ME291: BASICS OF

ELECTRICAL VEHICLES
UNIT -1
Design of Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles

MAHAMMADSOAIB SAIYAD
 History of Electric Vehicles
The horse drawn wagon was the primary mode of transportation between the 1800’s and 1900’s

Courtesy of Southern California Edison

 History of Electric Vehicles
The first successful electric car in the U.S. was built in Des Moines, Iowa by Wm. Morrison in 1981

Courtesy of Southern California Edison

History of Electric Vehicles (EVs)
1769
The first steam-powered vehicle was designed by Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot and constructed by M. Brezin that
could attain speeds of up to 6 km/hour. These early steam-powered vehicles were so heavy that they were only
practical on a perfectly flat surface as strong as iron.

1807
The next step towards the development of the car was the invention of the internal combustion engine. Francois
Isaac de Rivaz designed the first internal combustion engine in, using a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen to
generate energy.

1825
British inventor Goldsworthy Gurney built a steam car that successfully completed an 85 mile round-trip journey in
ten hours time.

1839
Robert Anderson of Aberdeen, Scotland built the first electric vehicle

1860
In, Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir, a Frenchman, built the first successful two-stroke gas driven engine.
1886
Historical records indicate that an electric-powered taxicab, using a battery with 28 cells and a small electric
motor, was introduced in England.

1888
Immisch & Company built a four-passenger carriage, powered by a one-horsepowermotor and 24-cell battery, for the
Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. In the same year, Magnus Volk in Brighton, England made a three-wheeled electric
car.

1890 – 1910
(Period of significant improvements in battery technology)
EV and the environment

GASOLIN

DIESEL
EV and the environment
EV and the environment
EV and the environment
 EV and the environment Global Warming
Air Pollution
Nitrogen Oxides
Carbon Monoxide
Unburned HCs
Other Pollutants

Impurities in fuels result in the emission of pollutants. The major impurity is sulfur, mostly found in diesel and
jet fuel but also in gasoline and natural gas.

1 The combustion of sulfur (or ) sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide) with oxygen releases sulfur oxides
(SO ).
2. Sulfur dioxide (SO ) is the major product of this combustion. On contact with air, it forms sulfur trioxide,
which later reacts with water to form sulfuric acid, a major component of acid rain.

It should be noted that sulfur oxide emissions originate from transportation sources but also largely from the
combustion of coal in power plants and steel factories.
EV and the environment
 Well-to-Wheels Efficiency
Well-to-Tank Tank-to-Wheels
Generation Transmission Plug-to-Wheels 23%
33% 94% 31% 76%

31% 76% = 23%

Refining Transmission Pump-to-Wheels

82% 98%
80% 16% 13%
Source: http://www.nesea.org
EVs 101
80% 16% = 13%
[http://www.nesea.org/]]
ENERGY FLOW
CLASSIFICATION
 Comparison of BEV, HEV, and FCEV
Types of EVs BEV HEV FCEV
Propulsion •Electric motor drives •Electric motor drives •Electric motor drives
•ICE
•Battery •Battery •Fuel cells
Energy system •ultracapacitor •Ultracapacitor
•ICE generating unit
•Electric grid charging facilities •Gasoline stations •Hydrogen
Energy source and •Electric grid charging facilities •Methanol or gasoline
infrastructure (optional for plug-in hybrid) •ethanol

•Zero emission •Low emission •Zero emission Independence on fossil oil

Characteristics •Independence on fossil oil •Higher fuel economy •High energy efficiency
•Commercially available •Commercially available •Under development (future trend)

Major issues •Limitations of battery •Dependence on Fossil fuel •High fuel cell cost
•Short range (100-200km) •complex •Lack of infrastructure
•Charging facilities
 Hybrid
Conventional Battery Electric

