 0.8788 0.8780 0.8771 0.8763 0.8755 1 3 4 6 7
29 0.8746 0.8738 0.8729 0.8721 0.8712 0.8704 0.8695 0.8686 0.8678 0.8669 1 3 4 6 7
30 0.8660 0.8652 0.8643 0.8634 0.8625 0.8616 0.8607 0.8599 0.8590 0.8581 1 3 4 6 7
31 0.8572 0.8563 0.8554 0.8545 0.8536 0.8526 0.8517 0.8508 0.8499 0.8490 2 3 5 6 8
32 0.8480 0.8471 0.8462 0.8453 0.8443 0.8434 0.8425 0.8415 0.8406 0.8396 2 3 5 6 8
33 0.8387 0.8377 0.8368 0.8358 0.8348 0.8339 0.8329 0.8320 0.8310 0.8300 2 3 5 6 8
34 0.8290 0.8281 0.8271 0.8261 0.8251 0.8241 0.8231 0.8221 0.8211 0.8202 2 3 5 7 8
35 0.8192 0.8181 0.8171 0.8161 0.8151 0.8141 0.8131 0.8121 0.8111 0.8100 2 3 5 7 8
36 0.8090 0.8080 0.8070 0.8059 0.8049 0.8039 0.8028 0.8018 0.8007 0.7997 2 3 5 7 9
37 0.7986 0.7976 0.7965 0.7955 0.7944 0.7934 0.7923 0.7912 0.7902 0.7891 2 4 5 7 9
38 0.7880 0.7869 0.7859 0.7848 0.7837 0.7826 0.7815 0.7804 0.7793 0.7782 2 4 5 7 9
39 0.7771 0.7760 0.7749 0.7738 0.7727 0.7716 0.7705 0.7694 0.7683 0.7672 2 4 6 7 9
40 0.7660 0.7649 0.7638 0.7627 0.7615 0.7604 0.7593 0.7581 0.7570 0.7559 2 4 6 8 9
41 0.7547 0.7536 0.7524 0.7513 0.7501 0.7490 0.7478 0.7466 0.7455 0.7443 2 4 6 8 10
42 0.7431 0.7420 0.7408 0.7396 0.7385 0.7373 0.7361 0.7349 0.7337 0.7325 2 4 6 8 10
43 0.7314 0.7302 0.7290 0.7278 0.7266 0.7254 0.7242 0.7230 0.7218 0.7206 2 4 6 8 10
44 0.7193 0.7181 0.7169 0.7157 0.7145 0.7133 0.7120 0.7108 0.7096 0.7083 2 4 6 8 10
45 0.7071 0.7059 0.7046 0,7034 0.7022 0.7009 0.6997 0.6984 0.6972 0.6959 2 4 6 8 10
46 0.6947 0.6934 0.6921 0.6909 0.6896 0.6884 0.6871 0.6858 0.6845 0.6833 2 4 6 8 11
47 0.6820 0.6807 0.6794 0.6782 0.6769 0.6756 0.6743 0.6730 0.6717 0.6704 2 4 6 9 11
48 0.6691 0.6678 0.6665 0.6652 0.6639 0.6626 0.6613 0.6600 0.6587 0.6574 2 4 7 9 11
49 0.6561 0.6547 0.6534 0.6521 0.6508 0.6494 0.6481 0.6468 0.6455 0.6441 2 4 7 9 11
50 0.6428 0.6414 0.6401 0.6388 0.6374 0.6361 0.6347 0.6334 0.6320 0.6307 2 4 7 9 11
51 0.6293 0.6280 0.6266 0.6252 0.6239 0.6255 0.6211 0.6198 0.6184 0.6170 2 5 7 9 11
52 0.6157 0.6143 0.6129 0.6115 0.6101 0.6088 0.6404 0.6060 0.6046 0.6032 2 5 7 9 12
53 0.6018 0.6004 0.5990 0.5976 0.5962 0.5948 0.5934 0.5920 0.5906 0.5892 2 5 7 9 12
54 0.5878 0.5864 0.5850 0.5835 0.5821 0.5807 0.5793 0.5779 0.5764 0.5750 2 5 7 9 12
55 0.5736 0.5721 0.5707 0.5693 0.5678 0.5664 0.5650 0.5635 0.5621 0.5606 2 5 7 10 12
56 0.5592 0.5577 0.5563 0.5548 0.5534 0.5519 0.5505 0.5490 0.5476 0.5461 2 5 7 10 12
57 0.5446 0.5432 0.5417 0.5402 0.5388 0.5373 0.5358 0.5344 0.5329 0.5314 2 5 7 10 12
58 0.5299 0.5284 0.5270 0.5255 0.5240 0.5225 0.5210 0.5195 0.5180 0.5165 2 5 7 10 12
59 0.5150 0.5135 0.5120 0.5105 0.5090 0.5075 0.5060 0.5045 0.5030 0.5015 3 5 8 10 13

