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A Review on Nature, Cybercrime and Best Practices of Digital Footprints

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DOI: 10.1109/ICCR56254.2022.9995834

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 A Review on Nature, Cybercrime and Best Practices
of Digital Footprints
Nurdiana Jamal
Aman Manusia Sdn Bhd
Wisma Manikar, Lorong Manikar 1,
88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
nurdiana.jamal@sapulut.com
Abstract—Information and communication technology have
accelerated the rate of change in society. As a result, digital
identities have begun to form throughout this moment of
transition. These identities are related to the acts people carry
out in online settings. Through these actions, a digital footprint
is created. However, many cybercrime attacks have occurred
due to negligence of not properly understanding and taking care
of digital footprints. This paper reviewed the importance and
awareness of the digital footprints, the cybercrime involving
digital footprints, and countermeasures associated with the
digital footprints. First, the research is carried out by examining
the nature of digital footprints to understand the operation of
digital footprints. Then, cybercrime related to digital footprints
2022 International Conference on Cyber Resilience (ICCR) | 978-1-6654-6122-1/22/$31.00 ©2022 IEEE | DOI: 10.1109/ICCR56254.2022.9995834
is examined to comprehend their threats to digital footprints.
Finally, the best practices to protect digital footprints are
examined. Thus, understanding digital footprints will help users
of all ages be more vigilant and attentive in taking care of their
digital lifestyles.
Keywords—digital footprints, digital identity, awareness,
malware, phishing, pharming, identity theft, identity fraud,
mitigations, social engieering
I. INTRODUCTION
Most of our professional and personal lives are mediated
by digital technology, so we constantly interact with
information systems without realizing it. Moreover, this
conversation is often logged and stored for an extended
period. These enormous digital footprints can be analyzed to
acquire insight into an individual's behavior, personal
preferences, and needs and even to forecast future behaviors
[1].
Typically for commercial purposes, but occasionally for
other reasons, users' digital footprints follow, personalize, and
promote according to users. These actions are conducted
primarily for the organization in question. In short, users'
digital footprints are a monetizable asset [2]. However, the
users do not receive any direct profit from their digital
footprints [1].
Digital footprints are the traces and recordings users leave
behind each time they use the Internet. Each footprints users
leave generates information that service providers can access.
For example, users leave a digital footprint on channels in
each zone by sharing comments, images, videos, blogs,
bookmarks, reviews, ratings, social shopping, and linking to
government applications, among other activities [3].
Users leave two aspects of digital footprints: digital
identity and online self. The first aspect refers to the digital
data corpus created by people and digital systems, also known
as the passive digital footprints. The second aspect
demonstrates that the 'Me' in social networks and digital
information possesses self-reflection, self-expression, and
978-1-6654-6122-1/22/$31.00 ©2022 IEEE
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Jasni Mohamad Zain
Institute for Big Data Analytics and Artificial Intelligence (IBDAAI),
Kompleks Al-Khawarizmi, Universiti Teknologi MARA,
40450, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
jasni67@uitm.edu.my
self-control [4]. The second aspect is also known as the active
digital footprints.
All the data collected is used to target individuals with
specific services and goods. It provides several avenues for
investigating individuals' histories, personalities, interests,
activities, habits, and preferences. It will aid businesses in
targeted advertising, recommendation engines, and client
acquisition. However, sadly, hackers and cybercriminals are
using the same tendency.
If they are not careful, they can access a person's private
and personal information, resulting in identity theft and
financial damage [5]. Furthermore, as the amount of time
spent in digital environments increases, so do the number of
digital transactions and sharing. Thus, the investigations
emphasized the importance of employing digital tools safely
[6].
The paper reviews the importance and awareness
regarding the digital footprints while finding the related
cybercrime and mitigation related to the digital footprints.
Section II shows the overview of the digital footprints. Section
III examines the cybercrime related to the digital footprints.
Section IV discusses the management of digital footprints.
Finally, Section V and VI presents the analysis and conclusion
of this paper.