Fuel Battery Fuel Battery

Engine Motor/ Motor/

Generator
Engine
Generator

Transmission
Transmission Transmission
ENERGY FLOW
ENERGY FLOW
ENERGY FLOW
ENERGY FLOW
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
 Vehicle Propulsion
Series Configuration
Small fuel-burning engine that directly drives an alternator to generate
electricity
Electricity is stored in the battery or sent the to electric motor
When the batteries are drained to a certain level, the engine turns on and
recharges the battery
 Vehicle Propulsion
Parallel Configuration
Two power paths
Hybrid power unit or electric propulsion system or both can power the
wheels
For long trips the engine is used
For hills, acceleration, and high power scenarios the electric motor is used
 Vehicle Propulsion
Propulsion Series Configuration
Comparison
Benefits Engine never idles reducing
emissions
Engine drives a generator to run
at optimal performance
Allows a variety of options in
mounting the engine
Some don’t need a transmission
Parallel Configuration
Has more power from
simultaneous power from motor
and engine
Don’t need a separate
generator because the motor
generates the battery
Power is directly coupled to the
road so can be more efficient
Series hybrid
Series hybrid
Weaknesses of series hybrid vehicles:

• The ICE, the generator and the electric motor are dimensioned to handle the full power of the vehicle.
Therefore, the total weight, cost and size of the powertrain can be excessive.

• The power from the combustion engine has to run through both the generator and electric motor.
During long-distance highway driving, the total efficiency is inferior to a conventional transmission,
due to the several energy conversions.

Advantages of series hybrid vehicles:

• There is no mechanical link between the combustion engine and the wheels. The engine- generator
group can be located everywhere.
• There are no conventional mechanical transmission elements (gearbox, transmission shafts).
• Separate electric wheel motors can be implemented easily.
• The combustion engine can operate in a narrow rpm range (its most efficient range), even as the car
changes speed.
• Series hybrids are relatively the most efficient during stop-and-go city driving.
Parallel hybrid Parallel hybrid systems have both an internal combustion engine (ICE) and an electric
motor in parallel connected to a mechanical transmission.
Parallel hybrid
Weaknesses of parallel hybrid vehicles:

• Rather complicated system.

• The ICE doesn’t operate in a narrow or constant RPM range, thus efficiency drops at low rotation
speed.
• As the ICE is not decoupled from the wheels, the battery cannot be charged at standstill.

Advantages of parallel hybrid vehicles:

• Total efficiency is higher during cruising and long-distance highway driving.

• Large flexibility to switch between electric and ICE power
• Compared to series hybrids, the electromotor can be designed less powerful than the ICE, as it is
assisting traction. Only one electrical motor/generator is required.
 ENERGY CLASSIFICATION OF EV
DIVERSIFICATION
OF EV
VEHICLES , EVs, and Comparison
 Degrees of Hybridization
The vehicle is a….
Micro Mild Full Plug-in
If it… Hybrid Hybrid Hybrid Hybrid
Automatically stops/starts the engine in stop-and-
go traffic
Uses regenerative braking and operates above 60
volts
Uses an electric motor to assist a combustion
engine
Can drive at times using only the electric motor

Recharges batteries from a wall outlet for

extended all-electric range

Citroën C3 Honda Insight Chevy Volt

Toyota Prius
Efficiency
Source: http://www.hybridcenter.org/hybrid-center-how-hybrid-cars-work-under-the-hood.html

EVs 101
Degrees of Hybridization
 EV challenges: pure EV, hybrid EV

Barriers to EV Adoption

Technological Problems Economic Problems

Limited Range
High Price
Long Charging Period
Safety Concerns
Insufficient Charging Stations
Social Problems
Social Acceptance
 Basic Elements of the Electric Drive Systems:

Power source:
The power source provides the energy to the drive system. It may be dc or ac (singlephase Or three-phase)
Power Converter:
The converter interfaces the motor with the power source and provides the motor with adjustable voltage,
current and frequency. During transient period such as starting, braking and speed reversal, it restricts source
and motor current within permissible limits Also the converter converts the electric waveform into required
signal that requires the motor.
Types of modulator:
• Controlled Rectifier(ac to dc)
• Inverter (dc to ac
• AC Voltage Regulator (ac to ac
• DC Chopper (dc to dc)
• Cyclo-converter (ac to ac) (Frequency converter)
Controller:
A well designed controller has several functions. The basic function is to monitor system variables, compare
them with desire values, and then adjust the converter output until the system achives a desired performance.
This feature is used in speed and position control.
Electric motor:
i) The basic criterion in selecting an electric motor for a given drive application is it meets power level and
performance required by the load during steady state and dynamic operation.

ii) Environmental factors: In industry such as in food processing, chemical industries and aviation where the
environment must be clean and free from arc. Induction motors are used instead of DC motor.
CLASIFICATION OF EV MACHINES
DC MOTOR CLASSIFICATION
CLASIFICATION OF EV MACHINES
 Simple Explanation of Basic Motor Types

Electric drive vehicles can use AC voltage or DC voltage motors:

• If the motor is a DC motor, then it may run on anything from 36 to 192 volts. Many of the DC
motors used in electric cars come from this type.