Natural Cosines
Numbers in different columns to be subtracted, not added
O
0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' 2' 3' 4' 5'
0.0O 0.1O 0.2O 0.3O 0.4O 0.5O 0.6O 0.7O 0.8O 0.9O
60 0.5000 0.4985 0.4970 0.4955 0.4939 0.4924 0.4909 0.4894 0.4879 0.4863 3 5 8 10 13
61 0.4848 0.4833 0.4818 0.4802 0.4787 0.4772 0.4756 0.4741 0.4726 0.4710 3 5 8 10 13
62 0.4695 0.4679 0.4664 0.4648 0.4633 0.4617 0.4602 0.4586 0.4571 0.4555 3 5 8 10 13
63 0.4540 0.4524 0.4509 0.4493 0.4478 0.4462 0.4446 0.4431 0.4415 0.4399 3 5 8 10 13
64 0.4384 0.4368 0.4352 0.4337 0.4321 0.4305 0.4289 0.4274 0.4258 0.4242 3 5 8 11 13
65 0.4226 0.4210 0.4195 0.4179 0.4163 0.4147 0.4131 0.4115 0.4099 0.4083 3 5 8 11 13
66 0.4067 0.4051 0.4035 0.4019 0.4003 0.3987 0.3971 0.3955 0.3939 0.3923 3 5 8 11 13
67 0.3907 0.3891 0.3875 0.3859 0.3843 0.3827 0.3811 0.3795 0.3778 0.3762 3 5 8 11 13
68 0.3746 0.3730 0.3714 0.3697 0.3681 0.3665 0.3649 0.3633 0.3616 0.3600 3 5 8 11 14
69 0.3584 0.3567 0.3551 0.3535 0.3518 0.3502 0.3486 0.3469 0.3453 0.3437 3 5 8 11 14
70 0.3420 0.3404 0.3387 0.3371 0.3355 0.3338 0.3322 0.3305 0.3289 0.3272 3 5 8 11 14
71 0.3256 0.3239 0.3223 0.3206 0.3190 0.3173 0.3156 0.3140 0.3123 0.3107 3 6 8 11 14
72 0.3090 0.3074 0.3057 0.3040 0.3024 0.3007 0.2990 0.2974 0.2957 0.2940 3 6 8 11 14
73 0.2924 0.2907 0.2890 0.2874 0.2857 0.2840 0.2823 0.2807 0.2790 0.2773 3 6 8 11 14
74 0.2756 0.2740 0.2723 0.2706 0.2689 0.2672 0.2656 0.2639 0.2622 0.2605 3 6 8 11 14
75 0.2588 0.2571 0.2554 0.2538 0.2521 0.2504 0.2487 0.2470 0.2453 0.2436 3 6 8 11 14
76 0.2419 0.2402 0.2385 0.2368 0.2351 0.2334 0.2317 0.2300 0.2284 0.2267 3 6 8 11 14
77 0.2250 0.2233 0.2215 0.2198 0.2181 0.2164 0.2147 0.2130 0.2113 0.2096 3 6 9 11 14
78 0.2079 0.2062 0.2045 0.2028 0.2011 0.1994 0.1977 0.1959 0.1942 0.1925 3 6 9 11 14
79 0.1908 0.1891 0.1874 0.1857 0.1840 0.1822 0.1805 0.1788 0.1771 0.1754 3 6 9 11 14
80 0.1736 0.1719 0.1702 0.1685 0.1668 0.1650 0.1633 0.1616 0.1599 0.1582 3 6 9 11 14
81 0.1564 0.1547 0.1530 0.1513 0.1495 0.1478 0.1461 0.1444 0.1426 0.1409 3 6 9 11 14
82 0.1392 0.1374 0.1357 0.1340 0.1323 0.1305 0.1288 0.1271 0.1253 0.1236 3 6 9 12 14
83 0.1219 0.1201 0.1184 0.1167 0.1149 0.1132 0.1115 0.1097 0.1080 0.1063 3 6 9 12 14
84 0.1045 0.1028 0.1011 0.0993 0.0976 0.0958 0.0941 0.0924 0.0906 0.0889 3 6 9 12 14
85 0.0872 0.0854 0.0837 0.0819 0.0802 0.0785 0.0767 0.0750 0.0732 0.0715 3 6 9 12 14
86 0.0698 0.0680 0.0663 0.0645 0.0628 0.0610 0.0593 0.0576 0.0558 0.0541 3 6 9 12 15
87 0.0523 0.0506 0.0488 0.0471 0.0454 0.0436 0.0419 0.0401 0.0384 0.0366 3 6 9 12 15
88 0.0349 0.0332 0.0314 0.0297 0.0279 0.0262 0.0244 0.0227 0.0209 0.0192 3 6 9 12 15
89 0.0175 0.0157 0.0140 0.0122 0.0105 0.0087 0.0070 0.0052 0.0035 0.0017 3 6 9 12 15
90 0.0000
Quadrant Angle cos A = Examples

