BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL
 Soil Animals and Microorganisms 2 major groups depending on their fundamental cell
 Roles of microorganisms in soil
 Soil Organic Matter
All plant and animal residues are returned to the soil
and subjected to decomposition by microorganisms.
As a result of these microbiological processes, the
elements that were originally consumed by plants are
returned to the soil for re-utilization.
THE SOIL FOOD WEB
First trophic level: Photosynthesizers
Second trophic level: Decomposers, Mutualists,
pathogens, parasites, Root-feeders
Third trophic level: Shredders, Predators, Grazers
Fourth trophic level: Higher-level predators
Fifth higher trophic level: Higher-level predators
TOPIC 1. SOIL ANIMALS AND MICROORGANISMS
All are heterotrophic, highly aerobic and mobile.
Heterotroph –is an organism that eats other plants and
animals for energy and nutrients.
SOIL ANIMALS
 Many kinds of animals live in soils
 Some are visitors others are permanent
residents.
 Usually the most numerous animals are the
smallest: the nematodes and other helminths
and arachnids (mites)
 Mollusks (slugs and snails) may be the most
familiar soil animals
 The most diverse group (with the most species)
is the Arthropods- millipedes, springtails, insect
and their larvae.
 Earthworms (annelids) are abundant in soils
with high organic matter, high fertility and ideal
moisture conditions
 Animals are few in compacted or very wet soils.
SOIL MICROORGANISMS
structure:
1. The eukaryotic organisms include fungi,
protozoa and algae.
Eukaryote- any cell or organism that possesses a clearly
defined nucleus
2. The prokaryotic organisms are the Monera or
bacteria.
Prokaryote- any cell or organism that lacks clearly
defined nucleus
 Fungi and bacteria are abundant and active in
almost all soil.
 Bacteria are the smallest soil organisms and
physiologically the most diverse.
Chief roles of microorganisms:
1. Decay and nutrient cycles
2. Production of toxins
3. Production of growth stimulating substances
4. Nutrient Cycling (Nitrogen Cycle)/Nitrogen
Fixation
5. Pesticide degradation
6. Competition with Higher Plants for Nutrient
Elements
1. Decay and nutrient cycles
 as agents in the decomposition of plant and
animal residues, they are largely responsible for
the various chemical changes in soil.
 They convert the nitrogen of proteins to
ammonium and nitrate,
 oxidize organic carbon to carbon dioxide, and
release organically bound metallic elements in
the soil.
 metabolic products of microorganisms
contribute to the aggregation and stabilization
of clay particle into larger structural units which
would affect themovement of water and air
through the soil.
2. Production of toxins
 devoid of growth is a good evidence that the
colony surrounded by the zone of clearing is
producing an antibiotic.
 An antibiotic is a substance formed by one
organism which, in low concentrations, inhibits
the growth of another organism.
 Antibiotics are effective in inhibiting or killing
susceptible fungi, bacteria, and actinomycetes
3. Production of growth stimulating substances
 Thiamine, biotin, riboflavin, pyridoxine, inositol,
and other growth stimulating substances have
been demonstrated to have been produced by
certain Microflora.
4. Nutrient Cycling (Nitrogen cycle)
 The availability of nitrogen is very important for
plants’ growth, since they are dependent on an
adequate supply of nitrate and ammonia for
synthesis of their nitrogenous constituents
NITROGEN CYCLE
1. Nitrogen fixation - N2 to NH3/ NH4 + or NO3-
2. Nitrification - NH3 to NO3-
3. Assimilation - Incorporation of NH3 and NO3- into
biological tissues
4. Ammonification - organic nitrogen compounds to NH3
5. Denitrification NO3- to N2
MINERALIZATION
Mineralization of nitrogen is a 3 step process
a) aminization – heterotrophic microorganism
- Decomposed and dead N material (Protein)
many bacteria (heterotrophic)
b) ammonification– heterotrophic microorganism
- (Ammonification occurs in both
aerated and submerged soils).
c) nitrification – autotrophic microorganism
-Nitrosomonas works well at high pH and
decreases in activity at acidic mediums, thus a
high concentration of NO2- and NH4+ might
accumulate.
4.Nitrogen Fixation
- Atmospheric (N2) is a “free”source of nitrogen for
agriculture. w/c comprises almost 80% of earth’s
atmosphere
- Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) is probably one the
main sources of nitrogen from soils
3 TYPES OF N-FIXING ORGANISMS
1. symbiotic - associated with leguminous plants
The root nodule bacteria Rhizobium (after genus
Rhizobium) has been considered responsible for N
fixation in symbiosis with leguminous plant
2. Associative- N2 -fixing systems with high host-
bacteria specificity that do not develop nodules. The
habitat of these bacteria is the root surface and
intercellular spaces of cortex cells. In these rhizosphere
associations the host plant provides root exudates as
energy source for N2 fixation.
3. free-living (non-symbiotic) - capable of fixing N2 from
the atmosphere. Mostly heterotrophic (Azotobacter)
-N2-fixation capacity is limited due to inadequate
availability of organic residues
NON-BIOLOGICAL NITROGEN FIXATION
1. By Lightning
- Lightning breaks nitrogen molecules apart
and combines with oxygen forming nitrogen
oxides (N2O). Nitrogen oxides dissolve in
rain, forming nitrates. Nitrates (NO3) are
carried to the ground with the rain.
2. Haber-Bosch Process/ Industrial
SULFUR TRANSFORMATION

the cycle of sulfur is very similar to that of nitrogen. it

can be divided into a number of distinct phases:

(a) mineralization – the decomposition of large organic

molecules into simple inorganic sulfur compounds;

(b) Immobilization – the assimilation of these

compounds into microbial tissues

(c) oxidation – conversion of inorganic forms of sulfur

(sulfides, thiosulfates, polythionates, and elemental
sulfur) to sulfate;

(d) reduction –conversion of sulfates and other oxidized

forms of sulfur to hydrogen sulfide.

5. PESTICIDE DEGRADATION:

- Several chemicals have been found to be susceptible to

microbial degradation. There are however, chemicals
resistant to biodegration and have caused great concern
to preserve the quality of environment.

- An organism that is effective in metabolizing a

pesticide molecule must live in the soil or be capable of
developing therein.

- The compound must be in a form suitable for microbial

degradation. The compound must be available to the
organism.

- The compound usually must be capable of inducing the

formation of the enzyme or enzymes appropriate for
detoxification – most enzymes require induction.

- Environmental conditions such as soil pH, temperature,

moisture and organic matter must be suitable for the
organism to proliferate and for the enzyme to operate