Electric Vehicles and Power Electronics

August 16, 2001

Presentation at
Universidad Technica Federico Santa Maria
Valparaiso, Chili

Jih-Sheng (Jason) Lai

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Center for Power Electronics Systems
668 Whittemore Hall
Blacksburg, VA 24060
TEL: 540-231-4741
FAX: 540-231-6390
EMAIL: Laijs@vt.edu
JSL

Outline of Presentation
• Part A: Background and Introduction
– What are Electric Vehicles?
– Why Electric Vehicles?
– Partnership for Next Generation Vehicles
• Part B: Overview of EV/HEVs on the Market
– GM EV1
– Ford Ranger
– Honda EVPlus, Insight
– Toyota Prius
– Ford P2000
• Part C: Power Electronic Technologies in EV/HEV
– Energy Sources
– Traction Motors/Inverters
– Auxiliary Motors/Inverters
– Bi-directional Chargers
– Basic Structure of a Fuel Cell Vehicle
JSL

1
 Part A: Background and Introduction

• What are Electric Vehicles?

• Why Electric Vehicles?
• Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles
• Specification of “Supercar”
• EV/HEV Configurations

JSL

EV/HEV Definitions

• An Electric Vehicle is
A vehicle fueled with mains electricity. An EV usually requires a
battery pack as energy storage.

• A Hybrid Vehicle is
A chemically fueled vehicle equipped with at least one bi-
directional energy reservoir. The fueled hybrid power unit
(HPU) is usually a heat engine, but may be a fuel cell. Energy
storage and delivery is usually electric.

JSL

2
 Driving Forces for EV/HEV

! Simplicity (1910)
! Energy Security (1970)
! Environmental Concerns (1990)
! Customer Expectations (2000)

JSL

US Customer Expectations for EV/HEVs

! Range: Minimum 160 km/charge

! Safety: Same as ICE Vehicles
! Performance: Same as ICE Vehicles
! Cost: No more than ICE vehicles
! Features: No less than ICE vehicles

JSL

3
 Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles

Technology Areas
Hybrid/electric vehicle drive trains
Direct-injection engines
Fuel cells
Lightweight materials

LONG-TERM GOAL – Development of a Supercar

Gas mileage: 3X average of Concorde/Taurus/Lumina, or 80 mpg
Load: Six passengers + 200 pounds of luggage
Range: Similar to today’s models
At least 80 percent recyclable

JSL

Specifications of Baseline Vehicle and Supercar

Baseline Supercar

Curb Weight 3200 lbs 40% less

Drag coeff. 0.32 0.20
Friction: 0.005 0.008
Engine: Internal Combustion flywheel, battery, ultracapacitor
Fuel Efficiency: 26.6 mpg 80 mpg (3X)
Recycleability: 75% 80%
Range (HWY): 380 miles same or better
Accel (0-62 mi): 12 seconds same or better
Luggage: 168 ft3 same or better
Load: 6 passengers + 200 lb same or better
Life: 100,000 miles same or better

JSL

4
 PNGV Time Table

JSL

Where are the Energy Goes in a Conventional Car?

For Metro-Highway Driving Cycle

Rolling
5%
Accessories Aerodynamics
2% 6%

Fuel Engine
Driveline
100%

Engine
77% Driveline
6% Braking
4%

JSL

5
 Electric/Hybrid Electric Vehicle Configurations

Fuel Fuel
Fuel ICE ICE Battery
ICE tank tank
tank

Diff. Electric Diff. Electric Diff.

Diff. Xmission Generator
Xmission Wheels Motor Wheels Motor
Wheels Wheels

Electric
Battery Battery
Motor

Parallel Hybrid Series Hybrid

Pure ICE Pure Electric
Drive Drive
Hybrid Drives

ICE: Internal Combustion Engine

Xmission: Transmission
JSL Diff.: Differential gear

How Does a Hybrid Electric Vehicle Work?

