Soil Organisms

Soil Organisms
- Composed of large and small plants and animals.
The larger organisms (insects, worms, moles, etc.) prepare the organic materials for further degradation
by breaking them into smaller pieces.
The smaller the organisms (bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, algae, nematodes, protozoa) cause
biochemical changes in the organic materials.

Earthworm

 Eat detritus, soil organic matter and microorganisms found on these materials.
 The most significant microorganisms in humid temperate regions.

Eisenia foetida Allolobophora caliginosa Lumbricus terrestris

Epigeic: live in the litter layer. Endogeic: live in the top 10-30 Anecic: live in vertical burrow
Ex. Compost worm cm of soil. up to 1 meter
Ex. Pale-pink-red worm Ex. The introduced night
crawler – Lumbricus terrestris
Protozoa

 Single-celled organism (20-50 microns in diameter)

 Ingest food through oral openings.
 Primary food source for earthworms
 Maintain the balance of bacterial community
 Reproduction: Binary fission; budding
Population: 103 – 105 cells/g soil
Biomass: ≈ 100 kg/HFS
Bacteria

 Probably the most important in terms of their effect in soil properties.

 Population: 106 – 109 CFU/g soil
Biomass: ≈ 2,000 kg/HFS

Morphological grouping Nutritional Grouping Grouping based on oxygen

Cocci (spherical) Heterotrophic (OM as source of requirement
Rods (short, long, curved) carbon and energy) Aerobic
Spiral (vibrio Autotrophic/Photosynthetic Anaerobic
(Energy from sunlight; C from Facultative
CO2)
Chemosynthetic (Energy from
oxidation of inorganic compound;
C from CO2)
Grouping based on temperature for optimum activity
Mesophilic
Thermophilic
Psychrophilic

Fungi

 Most adaptable and versatile soil organism.

 Some species can thrive in extreme acidity and alkalinity
 Mycorrhizae: an association between fungi and plant roots which help plants in
solubilization of P and its absorption.
Population: 104 – 105 CFU/g soil
 Biomass: ≈ 8,000 kg/HFS

Actinomycetes

 Attack and simplify complex organic compounds such as cellulose, chitin and phospholipids.
 Branched mycelial structures.
Algae

 Chlorophyll bearing organisms which thrive mostly in soil surfaces

 Principally thrives in aquatic environment, loves moist habitat.
 Includes blue-green algae, green algae and diatoms.
Population: 103 – 105 CFU/g soil
Biomass: ≈ 250 kg/HFS

SOIL ORGANIC MATTER DECOMPOSITION

What is Soil Organic Matter (SOM)?
Refers to the totality of all carbon-containing compounds in the soil derived from either plants or
animals.

 Organic Constituents of plants:

Cellulose (15-60%)
Hemicellulose (10-30%)
Lignin (5-30%)
Water-soluble fractions: amino sugars, amino acids (5-30%)
Proteins
Fats, oils and waxes
 Accumulation is affected by temperature, soil moisture, vegetation, soil texture and cropping
system.
 SOM is higher in areas of higher effective moisture regime.
Physical

 Enhances soil aggregation and aggregate stability

 Reduces plasticity, cohesion and stickiness of clayey soils.
 Increases soil water retention, infiltration rate, water holding capacity and aeration.

Chemical

 Increases CEC of soils

Increases soil buffering capacity
 Increases nutrient availability through solubilization of minerals by organic acids and by chelation of
metal ions

Biological

 Provides C and energy to soil organisms and thus increases their diversity and activity.
 Enhances microbial functions such as N fixation, decomposition and nutrient transformations.

SOM Decomposition- Its speed is determined by three major factors: soil organisms, the physical
environment and the quality of the organic matter.
Carbon/Nitrogen Ratio
  Is a convenient tool for predicting the rate of decomposition and regulating the quantity of mineral
nitrogen available to the plant.

 The higher the C:N ratio the slower the rate of organic matter decomposition because the nitrogen
is immobilized by microorganisms. Soil microbes use whatever N is available, approximately 30:1.
 20:1 is the optimum C:N ratio of organic materials for faster decomposition; when the C:N ratio
narrows (20) mineralization predominates and NO3- levels increase.
Microbial transformations of N

 Mineralization: conversion of organic N to inorganic N; renders N available for plant use.