First 0 to 90 o
cos A cos 33 26' = 0.8345
o
Second 90o to 180o –cos(180o – A) sin 146o34' = –cos(180o – 146o 34')

= –cos 33o26' = –0.8345
Third 180o to 270o cos(A – 180o) cos 213o26' = –cos(213o26' – 180o)
= –cos 33o26' = –0.8345
Fourth 270o to 360o cos(360o – A) cos 326o34' = cos(360o – 326o34')
= cos 33o26' = 0.8345

Natural Tangents
O
0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' 2' 3' 4' 5'
0.0O 0.1O 0.2O 0.3O 0.4O 0.5O 0.6O 0.7O 0.8O 0.9O
0 0.0000 0.0017 0.0035 0.0052 0.0070 0.0087 0.0105 0.0122 0.0140 0.0157 3 6 9 12 15
1 0.0175 0.0192 0.0209 0.0227 0.0244 0.0262 0.0279 0.0297 0.0314 0.0332 3 6 9 12 15
2 0.0349 0.0367 0.0384 0.0402 0.0419 0.0437 0.0454 0.0472 0.0489 0.0507 3 6 9 12 15
3 0.0524 0.0542 0.0559 0.0577 0.0594 0.0612 0.0629 0.0647 0.0664 0.0682 3 6 9 12 15
4 0.0699 0.0717 0.0734 0.0752 0.0769 0.0787 0.0805 0.0822 0.0840 0.0857 3 6 9 12 15
5 0.0875 0.0892 0.0910 0.0928 0.0945 0.0963 0.0981 0.0998 0.1016 0.1033 3 6 9 12 15
6 0.1051 0.1069 0.1086 0.1104 0.1122 0.1139 0.1157 0.1175 0.1192 0.1210 3 6 9 12 15
7 0.1228 0.1246 0.1263 0.1281 0.1299 0.1317 0.1334 0.1352 0.1370 0.1388 3 6 9 12 15
8 0.1405 0.1423 0.1441 0.1459 0.1477 0.1495 0.1512 0.1530 0.1548 0.1566 3 6 9 12 15
9 0.1584 0.1602 0.1620 0.1638 0.1655 0.1673 0.1691 0.1709 0.1727 0.1745 3 6 9 12 15
10 0.1763 0.1781 0.1799 0.1817 0.1835 0.1853 0.1871 0.1890 0.1908 0.1926 3 6 9 12 15
11 0.1944 0.1962 0.1980 0.1998 0.2016 0.2035 0.2053 0.2071 0.2089 0.2107 3 6 9 12 15
12 0.2126 0.2144 0.2162 0.2180 0.2199 0.2217 0.2235 0.2254 0.2272 0.2290 3 6 9 12 15
13 0.2309 0.2327 0.2345 0.2364 0.2382 0.2401 0.2419 0.2438 0.2456 0.2475 3 6 9 12 15
14 0.2493 0.2512 0.2530 0.2549 0.2568 0.2586 0.2605 0.2623 0.2642 0.2661 3 6 9 12 16
15 0.2679 0.2698 0.2717 0.2736 0.2754 0.2773 0.2792 0.2811 0.2830 0.2849 3 6 9 13 16
16 0.2867 0.2886 0.2905 0.2924 0.2943 0.2962 0.2981 0.3000 0.3019 0.3038 3 6 9 13 16
17 0.3057 0.3076 0.3096 0.3115 0.3134 0.3153 0.3172 0.3191 0.3211 0.3230 3 6 10 13 16
18 0.3249 0.3269 0.3288 0.3307 0.3327 0.3346 0.3365 0.3385 0.3404 0.3424 3 6 10 13 16
19 0.3443 0.3463 0.3482 0.3502 0.3522 0.3541 0.3561 0.3581 0.3600 0.3620 3 7 10 13 16
20 0.3640 0.3659 0.3679 0.3699 0.3719 0.3739 0.3759 0.3779 0.3799 0.3819 3 7 10 13 17
21 0.3839 0.3859 0.3879 0.3899 0.3919 0.3939 0.3959 0.3979 0.4000 0.4020 3 7 10 13 17
22 0.4040 0.4061 0.4081 0.4101 0.4122 0.4142 0.4163 0.4183 0.4204 0.4224 3 7 10 14 17
23 0.4245 0.4265 0.4286 0.4307 0.4327 0.4348 0.4369 0.4390 0.4411 0.4431 3 7 10 14 17
24 0.4452 0.4473 0.4494 0.4515 0.4536 0.4557 0.4578 0.4599 0.4621 0.4642 4 7 11 14 18
25 0.4663 0.4684 0.4706 0.4727 0.4748 0.4770 0.4791 0.4813 0.4834 0.4856 4 7 11 14 18
26 0.4877 0.4899 0.4921 0.4942 0.4964 0.4986 0.5008 0.5029 0.5051 0.5073 4 7 11 15 18
27 0.5095 0.5117 0.5139 0.5161 0.5184 0.5206 0.5228 0.5250 0.5272 0.5295 4 7 11 15 18