II. OVERVIEW OF DIGITAL FOOTPRINTS
The blurring between online and offline personal existence
provides several visible or non-visible identities, ranging from
professional to personal responsibilities, which continually
change data gathering with social feedback. The first aspect of
digital footprints is that digital identities are based on
computer-coded systems comprising sensors, gadgets,
platforms, and online networks [7]. Digital services and online
network activities presume the existence of a personal data
repository. Digital identity has two different meanings.
The first definition includes smart identification
technologies, such as biometrics, blockchain, and more data-
driven services [8]. Consequently, digital data corpora are
connected with sensitive data sets, identity theft risks, and
online dangers [9]. The second definition verifies encoded
entities inside social and content networks. The user's
objective on digital platforms and apps is to connect safe and
consistent data sets [10]. These data sets provide identity
verification, which allows for continued online control [4].
These first aspects are also widely known as the passive digital
footprints, as the data are generated unintentionally [11].
The second aspect of digital footprints is the online self.
Moreover, the second aspect is also known as the active digital
footprints [12]. In social networks and online communities,
individual users generate visual representations, personal
narratives, and narratives as part of their digital footprints
[13]. Targeting optimal online self-promotion or self- anonymous data from their partners and use it to target ads. As
expression, users manage their impressions on social media analyses relying on information from a single website cannot
platforms through various modes of expression, including convey the full scope of online consumer activity, many third-
selfies, images, videos, and other content [14]. Moreover, the party data aggregators are filling this void by combining the
effects of the Internet on social interactions dictate self-esteem data from numerous websites [22]. Table I shows the
through social comparison traps [15]. Therefore, online self- summarized nature of digital footprints.
representation requires an ongoing effort to regulate.
TABLE I. NATURE OF DIGITAL FOOTPRINTS
The three main digital footprints components are cache,
cookies, and linkability. The cache functionality improves the Properties Functions Types Details
Aspects Types of Passive The data are generated
web-browsing experience of a user by downloading and Digital unintentionally [11]
storing a local copy of website artefacts to increase the Footprints Active Individual users generate
efficiency of re-rendering a website on subsequent visits. visual representations,
Moreover, the cache can reveal a user's surfing patterns. For personal narratives, and
instance, although Internet history records may document the narratives as part of their
digital footprints [13].
websites a user has visited online, the cache might disclose the Components Operation Cache Saves portions of sites,
information on these web pages. In addition, the cache saves in Digital such as photos, to help
portions of sites, such as photos, to help them load more Footprints them load more quickly on
quickly on the user's subsequent visit [16]. the user's subsequent visit
[16]
The next component is a cookie, a random string of letters Cookies Cookies' digital traces
enhance the Internet's
and numbers devoid of intrinsic value that a website transmits usability and safeguard
to users' web browsers. Cookies' digital traces enhance the individual transactions
Internet's usability and safeguard individual transactions. [17].
Cookies are files that are produced by the websites the user Linkability key concept in any analysis
of online privacy [18]
visit. They facilitate users' online experience by storing users' Party that A person or company that
Players Advertisers
browsing data. Cookies do not only link transactions; they also uses pays to have a product,
allow websites to follow visitors whenever they visit [17]. Digital event, or job advertised
Footprints online, in a newspaper, on
The third component is linkability. Linkability is a key television, or a billboard.
concept in any analysis of online privacy because linkability The collected user data is
does more than anything else to erode users' ability to keep filtered, aggregated,
processed, and mined to
personal data within a single context and thus manage their provide marketers with
privacy [18]. As the data in digital footprints are collected and increased targeting
used to target individuals with specific services and goods, it capabilities [19]
is important to comprehend the players who provide these Publishers A publisher is a place to
display that message, with
services. These players are the advertisers, publishers, and a viewership the advertiser
aggregators. is interested in converting
[21].