 Immobilization: conversion of inorganic N to organic N; renders N unavailable to plant use
 Nitrification: biological formation of NO3- or NO2 from compounds containing reduced nitrogen.
Two separate and distinct steps: 1st is initial oxidation of ammonium to nitrite, 2nd is the further
oxidation of nitrate.
Microorganisms responsible
Nitrosomonas (responsible for the oxidation of NH4+ to NO2-
Nitrobacter (oxidizes nitrite to nitrate)
 Denitrification: bio-chemical reduction of nitrate-N to gaseous N by facultative anaerobic soil
organisms.
 Ammonification: breakdown of organic matter such as dead animals and plants or waste materials
like excrement.
 Symbiotic Biological N fixation
Renders N available to plants
Occurs in Legumes in presence of rhizobia (aerobic and non-spore forming)
 Non-symbiotic N fixation
Conversion of atmospheric N by microorganisms without an associated plant host.
Organisms like (Azotobacter Beijerinckia and Clostridium pasteurianum)
Inorganic P solubilization

 Genera of bacteria capable of solubilizing Calcium phosphates

Pseudomonas
Mycobacterium
Bacillus
Micrococcus
 Genera of fungi capable of solubilizing Calcium Phosphates
Penicillum
Fusarium
Aspergillus
 Microbiological means by which inorganic P is solubilized
Production of organic acids
Nitric acid or sulfuric acid production
 Mycorrhizal association
Ectotrophic: fungus forms mantle around the root exteriors hyphae enters spaces between plant
cells.
Endomycorrhiza: fungus penetrates the cells of the plants.
Microbial Transformation of Sulfur

 The major sulfur in soil is in the organic fraction with low concentration of sulphate, the form
available for plants.
 Decomposition of organic S compound
Microbial assimilation or immobilization of S and their incorporation into microbial cells.
Iron precipitation by Soil bacteria
  Brought about a group of bacteria sometimes termed as iron bacteria
These transformations can be (a) ferrous oxidation from Fe+2 to FE+3, (b) iron reduction and ( c)
iron precipitation from organic salt.

Compost and Composting

 Composting: process of creating humus-like organic materials by piling, mixing and storing of
organic materials under conditions favorable for aerobic decomposition.
 Compost: finished product of composting and used as conditioner or slow-released fertilizer.

Soil Fertility
Soil fertility -s a component of overall soil productivity that deals with its available nutrient status and its
ability to provide nutrients out of its own reserves and through external applications for crop production.
Causes of Decline in Soil Fertility
Loss of top soil by erosion- This is the removal of the topmost soil by either water or wind. When the
topmost soil is taken away, it exposes the layer beneath for further loss, as nutrients are taken away as the
topmost soil is removed.
Nutrient Leaching-It is the leaching of nutrients deep down the soil by water draining down the soil.
Continuous Cropping- It is the continuous cultivation of crops on the same piece of land without allowing
the land to fallow.
Compacting- Soil compacting is as a result of the impact of humans, animals and machines on a piece of
land long enough to disturb the soil structure.
Flooding and Excessive Erosion- This leads to excessive water present on land. Excess water drains away
nutrients from the soil rendering its deficient.
Crop Removal- Some crops offer some form of protection for soil against soil erosion and
evaporation which might otherwise lead to loss of soil nutrients and water.
Decrease in Organic Matter Content and Soil Bioactivity- The decreased levels of organic matter causes a
strong reduction in soil fertility as it plays several roles in soil. The microbial activities in soil decrease due
to reduced levels of organic matter.
Soil Acidification, Salinization, Alkalinization- Acidification, salinization or alkalinization causes reduction in
soil fertility, and eventually lead to problems of nutrient deficiencies, toxicities and imbalances.
Inefficient Soil Management- Poor or inefficient soil management results in decreased soil fertility. Improper
crop rotations followed may decrease the soil fertility tremendously.
Soil Pollution- Soil pollution caused by indiscriminate use of agrochemicals and heavy metals reduces
fertility of soil by affecting the soil biological properties.