(a) Shaft driven by both ICE and (b) Shaft driven by electric motor
electric motor and battery is charged

JSL

6
 Part B: Overview of EVs on the Market

• GM EV1
• Ford Ecostar, Ranger
• Honda EVPlus, Insight
• Toyata Prius
• Ford P2000

JSL

General Motor EV1

Price: $33,995 MSRP

Lease: $424 - $574 / mo
36-month lease
$0.20/mile over
30,000 miles

http://www.gmev.com/index.htm
Power: 137 hp
Top speed: 80 miles per hour
Drag coeff.: 0.19
Acceleration: 0 to 60 miles, less than 9 seconds
Range: 55 to 95 miles with 26 lead-acid battery pack
75 to 130 miles with Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) battery pack
Charging: 220 V, 6.6 kW non-contact inductive charging, 6 hours
Braking: front disk, rear drum, and regenerative
JSL

7
 GM Inductive Charge Coupler

JSL

Ford Ranger and US Post Office Electric Vehicles

Battery:
Fourth generation “sealed lead acid”
39x8 volt modules; 312 volt system
Capacity rating @ FUDS: 23 kWh (18 kWh at 80% discharge)
On-board Charger: On-board, 240 V/30 A

Performance:
0-50 mph acceleration: 13 seconds
Rated top speed (governed) : 75 mph
Customer range @ 72F: 50 miles
Range - FUDS cycle @ 72F: 58 miles without A/C or heater operation

JSL

8
 Ford Ranger Schematic

90 hp, 3-phase AC
induction

JSL

Honda EVPlus

New Technology Features

• Nickel-metal hydride batteries

Standard Features
• Permanent-magnet motor
• Single-speed, direct-drive transmission
• Regenerative braking
• On-board charger – 110- or 220-volt
• Heating and air conditioning
• High-intensity headlights

• EPA City: 100 miles; Highway: 84 miles (Use 80% battery capacity)
• Meets all federal motor vehicle safety standards
• Dual airbags and 3-point seat belts
• Anti-lock braking system (ABS)
• Power windows, door locks and mirrors
• AM/FM/CD audio system
• Remote keyless entry and security system
• Cargo area with "fold-flat" rear seats
• Walk-in feature for rear seat access
JSL

9
 Honda Insight Hybrid Electric Vehicle

Integrated Motor Assist: 1.0-liter, 3-cylinder gasoline engine + electric motor

EPA mileage ratings: 61 mpg city/70 mpg highway
Driving range: 600 - 700 miles
Drag coefficient: 0.25
Electric motor: 36 ft-lb, 10-kW DC-brushless motor, 2.3” wide,
sits between the engine and transmission,
mounted directly to the engine's crankshaft
Battery: A 144-volt nickel metal-hydride battery pack
Inverter: An advanced electronic Power Control Unit (PCU),
adopted from Honda EV PLUS
JSL

Drivetrain of Honda Insight

JSL

10
 Toyota Prius - A Hybrid Vehicle

Engine: 1.5-liter, DOHC, 16-valve, EFI 4-cylinder with Variable

Valve Timing with intelligence (VVT-i)
Maximum Engine Output: 58 hp at 4,000 rpm
Maximum Speed: 100 mph (engine and motor combined)
Motor Type: permanent magnet, 30 kW/40 hp at 940—2,000 rpm
Battery Type: sealed nickel-metal hydride with 40 modules
Combined Horsepower: 58 hp engine + 40 hp motor + 3 hp batteries = 101 hp
Fuel Efficiency: 66 mpg (Japanese 10—15 city drive mode)
Maximum Range: 850 miles (combined city/highway)
Regeneration Braking: Front disc/rear drum brakes with ABS
JSL

Prius Hybrid Drivetrain

JSL

11
 Power Flow in Prius
Engine Flow
Starting from rest/low speeds
Full-throttle acceleration
Normal driving
Deceleration/braking

Generator Inverter
Batteries

Engine
Motor

Reduction Gear Electrical power path

Motive power path

JSL

Emission Comparison of Prius and Corolla

Accel
Nonmethane Carbon Nitrogen Carbon Fuel From
Organic gases Mononxide oxide dioxide
Curb Eco- 0-60
(NMOG), g/km g/km g/km g/km
Weight nomy mi/h

Vehicle (kg) Car TE Car TE Car TE Car TE Km/L Sec.

Prius 1237 0.002 0.033 0.025 0.062 0.001 0.063 112 155 20.8 12.7

Corolla 1143 0.025 0.068 0.808 0.864 0.124 0.205 157 217 14.7 10.3

Note:
• “Car” values are vehicle exhaust (tailpipe) emissions
• “TE” values are total emissions-Car plus upstream, including fuel
cycle emission
• Source: IEEE Spectrum, March 2001, Pages 47 – 50.

