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Valorization of Wood Ashes as Partial Replacement of Portland Cement:

Mechanical Performance and Durability

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European Journal of Scientific Research
ISSN 1450-216X / 1450-202X Vol. 151 No 4 February, 2019, pp. 468-478
http://www. europeanjournalofscientificresearch.com

Valorization of Wood Ashes as Partial Replacement of Portland

Cement: Mechanical Performance and Durability

Mambou Ngueyep Luc Leroy

Corresponding Author, Laboratory of Materials Science, Department of Physics
Faculty of Science, University of Yaoundé 1, P.O.BOX 812 Yaoundé, Cameroon
School of Geology and Mining Engineering
University of Ngaoundéré, P.O. BOX 115 Meiganga, Cameroon

Fotseu Miyo Christian Dupont

School of Geology and Mining Engineering
University of Ngaoundéré, P.O. BOX 115 Meiganga, Cameroon

Kamseu Elie
Laboratory of Materials, Local Materials Promotion Authority
MINRESI/MIPROMALO, P.O. Box 2396, Yaoundé, Cameroon

Abstract

The study presents the behaviour of wood ash / OPC mortar. Two wood ashes are
used in this study WA1 and WA2. Chemical analysis of wood ash, bulk density, sieve
analysis and specific gravity of wood ash and aggregates, loss on ignition (LOI), X-ray
diffraction (XRD) analysis and infrared spectrometry (IR)analysis of wood ash, consistency
and setting time of the fresh paste, durability test and density of mortar cubes were
conducted to determine the suitability of the materials for mortar making. Percentage
replacement level of 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 percents of cement by wood ash were used.
40×40×40mm cubes were cast, cured and crushed at 7, 28 and 56 days to determine their
compressive strength. Test result indicates that the WA1 is slightly pozzolanic, WA2 not.
Water demand increases as the ash content increases and the setting time of the paste
increases as the ash content increases. Compressive strength of wood ash / OPC concrete it
increases with age at curing with optimum replacement of cement by WA1 of 15%.
Density and durability increases as the ash content increases.

Keywords: wood ash; mortar; chemical analysis; loss on ignition (LOI); X-ray diffraction
(XRD) analysis; Infrared spectrometry (IR) analysis.

Introduction
In the 21st century, there are two significant challenges facing the quest for sustainable industrial
development - reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and decreasing or recycling of waste
materials [1]. The production of cement has resulted in a major increase of CO2 emissions which in
turn has significantly contributed to global warming. Consequently, this has provided further incentive
to use alternative materials as much as possible in the construction industry. Such additives are also
known as supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). The incorporation of SCMs in concrete is a
possible approach, resulting in the reduction of both cement content and CO2 emissions per unit
amount of concrete. Some SCMs contain a certain property called pozzolanicity which offers
Valorization of Wood Ashes as Partial Replacement of Portland Cement:
Mechanical Performance and Durability 469

beneficial effects in enhancing the properties of concrete [2].Wood ash in this study is an admixture: a
pozzolana. A pozzolana is a material rich in silica and alumina which in itself has little or no
cementitious value but will, in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react
with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperatures to form compounds possessing cementitious
properties [3]. Wood ash is obtained from the combustion of wood. It can be related to fly ash since fly
ash is obtained from coal, which is a fossilized wood [4].
Wood ashes being a material with variables properties, it is necessary to characterize it for any
utilization. Many authors have investigated on wood ash as cement replacement. These investigations
have different result influencing by wood ashes characteristics and more. Like presented as follow,
authors are according to the fact that wood ash has pozzolanic properties and similar characteristics
with fly ash. Recently many investigations have been done on wood ash as cement replacement.
In 2013, Telma Ramos and al. [5], investigate the Mechanical strength and carbonation
resistance and ASR expansion of Mortar with wood waste ash. Wood waste ash (WWA) was used in
mortar as a partial cement replacement (0%, 10% and 20%) material to ascertain applicability in
concrete. Enhanced strength and durability results confirmed that wood waste ash can further
contribute to sustainability in construction.
In 2015, S. Chowdhury et al. [6], study the strength development in concrete with wood ash
blended cement and use of soft computing models to predict strength parameters
In this study, Wood Ash (WA) prepared from the uncontrolled burning of the saw dust is
evaluated for its suitability as partial cement replacement in conventional concrete. Results of
compressive strength, split tensile strength and flexural strength showed that the strength properties of
concrete mixture decreased marginally with increase in wood ash contents, but strength increased with
later age. The XRD test results and chemical analysis of WA showed that it contains amorphous silica
and thus can be used as cement replacing material.
Recently in 2017, Amir Shafi Batt et al. [7], investigate the partial Replacement of Wood Ash
with Ordinary Portland cement and Foundry Sand as Fine Aggregate.
Their study focuses on incorporation of wood ash in combination with ordinary Portland
cement while using it for various structural works. Uncontrolled burning of saw dust to form wood ash
is used as a partial replacement of cement, thereby changing its physical and chemical properties.
These properties are found somewhat similar to fly ash. The concrete mixes are replaced with the
amorphous wood ash as an admixture of cement having grain size less than 75 microns in proportions
of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25% and 30% by weight of cement.
This paper describes the chemical, physical and mineralogical properties of two different wood
ashes and the possibility of its application in cement and mortar industry.