Biochemical Classification of Nutrients and their Role in Plant Nutrition

Classification of Nutrients
Macronutrients Primary Micronutrients
Carbon (C) Boron (B)
Hydrogen (H) Copper (Cu)
Oxygen (O) Iron (Fe)
Nitrogen (N) Manganese (Mn)
Phosphorus (P) Zinc (Zn)
Potassium (K) Molybdenum (Mo)
Chlorine (Cl)
Secondary
Calcium (Ca)
Magnesium (Mg)
 Sulfur (S)

Nutrients may be mobile or immobile in the plant and in the soil, which influences redistribution of nutrients
and display of deficiency symptoms, and the fertilization of crops.

Nitrogen (N)
 Is necessary for the formation of amino acids, proteins, DNA and RNA.
It is essential for plant cell division and vital for plant growth.
 Deficiency Symptoms:
Light green to yellow leaf color.
Slow growth
Stunted
Phosphorus (P)
 It promotes early root formation and growth.
Involved in photosynthesis, respiration, energy storage and transfer, cell division and enlargement.
 Deficiency Symptoms:
Slow growth
Older leaves will have a purple coloration, particularly on the underside.
Potassium (K)
 Involved in carbohydrate metabolism and the break down and translocation of starch.
Enhances disease resistance and improves winter hardiness.
 Deficiency Symptoms:
Edges of the older leaves will look burned.
Sensitive to disease infestation.
Fruit and seed production will be impaired and of poor quality.
Calcium (Ca)
 Increases the fruit set and quality.
Important for cell division and formation (regulates hormonal activity).
 Deficiency Symptoms:
Growing tips of leaves will turn brown and die.
Edges of leaves will look ragged as the edges of emerging leaves stick together.
Magnesium (Mg)
 Center of molecule of chlorophyll, improves utilization and mobility of phosphorus.
 Deficiency Symptoms:
Yellowing of older leaves with interveinal chlorosis(yellowing between the veins).
Sulfur (S)
 Is an integral part of amino acids.
It helps develop enzymes, vitamins and oil contents and acids in seed formation.
 Deficiency Symptoms:
A general overall light green color of the entire plant with the older leaves being light green to yellow
in color as the deficiency intensifies.
Boron (B)
 Essential component of cell wall formation and is key for germination of pollen grains and growth of
pollen tubes.
 Deficiency Symptoms:
Abnormal development of the growing points (meristematic tissue) with the apical growing points
eventually becoming stunted and dying.
Rowers and fruits will abort.
Chlorine (Cl)
  Promotes crop health and enhance the maturity of small grains in some soils.
 Deficiency Symptoms:
Younger leaves will be chlorotic
Plants will easily wilt
A plant disease will infest the plant.
Copper (Cu)
 Plays a major role in photosynthesis.
Improves the flavor of fruits and vegetables and can help prevent ergot in cereals.
 Deficiency Symptoms:
Plant growth will be slow.
Plants will be stunted with distortion of the young leaves and death of growing points.
Iron (Fe)
 Promotes the formation of chlorophyll and acts as an oxygen carrier.
 Deficiency Symptoms:
Interveinal chlorosis will occur on the emerging and young leaves with eventual bleaching of the
new growth.
Manganese (Mn)
 aids in chlorophyll synthesis and increases the availability of phosphorus and calcium.
 Deficiency Symptoms:
Interveinal chlorosis of young leaves while the leaves and plants remain generally green in color.
Molybdenum (Mo)
 Needed to convert inorganic phosphorus to organic forms in the plant.
Aids in the nodulation of legumes, especially in acidic soils
 Deficiency Symptoms:
Frequently appear similar to N deficiency.
Zinc (Zn)
 Aids plant growth hormones and enzyme system and is necessary for chlorophyll production and
carbohydrate formation.
 Deficiency Symptoms:
Upper leaves will show interveinal chlorosis with an eventual whiting of the affected leaves. Leaves
may be small and distorted with a rosette form.
Essential Elements and their Distribution in the Soil Profile
What nutrients do plant need?
Plants require 16 nutrients; each is a chemical element
 Plants do not require organic matter, enzymes or hormones as nutrients taken up from the soil.
Plant requirements for these substances is met by the plant’s own manufacture of them.
Except for carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and boron (B) the nutrients are absorbed primarily
as chemical ions from the soil solution.
CHOPKNS CaFe MgB Mn ClCuZn Mo
A 17 th and 18 th Nutrients have been “added”.
•Sodium (Na)
•Sodium has a very specific function in the concentration of carbon dioxide in a limited number of C4
plants and thus is essential to these plants, but this in itself is insufficient to generalize that Na is essential
for higher plants
•Silica (Si)
•Plants can grow in hydroponic solutions without
any silicon added. However, some anaerobic plants (Rice) need it.
What makes these nutrients essential?
Must satisfy three specific criteria:
1. Plants cannot complete their life cycle without
the element.
2. Deficiency symptoms for the element can be corrected only by supplying the element in question.
3. The element is directly involved in the nutrition of the plant, apart from its effect on chemical or physical
properties of the soil.
What affects the soil availability of these nutrients?
Most of the nutrients are absorbed as ions from the soil solution or the soil cation exchange complex.
•Understanding the general chemistry of the nutrient ions, as it relates to their concentration in the soil
solution, is critical to developing an understanding of how to manage their availability to plants.
What affects nutrient ion solubility?
•Solubility is strongly influenced by the charge of the ion.
• Elements that have only one valance state in the soil environment.

