MCE 316: INTRODUCTION TO CAD/CAM

BY DR. A.T. OYELAMI, FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE, ABEOKUTA

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

The content of the human mind can be classified into four categories:
a) Data: Data consist of raw facts and figures – it does not have any meaning until it is processed and turned
into something useful. Data comes in many forms; the main ones are letters, numbers and symbols. Data is a
prerequisite to information. For example, the two data items below could represent some very important
information:
DATA INFORMATION
123424331911 Your winning Lottery ticket number
211192 Your Birthday
An organization sometimes has to decide on the nature and volume of data that is required for creating the
necessary information.
Example
Consider the number17121942. It has no meaning or context. It is an instance of data. If a context is given: it
is a date in French format ddmmyyyy. This allows us to register it as 17th December 1942. It still has no
meaning and is therefore not information.
Meaning: The birth date of Nigerian President Muhammad Buhari.
This gives us all the elements required for it to be called 'information'.
b) Information: Data that are processed to be useful; provides answers to "who", "what", "where", and
"when" questions. Information is the data that has been processed in such a way as to be meaningful to the
person who receives it.
INFORMATION = DATA + CONTEXT + MEANING
c) Knowledge: By knowledge we mean the human understanding of a subject matter that has been acquired
through proper study and experience. Knowledge is usually based on learning, thinking, and proper
understanding of the problem area. It can be considered as the integration of human perceptive processes that
helps them to draw meaningful conclusions.
Consider this scenario: A person puts his finger into very hot water.
Data gathered: The finger nerve sends pain data to the brain.
Processing: The brain considers the data and comes up with...
Information: The painful finger means it is not in a good place.
Action: The brain tells finger to remove itself from hot water.
Knowledge: Sticking the finger in hot water is a bad idea.
Knowledge is having an understanding of the "rules".
The terms Data, Information, Knowledge, and Wisdom are sometimes presented in a form that suggests a
scale.

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 Figure 1: Data, Information, knowledge, wisdom along a scale

1.1 MEMORY
Many computer users (CAD users included) use the terms memory and disk interchangeably. However, they
are actually very different. There is a big difference between running out of disk space and running out of
memory. It is important to keep the CAD system using memory as much as possible, since this can have a
large impact on CAD system performance. Memory is made up of integrated circuits or ―chips‖ (somewhat
similar to the CPU). However, instead of being the ―engine‖ of the system like the CPU, the memory chips are
just a place to temporarily store data that is being worked on. The memory chips can send, receive, and store
at very fast speeds (such as nanoseconds or billionths of a second), while the disk drive can only typically do
this on the order of milliseconds (or thousands of a second). Therefore, it is clear that when a CAD program is
running, it is important to keep the CPU busy working with the data in the memory chips. However, the data
in the memory chips is gone once the power to the system is turned off, so eventually, it is important to get the
data stored on the disk drives (which do not lose data without the electrical power). Therefore, memory is
considered volatile, since the data in the chips disappears when the power is turned off, and storage (such as
disk drives) is considered nonvolatile, since the data on the drives does not disappear when the power is turned
off.
Memory can be referred to in a number of ways. Occasionally memory is referred to as core memory,
or just ―core.‖ However, the most common term now for memory is RAM. RAM stands for Random Access
Memory (meaning it can hold many different kinds of data dynamically). There are other memory chips called
ROM chips, but they are generally not relevant to the CAD user.

A) Virtual Memory
There is usually more ―space‖ in the storage system than in the memory system. For instance, a PC may have
an 8-gigabyte (about 8 billion bytes) disk drive, but only 512 megabytes (or about 512 million bytes) of
memory or RAM. This makes the ―competition‖ for resources even more important. When a user decides to
run a program (which is probably already stored on a disk drive), the system ―loads‖ the program from the
disk to the memory system. Then the CPU begins to execute the instructions that are now found in the
memory system. Most operating systems (that are trying to manage or coordinate the data sent to the CPU)
have the ability to load and/or unload the programming from the Memory system back to the disk drive. This
is called working with virtual memory, and it allows the lower sized Memory system to handle even larger
programs, or to handle more simultaneous programs.
For the most part, when a virtual memory computer moves a program‘s data from one ―area‖ of the memory
system to another, it is referred to as paging. However, when a computer moves a program‘s data out of
memory entirely to the slower disk drives, it is referred to as swapping. Of course, the computer will
eventually move that data back to the Memory system to finish the tasks associated with the computer
program.
The way the computer handles this virtual memory is pretty important with respect to CAD programs. Modern
CAD programs are large and demand a high level of CPU performance. If the computer running a CAD
program does not have enough memory, it prematurely starts to ―swap‖ data and programming to the Storage

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system. When that happens, a user can notice a very reduced level of performance. This should make sense
since it is starting to use the disk drives that may be 1000 times slower than memory.

1.2 STORAGE
The storage system is made up of a device or devices that can permanently store data (it is ―nonvolatile‖). This
is in contrast to the memory system which is erased or empty when the computer is turned off or shut down. In
addition, the capacity or ―size‖ of the data that can be stored on a storage device is usually much larger. In
terms of actual devices, the storage system is generally made up of one or more disk drive. These drives are
devices that have a spinning a disk within them. Thus, these devices are often also referred to as disks or hard
disks. These devices may also be referred to as hard drives, disk drives, or C drives. These terms basically all
refer to the same thing. The spinning disk has magnetic material on it that can be altered by recording or
playback ―heads‖ (similar to a magnetic tape). These heads are on a electronically controlled arm that can
swing over the spinning disk. The whole mechanism is in contained in a vacuum-sealed enclosure that fits into
the computer system enclosure. Another type of storage device would be a floppy drive or a diskette drive.
These work on the same principle as the hard disk, but they are generally used for transporting smaller
amounts of data between computers. Although the memory system is the only way that the CPU really
communicates with the outside world, the storage system is the way that a user really communicates with the
computer. Users do not save what the CPU has done, unless it is written to the storage system. This is true for
CAD programs, as well.
The files that computers work with via the storage system can be thought of as electronic versions of
paper files. The size of files refers to how many bytes (a pattern of 8 ones and zeros) are stored on the storage
device for the given file. Since the size of these files can be difficult to express in terms of the actual number
of bytes, there are metric system ―short cuts‖ for the sizes by the ―1000‘s‖ (Table 3). So, approximately 1,000
bytes is a kilobyte (in the metric system, the prefix for one thousand is kilo). Approximately 1,000,000 bytes is
a megabyte, and approximately 1,000,000,000 bytes is a gigabyte. These various short cuts are abbreviated as
KB, MB, and GB respectively. In each case, the conversion is approximate. This is because the actual
conversion is not based on 1000s, but on 1024. 1024 is 210, and most of the operations of the computer are
based on the logic represented by 2 numbers (ones and zeros), so it is easier to base capacities on the 1024
value. In practice, the capacity can just be assumed to be based on 1000, not 1024, since it only introduces a
small amount of error as indicated in Table 1.

Table 1: Large Byte Count ―Shortcut‖ Terminology

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2.0 THE DESIGN PROCESS
To understand CAD, the engineer must have an in-depth knowledge of the Design process. The design is the
act of devising an original solution to a problem by a combination of engineering principles, resources, and
products in design. The design process is the pattern of activities that is followed by the designer in arriving at
the solution of a technological problem. The design process is an iterative procedure. A preliminary design is
made based on the available information, and is improved upon as more and more information is generated.
There have been attempts to provide a formal description of the stages or elements of the design
process. The design progresses in a step-by-step manner from some statement of need through identification of
the problem, a search for solutions and development of the chosen solution to manufacture, test and use. These
descriptions of design are often called models of the design process. We shall discuss two models due to
Shigley, and Pahl and Beitz.

2.1 Shigley Model

The Shigley model involves six steps, as explained below:
(i) Recognition of need
Recognition of need involves the realization by someone that a problem exists for which some feasible
solution is to be found. This might be the identification of some defect in a current machine designed by an
engineer or the perception of a new product marketing opportunity by a salesman.
(ii) Definition of Problem
Definition of a problem involves a thorough specification of the item to be designed. This specification
will generally include functional and physical characteristics, cost, quality, performance, etc.
(iii) Synthesis
During the synthesis phase of the design process, various preliminary ideas are developed through research
of similar products or designs in use.
(iv) Analysis and optimization
The resulting preliminary designs are then subjected to the appropriate analysis to determine their
suitability for the design constraints. If these designs fail to satisfy the constraints, they are then redesigned
or modified on the basis of the information gained from the analysis. This iterative process continues until
the proposed designs meet the specifications, or until the designer is convinced that the design is not
feasible within the specified constraints. The components, sub-assemblies or sub-systems are then
synthesized into the final overall system in a similar iterative manner.
(v) Evaluation
The assessment or evaluation of the design against the specifications established during the problem
definition phase is then carried out. This often requires the fabrication and testing of a prototype model to
evaluate operating performance, quality, reliability, etc.
(vi) Presentation
The final phase in the design process is the presentation of the design. This includes documentation of the
design through drawings, material specifications, assembly lists, and so on.

2.2 Pahl and Beitz Model

In this model, the design process comprises of four main phases, which may be summarized as follows:
(i) Clarification of the task

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 This place involves the collection of information about the requirements to be embodied in the solution
and also about the constraints on the design, and describing these in a specification.
(ii) Conceptual design
The conceptual design phase involves the establishment of the functions to be included in the design, and
identification and development of suitable solutions.
(iii) Embodiment design
During this phase, the conceptual solution is developed in more detail, problems are resolved and weak
aspects eliminated.
(iv) Detail design
In this phase, the dimensions, tolerances, materials and form of individual components of the design are
specified in detail for subsequent manufacture.

2.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Traditionally, the design field has been identified with particular end products, e.g., mechanical design,
electrical design, ship design. In these fields, design work is largely based on specific techniques to foster
certain product characteristics and principles. Examples include the principles of constant wall thickness,
lightweight construction, and shortest load path. Also, the design field has been subdivided by an increasing
reliance on specialized knowledge and the division of labor. Precision engineering and robotics are examples
of subfields that are distinguished by the accuracy and reliability that the product must have. In the field of
precision engineering, for instance, the dimensions of interest are nanometers, which are often encountered in
the semiconductor industry. Each one of these fields also has its specific know-how and paradigms to support
effective design have also sub-divided the design field.

There are three branches of design.

-First, The traditional school, which still dominates, believes that design requires experience and cannot be
taught.
-The second group deals with optimization as a subset of design, using computer-based tools such as genetic
algorithms, fuzzy logic, and the like.
-The third school of thought believes that there are axioms that govern good design decisions. A good
designer needs to use all three methodologies.