Material and Experimental Methods

Materials
Wood Ashes (WAs)
In this paper the wood ashes used are from two different sources. WA1 is from the artisanal bakery of
Makepe-Douala. WA2 is from the city of Bafoussam domestic fireplace. The ashes were sampled by
dry way, sorted then sifter. The wood ash was passed through BS sieve 0.045mm size.

Cement
In this paper we use cement Portland composed C.P.J NC CEM II/B-P 42,5R according to the norm
NC 234: 2009-06, coming from the cement factory CIMENCAM of Douala. Physical characteristics of
cement are presented in table1.
470 Mambou Ngueyep Luc Leroy, Fotseu Miyo Christian Dupont and Kamseu Elie

Aggregates
In this study fine aggregate used is an alluvial sand coming from Sanaga River. The table 2 presents
the physical properties of alluvial sand.

Table 1: Properties of the cement

Properties C.P.J NC CEM II/B-P 42,5R

Initial setting time 140
Final setting time 361
Mass specific 3.16 g/cmଷ
Blaine Specific surface area 3425 cmଶ /g
Consistency 30

Table 2: Physical properties of sand

Physicals properties Sanaga sand

Compacted bluk density(g/cm3) 2.85
Non-compacted bluk density (g/cm3) 1.72
Equivalent of Sand: ES at Piston (%) 73.83
Fineness 2.55
Coefficient of uniformity or Hazen 4.1
Coefficient of Curvature 1.1

Methods
Mix and Casting of Mortar
For the study, six different proportion of concrete mixes (WA replacement of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and
25% by weight of cement) including the control mixture were prepared with water to binder ratio of
0.48. For the compression test, cube were casted in dimension 5×5×5cm for each replacement
percentage. Compacting of concrete was done manually. For each replacement percentage four
specimens were casted for 7 days, four specimens were casted for 28 days test and four specimens
were casted for 56 days test. The average result is reported in the paper.

Paste of Cement-ash Mixture

Consistence, initial and final setting times were found on the pastes of cement-ash mixture. Ashes were
used as cement replacement of 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25% by weight. Mixtures were made with mortar
mixer ELE international according to ref [8].

Mortar Cubes Compressive Strength and Durability Measurements

Compressive strength test were made according to ref [8]. In this survey, the effect of 5% HCL in mass
concentration on the loss of mass of the test-cubes in pozzolanic mortars and in Portland cement
mortars has been examined.

Results and Discussions

Characterization of the Ashes
The results from the characterization of the two WAs are presented in Table 3.Coal fly ash to be used
in concrete must conform to the requirements in (ASTM C 618-94, 1994)[9]. As there is no standard
for requirements for use of alternative ashes such as WA, the characteristics in Table 2 are compared to
ASTM C 618-94 bearing in mind that this standard is valid for coal fly ash only. The total percentage
Valorization of Wood Ashes as Partial Replacement of Portland Cement:
Mechanical Performance and Durability 471