Ionic Bond: electrostatic forces that exist between ions of opposite charge (left side metals combined with
right side NM)
Covalent Bond: sharing of electrons between two atoms (2 NM)
Metallic Bond: each metal atom is bonded to several neighboring atoms (give rise to electrical conductivity
and luster)
The chemical formula, name, and charge of each molecule should be carefully studied (memorized).
Significance of each to soil fertility is presented and discussed in later chapters.

General effect of ion charge on solubility

Once charges of the ions in a compound are known, we can get some idea of the compound solubility by
simply adding the charges.
For example, if the sum of the anion and cation charges is 2, then the compound is very soluble (e.g.
NaCl).
As the sum of the charges increases, the solubility of the compound decreases.
Once charges of the ions in a compound are known, we can get some idea of the compound solubility by
simply adding the charges.
For example, if the sum of the anion and cation charges is 2, then the compound is very soluble (e.g.
NaCl).
As the sum of the charges increases, the solubility of the compound decreases.
Are all highly soluble nutrients mobile in the soil?
Monovalent nutrient ions have a good chance of being mobile in soils.
Monovalent anions, Cl- and NO 3-, are mobile in the soil because they are not adsorbed on ion exchange
sites.
They have the wrong charge (-) for adsorption on cation exchange sites and they are too weakly charged,
compared to SO4 for example, to be adsorbed on anion exchange sites.
Furthermore, most soils have limited anion exchange capacity (tropical soils are an
Are all divalent and trivalent nutrient ions immobile in the soil?
Divalent and trivalent nutrient ions are immobile in soils (exception SO 42-)
In tropical soils, are enough anion exchange sites to provide significant adsorption of SO42 and cause it to
be somewhat immobile. Although sulfate compounds, such as CaSO4 and MgSO4 are relatively insoluble,
the equilibrium concentration of SO42- with these solid compounds is far greater than that needed for plant
growth.

Distribution of Nutrients with Depth

Globally, the ranking of vertical distributions among nutrients was shallowest to deepest in the following
order: P > K > Ca > Mg > Na = Cl = SO4.
Nutrients strongly cycled by plants, such as P and K, were more concentrated in the topsoil (upper 20 cm)
than were nutrients usually less limiting for plants such as Na and Cl.
Shallower distributions for P and K, together with negative associations between abundance and topsoil
accumulation, support the idea that plant cycling exerts a dominant control on the vertical distribution of the
most limiting elements for plants (those required in high amounts in relation to soil supply).