JSL

12
 Ford P2000 Low Storage Requirement (LSR) Car

Features:

• Low Storage Requirement (LSR)

• Direct Injection Aluminum Through-bolt Assembly (DIATA) engine
• Integrated Starter/Alternator
• Engine shut-down during braking and at rest
• Very fast engine restart
• Improve engine dynamics and shift fell
• Modified shift strategy for reduced emissions
• Weight and cost penalties low relative to “full” hybrid
• enables limited re-generative braking

JSL

Comparison of P2000 LSR and Hybrid Vehicles

Series Parallel P2000

5 + passenger, Al- 5 passenger, Light- 5 passenger, Light-
Platform
Intensive, Sedan weight prototype weight prototype
55 kW, Turbo-
HPU 55 kW, 1.2 L, CIDI 55 kW, 1.2L, CIDI
Alternator
Transmission none Auto 5-speed Auto 5-speed
18/30 kW motor on 8 kW
Traction Motor 75 kW, EV transaxle
4x4 transfer case starter/alternator
Battery 180 kW x 6 kWh 48 kW x 2 kWh 15 kW x 0.4 kWh
Weight 1401 kg 1258 kg 1000 kg
Fuel Economy Metal Ceramic
2.9x 2.5x
(v. Taurus) City: 1.8x 2.4x
Highway 1.4x 1.9x 2.2x 1.9x

JSL

13
 Ford P2000
Hydrogen Fuel Cell Car

Traction
Inverter
Motor
Fuel Hydrogen
Cell Tank Transxle
Turbo
Compressor

Chemical Energy Electrical Energy Mechanical Energy

JSL

Daimler-Chrysler NECAR IV
A Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle with Built-in Reformer

Fuel: Methanol
Emission: zero
Top Speed: 90 mph
Range: 280 miles

JSL

14
 Part C: Power Electronic Technologies in
EV/HEV

• Energy Sources and Storages

! Batteries
! Fuel Cells
• Traction Motors
• Soft-Switching Inverters
• Bi-Directional Chargers

JSL

Energy Sources and Storages

• Lead Acid Batteries

• Nickel Metal-Hydride (NiMH) Batteries
• Lithium Batteries
• Fuel Cells

JSL

15
 Lead Acid Batteries

Flood type:
• First design in 1880’s
• With flat pasted plate immersed in a dilute sulfuric acid
electrolyte

Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA) type:

• Original development in 1960’s with sealed lead acid
batteries
• The gases produced during operation are recombined
to minimize water losses
• Typical gas recombination efficiency is 95%
• Gas recombination cell can be made with Absorptive
Glass Mat separator or Gel Electrolyte

Electric Vehicles use “deep charge/discharge” type

VRLA batteries
JSL Source: www.hawker.invensys.com

VRLA Battery Charging Voltage and Current

for a Typical Tubular Gel Product

Typical Charging Voltage

State of Charge Voltage at diff temp.
100% 2.13 V 0°C 2.35 V
70% 2.09 V 10°C 2.28 V
50% 2.06 V 20°C 2.23 V
20% 2.02 V 30°C 2.20 V
* Measuring open ckt voltage after 35 °C 21.7 V
battery rested >24 hr.

Charging Current
• Typically 10% of the 10-hour capacity, C10
• In general, not exceed 30% of C10
• For fast charge, keep 2.35 V per cell with 10% of C10 as the current
limit

JSL Source: www.hawker.invensys.com

16
 Nickel Metal-Hydride (NiMH) Batteries

• Negative Electrode:
• rare earth/nickel alloys LaNi5 (AB5 alloys)
• titanium and zirconium (AB2 alloys)

• Positive Electrode: Sintered-type positive electrodes are economical

and rugged while exhibiting excellent high-rate performance, long
cycle life, and good capacity

• Electrolyte: Alkaline, a dilute solution of potassium hydroxide

• Energy Density: Improved energy density (up to 40 percent greater

than Nickel Cadmium cells)

• GM EV1 Test Range: 55 to 95 miles with 26 lead-acid battery pack

75 to 130 miles with Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) battery pack

JSL

Comparison of Nickel-Metal Hydride to Nickel

Cadmium Batteries

Nominal Voltage Same (1.25V)