All design activities must do the following:

1. Know the ―customers‘ needs.‖
2. Define the essential problems that must be solved to satisfy the needs.
3. Conceptualize the solution through synthesis, which involves the task of satisfying several different
functional requirements using a set of inputs such as product design parameters within given
constraints.
4. Analyze the proposed solution to establish its optimum conditions and parameter settings.
5. Check the resulting design solution: to see if it meets the original customer needs. Design proceeds
from abstract and qualitative ideas to quantitative descriptions. It is an iterative process by nature: new
information is generated with each step, and it is necessary to evaluate the results in terms of the
preceding step. Thus, design involves a continuous interplay between the requirements the designer
wants to achieve and how the designer wants to achieve these requirements

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Other Classifications of Design
A.
 Original design involves a new idea or working principle
 Adaptive or Development Design
 Variant design : change in scale/dimension without change in function e.g. turbines, boilers (may
require new materials)
B.
 Forward Engineering
 Reverse Engineering
 Backward integration

3.0 COMPUTER AIDED ENGINEERING (CAE)

Computer Aided Design, CAD, is a part of much broader technology called Computer Aided Engineering
(CAE). CAE is a technology concerned with the use of computer systems to analyze CAD geometry, allowing
designers to simulate and study how the product will behave so that the design can be validated, refined and,
optimized. CAE is a very powerful tool and it offers industry the ability to save time and tedium in the
drawing office, produce better designs and faster quotations and to provide automatic machine tool control
from a design produced on a computer. With the use of a specially prepared software packages to run on the
computer, this offers an aid to engineers of all disciplines, and when integrated with other systems, CAE
becomes a comprehensive tool to form a link throughout an engineering industry. Thus, CAE is a combination
of techniques in which man and machine are blended into a problem solving team, intimately coupling the best
characteristics of each.
The product development and production process is supported by computer software. The name of this
technology is CAx – computer aided something. These software tools support the specific engineering
activities. The help of the computer means different things. In case of manufacturing the CNC programs are
generated by a CAM system, the CAE means the collection of every engineering analysis and calculation. The
task of the CAPP is to generate a process plan for manufacturing. The CAQA is the programming of
coordinate measurement machines in general.
The most often used abbreviations are:
 Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM);
 Computer Aided Engineering (CAE)
 Computer Aided Design (CAD);
 Computer Aided Design and Drafting (CADD) ;
 Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM);
 Computer Numerically Controlled (CNC)
 Computer Aided Quality Assurance (CAQA)
 Computer Aided Production Planning and Scheduling (CAPPS)
 Computer Aided Storage and Transport (CAST)
 Computer Aided Plant Layout (CAPL);
 Computer Aided Design/Manufacturing (CAD/CAM);
 Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP)
 Computer Aided Material Handling (CAPM);
 Computer Aided Quality Assurance (CAQA);
 Computer Aided Maintenance Management (CAMM);

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  Computer Aided Costing (CAC);
 Computer Aided Quality Management (CAQM);
 Computer Aided Production Control and Management (CAPCM);
 Computer Aided Software Engineering (CASE);

Others which are computer based but may not reflect ‗computer‘ in their names include
 Robotics
 Knowledge Based Expert System;
 Artificial Intelligence (AI);
 Virtual Reality (VR);
 Mechatronics; and
 Automation.

3.1 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (CAD)

CAD is a technology concerned with the use of computer systems to assist in the creation, modification,
analysis, and optimization of a design.
It is important to emphasize that the computer does not change the basic nature of the design process. CAD
can be described as the technology concerned with the integrated design activities using a digital computer.
This includes computer generation and modification of graphic images on a video display, printing these
images on a hard copy on a plotter or printer, analysis of design data, and electronic storage and retrieval of
design information. In order words, CAD can be described as any design activity that involves the effective
use of computer to create or modify an engineering design. The use of a computer in the design of a product is
essentially to
(i) increase the productivity of the designer, and
(ii) to create a database for manufacturing.

There are varieties of ways by which CAD is often defined and includes a large range of activities. Very
broadly, CAD can be said to be the integration of computer science (or software) techniques in engineering
design. At one end when we talk of modeling, it encompasses the following:

The models thus developed are first visualized on display monitors using a variety of techniques including
wire frame display, shaded image display, hidden surface removed display and so on. Once the designer is
satisfied, these models are then used for various types of analysis / applications.
Some possible analysis includes:

respect to these parameters. It includes tools like the Finite Element Method (FEM).

nning
These are activities which normally use models developed using one or more of the techniques mentioned
above. These activities are often included in other umbrellas like CAM or CAE. A term often used is CAD to

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include this broad set of activities. They all use CAD models and often the kind of application they have to be
used in determines the kind of model to be developed.

3.1.1 CAD SYSTEM AND CLASSIFICATION

A CAD system can be a simple 2D drawing system or a parametric associative hybrid modelling system. The
up-to-date method is this last concept, where
 the parametric means the dimension driven modelling,
 the associative means the live connection between the geometric elements,
 the hybrid means the parallel and synergic surface and solid modelling.

The CAD systems can be classified by several viewpoints.

 The first is the application field. The CAD systems are developed in every industrial areas, so we can
find systems in the field of mechanical engineering, electric engineering, architectural design, civil
engineering, cloth and shoe design, medical application.
 The type of the modelling can be 2D, when the representation of the part is similar to the engineering
drawing. The other method is the 3D modeling, when the model of the part is built in the virtual space.
 The applied modelling method can be wireframe modelling, when only the edges of the part are
defined. In case of surface modelling the CAD model is hollow, only the boundary ‗skin‘ is defined.
The solid modelling ensures realistic representation; the model consists of simple elementary elements.
 In case of parametric model, the size of the model is driven by the geometric parameters. The size of a
non-parametric model is defined by user‘s modelling activity and the dimensioning value is driven by
the modelled object.

3.1.2 CAD – USES, BENEFITS, IMPLEMENTATION, APPLICATIONS

The CAD systems were developed for these special application areas.
The typical application fields are:
 Mechanical (Mechatronics, Aeronautics etc) engineering
 Electronic design
 Architectural design
 Civil engineering
 Textile industry
 Medical

Reasons for Implementing CAD

The reasons for implementing CAD in a design office are:
(i) To increase the productivity of the designer. CAD helps the designer to visualize quickly the product
and its component subassemblies and parts. This reduces the time required to synthesize, analyze and
document the design. This also reduces the design costs and product development times.
(ii) To improve the quality of design. The engineering analysis of the design problem can be carried out
thoroughly on a CAD system. All design alternatives can be investigated quickly. Design errors are
reduced by the in-built accuracy of calculations and checks available in the system. This leads to
improvement in the quality and accuracy of design.
(iii) To improve documentation. The use of CAD system provides better engineering drawings, more
standardization in the drawings, better documentation of the design, fewer drawing errors and greater
legibility for the drawing.

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(iv) To create a database for manufacturing. In the process of creating the database for the product design,
such as geometry and dimension of components, bill of materials etc, much of the required database to
manufacture is also created which can be accessed for Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)
applications like CNC programming, robots, process planning, etc.

Benefits of CAD to Design Engineer

The benefits which a CAD system offers to the design engineer are:
(i) Productivity improvement in design. CAD helps in increased design productivity by reducing the time
for developing conceptual design, analysis and drafting. The improvement in design productivity
depends on: complexity of the drawing, degree of repetitiveness of features in the designed parts,
degree of symmetry in the parts, and extensive use of library of user defined shapes and commonly
used entities.
(ii) Shorter lead time. CAD system enables the designer to prepare a finished set of drawing and
documentation in a relativity short time. Shorter lead times in design result in reduction of the elapsed
time between customer order and delivery of finished products.
(iii) Flexibility in design. CAD offers the advantage of easy modification of design to accommodate
customer‘s specific requirements.
(iv) Improved design analysis. CAD system helps to optimize the design. The use of analysis software (like
Finite Element Method (FEM) and kinematic analysis) reduces the time and improves design accuracy
and reduces the material used. Calculation of mass properties can be made quickly.
(v) Fewer design errors. Interactive CAD systems have built-in capability for avoiding errors in design,
drafting and documentation.
(vi) Standardization of design, drafting and documentation procedures. The single database and operating
system used in CAD provide a common basis for design, analysis and drafting process. With
interactive CAD drawings are standardized as they are drawn. It is also possible to reuse previous
modules in developing a range of products.
(vii) Easier creation and correction of engineering drawings. With the help of solid modeling, it is easier to
comprehend the features of the component readily. Many software packages, like Auto CAD, allow 3D
view generation from a 2D model. Drawings can also be corrected and modified quickly as they are
easily available on the CAD system.
(viii) Easier visualization of drawings. Drawings can be visualized easily on the CAD system in different
views. This enables the designer to present the details of the object to the customer in the desired
fashion.

The benefits of CAD in manufacturing are:

(i) Tool and fixture design.
(ii) Computer-aided process planning (CAPP).
(iii) Preparation of assembly lists and bill of materials.
(iv) Computer-aided inspection.
(v) Coding and classification of components.
(vi) Production planning and control.
(vii) Preparation of programs for Numerical Control (NC) and CNC machines.
(viii) Assembly sequence planning.

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3.2 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING (CAM)
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) may be defined as the use of computer system to plan, manage and
control the operations of a manufacturing plant through either direct or indirect computer interface with the
plant‘s production resources.
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) is a natural extension of the technology of Computer Aided Design
(CAD). CAM is the use of computers and computer technology to assist in all phases of manufacturing a
product, including process and production planning, machining, scheduling, management, and quality control
Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) has attracted so many definitions, some of them are reviewed below
thus:
- As the use of computer systems to plan, manage and control the operations of manufacturing plant through
either direct of indirect computer interface with the plant‘s production resources.
- As a plan for utilizing numerically controlled machines such as mills, lathes, drills, punches, and other
programmable production equipment controlled by computers. Computers are also used in a CAM facility to
control production scheduling and quality control, as well as the business functions of manufacturing such as
purchasing, financial planning and marketing.
- CAM is the effective use of computer technology in the planning, management, and control of
manufacturing function. The planning, management and control of the manufacturing systems involved in
CAM are linked together at the shop floor.
- CAM includes the use of a digital computer to enhance the shop floor manufacturing process, including
monitoring and control of machining equipment shop floor information systems with automatic data gathering
- CAM is the use of computers and computer technology to assist in all phases of manufacturing a product,
including process and production planning, machining, scheduling, management, and quality control

3.2.1 The Application of CAM

The ultimate application of CAM occurs when the various operations and routings needed to allow production
of the product are automatically from the CAD data, a process commonly referred to as Computer Aided
Process Planning (CAPP). The application of CAM can be divided into two broad categories:
 Manufacturing Planning (Monitoring)
In manufacturing planning or monitoring, the computer is used indirectly to support the production function,
but there is no direct connection of interface between the computer and the manufacturing process. The
computer is used ―off-line‖ to provide information for effective production activities.
The application of CAM in this category includes;
(i) Cost Estimating;
(ii) Computer –Aided Process Planning (CAPP)
(iii) Computerized Machinability Data Systems;
(iv) Computer-Assisted NC Part programming;
(v) Development of Work Standards;
(vi) Computer-Aided Line Balancing; and
(vii) Production and Inventory Planning.