An advertiser is a person or company that pays to have a Aggregators As analyses relying on
product, event, or job advertised online, in a newspaper, on information from a single
television, or a billboard. The collected user data is filtered, website cannot convey the
aggregated, processed, and mined to provide marketers with full scope of online
consumer activity, many
increased targeting capabilities [19]. They exploit users' third-party data
digital footprints to generate many marketing channels for aggregators are filling this
marketers to contact current and potential customers. Users' void by combining the data
digital footprints is an interactive resource that illuminates and from numerous websites
[22].
identifies current digital presence and growth potential that
would assist business owners and marketers in navigating the III. CYBERCRIME AROUND DIGITAL FOOTPRINTS
dynamic and often difficult array of options to engage clients
through digital media. In addition, this resource would be Digital footprints can identify a person's digital reputation,
useful for advertisers and marketing agents seeking to increase which is frequently regarded as equally important as their
potential reach and marketing expenditures [20]. offline reputation. Furthermore, they are generally permanent,
and once the information is made public or semi-public, online
The second player that uses the digital footprints is the phrases and images can be altered to cause an unintended
publishers. A publisher is a place to display that message, with offense. It is possible, for instance, for content intended for a
a viewership the advertiser is interested in converting. The private group to spread to a larger audience, damaging
relationship between advertisers and publishers is feasible to relationships, and friendships. Moreover, social engineering
serve simultaneously as an advertiser and a publisher. For attacks are rising and weakening the cybersecurity chain. In
example, if an app runs its adverts and hosts advertisements, the interest of cybercriminals, they seek to manipulate
it is both an advertiser and a publisher. The security of a individuals and businesses into divulging sensitive and
website may not immediately impact the user's experience, but valuable data.
it sends a message about how much the publisher regards the
user's safety from harmful use of its product and how well it In addition, cybercriminals might use users' digital
protects its advertising from fraud [21]. footprints for purposes such as phishing for account access or
creating false identities based on user data. Therefore, it is
Data aggregators and brokers get involved when the essential to comprehend the digital footprints’ cybercrime to
advertiser wants to be more specific. Data aggregators collect understand how to protect the digital footprints. The next

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section will discuss the details related to these threats. Table
II shows the types of cybercrime and its operations.
A. Malwares
Malware is an abbreviation for "malicious software" and
refers to any software used to harm computing equipment or
stored material. Malware corruption can express itself in
various ways, including formatting the hard drive, losing or
corrupting data, stealing saved login details, gathering
sensitive information, or even displaying unwelcome adverts
on screen [23]. Therefore, while monitoring internet behavior
via a digital footprint, hackers infect devices with malware
that transmits sensitive information [24]. By accessing a user's
social media account, for instance, hackers gain access to a
network of contacts to compromise. Different types of
malware attacks are ransomware [25], viruses, worms, trojans,
backdoor, malicious mobile code, backdoor, and rootkits [26].
B. Phishing
Phishing frequently deceives people into entering personal
information on a website whose design and user experience
are nearly identical to those of a legitimate website [27].
Furthermore, phishers continually evolve their phishing
assaults to redirect visitors to bogus login pages and steal their
sensitive data by deeply hiding the phishing principle, and the
lifespan of phishing URLs is becoming shorter [28]. Hackers
usually send a spoofed email with a real-looking source name
to get the victim to click on the malicious link or attachment.
When they succeed, hackers gain access to their target's
private information.
Scammers rely on software or security flaws installed on
the user's device for their scheme to succeed. However,
phishing assaults are not confined to email alone, and
cybercriminals often utilize SMS [29] and voice messages
[30] to impersonate genuine sources and target potential
victims. For instance, this would be the event if a
cybercriminal pretended to be an employee of the user's bank.
The most common phishing attacks are smishing, fax, and
vishing [31].
C. Pharming
The email has become a crucial networking tool for
business and personal needs. Unfortunately, among the
numerous security risks that affect computer users,
"pharming" is a hazard that is becoming more prevalent [32].
Pharming is the technique of sending unwanted emails using
a fake website hosted on a Domain Name System (DNS)
server. It may even be a portal to a malicious website designed
to deceive users into uploading malware or disclosing
sensitive information [33]. These fraudulent websites may
appear authentic at first glance, but they have the ulterior
purpose of stealing sensitive data, such as the user's login
credentials, personal information, and banking information
[34].
Additionally, hackers may hijack real links and domains
to steal user data. Due to the prevalence of social engineering
schemes and the low likelihood of internet consumers spotting
a hidden threat, pharming can be more harmful to them.