Chemical Properties of Soils

What are Soil Colloids?
 Soil colloids are the most active constituent of the soil and it determines the physical and chemical
properties of the soil.
They are very small particles that are one-thousandth of a millimeter.
Some colloids are minerals, where as others are organic.
General Properties of Soil Colloids
1.Size
The clay and humus particles in soils are referred to as collectively as the colloidal fraction because of their
extremely small size and colloid like behavior.
2. Surface area
The smaller the size of the particles in a given mass of soil, the greater the surface are exposed for
adsorption, catalysis, precipitation, microbial colonization, and other surface phenomena.
3. Surface charges
Both external and internal surfaces of soil colloids carry negative and/or positive charges
a. Most of the organic and inorganic soil colloids carry colloids carry a negative charge.
b. When an electric current is passed through a suspension of soil colloidal particles they migrate to an
anode, the positive electrode indicating that they carry a negative charge.
c. The presence and intensity of the particle charge influence the attraction and repulsion of the particles
towards each other, thereby influencing both physical and chemical properties.

The negative electrical charge on clays comes from:

I. Ionizable hydrogen ions
Hydrogen from the hydroxyl (OH) ions on clay surfaces.
The -Al-OH or -Si-OH portion of the clay ionizes the H and leaves an unneutralized negative charge on the
oxygen.
The extent of ionized hydrogen depends on solution pH and hence these negative charges are pH-
dependent charges.
II. Isomorphous substitution
This is due to the substitution of a the cation of higher valence with another cation of lower valence but
similar size in the clay crystal structure.
IV. Adsorption of cations and anions
Attraction of positively charged ions (cations) to the surfaces of negatively charged soil colloids.
V. Adsorption of water
The greater the external surface area of the soil colloids, the greater the amount of water held when the soil
is air-dry.
VI. Cohesion
Cohesion indicates the tendency of clay particles to stick together.
VII. Adhesion
Adhesion refers to the attraction of colloidal materials to the surface of any other body or substance with
which it comes in contact.
VIII. Swelling and Shrinkage
Some soil clay colloids belonging to the smectite group like Montmorillonite swell when wet and shrink
when dry.
VIIII. Dispersion and Flocculation
As long as the colloidal particles remain negatively charged, they repel each other and the suspension
remains stable.
If on any account they lose their charge, or if the magnitude of the charge is reduced, the particles
coalesce, form flock or lose aggregates, and settle down.
Two major groups of clay minerals
1. Silicate Clays
Illite, montmorillonite, vermiculite and kaolinite
2. Oxides Clay
Iron and aluminum oxides
Types of soil colloids
There are four major types of colloids present in soil.
1. Layer silicate clays- Silica tetrahedron
- A unit composed of one silicon atom surrounded by four oxygen atoms-Alumina 0ctahedron
- The key cations surrounded by six oxygen atoms or hydroxyl group giving an eight-sided building block
termed as octahedron.