28 0.5317 0.5340 0.5362 0.5384 0.5407 0.5430 0.5452 0.5475 0.5498 0.5520 4 8 11 15 19
29 0.5543 0.5566 0.5589 0.5612 0.5635 0.5658 0.5681 0.5704 0.5727 0.5750 4 8 12 15 19
30 0.5774 0.5797 0.5820 0.5844 0.5867 0.5890 0.5914 0.5938 0.5961 0.5985 4 8 12 16 20
31 0.6009 0.6032 0.6056 0.6080 0.6104 0.6128 0.6152 0.6176 0.6200 0.6224 4 8 12 16 20
32 0.6249 0.6273 0.6297 0.6322 0.6346 0.6371 0.6395 0.6420 0.6445 0.6469 4 8 12 16 20
33 0.6494 0.6519 0.6544 0.6569 0.6594 0.6619 0.6644 0.6669 0.6694 0.6720 4 8 13 17 21
34 0.6745 0.6771 0.6796 0.6822 0.6847 0.6873 0.6899 0.6924 0.6950 0.6976 4 9 13 17 21
35 0.7002 0.7028 0.7054 0.7080 0.7107 0.7133 0.7159 0.7186 0.7212 0.7239 4 9 13 17 22
36 0.7265 0.7292 0.7319 0.7346 0.7373 0.7400 0.7427 0.7454 0.7481 0.7508 5 9 14 18 23
37 0.7536 0.7563 0.7590 0.7618 0.7646 0.7673 0.7701 0.7729 0.7757 0.7785 5 9 14 18 23
38 0.7813 0.7841 0.7869 0.7898 0.7926 0.7954 0.7983 0.8012 0.8040 0.8069 5 9 14 19 24
39 0.8098 0.8127 0.8156 0.8185 0.8214 0.8243 0.8273 0.8302 0.8332 0.8361 5 10 15 20 24
40 0.8391 0.8421 0.8451 0.8481 0.8511 0.8541 0.8571 0.8601 0.8632 0.8662 5 10 15 20 25
41 0.8693 0.8724 0.8754 0.8785 0.8816 0.8847 0.8878 0.8910 0.8941 0.8972 5 10 16 21 26
42 0.9004 0.9036 0.9067 0.9099 0.9131 0.9163 0.9195 0.9228 0.9260 0.9293 5 11 16 21 27
43 0.9325 0.9358 0.9391 0.9424 0.9457 0.9490 0.9523 0.9556 0.9590 0.9623 6 11 17 22 28
44 0.9657 0.9691 0.9725 0.9759 0.9793 0.9827 0.9861 0.9896 0.9930 0.9965 6 11 17 23 28
45 1.0000 1.0035 1.0070 1.0105 1.0141 1.0176 1.0212 1.0247 1.0283 1.0319 6 12 18 24 30
46 1.0355 1.0392 1.0428 1.0464 1.0501 1.0538 1.0575 1.0612 1.0649 1.0686 6 12 18 25 31
47 1.0724 1.0761 1.0799 1.0837 1.0875 1.0913 1.0951 1.0990 1.1028 1.1067 6 13 19 25 32
48 1.1106 1.1145 1.1184 1.1224 1.1263 1.1303 1.1343 1.1383 1.1423 1.1463 7 13 20 27 33
49 1.1504 1.1544 1.1585 1.1626 1.1667 1.1708 1.1750 1.1792 1.1833 1.1875 7 14 21 28 34
50 1.1918 1.1960 1.2002 1.2045 1.2088 1.2131 1.2174 1.2218 1.2261 1.2305 7 14 22 29 36
51 1.2349 1.2393 1.2437 1.2482 1.2527 1.2572 1.2617 1.2662 1.2708 1.2753 8 15 23 30 38
52 1.2799 1.2846 1.2892 1.2938 1.2985 1.3032 1.3079 1.3127 1.3175 1.3222 8 16 24 31 39
53 1.3270 1.3319 1.3367 1.3416 1.3465 1.3514 1.3564 1.3613 1.3663 1.3713 8 16 25 33 41
54 1.3764 1.3814 1.3865 1.3916 1.3968 1.4019 1.4071 1.4124 1.4176 1.4229 9 17 26 34 43
55 1.4281 1.4335 1.4388 1.4442 1.4496 1.4550 1.4605 1.4659 1.4715 1.4770 9 18 27 36 45
56 1.4826 1.4882 1.4938 1.4994 1.5051 1.5108 1.5166 1.5224 1.5282 1.5340 10 19 29 38 48
57 1.5399 1.5458 1.5517 1.5577 1.5637 1.5697 1.5757 1.5818 1.5880 1.5941 10 20 30 40 50
58 1.6003 1.6066 1.6128 1.6191 1.6255 1.6319 1.6383 1.6447 1.6512 1.6577 11 21 32 43 53
59 1.6643 1.6709 1.6775 1.6842 1.6909 1.6977 1.7045 1.7113 1.7182 1.7251 11 23 34 45 56