Discharge Capacity NiMH up to 40% greater than NiCd
Discharge Profile Equivalent
Discharge Cutoff Voltages Equivalent
High Rate Discharge Capability Effectively the same rates
High Temp (>35oC) Discharge Capability NiMH slightly better than NiCd cells
Operating Temperature Limits Similar, NiMH slightly better at cold temp
Self-Discharge Rate Similar to NiCd
Cycle Life Similar to NiCd
Mechanical Fit Equivalent
Selection of Sizes/Shapes/Capacities Equivalent
Environmental Issues Reduced with NiMH because of elimination
of cadmium toxicity concerns. Collection
of spent NiMH batteries is not mandated

JSL

17
 Lithium/Thionyl Chloride Batteries

Negative Electrode: mixture of carbon, Teflon, fiberglass, alcohol, and water

Positive Electrode: Lithium

Electrolyte: Thionyl Chloride

Lithium batteries have been widely used in

computers and communications and will be
competing with NiMH batteries for EV
applications

JSL

Fuel Cell Vehicle - Future Trend

A fuel cell produces electricity by combining hydrogen and oxygen in

an electrochemical reaction. Fuel cells require no combustion, unlike a
conventional gasoline- or diesel-powered engine. The only emission
from hydrogen fuel cells is water vapor.

Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) are similar to a battery-powered

EV except that fuel cells replace batteries. As with batteries, fuel cell
emit no carbon dioxide, although carbon dioxide and other emissions
may be created in vehicle manufacturing and fuel production.

JSL

18
 Fuel Cell Vehicle Configurations with Different
Sources
Methanol Methanol Partial Gasoline
Hydrogen storage reformer storage oxidation storage
ref.

Fuel Cell Stack Fuel cell stack Fuel cell stack

Bi-directional Bi-directional Bi-directional

dc-dc dc-dc dc-dc
converter converter converter

Inverter Battery Inverter Battery Inverter Battery

Motor

Motor

Motor
/Gen

/Gen

/Gen
Gear Gear Gear

JSL
(a) With hydrogen (b) With Methanol (c) With Gasoline

Basic Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cell

Electrical loads
- +
2e- 2e-

Oxidant

1/2 (Air O2)

H2 2H+ 2H+
O2
Fuel (H2)
Water
H2O
Electrolyte (H2O)

Electrode (-) Electrode (+)

Ion Exchange Membrane

JSL (IEM)

19
 Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell
Electrical loads
- +
6e- 6e-

CO2 H+ H+
CO2 Water
+ H+ H+
3H2O
Methanol Vaporizer 6H+
Fuel H+ H+ (H2O, N2, O2)
CH3CH Methanol 6H+
Reformer H+ H+ + Oxidant
3/2 O2
Water CO2 H+ H+ (Air O2)
Oxidization
H2O Catalyst

Electrode (-) Electrode (+)

Proton Exchange Membrane

JSL (PEM)

Fuel Cell Output Voltage and Current

Characteristic

400
350
Stack Voltage(V)

300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 100 200 300
Stack Current(A)

JSL

20
 Fuel Cell Output Power and Current
Characteristic
90
80
70
Net Power (kW)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 100 200 300
Stack Current (A)

JSL

20 kW Future Car Stack

JSL

21
 Traction Motors/Inverters

• Motor Design Consideration

1. Using Federal Urban Driving Schedule to Find Most
Critical Speed and Torque Region
2. Optimize Motor Design in Proper Torque-Speed
Regions
• Motor Types
• Inverter Partitioning for Integrated Inverter-Motor
• Soft-Switching Inverter Considerations
• Bi-directional Chargers for Fuel Cell Vehicles
1. A 20-kW Non-isolated Bi-directional Converter
2. A 5-kW Isolated Bi-directional Converter

JSL

Motor Design Consideration 1

Using Federal Urban Driving Schedule to Find Most Critical
Speed and Torque Regions
FUDS CYCLE

60
Speed (mph)

40
20

0
0 500 1000 1500
Battery Current (Pos=Discharge)
Time (sec)
150
Current (amp)

100
50
0
-50
-100
0 500 1000 1500

JSL Time (seconds)

22
 Motor Design Consideration 2
Optimize Motor Design in Proper Torque-Speed Regions Resulting
High-Speed (20,000 rpm) Design that Cuts Size and Weight by 30%

Torque-Speed Envelope

120

100

80
Torque (lbft,hp)

Torque
60
Power
Efficiency

40

20

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
JSL
Speed (x1000 rpm )

Motor Types

• Induction Motor
• Permanent Magnet Motor
• Switched Reluctance Motor
• Other Combinations