• If it is an AC motor, then it probably is a three phase AC motor.

• The operating voltages vary with manufacturer and application. For example, the Toyota Hybrid
Highlander has three motor/generators—all are permanent magnet AC units running at a maximum
of 650 volts.
 BASIC MOTOR OPERATION

An electric motor converts electric energy into mechanical energy. Through the years, electric motors have
changed substantially in design; however, the basic operational principles have remained the same.
 Electromagnets

• When electrical current passes through a wire, a magnetic field is formed around that wire.
• The flux lines of the magnetic field form in concentric circles around the wire. The direction of the
magnetic field can be determined by the left hand rule.
• This rule the direction of the current flow, your fingers will point in the direction of the magnetic field
(Figure).
• Remember, the attraction of poles is from north to south.
BASIC MOTOR OPERATION
• In a real motor, an electromagnet is fitted on a shaft.

• The shaft is supported by bearings or bushings to allow motor.

• Surrounding, but not touching, this inner magnet is a stationary permanent magnet or an electromagnet.

• Actually, there is more than one magnet or magnetic field in both components.

• The polarity of these magnetic fields is quickly switched, and we have a constant opposition and attraction of
magnetic fields.
BASIC MOTOR OPERATION

• Therefore, we have a constantly rotating

inner magnetic field, the shaft of which can
do work due to the forces causing it to
rotate (Figure).
• This force is called torque.

• The torque of a motor varies with

rotational speed, motor design, and the
amount of current draw the motor has.
• The speed of the rotation depends on a
number of factors, such as the current draw
of the motor, the design of the motor, and
the load on the motor’s rotating shaft.

• Other basic principles must be explained

before going into detail about the operation
of the basic types of motors: DC and AC.
• When the wire is shaped into a coil or winding, the individual flux lines produced by each section of wire join
together to form one large magnetic field around the total coil.

• The magnetic field around the coil can be strengthened by placing a core of iron or similar metal in the center
of the coil (Figure).

• The iron core presents less resistance to the lines of flux than air, and the magnetic field’s strength increases.

• The basic components of a motor are the stator or field windings that are the stationary part of the motor and
the rotor or armature that is the rotating part (Figure).
• The stator is comprised of slotted cores copper wire to form one or more pairs of magnetic poles.

• The rotor is comprised of loops of current-carrying wire, or it can be a series of permanent magnets.

• The magnetic fields in the rotor are pushed away by the magnetic field in the stator, causing the rotor to rotate
away from the stator field.

• The use of an electromagnet in a motor makes it easy to change polarity in a magnetic field and keep a motor
spinning.

• By changing the direction of current flow,

the magnetic polarities are changed.
Characteristics of A Typical variable-speed electric motor The range of
the constant
power
operation
depends
primarily
on the
particular
motor type
and its
control
strategy.
 Speed Ratio of Typical variable-speed electric motor

• At the low-speed region the

motor has a constant torque.
• The maximum speed at
which a motor generates a
constant (maximum) torque
is known as base speed.
• In the high-speed region the
motor has a constant
(maximum) power.
• The highest speed at which This characteristic is usually
the motor generates constant represented by a speed ratio x,
maximum power is known defined as the ratio of its maximum
as maximum speed. speed to its base speed.
Speed ratio & Speed–torque profile of a 60 kW electric
motor
Tractive effort and power versus vehicle speed with
different Motors
Batteries
Form factors

64
 Cell Voltage Definition
Open circuit voltage (OCV) – Voltage measured across the terminal of cell when no load is applied for a while

Terminal Voltage - Voltage measured across the terminal of cell when load is applied

Min Nominal Max

OCV OCV OCV

End of Discharge 0% 50% 100%

Charge Charge Charge
25 deg C
End of Charge

65
 Capacity & C-Rate
Capacity –
• Measure of quantity of charge that can be retained in a cell.
• Fundamentally unit is Coulomb. Commercially used unit is Ampere-hour - “Ah”