Natural Tangents
O
0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' 2' 3' 4' 5'
0.0O 0.1O 0.2O 0.3O 0.4O 0.5O 0.6O 0.7O 0.8O 0.9O
60 1.7321 1.7391 1.7461 1.7532 1.7603 1.7675 1.7747 1.7820 1.7893 1.7966 12 24 36 48 60
61 1.8040 1.8115 1.8190 1.8265 1.8341 1.8418 1.8495 1.8572 1.8650 1.8728 13 26 38 51 64
62 1.8807 1.8887 1.8967 1.9047 1.9128 1.9210 1.9292 1.9375 1.9458 1.9542 14 27 41 55 68
63 1.9626 1.9711 1.9797 1.9883 1.9970 2.0057 2.0145 2.0233 2.0323 2.0413 15 29 44 58 73
64 2.0503 2.0594 2.0686 2.0778 2.0872 2.0965 2.1060 2.1155 2.1251 2.1348 16 31 47 63 78
65 2.1445 2.1543 2.1642 2.1742 2.1842 2.1943 2.2045 2.2148 2.2251 2.2355 17 34 51 68 85
66 2.2460 2.2566 2.2673 2.2781 2.2889 2.2998 2.3109 2.3220 2.3332 2.3445 18 37 55 73 92
67 2.3559 2.3673 2.3789 2.3906 2.4023 2.4142 2.4262 2.4383 2.4504 2.4627 20 40 60 79 99
68 2.4751 2.4876 2.5002 2.5129 2.5257 2.5386 2.5517 2.5649 2.5782 2.5916 22 43 65 87 108
69 2.6051 2.6187 2.6325 2.6464 2.6605 2.6746 2.6889 2.7034 2.7179 2.7326 24 47 71 95 119
70 2.7475 2.7625 2.7776 2.7929 2.8083 2.8239 2.8397 2.8556 2.8716 2.8878 26 52 78 104 131
71 2.9042 2.9208 2.9375 2.9544 2.9714 2.9887 3.0061 3.0237 3.0415 3.0595 29 58 87 116 145
72 3.0777 3.0961 3.1146 3.1334 3.1524 3.1716 3.1910 3.2106 3.2305 3.2506 32 64 96 129 161
73 3.2709 3.2914 3.3122 3.3332 3.3544 3.3759 3.3977 3.4197 3.4420 3.4646 36 72 108 144 180
74 3.4874 3.5105 3.5339 3.5576 3.5816 3.6059 3.6305 3.6554 3.6806 3.7062 41 81 122 163 204
75 3.7321 3.7583 3.7848 3.8118 3.8391 3.8667 3.8947 3.9232 3.9520 3.9812 46 93 139 186 232
76 4.0108 4.0408 4.0713 4.1022 4.1335 4.1653 4.1976 4.2303 4.2635 4.2972 53 107 160 213 267
77 4.3315 4.3662 4.4015 4.4374 4.4737 4.5107 4.5483 4.5864 4.6252 4.6646
78 4.7046 4.7453 4.7867 4.8288 4.8716 4.9152 4.9594 5.0045 5.0504 5.0970
79 5.1446 5.1929 5.2422 5.2924 5.3435 5.3955 5.4486 5.5026 5.5578 5.6140
80 5.6713 5.7297 5.7894 5.8502 5.9124 5.9758 6.0405 6.1066 6.1742 6.2432 DIFFERENCES
81 6.3138 6.3859 6.4596 6.5350 6.6122 6.6912 6.7720 6.8548 6.9395 7.0264 UNTRUSTWORTHY
82 7.1154 7.2066 7.3002 6.3962 7.4947 7.5958 7.6996 7.8062 7.9158 8.0285 HERE
83 8.1443 8.2636 8.3863 8.5126 8.6427 8.7769 8.9152 9.0579 9.2052 9.3572
84 9.5144 9.677 9.845 10.02 10.20 10.39 10.58 10.78 10.99 11.20
85 11.43 11.66 11.91 12.16 12.43 12.71 13.00 13.30 13.62 13.95
86 14.30 14.67 15.06 15.46 15.89 16.35 16.83 17.34 17.89 18.46
87 19.08 19.74 20.45 21.20 22.02 22.90 23.86 24.90 26.03 27.27
88 28.64 30.14 31.82 33.69 35.80 38.19 40.92 44.07 47.74 52.08
89 57.29 63.66 71.62 81.85 95.49 114.6 143.2 191.0 286.5 573.0
90 ×
Quadrant Angle tan A = Examples