 Manufacturing Control
This is the second application of CAM and it is concerned with developing computer system for implementing
the manufacturing control functions. Manufacturing control is concerned with managing and controlling the

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physical operations in the factory. Process control, quality control, shop floor control, and process monitoring
are all included within the scope of this function.
Computer process control includes;
- Transfer line;
- Assembly system;
- Numerical control;
- Robotics;
- Material handling; and
- Flexible manufacturing system.

3.2.2 Advantages of using CAM

• Greater design freedom:
Any changes that are required in design can be incorporated at any design stage without worrying about any
delays, since there would hardly be any in an integrated CAM environment.
• Increased productivity:
In view of the fact that the total manufacturing activity is completely organized through the computer, it would
be possible to increase the productivity of the plant.
• Greater operating flexibility:
CAM enhances the flexibility in manufacturing methods and changing of product lines.
• Shorter lead-time:
Lead times in manufacturing would be greatly reduced.
• Improved reliability:
In view of the better manufacturing methods and controls at the manufacturing stage, the products thus
manufactured as well as of the manufacturing system would be highly reliable.
• Reduced maintenance:
Since most of the components of a CAM system would include integrated diagnostics and monitoring
facilities, they would require less maintenance compared to the conventional manufacturing methods.
• Reduced scrap and rework:
Because of the CNC machines used in production, and the part programs being made by the stored geometry
from the design stage, the scrap level would be reduced to the minimum possible and almost no rework would
be necessary.
• Better management control:
As shown above, since all the information and controlling functions are attempted with the help of the
computer, a better management control on the manufacturing activity is possible.

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Table 1: Selected CAD/CAM Software
Application Area Software Integrated System
PTC Creo, Pro/Engineer,
CAD – 2D drafting AutoCAD, MicroCADM, VersaCAD
Unigraphics, CATIA
PTC Creo, Pro/Engineer, Solid Edges,
CAD – Solid Modeling I-DEAS I/MES EUCLID-IS
SolidWorks, SolidDesigner, mechanical Desktop
CNC Simulator, Pro/Manufacturing, BravoNCG,
CAM VERICUT, DUCT, Camand, Mastercam,
Powermill
MSC/NASTRAN,ANSYS, PATRAN, DADS, C-
CAE MOLDS, MOLDFLOW, MOLDEX,
designWorks, Pro/Mold

3.3 CAD/CAM
CAD/CAM – which combines computer aided design with computer aided manufacturing – is a tool which is
gradually becoming indispensable in modern design and manufacturing activities. This can be classified under
the following two categories

Product Engineering Manufacturing Engineering

• Product functions • Process planning
• Product Specifications • Process sheets
• Conceptual design • Route sheets
• Ergonomics and Aesthetics • Tooling
• Standards • Cutting tools
• Detailed Design • Jigs and Fixtures
• Prototype development • Dies and Moulds
• Testing • Manufacturing Information Generation
• Simulation • CNC Part programmes
• Analysis • Robot Programmes
• Strength • Inspection (CMM) programmes
• Kinematics, Dynamics • Production Organisation
• Heat, Flow • Bill of Materials
• Design for Manufacture • Material Requirement Planning
• Design for Assembly • Production Planning
• Drafting • Shop Floor Control
• Plant Simulation
• Marketing and Distribution
• Packaging
• Distribution, Marketing

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 3.3.1 CAD/CAM INTERFACE
CAD/CAM must be interfaced in order to achieve technology-based improvement in manufacturing and
continually improved productivity quality.

Some CAD/CAM activities sharing a common database are:

(i) Draughting
(ii) Finite Element Analysis
(iii) Modeling
(iv) Machine tool programming
(v) Robotics
(vi) Production planning, and
(vii) Flexible manufacturing system.

3.3.2 IMPACTS OF CAD/CAM ON INDUSTRIES

Some of the impacts of CAD/CAM on industries include:
(i) Increased productivity due to less time consumed on mathematical calculations, data storage and
retrieval.
(ii) Better quality as the designer can examine a wide range of design alternatives and analyze each more
thoroughly before selecting one.
(iii) Better communication as design documents such as drawings, parts, bills of material, and
specifications are tools to communicate the design to those who will manufacture it.
(iv) Common database is one of the most important benefits of CAD/CAM
(v) Reduced prototype construction costs as 3-D computer models can reduce or eliminate the need for
building expensive prototypes.
(vi) Faster response to customers by shortening the overall design cycle and improving communication
between the design and manufacturing.

4.0 INTRODUCTION TO PRO E / CREO PARAMETRIC

Creo Parametric (previously known as Pro Engineer and Wildfire – Pro/E) is one of the most sophisticated and
advanced solid modelling programmes available in the market. It is the registered trade mark property of PTC
Inc. (Parametric Technology Inc.) in the United States and other countries. Creo Parametric contains powerful
suite of programmes that are used in the design, analysis and manufacturing of virtual unlimited range of
products. Creo Parametric is one of other software packages of PTC Inc, like Creo Simulate, Creo Direct,
Creo Layout, Creo Schematics, etc. Creo Parametric is used to carryout 3D Modelling of Part and Assembly,
and production of engineering drawings. Optional modules are available to handle more designs and
application task like, sheet metal operation, mould, wiring harness and piping design, NC machining, expert
machining, etc. Structural analysis (static, deformation, buckling, fatigue and vibration), Thermal and
Dynamic motion analysis of mechanism can also be carried out because they are integrated unto the Creo
Parametric module application. Creo Parametric uses the context sensitive menu method/approach, this
implies that more options windows and selection menus will only be available when they are applicable to the
current task.
When designing with Creo Parametric, the final 3D model of Part that is created forms the basis for all
engineering, assembly and design functions. The design of Parts and Assemblies, and the creation of related
drawings, forms the foundation of engineering graphics. Creo is a parametric, feature based solid modelling
software programme. Parametric definition implies that you can relate the attributes of one feature to the other
13
using numeric formula. The physical shape of the part is driven by the values which are assigned to the
primary dimensions of its features. Modifying a feature dimensions or other attributes at any time, will
instigate changes through the model.
By Feature based, this implies that 3D model and assembly are created by defining high level and
meaningful features like holes, slots, sweeps, extrusions, etc. As features are modified, the entire object
automatically updates after regeneration. The idea behind feature-based modelling is that the designer
constructs an object so that it is composed of individual features that describe the way the geometry is
supposed to behave if its dimensions change. Feature can either create or remove material from the model. By
solid modelling, it means that the 3D model created contains all the information that a real 3D solid object
would contain. The created part has volume; which implies that the mass and inertial of the part is known once
a value is provided for the density of the material. Features are the basic foundation blocks use to create an
object. Features can be categorized into base features, sketched features, datum features and referenced
features.
 Base Feature
A set of datum planes makes up the base features which references the default coordinate system on Creo
Parametric GUI environment. The base feature is important in Creo parametric modeling because all future
model geometry will reference this feature indirectly or directly and any changes to the base feature will affect
the geometry of the entire part.
 Sketched Feature
Sketched features are created by revolving, extruding, sweeping or blending a sketched cross section. Material
can either be created or removed by protruding or cutting the feature from the existing model.
 Datum Feature
They do not have mass or volume and can be hidden without affecting solid geometry. They are mostly used
to provide sketching planes. Example of datum features are axes, lines, curves and points. There are three
primary types of datum Features: (a) datum planes, (b) datum axes and (c) datum points (there are also datum
curves and datum coordinate Systems).
 Referenced Feature
They do not need to be sketched because a reference feature example rounds, shell, holes, uses the exiting
geometry for positioning also uses an inherent form. In Pro/E (or Creo), parts and assemblies can be created
with much ease by defining the features like extrusions, cuts, holes, slots, etc as against conventional lines,
arcs and circles. The efficiency of the Pro/E has kept it as one of the leading design software in such countries
as United States, China, India and Malaysia.
The feature-based parametric modeling technique enables the designer to incorporate the original
design intent into the construction of the model. The word parametric means the geometric definitions of the
design, such as dimensions, can be varied at any time in the design process. Parametric modeling is
accomplished by identifying and creating the key features of the design with the aid of computer software. The
design variables, described in the sketches and features, can be used to quickly modify/update the design. In
Pro/ENGINEER, the parametric part modeling process involves the following steps:
1. Set up Units and Basic Datum Geometry.
2. Determine the type of the base feature, the first solid feature, of the design.
Note that Extrude, Revolve, or Sweep operations are the most common types of base features.
3. Create a rough two-dimensional sketch of the basic shape of the base feature of the design.
4. Apply/modify constraints and dimensions to the two-dimensional sketch.
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5. Transform the two-dimensional parametric sketch into a 3D feature.
6. Add additional parametric features by identifying feature relations and complete the design.
7. Perform analyses/simulations, such as finite element analysis (FEA) or cutter path generation (CNC), on the
computer model and refine the design as needed.
8. Document the design by creating the desired 2D drawings.
The approach of creating three-dimensional features using two-dimensional sketches is an effective
way to construct solid models. Many designs are in fact the same shape in one direction. Computer input and
output devices we use today are largely two-dimensional in nature, which makes this modeling technique quite
practical. This method also conforms to the design process that helps the designer with conceptual design
along with the capability to capture the design intent. Most engineers and designers can relate to the
experience of making rough sketches on restaurant napkins to convey conceptual design ideas. Note that
Pro/ENGINEER provides many powerful modeling and design tools, and there are many different approaches
to accomplish modeling tasks. The basic principle of feature-based modeling is to build models by adding
simple features one at a time. In this chapter, a very simple solid model with extruded features is used to
introduce the general feature-based parametric modeling procedure.
The Pro/E software is used in design, analysis and manufacturing of a wide range of products; from
machine parts to household appliances, from large industrial concerns to small scale industries, from
Corporate industries to one man businesses etc. Though its application is mainly in mechanical design, there is
also a vast array of tools that could be applicable to other engineering fields. Pro/E provides for the created
model to appear exactly as it would be in real life. It allows for redefining/modifying features of a part(s) after
it/they have been drawn. It also has provisions for automatically changing the corresponding dimensions of a
part in an assembly once the individual modifications have been made.
Another distinct provision on the Pro/E is the simulation features that can allow you create a part,
assign a load to it and even choose/assign a material (from the materials library in built) and go ahead to
simulate and confirm the possibility of a component surviving the intended loading conditions by displaying
the effects of such loads on the parts. This gives the designer the fore knowledge of failure points (analysis of
stress, deformation and buckling conditions) that could exist in that particular part. It could also guide the
designer in deciding on the possible change of the Material or either the design concept or modify the design
to overcome the failure conditions.
It saves the time of the designer and the client while reducing the cost of production and improving service
delivery considerably. The process of conceptualization to the market use to take years of designing and
redesigning. Similarly, Prototype development use to take months or even years for simple items, Pro/E closes
these gaps with relative ease.