JSL

23
 Inverter Partitioning for Integrated Inverter-Motor
ADVANCED AC MOTOR
AND CASING
GEAR
ASSEMBLY

CONTROLLER
MOUNTING MOTOR LINE
BLOCK COOLANT
INVERTER
GEAR POWER
LUBRICANT OPTICALDRIVE
MODULE SIGNAL
INSULATOR
COOLANT/LUB
RICANT COLD PLATE OPTICAL STATUS
SIGNAL
INTPUT TRACTION
JSL
POWER INPUT

Inverter Design and Partioning

IGBT Modules
Power Flow Control

Induction
Battery Hall Sensors
Motor

Fuel Cell
Unit
ia ib va vb Optical
Encoder
Gate Driver with Sensor θr
Protection Conditioning

DSP Interface
Circuit Circuit

JSL

24
 Using Optical Fiber to Link Integrated Power
Stage and Control Interface
Optical fiber link

Gate Gate Gate

Driver Driver Driver

Interface
DSP
Board
IGBT Based Inverter
Power Stage

Motor
Sensing
Board

JSL

Compact Gate Driver with Optical Fiber Link

+15V

6 1
8 IGBT
7 +15V Module
Fault
MC33153

Ron
Optical Fiber 5
Roff
4
PWM -5V
2
3

-5V

JSL

25
 Soft-Switching Inverter Considerations

• Zero-Voltage-Transition – Auxiliary Resonant Commutated Pole

(ARCP) Inverter for AC Motor Drives
• Zero-Current Transition (ZCT) Inverter
• Advantages:
– Allow high switching frequencies
– Low switching losses
– Low EMI

JSL

Turn-on Loss Reduction with Soft-Switching

Vce(100v/div) Vce(100v/div)

Is(10A/div) Is(10A/div)

Hard-switching Soft-switching
Current, Iswitch

Voltage, Vswitch

Power, Pswitch
JSL

26
 Turn-off Loss Reduction with Soft-Switching

Is(10A/div) Is(10A/div)

Vce(100v/div) Vce(100v/div)

Hard-switching Soft-switching
Voltage, Vswitch

Current, Iswitch

Power, Pswitch
JSL

A Zero-Voltage-Transition Inverter for AC Motors

Auxiliary Resonant Commutated Pole (ARCP)

Csp S1 C1 S3 C3 S5 C5

Lra
Vs Sa Lrb
ac
Sb Lrc motor
Csn
auxiliary circuits Sc

S4 C4 S6 C6 S2 C2

JSL

27
 Basic Operating Principle of ZVT Soft-
Switching

S1 C1 S1 C1 ILr
Ix ILoad
ILr Lr ILr Lr
ILoad ILoad
0
S2 C2 S2 C2 IS1

0
From t1 to t2’ From t2’ to t2
IS2
S1 C1 S1 C1 IC2
0
ILr Lr ILr Lr IC1
ILoad ILoad
Sr
0
S2 C2 S2 C2 t1 t2 t3 t4
t 2’ t 3’
From t2 to t3 From t3 to t4
JSL

ARCP ZVT Inverter Test Results

A S1
SX1 SX2 DS1
CX1 D1 C S
B
C Vdc ia
LX1 M1
CX2 S2 ia
DS2
D D2 C S

2 µs/div Auxiliary Circuit

97
Inverter efficiency [%]

A : vg(S2) (20 V/div)

96
B : ia (200 A/div)
C : iax (200 A/div) 95

D : vS2 (200 V/div) 94

93
without diodes
with diodes
92

91
50.2 80.9 5.0 20.7 50.5 101.4 5.9 12.2 41.6 10.1 14.8 31.9 13.3 20.4 Torque [N-m]
1920 3770 5635 7560 9460 Speed [rpm]

JSL

28
 Zero Current Transition Inverter

Sr1 Sr3 Sr5 S1 S3 S5

Lr Cr

Vs Cs
AC
Motor
Sr4 Sr6 Sr2 S4 S6 S2

JSL

Basic Operation of ZCT Soft Turn-on

S1 S1
0 Sr
ILr Lr Cr ILr Lr Cr
ILoad ILoad 0 S1
current + VCr– current
direction direction VCr
S2 S2 0
in this in this
period period
ILoad
From t0 to t1 From t1 to t2 ILr
0
S1 S1