First 0 to 90o tan A tan 56o17' = 1.4986
Second 90o to 180o –tan(180o – A) tan 123o43' = –tan(180o – 123o 43')
= –tan 56o17' = –1.4986
Third 180o to 270o tan(A – 180o) tan 236o17' = tan(236o17' – 180o)
= tan 56o17' = 1.4986
Fourth 270o to 360o –tan(360o – A) tan 303o43' = –tan(360o – 303o43')
= – tan 56o17' = –1.4986

Trigonometry - Application in calculating height and distance
(Simple applications) Exercise 1.10.49
Heights and distances y = x tan60o
One of the practical applications of Trigonometry is to find Hence, (x + 720) tan30o = x tan60o
distances and heights of distant and inaccessible objects. 1
Two angles are often used in the practical applications of ( x  720) x 3
Trigonometry and they are defined as follows: 3
The angle between a horizontal plane through an observer’s

eye and line joining the eye to an object is called i.e. =
i The angle of elevation when the object is higher than
the eye. (Fig 1) x + 720 = 3x
ii The angle of depression when the object is lower 720 = 3x - x

than the eye. (Fig 2) 2x = 720
720
x = = 360
2
Hence y = 360 tan60 o
y
tan 600 =
x
y
tan 600 =
360
y = tan 600 x 360
Hence the height of the tower is

If OX be a horizontal line through ‘O’ the observer’s eye and
‘P’ any point above OX, then XOP is the angle of elevation = 360 x 1.732
of P at O. If ‘Q’ below OX, then XOQ is called the angle of
Height of the tower = 623.5 metres
depression of Q at O.
2 A flag pole stands on the top of a building when
Example
viewed from a distance of 50 m. (measured hori-
1 At a certain point on the ground, it is found that the zontally) the angle of elevation of the top and
angle of elevation of the top of a tower is 30o. On bottom of the flag staff are 24 and 32o respectively.
walking 720 m. towards the foot of tower, the Find the height of the flag pole.
angle of elevation is found to be 60o. Find the
height of the tower.
Let CD be the flag pole, A the point of observation and B a

point on the same level as A and directly underneath the
Let CD be the tower and A and B be the points from which flag pole.
the tower is observed and let BC be x and CD be y.
In the triangle DAB
In triangle ADC,
BD BD
CD y tan24o = 
tan 30 o
= AC x 720 AB 50
y = (x + 720) tan 300 BD = 50. tan24o

= 50 x 0.4452
CD y
Angle BDC, tan 60o = = 22.26
BC x
172
In the triangle CAB,
CB BC
tan 32o = 
AB 50
 BC = 50 . tan32o
= 50 x 0.6249
= 31.25
Hence DC = 31.25 – 22.26
= 8.99 Find the distance between ship and cliff
= 9 m nearly. From right angled triangle CAD
3 A divider having legs of equal length of 10 cm is Opposite side CD
opened so that its points are 4.5 cm apart. Using tan θ = =
Adjacent Side AC
trigonometrical tables. Find the angle between
the legs.
10
tan 20o =
AC
10
0.3640 =
AC
10
AC = = 27.473 m
0.3640
Height of cliff BD = DC + CB
Find CB in right angled triangle BAC
Distance between the two legs of divider = BC = 4.5 cm Opposite side BC