4.1 Pro/ENGINEER Concepts

Becoming a Pro/ENGINEER user means learning to think in terms of how the components of a design
interact, and to think ahead to how those interactions may change. At the simplest level, these components
may be the discrete geometric shapes, called features, that comprise a solid part: extrusions, holes, or
chamfers, for example. At a higher level they may be the individual parts of your assembly, joined together in
an interdependent way. At all levels, this component interaction toward a common purpose is called the design
intent. There is the need to know how the principle of design intent is passed through all phases of the design,
from conception to final documentation.

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4.2 Parametric Associativity and the Design Intent
Suppose you want an extrusion centred on a rectangular surface. You could place the extrusion by measuring
half the sides of the rectangle and using dimensions to locate its x-y position. However, your design intent is
to have the extrusion centred, even if the length or width of the surface changes. Pro/ENGINEER gives you
the tools to create models based on this kind of information.
In this instance, you could constrain the extrusion so it is centred between the four referenced edges. The x-
and y-coordinates of the extrusion will always equal half of the length and width of the rectangular surface.
Pro/ENGINEER calculates and updates the extrusion's position no matter what the dimensions of the rectangle
are. You can use these and other processes to define simple geometry, or you can use them with more complex
calculations like mass, volume, or centre of gravity. The establishment of parametric relationships between
design entities can save an enormous amount of time and effort when engineering changes are required. The
more associative information that you build into the model, the more you can quickly experiment with new
solutions in the design as they occur to you. You can also adapt existing designs to meet new requirements and
create new products from them, rather than starting a design from scratch for a product that is essentially
similar to an existing one.
Opportunities to create these relationships exist at every level of Pro/E, from the simplest part to the most
advanced assembly. Often they are built into the workflow. The biggest challenge is to start thinking
parametrically. You must constantly ask "How could this change, and what could change with it?", and then
learn to create parametric relationships that can make adjustments automatically when the changes occur.

4.3 End-to-End Associativity

Pro/ENGINEER not only lets you design individual parts quickly, it also records their assembly relationships
and produces finished mechanical drawings. You can easily access and edit dimensions and parametric
associations at any stage of the workflow. The dimensions that show on the plot are derived from the 3D
model dimensions and remain dynamically linked to the source 3D files. The link is bidirectional: if you edit
the 2D drawing, the 3D model dimensions change accordingly.

4.4 Pro/E Basic Design Modes

There are three basic Pro/ENGINEER design steps from conception to completion:
• Part creation
• Assembly creation
• Drawing creation
Each design step is treated as a separate Pro/ENGINEER mode, with its own characteristics, file extensions,
and relations with the other modes. Remember that all information–dimensions, tolerances, and relational
formulas–are passed from one mode to the next bidirectionally. This means that if you change your design at
any mode level, the change is automatically reflected at all mode levels. If you plan ahead and use the
associative features correctly, you can save significant time in the design and engineering process.
4.4.1 Part Mode: The Dashboard and Sketcher
In Part Mode, you create part files (.prt), the separate components that are joined together in an assembly file
(.asm). Part mode lets you create and edit the features–the extrusions, cuts, blends, and rounds–that comprise
each part being modeled.
Most features start with a two dimensional outline, or section. When the section is defined, you assign a third
dimension value to it in order to make it a 3D shape. You create the 2D section in a tool called Sketcher. As
16
the name implies, Sketcher lets you roughly draw the section with lines, angles, or arcs, and then input the
precise dimensional values later.
You use an interface called the dashboard to create and edit 3D feature geometry. The dashboard presents
feature-specific fields for input as you switch from feature to feature. Once a 3D feature is created, it can be
edited directly in the graphics window.
4.4.2 Assembly Mode
After you have created the parts, you create an empty assembly file for the model, then assemble the
individual parts within it, assigning the positions the parts will occupy in the final product. You can also
define exploded views to better examine or display part relationships. In addition, with model analysis tools,
you can measure an assembly's mass properties and volume to determine its overall weight, center of gravity,
and inertia.
4.4.3 Drawing Mode
Drawing mode lets you create finished, precise mechanical drawings of the design, based directly on the
dimensions recorded in the 3D part and assembly files. Any information objects—dimensions, notes, surface
notes, geometric tolerances, cross sections, and so on—that have been created for the 3D model can be passed
to the drawing mode. When these objects are passed from the 3D model, they remain associated, and may be
edited to affect the 3D model from within the drawing.
4.5 Multiple Windows and Files "In Session"
Although you may have more than one window open, you can work in only one window at a time. The
window in which you are working is called the active window. Pro/ENGINEER differentiates between a file
being ―open‖ in the sense of being visible in a window, and ―in session‖ where the file is in memory but may
or may not be visible in a window. Opening an assembly, for example, brings all of the associated part files
into session, because even though they are not open, the assembly references them continuously in memory.
You can use File > Erase > Not Displayed to list files in memory you want to close. However, if a file is being
referenced, by an open drawing or assembly file, for example, you will not be permitted to erase it from
memory until you erase the referencing file.

4.6 The Working Directory

The directory from which you start the program is set automatically as the default working directory. Files
created automatically, and files you save without directing them elsewhere, are stored in the working directory
by default.
You need to set the working directory (File > Set Working Directory) at the beginning of each session so that
all files are stored where you want them.

4.7 Creating Files

When you use File > New to start a new file, you are prompted to select a file type, and a subtype if one is
necessary.

4.8 Saving, Backing Up, and File Iterations

Use File > Save to save changes. Use Save a Copy to save the file to a different name. Whenever you use the
Save command, a new version of the file is created and a numerical file extension is appended to note the

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version, for example box.prt.1, box.prt.2, and so on. These iterations are created so you will always have a
previous version to return to in case something fails in the current file. When you use File > Open to open a
file, the file browser displays the latest versions without the iteration numbers. To show version numbers in
the Open dialog box, click Tools on the File Open dialog box menu bar. Select the All Versions check box
from the list. You can then open whichever iteration you want. If you don't want to store the iterations in your
working directory you can use File > Backup to specify an alternate directory for the iterations. The first
iteration in a backup directory starts at 1, regardless of the number of iterations in the working directory.
4.9 Deleting Files
Use File > Delete to remove files from the disk permanently. You can clear old versions only, leaving the
latest version intact, or you can clear all versions. Use File > Delete > Old Versions to clear the directory of all
but the most recent version.
4.10 Setting the System of Measure
All Pro/ENGINEER models have a basic system of units to ensure that all material properties of the model are
consistently measured and defined. You can change the default system of measure. Click File > Properties.
The Model Properties dialog box opens. Under Materials, click Change on the Units line to set, create, change,
review, or delete a system of units.
4.11 Adding or Editing Dimensions
When your sketched outline is finished, it will be dimensioned with default weak dimensions. As pointed out
before, these are the dimensions that Sketcher adds automatically when you draw. They are displayed as gray
lines. Because you are just sketching, they will not be the exact placements or values that you need. To enter
strong values for a single dimension in Sketcher, click the weak dimension value itself and type directly into
the text box. The dimension is then converted to a strong dimension, shown in normal line width, and the line
or angle is adjusted to the new value.
If Sketcher hasn't automatically given you a dimension or angle you want, you can use the Add Dimension
icon on the Sketcher toolbar to add one, and then enter a value for it.
4.12 Sketcher Geometric Constraints
Constraints work with dimensions to define a section. A constraint states that one line has a definite geometric
relationship to another. For example, if you wanted a line in your new section to be parallel to and equal in
length to an existing line, you could add those two constraints to the line in the section, rather than entering
new dimensions.

Figure 2: Various Constraint Symbols

4.13 Going from Section to 3D

When a section gains depth, or a z-dimension, it becomes a 3D geometric entity called an extrusion. The
extrusion may add or remove material. In other words it may be a solid, or it may be a cut. For an example of
a solid, imagine a 2D circle extruding outward to create a cylinder.

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An extrusion created as a cut removes material from any solid it passes through. For example, a bolt hole
through a plate may be a circular section placed on the surface of the plate as a cut, and extruded through the
plate. An extrusion must be defined as a solid or cut when created (otherwise it stays a 2D sketch), although
the sketch may be used for both a solid or a cut. Depth can be added directly to a section, or the section can be
revolved, where the depth of the cut or solid is added in degrees around an axis
4.14 Redefining Features
You will frequently redefine features as your model design evolves. Just select the feature in the graphics
window or in the Model Tree, then right-click and choose Edit Definition from the shortcut menu. Features
created in Sketcher mode do not necessarily need to be redefined in Sketcher mode. You can select a feature
and use commands in 3D mode to change the value of any dimension defined in Sketcher mode. This is called
―direct modeling‖ and is the recommended way to edit models as they progress.

4.15 APPLYING RELATIONS TO DIMENSIONS

If you are working on the geometries that need mathematical relations, then you can do so by using the
Relations tool from the Relation panel in the Tools tab of the Ribbon.
4.16 Pattern
It is easier to understand patterning if you think of it as repeating dimensions rather than repeating features,
although it is the feature that is repeated. In the setup process for patterning you are asked to identify
dimensions that indicate the direction in which you want to repeat the pattern and to specify how many
instances, including the original, that you want. Pattern can be radial or rectangular

4.17 ASSEMBLY
4.18.1 About Placing Components
When you place a component relative to its neighbors (components or assembly features), its position is
updated as its neighbors move or change, provided the assembly constraints are not violated. This is called
parametric assembly.
Components can be placed in a number of ways:
● Using placement definition sets
● Automatically
Component placement is based on placement definition sets. These sets determine how and where the
component relates to the assembly. The sets are either user-defined or predefined. A user-defined constraint
set has 0 or more constraints (a packaged component may have no constraints). Predefined constraint sets have
a predefined number of constraints. Placement of a component in an assembly is determined by the constraints
in all sets defined. A single set of constraints can define placement of a component. If constraints from one set
conflict with constraints from another set, the placement status becomes invalid. The constraints must be
redefined or removed until placement status becomes valid.
Constraints can be added or deleted at will in a user-defined constraint set, there are no predefined constraints.
Each type of predefined constraint set (also called a connection) has a predefined number of constraints.
Constraint sets are displayed in the Placement folder of the Model Tree. Display hierarchy follows the
order in which they were defined. Constraint icons are the same as those in the Component Placement

19
dashboard. If only one set is defined, only constraints appear. The Model Tree Placement filter must be
activated to view the Placement folder.