2. Iron and aluminum oxide clays (sesquioxide clays)

Under conditions of extensive leaching by rainfall and long time intensive weathering of minerals in humid
warm climates,
-Which have lower solubility are called sesquioxides.
-Sesquioxides (metal oxides) are mixtures of aluminum hydroxide, Al(OH)3, and iron oxide, Fe2O3, or iron
hydroxide, Fe(OH)3
3. Allophane and associated amorphous clays
-They are amorphous in nature
-These clays are common in soils forming from volcanic ash (e.g., Allophane). These clays have high
anion exchange capacity or even high cation exchange capacity.
4. Humus (Organic Colloid)
-Humus is amorphous, dark brown to black, nearly insoluble in water, but mostly soluble in dilute alkali
(NaOH or KOH) solutions.
-It is a temporary intermediate product left after considerable decomposition of plant and animal remains.
Clay Minerals
Are exceptionally important in most soils. They are phyllosilicates, their structures consist of repeating
layers. Each layer is composed of two types of sheets. Tetrahedral sheet and octahedral sheet.
Classification of Silicate Clays
A. Amorphous, e.g., Allophane Group
B. Crystalline
2. layer type (1:1 type)
I. Equidimensional (Kaolin group), e.g: Kaolinite, Nacrite, Dickite, Anauxite
II. Elongate (halloysite group), e.g: Endellite, Metahalloysite
3-layer type (2:1 type)
i. Expanding lattice type
Equidimensional
1. Smectite groups: e.g: Montmorillonite, Bidellite, Sauconite
2. Vermiculite groups: e.g: Vermiculite
Elongate, e.g: Nontronite, Saponite, Hectorite
ii. non-expanding lattice type
Muscovite, Biotite, Phlogopite
C. Middle layer type
Chlorite group
D. Chain structure type
Attapulgite
Sepiolite
Polygorskite
Cation and Anion Exchange
General Terms
Adsorption: is the retention of ions or molecules to a surface. The prefix “ad” describes a reaction “at” the
surface of a solid.
Cations: positively charged ions (for example, calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium,,,etc)
Anions: negatively charged ions (for example, chloride)
Exchangeable cations: cations that are replaced/exchanged by soil solution.
Ion Exchange
Ion exchange involves the movement of anions or cations through the soils.
In ion-exchange reactions, cations or anions that are adsorbed on soil surfaces are exchanged/replaced
by another cations or anions in the soil solution.
Ion exchange in soils occurs on surfaces of:
Primarily on clay minerals (layer silicate minerals)
Soil organic matter
Two Types of Ion Exchange
Cation Exchange
-Is the interchanging between a cation in the solution of water around the soil particle, and another cation
that is stuck to the clay surface.
-Represents the capacity of the colloidal complex to exchange all its cations with the cations of the
electrolyte solution (surrounding liquid).
It also represents the total cation adsorbing capacity of a soil.
Cation exchange in most soils increases with pH.
Factors Affecting Cation Exchange Capacity
i. Soil texture
Fine-textured (clay) soils tend to have higher cation exchange capacity (CEC) than sandy soils.
ii. Organic matter content
Higher organic matter content in a soil will have higher CEC.
iii. Amount and kind of clay
Montmorillonite has higher CEC in comparison to illite or kaolinite clay.
iv. pH
At very low Ph value, the cation exchange capacity is also generally low.
Anion Exchange
-Similar to cation exchange, except that the charges on the colloids are positive and the exchange is
among negatively charged ions.
-The positive charge of soil colloids are due to addition of hydrogen (H+) in hydroxyl group (OH-) resulted in
net positive charge (OH2+). This + charge will attract anions.
-The capacity for holding anions increase with the increase in acidity. The lower the pH the greater is the
adsorption.
-Some anions such as H2PO4- ions are absorbed slightly at low pH but none at neutral soil.
Importance of Anion Exchange
-The phenomenon of anion exchange assumes importance in relation to phosphate ions and their fixation.
-The exchange is brought about mainly by the replacement of OH ions of the clay mineral.
Anion Exchange Reaction
-The adsorption of phosphate ions by clay particles from soil solution reduces its availability to plants. This
is known as phosphate-fixation.
- As the reaction is reversible, the phosphate ions again will become available when they are replaced by
OH ions released by substances like lime applied to soil to correct soil acidity.

Soil pH and Liming, Salinity and Sodicity

Soil pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of the soil.
-A pH value is actually a measure of hydrogen ion concentration. Because hydrogen ion concentration
varies over a wide range, a logarithmic scale (pH) is used: for a pH decrease of 1, the acidity increases by
a factor of 10.
-Most soils have pH values between 3.5 and 10. In higher rainfall areas the natural pH of soils typically
ranges from 5 to 7, while in drier areas the range is 6.5 to 9.
Soils can be classified according to their pH value:
6.5 to 7.5—neutral
over 7.5—alkaline
less than 6.5—acidic, and soils with pH less than 5.5 are considered strongly acidic.
-Acid sulfate soils can have extremely acidic pH values (pH less than 4).
Effects of Soil pH
-Soil pH affects the amount of nutrients and chemicals that are soluble in soil water, and therefore the
amount of nutrients available to plants.
-Some nutrients are more available under acid conditions while others are more available under alkaline
conditions.
Soil Acidity
“Soil acidity” is measured in pH units. Soil pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in the soil
solution.
-Plant growth and most soil processes, including nutrient availability and microbial activity, are favored by a
soil pH range of 5.5 – 8. Acid soil, particularly in the subsurface, will also restrict root access to water and
nutrients.
Two Types of Soil Acidity
-Soil acidity determined by pH measurement during a routine soil test is known as active acidity.
-However, not all H+ ions are released immediately by the soil into solution. A portion of the H+ ions remain
attached to negatively charged exchange sites on clay and organic matter (OM) particles. This acidity is
called reserve acidity.
Salinity
The term "salinity" refers to the concentrations of salts in water or soils.