composition of Iron oxide (Fe2O3 = 1.655% and 1.854%), aluminium oxide (Al2O3 = 8.451% and
8.122%) and silicon dioxide (SiO2 = 50.382% and 30.251%) was found to be 60.485% and 40.21%
respectively for WA1 and WA2. These are less than 70% minimum required for pozzolana [9].
This reduces the pozzolanicity of the wood ash. The percentage composition of silicon dioxide
and aluminium oxide (50.38%, 30.21% and 8.45%, 8.12% respectively) were within the range
specified by ref.[10]. However, the percentage composition of Iron oxide was not in agreement with
the work [10]. The loss on ignition obtained were 8.42% and 16.1% respectively for WA1 and WA2.
The value is more than 12% maximum as required for pozzolana [9]. This means that the wood ash
contain appreciable amount of un-burnt carbon which reduces its pozzolanic activity. The un-burnt
carbon is not pozzolanic and its presence serves as filler to the mixture. The alkali content (Na2O eq)
were found to be 10.00% and 6.16% respectively for WA1 and WA2. This value is higher than the
maximum alkali content of 1.5% required for pozzolana [9]. The alkali content is important were the
wood ash is to be used with reactive aggregate [11]. Wood ash will not be suitable for construction
work where reactive aggregate is to be used. The total soluble fraction of the WAs are 12% and 9.12%
respectively for WA1 and WA2. The pH (12.35 and 10.52 for WA1 and WA2 respectively) of the
WAs is high showing that hydroxides are leached (pH is measured in a suspension of WA in distilled
water).The specific gravities of WA1 and WA2 are of 2.96 and 2.74 respectively. These results are
similar to those of the fly ashes produced by coal (1.9 – 2.96) [12].The Blaine specific surfaces area of
WA1 and WA2 are 4013 and 3252 cm2/g respectively; what is similar, but however a few finer than
traditional fly ashes. It is important to note that the WA1 is finer than the WA2.The bulk density of
WA1 and WA2were found to be 1.1 and 0.84 g/cm3 respectively.

Table 3: Chemical composition and Physicals properties of several ashes

ASTM C 618
Constituent WA1 WA2
Class C Class F
Physicals properties
Specific gravity 2.98 2.745 - -
Blaine specific surface area, cm2/g 4015 3255 - -
0.897 0.624 - -
Bulk density, g/cm3
1.16 0.847 - -
Chemical composition %
SiO2 52.385 51.211 - -
Al2O3 9.455 8.14 - -
Fe2O3 2.65 1.854 - -
SiO2+Al2O3+Fe2O3 64.49 60.2 ≥ 50% ≥ 70%
CaO 12.01 10.199 ≥ 20% -
MgO 2.16 8.244 <5% <5%
SO3 3.8 2.546 <5% <5%
TiO2 0.187 0.279 - -
K 2O 14.62 7.08 - -
Na2O 2.75 1.52 - -
Na2O eq(a) 10.03 6.19 ≤1.5% ≤1.5%
LOI 8.44 16.15 ≤6% ≤ 6% (b)
pH 12.46 10.56 - -
Solubility (%) 12.54 9.14 - -
Water content (%) 2.145 3.325 - -
(a)
Na20 equivalent = 0.658 K20 + Na20
(b)
The use of class F fly ash containing up to 12% loss on ignition may be approved by the users if acceptable performance
results are available.

The XRD analysis of the WAs (see Figure 1 and 2) shows that other than the amorphous phase,
the crystalline phases presented in the WAs were calcite, gypsum, anhydrite, quartz, tridymite,
magnetite, hematite, rutile, muscovite, and some evidence of portlandite. The relative intensities of the
472 Mambou Ngueyep Luc Leroy, Fotseu Miyo Christian Dupont and Kamseu Elie

various diffraction peaks suggested that, of the crystalline phases in these ashes, calcite/ vaterite,
gypsum/anhydrite and quartz/tridynite for WA1/WA2 were the major phases. The infrared
spectrometry has permitted to differentiate the crystalline shapes of the silica in the WA1 in quartz and
opal (hydrated silica). In addition we observe two different type of calcium sulphate (gypsum and
anhydrite in WA2 and WA1 respectively).

Figure 1: Diffractogram of WA1 for XRD analysis

Figure 2: Diffractogram of WA1 for XRD analysis

Figures 3 and 4 show the FTIR absorption spectra of the two ashes. In each of these ashes, the
characteristics strips of the radical CO3- corresponding to calcite are identified. For WA1 the strips are
1408.45 cm-1, 872.77 cm-1, 711.82 cm-1 and for WA2 the strips are 1416.287 cm-1. 874.2 cm-1, 711.91
cm-1. The characteristics strips of the radical SO4-are also identified. For WA1, the strips are 1028.71
cm-1, 616.32 cm-1corresponding to anhydrite (CaSO4). For WA2, the strips are 985.39 cm-1, 601.81 cm-
1
and 1631.3 cm-1 (water of hydration), corresponding to gypsum. The characteristic strips of Si-O
liaison are also identified. For WA1, the strip is 436.94 cm-1and for WA2 the strip is 433.73 cm-1
Valorization of Wood Ashes as Partial Replacement of Portland Cement:
Mechanical Performance and Durability 473

corresponding to silica. Isolated strips like for the case of WA1, 569.34 cm-1 corresponding to hydrated
silica and for the case of the WA2 of 779.91 cm-1corresponding to another carbonate different to calcite
(vaterite) [13].