5.0 MACHINE TOOL CONTROL / CNC MACHINING

Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machines uses symbolically coded instructions to cause the machine to
perform a specific series of operations. Basically it is control of machine tools by numbers. The Numerical
Control (NC) technology has been applied to a wide variety of operations, including drafting, assembly,
inspection, sheet metal press working, spot welding and machining processes.
A Machining Centre, which will be used to demonstrate CNC Machining, consists of machine tools, usually
numerically controlled, capable of automatically drilling, reaming, tapping, milling, and boring multiple faces
of a part. They are often equipped with a system for automatically changing cutting tools. There are two types
of machining center: the horizontal spindle and the vertical spindle machine. The horizontal spindle types are
either of the traveling column type or fixed-column type. The first one is equipped with one or usually two
tables on which the work can be mounted and the work piece can be machined while the operator is loading a
new work piece on the other table. The second one is equipped with a pallet shuttle which is a removable table
on which the work piece is mounted. The vertical spindle-machining center is a saddle-type construction with
sliding bed ways.
In a ―CNC‖ (Computerized Numerical Control) machine, the tool is controlled by a computer and is
programmed with a machine code system that enables it to be operated with minimal supervision and with a
great deal of repeatability. The same principles used in operating a manual machine are used in programming
a CNC machine. The main difference is that instead of cranking handles to position a slide to a certain point,
the dimension is stored in the memory of the machine control once. The control will then move the machine to
these positions each time the program is run. In order to operate and program a CNC controlled machine, a
basic understanding of machining practices and a working knowledge of math is necessary. It is also important
to become familiar with the control console and the placement of the keys, switches, displays, etc., that are
pertinent to the operation of the machine.

5.1 APPLICATIONS OF VERTICAL MACHINING CENTRE

A typical Vertical Machining Centre is as shown in Figure 10

a) A typical VMC b) Simultaneous Movement of x- and y-axes (Circular Interpolation)

Figure 3: Vertical Machining Centre (VMC)

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Common application includes
• Milling
• Boring
• Drilling
• Reaming
• Turning
• Tapping
All these can be accomplished in a single set-up. It is suitable for machining operations of medium batch
planes, holes, complex shapes.
5.2 AREAS OF USE
• National defense.
• Small and large scale spare parts Production Company.
• Automobile industry.
• Machine tools industry.
• Higher institutions of learning.
5.3 ADVANTAGES
• Mass production.
• To achieve higher accuracy.
• Repeatability.
• Cost effective.
5.4 MAIN PARTS
• Main driving system, AC – servo motor, belts and spindle movement.
• Feed driving system – X,Y,Z movement is done be three DC servo motors.
• The main structure.
o The base.
o Guide ways of the base.
o The column.
o Spindle box.
o Working table.
• Automatic Tool Magazine (ATC).
• Cooling system.
• Lubrication system.
• Pneumatic system.
5.5 MAINTENANCE
• Frequent cleaning.
• Avoid placing object on the guide ways.
• Check for correct coolant, lubrication and Air.
• Monthly, yearly and general periodic maintenance to be emphasized as contained in the manual.

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5.6 OPERATION OF THE VERTICAL MACHINING CENTER (VMC) 750
The development of numerical control technology has brought about the concept of a ―machining centre‖ on
which a wide variety of machining tasks can be accomplished on the same machine tool. A machining centre
is the most capable and versatile CNC machine tool which can perform milling, drilling, boring, reaming and
tapping operations. The machines are designed for long hours of continuous operation and thus are of massive
construction to provide enough stiffness so that minimum deviation result from large cutting dynamic forces
and environmental changes.

5.7 PRECAUTIONS RELATING TO THE OPERATION OF THE VMC 750

Machining centres are manufactured with high precision and are generally expensive and sensitive. Caution
and care must therefore be exercised in the handling and operation of the VMC 750 in order to prevent
damage to the machine and/or injury to the user.
Before starting and/or operating the machine, the following precautions are considered as very
necessary:
i. Prepare yourself for the task of operating the machine by being in the best frame of mind. This is to
ensure maximum concentration while operating the machine.
ii. Read carefully the ―operation/operator manual(s)‖ supplied with the machine to be sure you have deep
knowledge of the operation of the machine.
iii. Pay attention to general warnings and caution as spelt out in the manuals before operating the machine.
iv. Do not operation the machine based on your knowledge of a similar machine as instruction might take-
on different interpretations for the two similar machines.
v. Do not operate the machine unless authorised.
vi. Where and when in doubt, ASK!
vii. Observe the general safety rules as spelt rules as spelt out in the workshop where the ‗VMC 750‘ is
installed.
5.8 PROCEDURE FOR STARTING THE MACHINE
i. Switch ‗ON‘ on the gear switch-box.
ii. Switch ‗ON‘ on the electrical panel to the machine.
iii. Press the ‗ON‘ button on the keyboard for monitor.
iv. Pass the machine reference.

5.9 KEYS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

There are several keys, such as alphanumeric, arrow keys etc arranged with the CNC unit and, also, keys such
as jog, reference, edit, insert etc. Keys are arranged on the operator‘s panel. The arrangement of the various
keys is as shown below:

22
Specific among these keys are:
i. Program number key (O): - specifies program number.
ii. Sequence number key (N): - specifies sequence of blocks in a program.
iii. Preparation function key: - specifies a motion mode (linear, arc e.t.c.).
iv. Dimension word key:-
X,Y,Z - coordinate axis move command
I,J,K - coordinate of the arc centre
R - arc radius
v. Feed function keys (F):- specifies rate of feed. (mm/min) or mm/rev).
vi. Spindle feed function key (S): - specifies spindle speed.
vii. Auxiliary function keys
M - on/off control on the machining centre
B - table indexing
5.9.1 FUNCTIONS OF THE KEYS
All the keys mentioned above have the following combined functions:
i. To input data into the machine
ii. To control the machine (spindle rotation, table movement, e.t.c).
iii. To control external devices attached to the machine (e.g. coolant pumps).

5.9.2 RUNNING OF PROGRAM

After a program is entered into the monitor (CNC), it is advisable that a test-run of the program be carried out
before actual cutting operation is commenced. This is referred to as ―dry-run‖.
Dry-running of program is to check the correctness of the program with respect to movement of the axes.
This assists to eliminate jamming of work and/or damage to the machine.
Program can be ―dry-run‖ either by
i. Single block running – a line is executed one after the other.
ii. Cycle run – the whole program consisting of several blocks run as one.
A block in a program is as shown below
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5.10 REFERENCING OF THE VMC 750
When the CNC is off, the CNC no longer keeps track of the real position of the axes. This is why
―referencing‖ (also referred to as ―home-search‖) should be carried out on power-up.
When referencing, the axes (X,Y,Z) move to the home point set by the machine manufacturer and the
CNC assumes the value of the coordinates set by the manufacturer for that point.
Machine referencing for VMC 750 is done in the positive (+) direction.
The referencing can be done by either of the following two (2) ways:
i. Axis – by – axis :- one axis is referenced after the other and in the following order (X,Y,Z). [Press key,
X, +]
ii. All the three (3) axes (X,Y,Z) can be referenced simultaneously. [Press key XYZ+].

6.0 CNC PROGRAMMING

There are basically five elements to a CNC machine that you need to know in order to be able to
program effectively:
i. Design: - Thinking and planning what you want to produce.
ii. CAD: - Translating it into the computer.
iii. CAM: - Converting it into machine language.
iv. Controlling: - directing your machine‘s motion.
v. Machining: - building the parts into specification.
These five elements are really the building block to a CNC machine. As you see them above, that is
generally the order people associate them in. For example, you can‘t control until you have a design. You
can‘t use your CAM software before your CAD software. One of the main things you need to address is how
these elements interact with each other. The more you use these elements with one another, the more their
order will become second nature.
The process flow chart is as shown in Figure 11

CNC Process

Design CAD CAM Control Machine

Figure 4: CNC Process simple flow-chart

6.1 GENERAL FLOW OF OPERATION OF CNCMACHINE TOOL

When machining a part using the CNC machine tool, first prepare the program, then operate the CNC machine
by using the program.
1) First, prepare the program from a part drawing to operate the CNC machine tool.
2) The program is to be read into the CNC system. Then, mount the workpieces and tools on the machine, and
operate the tools according to the programming. Finally, execute the machining actually.
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Before the actual programming, make the machining plan for how to machine the part.
Machining plan
1. Determination of workpieces machining range
2. Method of mounting workpieces on the machine tool
3. Machining sequence in every machining process
4. Machining tools and machining
Decide the machining method in every machining process.

Prepare the program of the tool path and machining condition according to the workpiece figure, for each
machining.
6.2 Programming
Tool Movement along Workpiece Parts Figure – Interpolation
The function of moving the tool along straight lines and arcs is called the interpolation.

Figure 6: Tool movement along a straight line Figure 5: Tool movement along an arc
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Symbols of the programmed commands G01, G02, ... are called the preparatory function and specify the type
of interpolation conducted in the control unit.

Figure 7: Interpolation function Figure 8: Feed function

6.2.1 FEED–FEED FUNCTION

Movement of the tool at a specified speed for cutting a workpiece is called the feed. Feed rates can be
specified by using actual numeric. For example, to feed the tool at a rate of 150 mm/min, specify the following
in the program: F150.0

6.2.3 How to Indicate Command Dimensions for Moving the Tool – Absolute, Incremental Commands
Command for moving the tool can be indicated by absolute command or incremental command. Absolute
command moves the tool to a point at ―the distance from zero point of the coordinate system‖ that is to the
position of the coordinate values while incremental command specifies the distance from the previous tool
position to the next tool position.

Figure 10: Absolute command Figure 9: Incremental command

6.2.4 CUTTING SPEED – SPINDLE SPEED FUNCTION

The speed of the tool with respect to the workpiece when the workpiece is cut is called the cutting speed. As
for the CNC, the cutting speed can be specified by the spindle speed in rpm unit.
As an example, consider a workpiece which is to be machined with a tool 100 mm in diameter at a cutting
speed of 80 m/min. The spindle speed is approximately 250 rpm, which is obtained from N=1000v/D. Hence
the following command is required: S250;

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 Figure 11: Cutting Speed

6.2.5 Selection of Tool Used For Various Machining – Tool Function

When drilling, tapping, boring, milling or the like, is performed, it is necessary to select a suitable tool. When
a number is assigned to each tool and the number is specified in the program, the corresponding tool is
selected.
For example, When No.01 is assigned to a drilling tool, and the tool is stored at location 01 in the ATC
magazine, the tool can be selected by specifying T01. This is called the tool function.

Figure 12: Tool Magazine

6.2.6 Auxiliary Functions (Miscellaneous) M Codes

The function of specifying the on–off operations of the components of the machine is called the miscellaneous
function. When machining is actually started, it is necessary to rotate the spindle, and feed coolant. For this
purpose, on–off operations of spindle motor and coolant valve should be controlled.
When a move command and miscellaneous function are specified in the same block, the commands are
executed in one of the following two ways:
i) Simultaneous execution of the move command and miscellaneous function commands.
ii) Executing miscellaneous function commands upon completion of move command execution.
Up to 500 M codes can be specified. In general, M0 to M99 are always specified. M codes from M100 and up
are optional.