Predominantly, phishing schemes are carried out via
exploiting the DNS. Pharming employs tactics such as DNS
cache poisoning, spoofing, and hijacking [35].
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D. Malvertising
Malvertising refers to the dissemination of malware
through online advertising. Unknowingly, targeted
advertising violates a user's personal privacy information [36].
Malvertising attacks begin when a cybercriminal places a
malicious advertisement on a legitimate ad server or content
delivery network (CDN). An example of a malvertising attack
is using malicious toolkits such as exploit kits.
Exploit kits are malicious toolkits or platforms that exploit
software or system security flaws to accomplish various
harmful acts, such as data theft and malware distribution [37].
Using an exploit kit, they can insert a harmful dynamic link or
hidden code within an advertisement or elements, such as
creative imagery, banner ad copy, or a video segment. The
exploit kit is an expert at concealing dangerous code or links
from malware detection techniques that ad networks employ
to identify malicious behavior. It will scan the user's device to
find and exploit any vulnerabilities or flaws to install malware
[38]. After malware compromises a user's device, sensitive
data may be corrupted, encrypted, held for ransom, or stolen
for sale on the dark web [39].
E. Identity Theft
Identity theft is the crime of getting the personal
information of another person for the sole intention of
committing transactions or making purchases under that
person's name [40]. It happens when someone uses users'
personal information to illegally open new accounts or
services in their name or to impersonate them in other ways
[41]. Unfortunately, getting another person's data has never
been easier than it is today. Thieves gain access to personal
information via data breaches or the dark web.
Moreover, bad actors may obtain all the information
necessary to commit identity theft using a simple Google
search [42]. Because data brokers and people-search websites
have complete profiles on millions of people, anyone can gain
access to user personal information for a nominal charge or
for free and use it to impersonate them. There have been
reports of identity thieves utilizing data broker services,
although this normally occurs in secret and without anyone's
knowledge [43].
F. Identity Fraud
Identity fraud is the fraudulent use of another person's
personal information or the combination of actual data with
false data to fool a third party [44]. The difference between
identity theft and identity fraud is when someone obtains or
misuses users' personal information to access their existing
accounts [45]. Today, identity theft is a pervasive problem that
has caused several financial institutions to incur enormous
losses. Javelin defines identity fraud as any action performed
by a criminal to directly encourage a consumer to disclose
personal information or undertake transactions that reveal
personal information through face-to-face, phone, text, or
email interaction. Victims of identity fraud frequently recall
the precise moment or approach that led to their victimization
[46].
 TABLE II. CYBERCRIME RELATED TO DIGITAL FOOTPRINTS
Cybercrime Operations
Malware Malware corruption can express itself in various
ways, including formatting the hard drive, losing or
corrupting data, stealing saved login details,
gathering sensitive information, or even displaying
unwelcome adverts on screen [23]
Phishing Phishing frequently deceives people into entering
personal information on a website whose design and
user experience are nearly identical to those of a
legitimate website [27]
Pharming Pharming is the technique of sending unwanted
emails using a fake website hosted on a DNS server
[32].
Malvertising Malvertising refers to the dissemination of malware
through online advertising [36].
Identity Theft Identity theft is the crime of getting the personal
information of another person for the sole intention
of committing transactions or making purchases
under that person's name [40].
Identity Fraud Identity fraud is the fraudulent use of another
person's personal information or the combination of
actual data with false data to fool a third party [44].
IV. DIGITAL FOOTPRINTS MANAGEMENT
Digital footprints are permanent. Each new account, email
exchanged, pictures uploaded, and geotagged location adds to
a person's digital footprints. This data creates a digital
representation of an individual's interests, hobbies, activities,
beliefs, and habits. Marketing firms may use this information
to send tailored adverts, but hackers can also use it to
perpetrate identity theft.
Moreover, the digital footprints also determine a
company's digital reputation, which is just as crucial as its
offline reputation today. Once a brand publishes something on
the Internet, it is there permanently. Sadly, it may also be
exploited against the brand's reputation in the future.
Therefore, it is important to manage the digital footprints to
avoid and reduce exploitation from hackers or bad players on
the Internet. Three best practices are examined: social media
sharing, trusted websites, and identity resolution.