Figure 3: FTIR spectra of WA1

1408.45

1028.71

872.77

711.82
616.32
569.34

436.94
0.12
Absorbance Units
0.04 0.08
0.00

3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500

Wavenumber cm-1

Figure 4: FTIR spectra of WA2

1631.29

1416.28

985.39
874.20
779.91
711.93
601.81

433.73
0.20
0.15
Absorbance Units
0.10 0.05
0.00

3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500

Wavenumber cm-1

Consistency and Setting Times Tests

Figure 5 presents the result for the consistency test. Result reveals that the water demand increases
with the wood ash content. The wood ash introduced into the cement increases the carbon content and
then increases the water required to achieve a reasonable workability [14]. The Bigger is carbon
content in a fly ash, the more water is necessary to produce a normal consistency. During this time, the
carbon appears as cellular particles that have a very big specific surface. Therefore it is capable to
adsorb substantial quantities of water [15].
474 Mambou Ngueyep Luc Leroy, Fotseu Miyo Christian Dupont and Kamseu Elie

The initial and final setting times increases with the increase in wood ash content. The
exothermic reaction between cement and water result into liberation of heat and evaporation of water
and eventually hardening of the paste. The rate of reaction and quantity of heat liberated reduces with
the introduction of wood ash leading to late stiffening of the paste. As the hydration process was
prolonged, greater amount of water was required in the process [14].The effects of WA on setting
times appeared more significant with increasing the replacement level [16, 17].

Figure 5: Consistency test results

Consistency of paste mixture CEM I + WA 1 Consistency of paste mixture CEM I + WA 2

Water/binder ratio (%)

Water/binder ratio (%)

33.0 34.7
32.0 33.3
31.0 32.0
30.0 31.0
29.0 30.0
29.3
28 28.0 28.3 28.7
28

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
PC replacement by WA1 (%) PC replacement by WA2 (%)

Consistency of paste mixture CEM II + WA 2 Water/binder ratio (%) Consistency of paste mixture CEM II + WA 1
Water/binder ratio (%)

38.3
36.7
37.0
35.7 35.3
34.3
34.3
33.3
33.0 32.3
32.0 31.3
31.0 30.7
30 30

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

OPC replacement by WA2 (%) OPC replacement by WA1 (%)

The result for the setting times test is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Setting time test results

Valorization of Wood Ashes as Partial Replacement of Portland Cement:
Mechanical Performance and Durability 475

Compressive Strength Test

Figure 7 show the result for the compressive strength of WA1 and WA2 / OPC mortars at 7, 28and 56
days.

Figure 7: Compressive Strength of WA1 and WA2 / OPC mortars at 7, 28 and 56 days

Figure 7 shows decreasing of compressive strength with increasing amount of ash. Decreasing
strength with increasing cement replacement with WA is in agreement with literature; see e.g. [15].The
result shows that the cubes containing 0% wood ash had the highest compressive strength. The mix
containing 15% and 10% wood ash had higher strength than all the rest at 7, 28 and 56 days
respectively for WA1 and WA2.
This was due to the fact that the silica provided by the replacement percentage under 15%
and10% wood ash respectively for WA1 and WA2 was inadequate to react with the calcium hydroxide
produced by the hydration of cement. Increase in wood ash content beyond 10% and 15% resulted in a
reduction in strength at 7, 28 and 56 days for WA1 and WA2 respectively. In this case the silica
present in the mix was in excess of the amount required to combine with the calcium hydroxide from
the hydrating cement. The excess silica had no pozzolanic value but only served as filler [14]. At 28
days, compressive strength of 15% wood ash mortar is greater than compressive strength of the control
mortar for WA1 and it’s an optimum replacement percentage. This optimum is in consistency with
literature; see e.g. [18] and [19]. However at 56 days this difference reverses itself and the compressive
strength of control becomes superior. What can explain itself by the pozzolanic reaction, this time
misled by the SCMs introduced at the time of the production of the OPC. These materials having been
activated by calcinations and possess a better reactivity than the WAs. Then they are going to increase
compressive strength. Shi C [19] makes mention of this activation method by calcination and their
improvements in compressive strength.
The strength activity index (SAI) was performed in accordance with ASTM C 311 (2004f) [20].
As shown in Table 5, the SAI of cubes attained 89% at 28 days for WA1 which further surpassed the
minimum limit of 75% when the mortar contained 20% of tested ash recommended by ASTM C 618
(2003a) [21]. Hence, it can be concluded that the WA1 led to high activity. Besides, the 15% ratio was
considered as the optimum choice. However, if the relatively lower strength of structure at young age
is accepted, the higher replacement ratio up to 20% can be applied in order to generate more benefits in
both economic and environmental considerations.
476 Mambou Ngueyep Luc Leroy, Fotseu Miyo Christian Dupont and Kamseu Elie