• M00 Programmed stop (unconditional)

• M01 Programmed stop (conditional) it is effective when the optional stop
switch on the operators panel has been pressed.
• M02 End of main program(control not returned to the program start).
• M03 spindle ON, clockwise.
• M04 spindle ON, counter clockwise.
• M05 spindle OFF.
• M06 tool change (with macro).
• M08 coolant ON.
• M09 coolant OFF.
• M10 spindle tool clamp.
• M11 spindle tool unclamp.
27
• M19 spindle orientation.
• M98 sub-program call.
• M99 end of sub-program.
• M198 sub-program call from external source. e.t.c
6.2.7 Program Configuration
A group of commands given to the CNC for operating the machine is called the program. By specifying the
commands, the tool is moved along a straight line or an arc, or the spindle motor is turned on and off. In the
program, specify the commands in the sequence of actual tool movements.
A group of commands at each step of the sequence is called the block. The program consists of a group of
blocks for a series of machining. The number for discriminating each block is called the sequence number, and
the number for discriminating each program is called the program number.

Figure 13: Block Configuration

Figure 14: Program configuration

Figure 15: Program Configuration

A block starts with a sequence number to identify the block and ends with an end–of–block code. Normally, a
program number is specified after the end–of–block (;) code at the beginning of the program, and a program
end code (M02 or M30) is specified at the end of the program.

6.2.8 Preparatory Function (G Function)

A number following address G determines the meaning of the command for the concerned block. G codes are
divided into the following two types.

28
29
6.2.9 Interpolation Functions
 POSITIONING (G00)
The G00 command moves a tool to the position in the workpiece system specified with an absolute or an
incremental command at a rapid traverse rate. In the absolute command, coordinate value of the end point is
programmed. In the incremental command the distance the tool moves is programmed.

Figure 16: Interpolation Functions

 LINEAR INTERPOLATION (G01)

As tools move along a line to the specified position at the federate specified in F. The feedrate specified in F is
effective until a new value is specified. It need not be specified for each block. The feedrate commanded by
the F code is measured along the tool path. If the F code is not commanded, the feedrate is regarded as zero.
The feedrate of each axis direction is as follows.

Figure 17: Linear interpolation

30
CIRCULAR INTERPOLATION (G02, G03)

Figure 18: Circular Interpolation Format

Figure 19: Description of the Command Format

31
  Direction of the Circular Interpolation
―Clockwise‖(G02) and ―counterclockwise‖(G03) on the XpYp plane (ZpXp plane or YpZp plane) are defined
when the XpYp plane is viewed in the positive–to–negative direction of the Zp axis (Yp axis or Xp axis,
respectively) in the Cartesian coordinate system. See the figure below.

Figure 20: Circular Interpolation Direction

The end point of an arc is specified by address Xp, Yp or Zp, and is expressed as an absolute or incremental
value according to G90 or G91. For the incremental value, the distance of the end point which is viewed from
the start point of the arc is specified.
The arc center is specified by addresses I, J, and K for the Xp, Yp, and Zp axes, respectively. The numerical
value following I, J, or K, however, is a vector component in which the arc center is seen from the start point,
and is always specified as an incremental value irrespective of G90 and G91, as shown below. I, J, and K must
be signed according to the direction.

Figure 21: Specification of Vector Quantities i, j and k

I0, J0, and K0 can be omitted. When Xp, Yp, and Zp are omitted (the end point is the same as the start point)
a
the difference between the radius at the start point and that at the end point exceeds the permitted value in a
parameter (No.3410), an P/S alarm (No.020) occurs.

 ARC RADIUS
The distance between an arc and the center of a circle that contains the arc can be specified using the radius, R,
of the circle instead of I, J, and K. In this case, one arc is less than 180°, and the other is more than 180° are
considered. When an arc exceeding 180° is commanded, the radius must be specified with a negative value. If
Xp, Yp, and Zp are all omitted, if the end point is located at the same position as the start point and when R is
used, an arc of 0° is programmed G02R ; (The cutter does not move.)

32
 Figure 22: Circular Interpolation with Radius

If I, J, K, and R addresses are specified simultaneously, the arc specified by address R takes precedence and
the other are ignored.
Example

33
7.0 CNC LATHE PROGRAMMING

7.1 Programming Fundamentals: Coordinates definition

Sketch map of CNC turning machine is as follows:

CNC Lathe generally uses a rectangular coordinate system composed of X, Z axis. X axis is perpendicular
with axes of spindle and Z axis is parallel with axes of spindle; negative directions of them approach to the
workpiece and positive ones are away from it. There is a front tool post and a rear tool post of NC turning
machine according to their relative position between the tool post and the spindle, Fig. 29a is a coordinate
system of the front tool post and Fig. 29b is a rear tool post one. It shows exactly the opposite of X axes, but
the same of Z axes from figures.

Figure 29: (a) Front tool post coordinate system; (b) Rear tool post coordinate system

7.2 Turning on, reference point approach

7.2.1 Operating sequence

1. Switch on the power supply for the control system and the machine.
2. Release all emergency stop buttons on the machine.
By default, the control system is in the "REF POINT" window after booting.

34
 3. Press the corresponding axis traversing keys on the MCP (Machine Control Panel) to traverse each axis to
the reference point. If the axis is referenced, a symbol ( ) appears next to the axis identifier and is visible
only in the "REF POINT" window.

7.3 Coordinate systems

As a rule, a coordinate system is formed from three mutually perpendicular coordinate axes. The positive
directions of the coordinate axes are defined using the so-called "3-finger rule" of the right hand. The
coordinate system is related to the workpiece and programming takes place independently of whether the tool
or the workpiece is being traversed. When programming, it is always assumed that the tool traverses relative
to the coordinate system of the workpiece, which is intended to be stationary. The figure below illustrates how
to determine the axis directions.

Figure 30: Machine coordinate system (MCS)

The orientation of the coordinate system relative to the machine depends on the machine type. It can be
rotated in different positions.
The directions of the axes follow the "3-finger rule" of the right hand. Seen from the front of the machine, the
middle finger of the right hand points in the opposite direction to the infeed of the spindle.
The figure below shows an example of the machine coordinate system of a turning machine.

35
 Figure 31: Turning Machine showing Machine Coordinate System

The origin of this coordinate system is the machine zero.

This point is only a reference point which is defined by the machine manufacturer. It does not have to be
approachable. The traversing range of the machine axes can be in the negative range.

7.4 Workpiece coordinate system (WCS)

To describe the geometry of a workpiece in the workpiece program, a right-handed, right-angled coordinate
system is also used.
The workpiece zero can be freely selected by the programmer in the Z axis. In the X axis, it lies in the turning
center.
The figure below shows an example of the workpiece coordinate system.

Figure 32: Workpiece Zero

7.5 Relative coordinate system (REL)

In addition to the machine and workpiece coordinate systems, the control system provides a relative
coordinate system. This coordinate system is used to set reference points that can be freely selected and have
no influence on the active workpiece coordinate system. All axis movements are displayed relative to these
reference points.

7.6 Clamping the workpiece

For machining, the workpiece is clamped on the machine. The workpiece must be aligned such that the axes of
the workpiece coordinate system run in parallel with those of the machine. Any resulting offset of the machine
zero with reference to the workpiece zero is determined along the Z axis and entered in a data area intended

36
for the settable work offset. In the NC program, this offset is activated during program execution, for
example, using a programmed G54 command.
The figure below shows an example of the workpiece clamped on the machine.

Figure 33: Workpiece Clamping

7.7 Absolute / incremental dimensioning: G90, G91, AC, IC

 Programming

7.7.1 Absolute dimensioning G90

With absolute dimensioning, the dimensioning data refers to the zero of the coordinate system currently active
(workpiece or current workpiece coordinate system or machine coordinate system). This is dependent on
which offsets are currently active: programmable, settable, or no offsets.
Upon program start, G90 is active for all axes and remains active until it is deselected in a subsequent block
by G91 (incremental dimensioning data) (modally active).

7.7.2 Incremental dimensioning G91

With incremental dimensioning, the numerical value of the path information corresponds to the axis path to be
traversed. The leading sign indicates the traversing direction.
G91 applies to all axes and can be deselected in a subsequent block by G90 (absolute dimensioning).
Specification with =AC(...), =IC(...)
37
After the end point coordinate, write an equality sign. The value must be put in round brackets.
Absolute dimensioning is also possible for center points using =AC(...). Otherwise, the reference point for the
circle center is the circle starting point.

7.7.3 Programming example

7.7.4 Dimensions in metric units and inches: G71, G70, G710, G700
 Functionality

If workpiece dimensions that deviate from the base system settings of the control are present (inch or mm), the
dimensions can be entered directly in the program. The required conversion into the base system is performed
by the control system.

 Programming

7.7.5 Programming example

7.7.6 Information
Depending on the default setting you have chosen, the control system interprets all geometric values as either
metric or inch dimensions. Tool offsets and settable work offsets including their displays are also to be
understood as geometrical values; this also applies to the feed F in mm/min or inch/min.
The default setting can be set in machine data.
All examples provided in this manual assume the metric default setting.
G70 or G71 evaluates all geometrical data that directly refer to the workpiece, either as inches or metric units,
for example:
● Positional data X, Z, ... for G0,G1,G2,G3,G33, CIP, CT
● Interpolation parameters I, K (also thread lead)
● Circle radius CR

38
All remaining geometric parameters that are not direct workpiece parameters, such as feedrates, tool offsets,
and settable work offsets, are not affected by G70/G71.
G700/G710, however, also affects the feedrate F (inch/min, inch/rev. or mm/min, mm/rev.).

7.8 Radius / diameter dimensions: DIAMOF, DIAMON, DIAM90

7.8.1 Functionality
For machining parts, the positional data for the X–axis (transverse axis) is programmed as diameter
dimensioning. When necessary, it is possible to switch to radius dimensioning in the program.
DIAMOF or DIAMON assesses the end point specification for the X axis as radius or diameter dimensioning.
The actual value appears in the display accordingly for the workpiece coordinate system.
For DIAM90, irrespective of the traversing method (G90/G91), the actual value of the transverse axis is
always displayed as a diameter.

7.8.2 Programming

7.8.3 Programming Example

39
7.9 Workpiece clamping - settable work offset: G54 to G59, G500, G53, G153

7.9.1 Functionality
The adjustable work offset specifies the position of the workpiece zero on the machine (offset of the
workpiece zero with respect to the machine zero point). This offset is determined upon clamping of the
workpiece into the machine and must be entered in the corresponding data field by the operator. The value is
activated by the program by selection from six possible groupings: G54 to G59.