ILr Lr ILoad ILr Lr ILoad VCE1

0
IS1
S2 S2 0
t0
t1 t2 t3 t4
From t2 to t3 From t3 to t4
JSL

29
 Test Results of 30-kW Soft-Switching Inverters

ARCP ZVT Ix (200 A/div)

Iload (200A/div)

Vce (200 V/div)

5ms/div
5 /d i

ZCT Vce (250 V/div)

Ix (200 A/div)

ILoad (200A/div)
5ms/div
JSL

Basic Operation of ZCT Soft Turn-off

S1 S1
0 Sr
ILr Lr Cr ILoad ILr Lr Cr ILoad 0 S1
Vdc
+V –
Cr VCr
Initial 0
VCr is S2 S2
negative
ILoad
From t5 to t6 From t6 to t7 ILr
0

S1 S1

ILr Lr ILoad ILr Lr ILoad VCE1

0
IS1
0
S2 S2
t5 t6 t7 t8 t9 t10
From t7 to t8 From t8 to t10
JSL

30
 Soft-Switching Inverter Assembled in EV1
Chassis

Development...

Testing...

On the Road...

JSL

Bi-directional Charger for Fuel Cell Powered

Electric Vehicles
Energy
High Voltage Bus (>300V) Storage Cap.
+
Inverter Motor
−
Voltage Clamp
Fuel Cell

dc-dc Converter
Bi-directional
Power Flow

Controller

Compressor
CMEU

Motor
Expanding
Unit

Battery +
Other
Loads for Startup −

JSL

31
 Why Bi-directional DC-DC Converter is Needed?

1. Need to have high voltage to start up the CMEU controller.

2. Need to stabilize the bus voltage during transient
conditions.
3. Need battery to charge the dc bus bus for the initial startup
power (Boost operation)
3. Need to keep battery charged (Buck operation)

JSL

Circuit Topology Considerations for the

Bi-directional DC-DC Converter

1. Single-directional vs. bi-directional

2. Isolated vs. non-isolated
3. Multiple-leg Interleaved vs. single-leg
4. Voltage source vs. current source for either primary or
secondary side
5. Low side battery with 12 V, 42 V, or 180 V vs. high side
fuel cell at about 300 V

JSL

32
 Non-Isolated Buck Converter
d Q1 s L
Vg vgs
D1 +
+ g
− C v R
−

vgs Gate on Gate off Average output voltage:

V = DVg
Inductor Inductor
charged discharged
where D is the duty ratio.
iL
Because D < 1, V is always less
than Vg " buck converting
Capacitor Capacitor
v charged discharged

DTs D’Ts
JSL

Non-Isolated Boost Converter

L iL iD D1

+ vL – +
Vg Q1 iQ iC
+ C R
v
–
vgs –

vgs Gate on Gate off Average output voltage:

1 1
V= Vg = Vg
Inductor Inductor 1− D D'
charged discharged
iL where D is the duty ratio, and
D’ = 1 – D. Because D’ < 1, V
Capacitor Capacitor is always greater than Vg "
discharged charged boost converting
v

JSL DTs D’Ts

33
 Non-Isolated Single-Directional Boost Converter
Non-Interleaved vs. Interleaved

Su S1u S2u
L1 i1 +
+
L i

Load
Load
VFC L2 i2 VFC
– –
Vbatt Sd S1d S2d
Vbatt

(a) Non-Interleaved (b) Interleaved

JSL

A Non-Isolated Bi-Directional DC-DC Converter

with Interleaved Control

Power module

S2u S3u

Ld2
Load

VFC
Ld3

Vbatt S2d S3d

JSL

34
 Ripple Current Cancellation Effect in a 20 kW
Interleaved Boost Converter

IL1 IL2

33 A/div

IL1 + IL2

33 A/div
50 µs/div

JSL

Efficiency Test Results of a 20 kW Interleaved

Boost Converter

98
Predicted
Efficiency (%)

96
94
92
experimental
90
88
At Vin = 200 V, Vo = 300 V
86
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000
Output Power (W)

DCM operated converter has parasitic ringing losses at the light load
condition, and the efficiency is suffered.