The water requirements of WAs mortars are shown in Table 4 in accordance with [21]. Some
WA mortars had a higher water demand than that of the maximum reference of coal-produced fly ash
specified in [21].

Table 4: Results of SAI and water requirement of mortar cubes within Was

Strength activity index (%)WA1 ASTM C618

Time (days)
WA5% WA10% WA15% WA20% WA25% Minimum (%)
7 70 64 89 75 62 75
28 71 89 102 89 65 75
56 53 72 83 62 66 -
Maximum (%)
Water requirement (% of control) 101 101 103 104 106
105
Strength activity index (%) WA2 Minimum (%)
7 55 70 55 49 55 75
28 66 71 64 45 54 75
56 55 66 46 38 41 -
Maximum (%)
Water requirement (% of control) 101 103 105 107 108
105

Durability Test
Table 5: Durability test results

Loss mass at7 days (%) Loss mass at 28 days (%)

Replacement (%)
WA1 WA2 WA1 WA2
0 4,27 4,33 10,15 10,13
5 3,19 2,59 6,36 5,52
10 2,11 1,35 5,51 4,82
15 1,04 1,82 4,21 3,58
20 1,38 1,54 3,46 2,44
25 1,13 0,81 2,03 1,90

Table 5 shows the change in mass loss of mortars made with and without the addition of WAs
with different percentages, depending on the immersion period in the 5% HCl solution for 7 and 28
days.
We first notice that all mortars with and without addition of WAs, without exception, show
permanent weight loss at all periods. It is remarkable to notice that all the pozzolanic mortars without
exception show losses in mass lower than that of the mortar without pozzolan and this at 7 and 28 days.
It can be argued that WA played an important role in allowing pozzolanic mortars to resist the attack of
hydrochloric acid. The percentage of wood ash of 25% which displays the least mass losses, so the
higher the percentage of wood ash is greater the resistance of the mortar is great to the attack
hydrochloric acid (5% HCl).

Conclusions
In this study chemical, physical and mineralogical characteristics of wood ashes compressive strength
and durability of mortars made with WAs were investigated. From the findings of this work the
following conclusions were made:
• The chemical composition of wood ash fell below the standard for pozzolana;
• The physical properties are similar to fly ash properties and according to other authors results;
• CaCO3, CaSO4- and SiO2are the main mineral present in our wood ashes;
• The water requirement increases as wood ash content increases;
Valorization of Wood Ashes as Partial Replacement of Portland Cement:
Mechanical Performance and Durability 477

• The setting times of wood ash / OPC paste increases as the ash content increases;
• The compressive strength of the mortar with 15% WA1 content increased appreciably at 28
days and the SAI (102) is great than the other. The optimum replacement level was therefore
15%;
• The compressive strength of mortar with 10% WA2 content presents an interesting SAI
value(71%) but remains below the recommendation (75%). however, it may be used where
high resistance is not necessary;
• The higher the percentage of wood ash is greater the resistance of the mortar is great to the
attack hydrochloric acid (5% HCl).

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The authors also confirm that in this paper:
• Acknowledgements is Not applicable.
• Competing interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
• Availability of data and materials is Not applicable.
• Consent for publication is Not applicable.
• Ethics approval and consent to participate is Not applicable.
• Funding is Not applicable.
No data were used to support this study.

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