7.9.2 Programming

7.9.3 Programming example

40
7.10 Axis movements
7.10.1 Linear interpolation with rapid traverse: G0

 Functionality
The rapid traverse movement G0 is used for fast positioning of the tool, however, not for direct workpiece
machining.
All axes can be traversed simultaneously - on a straight path.
For each axis, the maximum speed (rapid traverse) is defined in machine data. If only one axis traverses, it
uses its rapid traverse. If two axes are traversed simultaneously, the path velocity (resulting velocity) is
selected to achieve the maximum possible path velocity in consideration of both axes.
Any programmed feedrates (F word) are not relevant for G0. G0 remains active until canceled by another
instruction from this G group (G0, G1, G2, G3,...).
See the following illustration for linear interpolation with rapid traverse from point P1to P2:

 Programming example

N10 G0 X100 Z65

7.10.2 Feedrate F
 Functionality

The feed F is the path velocity and represents the value of the geometric sum of the velocity components of all
axes involved. The axis velocities are determined from the share of the axis path in the overall path.
The feedrate F is effective for the interpolation types G1, G2, G3, CIP, and CT and is retained until a new F
word is written.
 Programming

F...
Remark: For integer values, the decimal point is not required, e.g.: F300

 Unit of measure for F with G94, G95

The dimension unit for the F word is determined by G functions:

● G94 F as feedrate in mm/min
● G95 F as feedrate in mm/rev. (only relative to the spindle speed!)
Remark:
This unit of measure applies to metric dimensions. According to Section "Metric and inch dimensioning",
settings with inch dimensioning are also possible.

41
  Programming example

7.10.3 Linear interpolation with feedrate: G1

 Functionality

The tool moves from the starting point to the end point along a straight path. For the path velocity, is
determined by the programmed F word .
All the axes can be traversed simultaneously.
G1 remains active until canceled by another instruction from this G group (G0, G2, G3, ...).
See the following illustration for linear interpolation with G1:

 Programming example

7.10.4 Circular interpolation: G2, G3

7.10.4.1 Functionality
The tool moves from the starting point to the end point along a circular path. The direction is determined by
the G function:

42
7.10.4.2 Programming

Note
Further possibilities for circle programming result from:
CT - circle with tangential connection and
CIP - circle via intermediate point

43
7.10.4.3 Programming example: Definition of center point and end point

Note
Center point values refer to the circle starting point!

7.10.4.4 Programming example: End point and radius specification

44
7.10.4.5 Programming example: Definition of end point and aperture angle

7.10.4.6 Programming example: Definition of center point and aperture angle

Note
Center point values refer to the circle starting point!

7.10.5 Circular interpolation via intermediate point: CIP

7.10.5.1 Functionality
The direction of the circle results here from the position of the intermediate point (between starting and end
points). Specification of intermediate point: I1=... for the X axis, K1=... for the Z axis.
CIP remains active until canceled by another instruction from this G group (G0, G1, ...).
45
The configured dimensional data G90 or G91 applies to the end point and the intermediate point.
See the following illustration for circle with end point and intermediate point specification:

7.10.5.2 Programming example

7.11 Rounding, chamfer

7.11.1 Functionality
You can insert the chamfer (CHF or CHR) or rounding (RND) elements into a contour corner. If you wish to
round several contour corners sequentially by the same method, use "Modal rounding" (RNDM).
You can program the feedrate for the chamfer/rounding with FRC (non-modal) or FRCM (modal). If
FRC/FRCM is not programmed, the normal feedrate F is applied.

7.11.2 Programming
CHF=... ; Insert chamfer, value: Length of chamfer
CHR=... ; Insert chamfer, value: Side length of the chamfer
RND=... ; Insert rounding, value: Radius of chamfer
RNDM=... ; Modal rounding:
Value >0: Radius of chamfer, modal rounding ON
This rounding is inserted in all contour corners.
Value = 0: Modal rounding OFF...
FRC=... ; Non-modal feedrate for chamfer/rounding
Value >0, feedrate in mm/min (G94) or mm/rev. (G95)
FRCM=... ; Modal feedrate for chamfer/rounding:
Value >0: Feedrate in mm/min (G94) or mm/rev. (G95),
Modal feedrate for chamfer/rounding ON
Value = 0: Modal feedrate for chamfer/rounding OFF
Feedrate F applies to the chamfer/rounding.

46
7.11.3 Chamfer CHF or CHR
A linear contour element is inserted between linear and circle contours in any combination. The edge is
broken.
See the following illustration for inserting a chamfer with CHF using the example: between two straight lines.

See the following illustration for inserting a chamfer with CHR using the example: Between two straight lines.

7.11.4 Programming examples of chamfer

N10 G0 X100 Z100 G94 F100
N20 G1 X80 CHF=5 ; Insert chamfer with chamfer length of 5 mm
N30 X50 Z60
N40 X40 Z50
N50 G1 X30 CHR=7 ; Insert chamfer with leg length of 7 mm
N60 X10 Z20
N70 X0 Z0
N80 G1 FRC=200 X100 CHR=4 ; Insert chamfer with feedrate FRC
N90 X120 Z20
N100 M30

47
8.0 RAPID PROTOTYPING
Rapid prototyping is the name given to a host of related technologies that are used to fabricate physical objects
directly from Computer-Aided Design (CAD) data sources. These methods are generally similar to each other
in that they add and bond materials in layerwise-fashion to form objects [1]. This is directly the opposite of
what classical methods such as milling or turning do. Objects are formed in those processes by mechanically
removing material.
These "three dimensional printers" allow designers to quickly create tangible prototypes of their designs,
rather than just two-dimensional pictures. Such models have numerous uses. They make excellent visual aids
for communicating ideas with co-workers or customers. In addition, prototypes can be used for design testing.
Designers have always utilised prototypes; RP allows them to be made faster and less expensively. In addition
to prototypes, RP techniques can also be used to make tooling (referred to as rapid tooling) and even
production-quality parts (rapid manufacturing). For small production runs and complicated objects, rapid
prototyping is often the best manufacturing process available.
Rapid prototyping isn't necessarily very rapid and doesn't necessarily have to do with prototypes, either. Speed
is relative: The processes can shave weeks to months off a design cycle, but still may require many hours to
fabricate a single object. Prototypes for design evaluation are often made using these processes, but the
technology also is beginning to address the direct production of final useful parts and assemblies, and injection
moulding and other types of tools. Therefore "rapid" is a relative term. Most prototypes require from three to
seventy-two hours to build, depending on the size and complexity of the object. This may seem slow, but it is
much faster than the weeks or months required to make a prototype by traditional means such as machining.
These dramatic time savings allow manufacturers to bring products to market faster and more cheaply. In a
more concise form, the technology description can be summarized thus:
 Additive manufacturing is a process of making a three-dimensional solid object of virtually any shape
from a digital computer model.
 Taking a part definition and adding material through a variety of methods to make a physical part.
 In almost every case, you build a part by adding thin layers of material one on top of another.
 The additive process differentiates this type of manufacturing from molding, forming, and machining –
all of which remove or shape material. It is an additive process, combining layers of paper, wax, or
plastic to create a solid object.
 Most people who use additive manufacturing refer to it as rapid prototyping because the additive
nature allows it to create objects with complicated internal features that cannot be manufactured by
other means and allowed engineers to make prototypes of their parts rapidly and easily.
 The term 3D Printing was invented at MIT in 1995 when someone used an inkjet printing head to
―print‖ a binder on to a bed of powder. They used a printer to do their additive manufacturing, and
used the term 3D Printing to describe it.
 The term 3D printing is descriptive and more appealing to non-engineers and it is now generally used
to refer to lower cost, affordable devices that make lower end prototypes
Figures 30 and 31 illustrate the difference between the traditional subtractive manufacturing and additive
manufacturing. The aim is to fabricate a sphere

48
Subtractive Manufacturing Additive Manufacturing
The really old way: Take a block of material and  Generate a 3D model
carve it out:
 Software slices the 3D model into thin
• Generate 3D model slices
• Generate CNC program  Machine builds it layer by layer
• Machine away unwanted material
• If possible, recycle waste

Figure 24: Sphere produced using Additive

Figure 23: Sphere produced using Subtractive
Manufacturing
Manufacturing

Figures 32 and 33 show typical Rapid Prototyping Machines / 3D Printers in operation.

Figure 25: Rapid Prototyping Machine-1 Figure 26: Rapid Prototyping Machine-2

49
7.1 Applications Of Rapid Prototyping
Rapid prototyping is widely used in the automotive, aerospace, medical, and consumer products industries.
Although the possible applications are virtually limitless, nearly all fall into one of the following categories:
prototyping, rapid tooling, or rapid manufacturing.

7.1.1 Prototyping: As its name suggests, the primary use of rapid prototyping is to quickly make prototypes
for communication and testing purposes. Prototypes dramatically improve communication because most
people, including engineers, find three-dimensional objects easier to understand than two-dimensional
drawings. Such improved understanding leads to substantial cost and time savings.
Prototypes are also useful for testing a design, to see if it performs as desired or needs improvement.
7.1.2 Rapid Tooling: A much-anticipated application of rapid prototyping is rapid tooling, the automatic
fabrication of production quality machine tools. Tooling is one of the slowest and most expensive steps
in the manufacturing process, because of the extremely high quality required. Rapid tooling can be
divided into two categories, indirect and direct.
i. Indirect Tooling: RP parts are used as patterns for making moulds and dies. RP models can be
indirectly used in a number of manufacturing processes: Vacuum Casting, Sand Casting, Investment
Casting, Injection moulding.
ii. Direct Tooling: To directly make hard tooling from CAD data is the one of most important for rapid
tooling. Realisation of this objective is still several years away, but some strong strides are being made:
iii. RapidTool: A DTM process that selectively sinters polymer-coated steel pellets together to produce a
metal mould. The mould is then placed in a furnace where the polymer binder is burned off and the
part is infiltrated with copper. The resulting mould can produce up to 50,000 injection mouldings.
iv. Laser-Engineered Net Shaping (LENS) is a process that will create metal tools from CAD data.
v. Direct AIM (ACES Injection Moulding): A technique from 3D Systems in which stereolithography-
produced cores are used with traditional metal moulds for injection moulding of high and low density
polyethylene, polystyrene, polypropylene and ABS plastic. In another variation, cores are made from
thin SLA shells filled with epoxy and aluminium shot.
vi. LOMComposite: There are ceramic composite materials for Laminated Object Manufacturing. LOM
Composite parts would be very strong and durable, and could be used as tooling in a variety of
manufacturing processes.
vii. Sand Moulding: At least two RP techniques can construct sand moulds directly from CAD data. DTM
sells sand-like material that can be sintered into moulds, while Soligen 3D Printing machines can
produce ceramic moulds as well

7.1.3 Rapid Manufacturing: A natural extension of RP is rapid manufacturing (RM), the automated
production of saleable products directly from CAD data [6]. Currently only a few final products are produced
by RP machines, but the number will increase as metals and other materials become more widely available.
RM will never completely replace other manufacturing techniques, especially in large production runs where
mass-production is more economical.
For short production runs, however, RM is much cheaper, since it does not require tooling. RM is also ideal
for producing custom parts tailored to the user‘s exact specifications. The other major use of RM is for
products that simply cannot be made by subtractive (machining, grinding) or compressive (forging, etc.)
processes. This includes objects with complex features, internal voids, and layered structures.