Salinity can take three forms, classified by their causes:

Primary salinity (also called natural salinity);
Secondary salinity (also called dryland salinity),
Tertiary salinity (also called irrigation salinity).
Where does salt came from?
- Salt in our water resources is generally derived from three sources.
Firstly, small amounts of salt (primarily sodium chloride) are evaporated from ocean water and are carried
in rainclouds and deposited across the landscape with rainfall.
Primary Salinity
-Primary salinity is caused by natural processes such the accumulation of salt from rainfall over many
thousands of years or from the weathering of rocks.
-The small amounts of salt brought by the rain can build up in soils over time (especially clayey soils), and
can also move into the groundwater.
Secondary Salinity
-Secondary salinity is caused where groundwater levels rise, bringing salt accumulated through 'primary'
salinity processes to the surface.
-When vegetation is cleared, as happened extensively in the Western Australian wheatbelt, the amount of
water lost from the landscape through plants is drastically reduced.
-Instead, more water enters the groundwater and groundwater levels rise.
Tertiary or Irrigated Salinity
-Tertiary salinity occurs when water is reapplied to crops or horticulture over many cycles, either directly or
by allowing it to filter into the groundwater before pumping it out for re-application.
-Each time the water is applied, some of it will evaporate and the salts in the water remaining will become
more concentrated; very high salt concentrations can result from multiple cycles of reuse.
Salinization
-A soil may be rich in salts because the parent rock from which it was formed contains salts.
-Sea water is another source of salts in low-lying areas along the coast.
A very common source of salts in irrigated soils is the irrigation water itself. Most irrigation waters contain
some salts.
Salt Concentration
-The salt concentration in the water extracted from a saturated soil (called saturation extract) defines the
salinity of this soil. If this water contains less than 3 grams of salt per liter, the soil is said to be non saline
(see Table below). If the salt concentration of the saturation extract contains more than 12 g/l, the soil is
said to be highly saline.
Crops and Saline Soils
-Most crops do not grow well on soils that contain salts.
-One reason is that salt causes a reduction in the rate and amount of water that the plant roots can take up
from the soil. Also, some salts are toxic to plants when present in high concentration.
Improvement of Saline Soils
-More water is applied to the field than is required for crop growth. This additional water infiltrates into the
soil and percolates through the rootzone.
-During percolation, it takes up part of the salts in the soil and takes these along to deeper soil layers. In
fact, the water washes the salts out of the rootzone. This washing process is called leaching.
Sodicity
-Salty soils usually contain several types of salt. One of these is sodium salt. Where the concentration of
sodium salts is high relative to other types of salt, a sodic soil may develop.
-Sodic soils are characterized by a poor soil structure: they have a low infiltration rate, they are poorly
aerated and difficult to cultivate. Thus, sodic soils adversely affect the plants' growth.
Effects of Sodicity
Soil sodicity can lead to:
-Reduced flow of water through soil—which limits leaching and can cause salt to accumulate over time and
the development of saline subsoils
-Dispersion in the soil surface, causing crusting and sealing, which then impedes water infiltration
-Dispersion in the subsoil, accelerating erosion, which can cause the appearance of gullies and tunnels
-Dense, cloddy and structureless soils as it destroys aggregation.
Improvement of Sodic Soils
-Improvement of sodic soils implies the reduction of the amount of sodium present in the soil. This is done
in two stages.
1. Firstly, chemicals (such as gypsum), which are rich in calcium, are mixed with the soil; the calcium
replaces the sodium.
2.Secondly, replaced sodium is leached from the rootzone by irrigation water.