tan θ = =
AC = AB ; Length of leg = 10 cm Adjacent Side AC
BC
The perpendicular line drawn from the centre of BC, (point tan 42o =
E) to point A makes two right angled triangle ABE and 27.473
AEC. If the angle between two legs of divider is  BC
0.9004 =
θ 27.473
BAE = BC= 0.9004 x 27.473
2
= 24.737 m
Opposite side Height of cliff BD = DC + CB
= Sin θ =
Hypotenuse = 10 + 24.737
θ BE = 34.737 m
Sin =
2 AB Distance between ship and cliff = 27.473 m
2.25 Height of cliff = 34.737 m
= = 0.225
10
Find the  value of 0.225 from sin table 5 The angle of depression from the top of a hill to the
0.225 = 130 bottom of a tower is 60o and the angle of depression
from the top of the tower to the bottom of hill is 30o.
θ If the height of tower is 50m, then find the height
= 130 of the hill.
2
 = 130 x 2 = 26o Note :
Angle between two leg of divider is 26 o 1 If the angle of depression at A is 60o, then the angle of
elevation at C is 60o.
4 A man on the deck of a ship is 10 m above water
2 If the angle of depression at D is 30o, then the angle of
level. He observes that angle of elevation of a cliff
elevation at B is 30o.
is 42o and angle of depression of its base is 20o.
Calculate (i) the distance of the cliff from the ship. Let, the height of hill is 'h' and distance between bae of hill
(ii) the height of the cliff. and base of tower is x.

cos   0.2222
0.2233 = cos 77o 6'
(-) 0.0011 = 4' (+)
-----------------------------------
From right angled triangle ACB 0.2222 = cos 77o 10'
Opposite side ----------------------------------
tan θ =
Adjacent Side  = 77o 10'
h Ladder makes the angle = 77o 10’
tan 60o =
x 7 A Line man who is working on a road places his
h ladder which is 12 m in length at a point on the
3= road such that it makes an angle of 600 with the
x
ground, when it is placed against a lamp placed
h = 3x .................. equation 1 against another lamp post directly on the opposite
From right angled triangle DBC side of the road it makes an angle of 300. Find the
50 distance between the 2 lamp posts.
tan 30° =
x AC and CD are Ladder
1 50 AB and DE are lamp post
=
3 x In  ABC
3 BC x
x = 50x Cos 60o = =
1 AC 12 m
x = 50 3 ....................equation 2 x = cos 60o x 12 m
Substitute the value of = x = 50 3 in equation 1. = 0.5000 x 12 m
h= 3 x x =6m
= 3 x 50 3
= 3 x 50 = 150 m
Height of hill = 150 m
6 The foot of a 4.5 m long ladder is placed at 1 m
away from the wall. Find the angle which the
ladder makes with the ground
In Right angled 
BC In  CDE
Cos C =
AC CE y
Cos 30o = =
CD 12 m
1m
Cos  = y = cos 30o x 12 m
4.5 m
= 0.8660 x 12 m
= 10.392 m

Distance between two lamp posts 9 An electrician standing 30metres away from the
=x+y base of a transmission line tower looks at the top
of the tower. His line of sight makes an angle of
= 6 + 10.392 m
33.690 with the horizontal. If the height of his eyes
Distance between two lamp posts = 16.392 m above the ground level is 1.6metres. Find the
height of the tower?
8 A pole stands 10 metre above the ground and stay
wire is fixed to the pole at 0.5 metre from the top.
If the stay wire is to make an angle of 600 with the
horizontal, find the distance of stay rod from the
base of the pole. Also find the length of the stay
wire.
Given:
Distance between the Electrician = EB = DC = 30m
and the tower
Height of his eyes above the = CB = DE = 1.6m
stay wire fixed 0.5m below from the top of the pole ground level
Sin θ =
OPP Height of the tower AB (h) = ?
HYP
33.690 = 330 + (0.69 x 60’)
9.5
Sin 60o
= x = 330 + 41’
x x sin 60o = 9.5 m 33.690 = 330 41’
9.5 In Right angled triangle ADC

x =
Sin 60° AC
Tan  =
DC
9.5
= 0.8660 = 10.9699 AC = tan x DC
= tan 330 41’ x 30
Stay wire (x) = 10.97 m
= 0.6665 x 30 m
Opp
tan θ =
Adj = 19.995 m
9.5 Height of the tower AB (h) = AC + CB

tan 60o = y = 19.995 + 1.6
y tan 60o = 9.5
Height of the tower (h) = 21.595 m
9.5
y = tan 60°
9.5
= 1.7321 = 5.48 m
Length of the stay wire = 10.97 metre