50
7.1.4 RPT in Industrial Design: When comparing industrial design applications to the manufacturing of
toolings, the role of dimensional accuracy is not as significant as the quality of the surface. The stairstepping
effect can be reduced in several ways. Firstly, good software tools can help minimize the problem. Secondly,
post-treatment can be applied, and in this case, the part is usually polished. Finally, the processes can be
improved to virtually eliminate the problem. For instance, the technology developed by Laser 3D can use a
layer thickness as low as resulting in parts with no noticeable stairstepping effect to the naked eye. Soligen
claims that their process can also eliminate the stairstepping using different principles.

7.1.5 RPT in Medical Applications: Applying RPT in the medicine is a new and exciting field. Many
applications have become possible due to the convergence of three distinct technologies, namely Medical
Imaging, Computer Graphics and CAD, and RPT. Computer-Assisted Tomography (CT) and Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (MRI) provide high-resolution images of internal structures of the human body, e.g. bone
structures and organs. Once these images have been processed by suitable software tools, it is possible to
transfer the result to a RP process and obtain a physical part, called a medical model (Figure 34).

Figure 27: Obtaining medical models from scanned images

Together, these technologies provide doctors and surgeons with new tool-physical models of human internal
structures-to better plan and prepare complex surgeries. If the surgeries can be carried out more successfully,
less cost associated to post-operative treatment are expected, in addition to reduced risks, reduced patient
suffering, and improvements in the quality of the results.
Another recent application has been the manufacturing of a human chromosome.

7.2 The Basic Process

Although several rapid prototyping techniques exist, all employ the same basic five-step process. The steps
are:
 Create a CAD model of the design
 Convert the CAD model to STL format
 Slice the STL file into thin cross-sectional layers
 Construct the model one layer atop another
 Clean and finish the model
CAD Model Creation: First, the object to be built is modeled using a Computer-Aided Design (CAD)
software package. Solid modelers, such as Pro/ENGINEER, tend to represent 3-D objects more accurately

51
than wire-frame modelers such as AutoCAD, and will therefore yield better results. The designer can use a
pre-existing CAD file or may wish to create one expressly for prototyping purposes. This process is identical
for all of the RP build techniques.
Conversion to STL Format: The various CAD packages use a number of different algorithms to represent
solid objects. To establish consistency, the STL (stereolithography, the first RP technique) format has been
adopted as the standard of the rapid prototyping industry. The second step, therefore, is to convert the CAD
file into STL format. This format represents a three-dimensional surface as an assembly of planar triangles,
"like the facets of a cut jewel." The file contains the coordinates of the vertices and the direction of the
outward normal of each triangle. Because STL files use planar elements, they cannot represent curved surfaces
exactly. Increasing the number of triangles improves the approximation, but at the cost of bigger file size.
Large, complicated files require more time to pre-process and build, so the designer must balance accuracy
with manageablility to produce a useful STL file. Since the .stl format is universal, this process is identical for
all of the RP build techniques.
Slice the STL File: In the third step, a pre-processing program prepares the STL file to be built. Several
programs are available, and most allow the user to adjust the size, location and orientation of the model. Build
orientation is important for several reasons. First, properties of rapid prototypes vary from one coordinate
direction to another. For example, prototypes are usually weaker and less accurate in the z (vertical) direction
than in the x-y plane. In addition, part orientation partially determines the amount of time required to build the
model. Placing the shortest dimension in the z direction reduces the number of layers, thereby shortening build
time. The pre-processing software slices the STL model into a number of layers from 0.01 mm to 0.7 mm
thick, depending on the build technique. The program may also generate an auxiliary structure to support the
model during the build. Supports are useful for delicate features such as overhangs, internal cavities, and thin-
walled sections. Each RP machine manufacturer supplies its own proprietary pre-processing software.
Layer by Layer Construction: The fourth step is the actual construction of the part. Using one of several
techniques (described in the next section) RP machines build one layer at a time from polymers, paper, or
powdered metal. Most machines are fairly autonomous, needing little human intervention.
Clean and Finish: The final step is post-processing. This involves removing the prototype from the machine
and detaching any supports. Some photosensitive materials need to be fully cured before use. Prototypes may
also require minor cleaning and surface treatment. Sanding, sealing, and/or painting the model will improve its
appearance and durability.

7.3 RAPID PROTOTYPING TECHNIQUES

Most commercially available rapid prototyping machines use one of six techniques. At present, trade
restrictions severely limit the import/export of rapid prototyping machines.

7.3.1 Stereolithography
Patented in 1986, stereolithography started the rapid prototyping revolution. The technique builds three-
dimensional models from liquid photosensitive polymers that solidify when exposed to ultraviolet light. As
shown in the Figure 35, the model is built upon a platform situated just below the surface in a vat of liquid
epoxy or acrylate resin. A low-power highly focused UV laser traces out the first layer, solidifying the
model‘s cross section while leaving excess areas liquid.

52
 Figure 35: Schematic diagram of stereolithography

Next, an elevator incrementally lowers the platform into the liquid polymer. A sweeper re-coats the solidified
layer with liquid, and the laser traces the second layer atop the first. This process is repeated until the
prototype is complete. Afterwards, the solid part is removed from the vat and rinsed clean of excess liquid.
Supports are broken off and the model is then placed in an ultraviolet oven for complete curing.
Stereolithography Apparatus (SLA) machines have been made since 1988 by 3D Systems of Valencia, CA. To
this day, 3D Systems is the industry leader, selling more RP machines than any other company. Because it was
the first technique, stereolithography is regarded as a benchmark by which other technologies are judged.
Early stereolithography prototypes were fairly brittle and prone to curing-induced warpage and distortion, but
recent modifications have largely corrected these problems.

7.3.2 Laminated Object Manufacturing

In this technique, developed by Helisys of Torrance, CA, layers of adhesive-coated sheet material are bonded
together to form a prototype. The original material consists of paper laminated with heat-activated glue and
rolled up on spools. As shown in Figure 36, a feeder/collector mechanism advances the sheet over the build
platform, where a base has been constructed from paper and double-sided foam tape. Next, a heated roller
applies pressure to bond the paper to the base. A focused laser cuts the outline of the first layer into the paper
and then cross-hatches the excess area (the negative space in the prototype). Cross-hatching breaks up the
extra material, making it easier to remove during post-processing. During the build, the excess material
provides excellent support for overhangs and thin-walled sections. After the first layer is cut, the platform
lowers out of the way and fresh material is advanced. The platform rises to slightly below the previous height,
the roller bonds the second layer to the first, and the laser cuts the second layer. This process is repeated as
needed to build the part, which will have a wood-like texture. Because the models are made of paper, they
must be sealed and finished with paint or varnish to prevent moisture damage.

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 Figure 36: Schematic diagram of laminated object manufacturing

Helisys developed several new sheet materials, including plastic, water-repellent paper, and ceramic and
metal powder tapes. The powder tapes produce a "green" part that must be sintered for maximum strength.

7.3.3 Selective Laser Sintering

Developed by Carl Deckard for his master‘s thesis at the University of Texas, selective laser sintering was
patented in 1989. The technique, shown in Figure 37, uses a laser beam to selectively fuse powdered
materials, such as nylon, elastomer, and metal, into a solid object. Parts are built upon a platform which sits
just below the surface in a bin of the heat-fusable powder. A laser traces the pattern of the first layer, sintering
it together. The platform is lowered by the height of the next layer and powder is reapplied. This process
continues until the part is complete. Excess powder in each layer helps to support the part during the build.
SLS machines are produced by DTM of Austin, TX.

Figure 37: Schematic diagram of selective laser sintering

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7.3.4 Fused Deposition Modeling
In this technique, filaments of heated thermoplastic are extruded from a tip that moves in the x-y plane. Like a
baker decorating a cake, the controlled extrusion head deposits very thin beads of material onto the build
platform to form the first layer. The platform is maintained at a lower temperature, so that the thermoplastic
quickly hardens. After the platform lowers, the extrusion head deposits a second layer upon the first. Supports
are built along the way, fastened to the part either with a second, weaker material or with a perforated
junction. Stratasys, of Eden Prairie, MN makes a variety of FDM machines ranging from fast concept
modelers to slower, high-precision machines. Materials include ABS (standard and medical grade), elastomer
(96 durometer), polycarbonate, polyphenolsulfone, and investment casting wax. Its schematic diagram is as
shown in Figure 38.

Figure 38: Schematic diagram of fused deposition modeling

7.3.5 Solid Ground Curing

Developed by Cubital, solid ground curing (SGC) is somewhat similar to stereolithography (SLA) in that both
use ultraviolet light to selectively harden photosensitive polymers. Unlike SLA, SGC cures an entire layer at a
time. Figure 39 depicts solid ground curing, which is also known as the solider process. First, photosensitive
resin is sprayed on the build platform. Next, the machine develops a photomask (like a stencil) of the layer to
be built. This photomask is printed on a glass plate above the build platform using an electrostatic process
similar to that found in photocopiers. The mask is then exposed to UV light, which only passes through the
transparent portions of the mask to selectively harden the shape of the current layer.

Figure 39: Schematic diagram of solid ground curing

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After the layer is cured, the machine vacuums up the excess liquid resin and sprays wax in its place to support
the model during the build. The top surface is milled flat, and then the process repeats to build the next layer.
When the part is complete, it must be de-waxed by immersing it in a solvent bath.

7.3.6 3-D Ink-Jet Printing

Ink-Jet Printing refers to an entire class of machines that employ ink-jet technology. The first was 3D Printing
(3DP), developed at MIT and licensed to Soligen Corporation, Extrude Hone, and others. As shown in Figure
40a, parts are built upon a platform situated in a bin full of powder material. An ink-jet printing head
selectively deposits or "prints" a binder fluid to fuse the powder together in the desired areas. Unbound
powder remains to support the part. The platform is lowered, more powder added and leveled, and the process
repeated. When finished, the green part is then removed from the unbound powder, and excess unbound
powder is blown off. Finished parts can be infiltrated with wax, CA glue, or other sealants to improve
durability and surface finish. Typical layer thicknesses are on the order of 0.1 mm. This process is very fast,
and produces parts with a slightly grainy surface.
3D Systems' version of the ink-jet based system is called the Thermo-Jet or Multi-Jet Printer. It uses a linear
array of print heads to rapidly produce thermoplastic models (Figure 40d). If the part is narrow enough, the
print head can deposit an entire layer in one pass. Otherwise, the head makes several passes. The machines use
two ink-jets (see Figure 40c). One dispenses low-melt thermoplastic to make the model, while the other prints
wax to form supports. After each layer, a cutting tool mills the top surface to uniform height. This yields
extremely good accuracy, allowing the machines to be used in the jewelry industry. Ballistic particle
manufacturing, depicted in Figure 40b, was developed by BPM Inc.

Figure 40: Schematic diagrams of ink-jet techniques

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