Privacy is a sacrifice many individuals are willing to make
for the convenience and functionality of user-friendly
products and services. Sadly, this is also the most dangerous
route from a safety standpoint. When contributing to the active
digital footprints, supply as little information as feasible. This
general rule can assist in limiting the damage if users' personal
information is compromised and leaked.
Social sharing refers to the sharing of information through
various social media platforms. Many people make their
phone number, address, and email address too accessible.
They automatically broadcast their whereabouts, making it
simple to trace them [47]. In addition, when users "like" their
own banks, healthcare providers, pharmacies, and many more.
They can direct fraudsters directly to their sensitive accounts.
As the traces of digital footprints are permanent, it is important
to think twice before sharing anything [48].
Next, it is important to verify the authentication and
security of the website. A dangerous website is a malicious,
unsafe, or fraudulent content with a harmful purpose toward
its viewers. These websites are susceptible to distributing
various forms of malware, fraud and phishing techniques, and
other cybercriminal activities [49]. If the URL begins with
"HTTP" rather than "HTTPS," you should reconsider entering
any personal information because the "S" in the URL signifies
"secure" [50].
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There are now relatively few good reasons for a site that
collects information from users to lack a secure site. Due to
the amount of information from the browser, even surfing
certain sites might be risky. Moreover, never enter sensitive
information on an unprotected website, especially financial or
payment information. An insecure website could also be a
"fake" site for phishing purposes [51].
Identity Resolution is a data management method that
verifies, validates, and appends information across devices
and digital footprints using a unique matching technique to
generate a single, data-rich profile for an individual or
organization [52]. It eliminates customer data duplications and
discrepancies by combining data management approaches and
reliable reference data. Identity Resolution assists
organizations in preparing, cleansing, merging, or migrating
data, identifying marketing targets, enhancing analytics,
preventing fraud, and ensuring compliance with data or
industry rules [53].
V. ANALYSIS
Social media connects people virtually; nevertheless, as
the increasing number of people are negligent in caring for
their digital footprints, the risk of cybercrime increases. All of
this could be avoided or reduced when people understand how
digital footprints work. Unfortunately, although most papers
reviewed to discuss the digital footprints in specific topics,
none has discussed the digital footprints as a whole from its
nature, affiliated parties, related cybercrimes, and best
practices. As the review in this paper aims to give people
awareness of digital footprints, it is important to review them
as a whole so that people can illustrate the importance and
dangers surrounding them.
VI. CONCLUSION
Based on the papers examined, the nature of digital
footprints identified understand its importance in everyone's
daily life, regardless of all age. Despite its importance in
helping companies find their potential customers, users also
should be aware of how important their digital footprints is.
Moreover, several papers are examined to understand
different digital footprints threats. Finally, several papers are
examined to find the best practices to manage digital
footprints.
Today's digital surroundings satisfy individual
requirements through online and offline contexts. However,
after each transaction is conducted in digital environments, a
conscious or unconscious contribution is made to constructing
certain records. Thus, digital footprints are left behind. From
this perspective, individuals have significant obligations in
this process while doing certain transactions in digital settings.
The review on the nature of digital footprints helps people
understand how digital footprints can affect their online
privacy. Moreover, identifying the parties involved behind
digital footprints helps people decide to allow these parties to
manipulate their data based on their digital footprints. Other
than that, comprehending the cybercrime-related digital
footprints helps people be more vigilant in taking care of their
digital footprints.
The best practices reviewed are not the ultimate solution
in taking care of people's digital footprints. However, it gives
people an alternative to maintaining their digital footprints. On
the other hand, given that young people predominantly utilize
digital environments, it is reasonable to assert that the issue of
digital footprints should be emphasized more for higher
education students.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work is supported by Universiti Teknologi MARA
under the research grant no. 600-RMC/GPK 5/3 (250/2020).
The authors are grateful to Institute for Big Data Analytics and
Artificial Intelligence (IBDAAI), Center of Computing
Technology and Network (CTN) Faculty of Computer and
Mathematical Sciences, Universiti Teknologi Mara, Malaysia,
for offering research facilities.
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