distance of the stay wire from
the base of the pole = 5.48 metre

Assignment
1 A person walking along straight observed that at 8
consecutive mile stones the angle of elevation of a hill
in front of him 30o and 75o. Find the height of the hill.
2 A shadow of an electric pole is reduced by 4 metres
when the sun changes its angle of elevation from 30o to
45o. If the pole is burried in the ground by 2 metres, find
the total length of the pole?
3 The angle of elevation of the top on an unfinished tower
at a point distance 120 metre from its base is 45o. How
much higher must the tower be raised so that its angle
of elevation at the same may be 60o.
4 Two objects on horizontal plane in the same line of the
foot of the cliff form with the top of cliff angles of elevation  = 75°
of 30o and 45o. If the height of the cliff is 100 m, calculate b = 3 metres
the distance between the two objects.
H = ______ metres
5 From a point 'A' on the ground at unknown distance from
the bae of the radio tower, the angle of elevation of the L = ______ metres
top of mast is 65o. Proceeding in the same straight line
to the point 'B' 50 m from 'A', the angle of elevation is 9 The height of the pole,
reduced to 50o. Find the height of the mast and distance AB = __________ m.
of 'A' from the mast.
6
 = 40° 10 Find the values of the given angles.
L = 120 metres 1 Sin 65o
h = 1.5 metres 2 Sin 42o 23'
H = ______ metre 3 Sin 66o 35' 32"
7 4 Cos 47o 39'

5 Tan 28o 45'
11 Find corresponding angles for given values.
1 Sin  = 0.3062
2 Sin  = 0.04802
3 Cos  = 0.6446
4 Tan  = 0.3411
6 Tan  = 2.3868
 = 25° 12 The slant height of a cone is 12.25 cm and the vertex
angle is 1100. Calculate its base.
 = 50°
13 A ladder 2.5 m long makes an angle of 600 with the
l = 100 metres
ground. Find the height of the wall where the ladder
H = ______ metre touches the wall.

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WORKSHOP CALCULATION

(As Per NSQF)

Common for All Engineering Trades under CTS

DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING

Developed & Published by

National Instructional Media Institute

First Edition :December 2019 Copies : 5,000

New Delhi - 110 001

MEDIA DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS

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Shri. Nirmalya Nath - Deputy General Manager,

Shri. G. Michael Johny - Assistant Manager,

S.No Title Exercise No. Time in Hrs

1 Unit, Fractions 1.1.01 - 1.1.07 4

LEARNING / ASSESSABLE OUTCOME

On completion of this book you shall be able to

• Demonstrate basic mathematical concept and principles to perform

Exercise No. Title of the Exercise Page No.

Square root, Ratio and Proportions, Percentage

1.2.08 Square root - Square and square root 26

Mass, Weight, Volume and Density

1.4.20 Mass, volume, density, weight and specific gravity 52

Speed and Velocity, Work, Power and Energy

Heat & Temperature and Pressure

Levers and Simple machines

1.10.46 Trigonometry - Measurement of angles 153

S.no. Syllabus Time in Hrs

1 Classification of Unit System

II Square Root: Ratio and Proportions, Percentage 6

1 Square and Square Root

III Material Science 8

IV Mass, Weight, Volume, and Density 4

1 Mass, volume, density, weight & specific gravity

V Speed and Velocity, Work Power and Energy 12

VI Heat & Temperature and Pressure 12

VII Basic Electricity 12

1 Introduction and uses of electricity, molecule, atom, how electricity is produced,

1 Area and perimeter of square, rectangle and parallelogram

IX Levers and Simple Machines 6

1 Measurement of Angle, Trigonometrical Ratios, Trigonometric Table

Fundamental units of F.P.S, C.G.S, M.K.S and S.I

S.No. Basic quantity British units Metric units International units

F.P.S Symbol C.G.S Symbol M.K.S Symbol S.I Units Symbol

1 Length Foot ft Centimetre cm Metre m Metre m

S.No Physical quantity British units Metric units International units

FPS Symbol CGS Symbol MKS Symbol SI Units Symbol

FPS Symbol CGS Symbol MKS Symbol SI Units Symbol

19 Frequency Cycle per second 1/s Hertz Hz Hertz Hz Hertz Hz

Workshop Calculation & Science : (NSQF) Exercise 1.1.02

Units and abbreviations

Quantity Units Abbreviation of unit

Calorific value kilojoules per kilogram kJ/kg

Specific fuel kilogram per hour per newton kg/hr/N

Length millimetre, metre, kilometre mm, m, km

Mass kilogram, gram kg, g

Time seconds, minutes, hours s, min, h

Speed centimetre per second, cm/s, m/s

Acceleration metre-per-square second m/s2

Force newtons, kilonewtons N,kN

Power horsepower, watts, kilowatts Hp, W, kW

Pressure newton per square metre N/m2

Angle radian rad

iv 0.02 km = cm x 0.04 W = mW

i 650 g = kg vii 18 J/s = W