JSL

35
 Isolated Buck Converter

L
Q1 Q3

a 1:n
+ Cf +
Vg C R
v
– b –
Q2 Q4

• Suitable for high voltage input and low voltage output

• Zero-voltage switching can be achieved with phase-shift modulation

JSL

Isolated Boost Converter

Q1 Q3

a 1:n
+ Cf +
Vg C R
v
– b –
Q2 Q4

• Suitable for low voltage input and high voltage output

• The main problem is high voltage stress on the switching devices

JSL

36
 Low-Voltage Side “Half-Bridge Current-Fed”
Isolated Bi-directional Converter
S5 S8
L1 L2

Llk 1:n
Vb
Co

S1 S2 S7 S6
Rc Cc

! Low switch counts

! Simple transformer winding structure
! Low transformer current
× Start-up problem
× Low choke ripple frequency (fs)
× Duty cycle limitation
JSL # Passive clamp is easy to implement but lossy

Low-Voltage Side “Full-Bridge Current-Fed”

L
Isolated Bi-directional Converter
S1 S4 S5 S8

Sc
Llk
1:n
Vb
Co

Cc S3 S2 S7 S6

! Simple voltage clamp circuit implementation

! Simple transformer winding structure and lower turns ratio
! Low transformer current
! High choke ripple frequency (2fs)
× Start-up problem
JSL
× High switches count

37
 Complete Bi-directional dc-dc Charger with
Clamping and Start-up Circuits

Start-up circuit
Df If
1:n Lkf p
L +
IL
S5 S8
Sc S1 S4

+
Vb -Ip Lk
Tr Vo
+

Vpn A C
_ Is _
Cin Ic B Co
D
1:n
S7 S6
S2
Cc _ S3

Active Clamp circuit

JSL

Prototype of a Liquid Cooled Bi-directional

DC-DC Converter to be Installed in a Fuel
Cell Vehicle

JSL

38
 Start-up Mode Operation

125 A/d
IL Start Up Process:

Is 20 A/d t0-t1 Start up mode, open loop

controlled
t1-t2 Boost mode, open loop
100 A/d controlled
ILref
t2-t3 Boost mode, inner current
loop regulated
100 V/d
t3- Boost mode, outer voltage
Vo loop regulated

t0 t1 t2 t3
Start-up Transition Load Vo
command from start-up engaged at regulated
Vb = 12 V, IL = 161 A, Vo = 280 V,
initiation to regular Vo=255 V Pd = 1.83 kW in steady state
boost
Average current
JSL loop regulated

Switch Voltage and Current Waveforms in

Boost (Discharging) Mode Operation

S3

Is 10 A/d

Vpn 10 V/d

Vb = 8 V, IL = 228 A, Vo = 288 V, Pd = 1.55 kW

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 Comparison of Measured Efficiency Profile for
Efficie ncy Discharging (Boost) Mode Operation
0.94
10 V

0.92
8V Full-Bridge Test conditions:
0.9
Start-up, battery discharging
0.88 10 V
L-Type Battery voltage: Vb = 8 and 10 V
0.86 8V High side voltage: Vo = 288 V
Switching freq.: fs = 20 kHz
0.84

0.82
400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600
Po
1. Higher battery voltage, higher overall efficiency.
2. Full bridge is more efficient than the L-type half-bridge converter in overall
operating range.
3. Efficiency at light-load exceeds 90% with full-bridge version.
4.
JSL L-type converter is lossy due to passive clamp circuit.

Switch Voltage and Current Waveforms in

Buck (Charging) Mode Operation

Vcd 250 V/d

Is 20 A/d

Vpn 50 V/d

Vb = 15 V, IL = 335 A, Vo = 425 V, Pcp = 5 kW

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 Comparison of Measured Efficiency Profile for
Charging (Buck) Mode Operation
Efficie ncy
0.95
Full-Bridge
0.925
0.9
0.875 Test conditions:
L-Type
0.85
0.825 Regenerative Mode
0.8 Battery voltage: Vb=15 V
0.775 High voltage bus: Vo=425 V
0.75
0.725
0.7
1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000
Pch (W)
1. L-type half-bridge efficiency reaches only 90%
2. Full bridge converter is more efficient with peak efficiency 95% because
• more devices in parallel on low-voltage side
• active clamp circuit provides lossless snubbing
• soft-switching with zero-voltage zero-current operations
JSL

Summary and Discussions

• Development of EV/HEV is very vital in recent years

• HEV has hit the market since 1999
• Fuel cell is becoming the choice of energy source for future
EVs
• Power electronics is the main driver of EV/HEV
• Key power electronics technologies are traction motor/inverter
drives and bi-directional chargers
• Power electronics engineers are in great demand

JSL

41