1 Ah = (1 C/Sec)*3600 Sec
1 Ah = 3600 C

C-rate
• 1-C - Amount of current which can take cell from 0% of it’s Capacity to 100% of Capacity in 1 hour
• 2-C -Amount of current which can take cell from 0% of it’s Capacity to 100% of Capacity in 1/2 hour
• n-C -Amount of current which can take cell from 0% of it’s Capacity to 100% of Capacity in 1/n hour

Cycle
• The process of discharging and then charging a battery
• A complete discharge and then charge is known as one cycle or vise versa

66
Cell Series/Parallel Connection
Series Connection Parallel Connection

1.2 V

Total Voltage = ∑ Cell Voltage Total Voltage = Cell Voltage

Capacity = Cell Capacity Capacity =

Cell Capacity X no. Cells in parallel
 Cell Series/Parallel Connection - Exercise
Cell Voltage = 3 V

Cell Capacity = 5 Ah

Pack Configuration = 100s6P

Find Pack Capacity and Voltage?

100

𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = ෍ 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 300 𝑉

1

𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 6 = 30 𝐴ℎ

 SOC/DOD
State of Charge (SOC)
• SOC is way to represent the amount of charge left in cell out of it’s rated capacity
• Represented in %
• SOC is derived Quantity cannot be measured only can be estimated

Depth of Discharge (DOD)

• Another way of representing quantity of charge in a cell.
• It represent amount of charge depleted out of it’s rated charge
• Every statement of SOC hold good with DOD

69
 State Of Health
• State Of Health (SOH) measures the battery health.
• State of health (SOH) is a percentage measure of performance & Capacity degradation of a battery pack.
• Li-ion batteries performance will decrease with cycle and Calendar aging.
• Methods of SOH estimation
1. Internal resistance change
2. Capacity fade.
State of Power
State of power (SoP)
• State of power (SoP) is a term denoting the constant current and power available for use at
various intervals.
• It enforces additional current limits to the battery packs in order to provide more safety to
the energy storage system and de-rate its performance in case of over operation beyond its
limits, additional battery charge and discharge current limits are calculated by considering the
following factors:

71
EV AND CHARGING
Battery Life
& Warranty
Is there a long or
Charging Charger extended warranty?
What is my Level
Will the EV accept
access to Charge fast charging if I
charging Acceptance need it?
Rate
Is quick charging
Range critical to me?
What range
do I need?
How often?
 Choosing a Charging Approach
Chargingstations
are known as
Electric Vehicle
Supply
Equipment
(EVSE)

Charge speed
depends on two
things:
(1) Charger and
(2) Vehicle
Acceptance
Rate
 Home Charging – Level 1
What is needed:
Dedicated
120 V circuit, How it works:
Standard Outlet Plug in the charging
cord that comes
with the EV
Get 4 - 5 miles of
range per hour,
Best for: regardless of vehicle
Shorter
commutes
(30-40 mi/day)
and longer
charge times
 Home Charging – Level 2
How it works:
Depends on
Charger Delivery Rate
& Vehicle Acceptance
Rate
Get 11 - 32 miles of
What is needed: range per hour
-Dedicated 240 V
15-50 Amp circuit You may need an
(depends on EV) & a electrical Panel
Level 2 Charger Upgrade
Best for:
Longer
Commutes
Home Charging – Level 2
Charging
Speed
Plug or
Hard Cost
Wired

OPTIONS

Outdoor
Rated Portability

Cord
Length
 Level 2 Public Charging
Opportunity
Charging:
public chargers
typically found in Work
parking garages Charging:
& lots available for fleet
or employee
vehicles
Universal
Plug
“J-1772”
(Tesla provides
adapter)
 Level 3 / DC Fast Charging
How it Works:
Things to Watch for:
• High Power
(50-300W) •PHEVs and some EVs can’t
• Public Only use DC Fast Charging
• Charges up to 80% in
~30 min, then slows to •There are 3 types;
protect battery know which one you can use

•Routine Fast Charging can

shorten battery life
Best for:
•Only use if
Quick
charging battery is low (<80%)
on the
road
 Charging

Image source: pnm.com