WEEK4

AMI
NO ACI
DS

Ami noaci
dsareder i
vati
vesofcar boxyli
cacidsinwhichonehydr
ogenatom of
alkylgrouphasbeenr eplaced byanami nogroup,-NH2.Aminoacidsarethe
basicst
ruct
uraluni
tsofprotei
nswiththegener
almolecul
arfor
mular:

H–C-COOH

NH2

Thecarbonatom oftheaminoacidtowhicht
hefunct
ionalgr
oupi
sat
tachedi
s
knownastheα-car
bon.Ther
earethreef
ormsofami
noacids:

1
.Theaci
dcondi
tonH3+NCH2COOH
i

2.Theneut
ralcondi
tonH3+NCH2COO
i

3.Thebas
iccondi
ti
onH2NCH2COO

H3+NCH2COOH H3+NCH2COO H2NCH2COO

Aci
dcondi
ti
on neut
ralcondi
ti
on bas
iccondi
ti
on

NOMENCLATUREOFAMI
NO ACI
DS

(
i) H (
ii
) H (
ii
i) H

H–C–COOH CH3-C–COOH H2N–C–COOH

NH2 NH3 CH2

Ami
noet
hanoi
caci
d 2–ami
nopr
opanoi
c SH

(
glyci
ne) aci
d(al
ani
ne) cys
tei
ne
 O

(
iv)H2N–CH2 –CH2 –CH2 –CH2 –C

OH

5–ami
nopent
anoi
caci
d

NH2 O

(
v)HO –CH2 –CH-C

OH

2–ami
no,3-
hydr
oxypr
opanoi
caci
d(s
eri
ne)

O NH2 O

(
vi) C-CH2-
CH2-
CH-
C

HO OH

2–ami
no-
1,
5-pent
adi
oicaci
d(gl
utami
caci
d)

NH2 O

(
vii
) CH3–CH-
CH-
C

OH OH

2-ami
no–hydr
oxylbut
anoi
caci
d(t
hreoni
ne)

H Br Br O

(
vii
i) N–C–C–C

H H Br OH

3-
ami
no-
2,2,
3-t
ribr
omopr
opanoi
caci
d
PREPARATI
ONOFAMI
NO ACI
DS

Ami
noacidsarepr
epar
edbyt
reat
ingal
kanalwi
thcyani
dei
ons
,int
hepr
esenceof
ammoni
um ions
.

PHYSI
CALPROPERTI
ESOFAMI
NO ACI
DS

1.Theyaresal
t–l
ikeandi
oni
cbecaus
eoff
ormat
ionoft
hezwi
tt
eri gN+H3 .
onse.
CH2 .COO-

2.Theyar
emor
esol
ubl
einwat
ert
hani
nles
spol
ars
olvent
ssuchaset
her

3.Theyhavel
ow s
olubi
li
tyi
nnon-
pol
ars
olvent
s

4.α-ami
noaci
dsar
ecr
yst
all
ines
oli
dswi
thhi
ghmel
ti
ngandboi
li
ngpoi
nt

CHEMI
CALPROPERTI
ESOFAMI
NO ACI
DS

1
.Ami
noaci
dsr
eactwi
thal
kanol
sint
hepr
esenceofanaci
dcat
alys
ttogi
vees
ter
s.

2.Amino acids on heat

ing r
eactwi
ths
odi
um t
rioxocar
bonat
e(i
V)s
olut
ion t
o
li
ber
atecarbon(
iv)oxide

3.Ami noaci
dsr
eactwi
thacylchl
ori
desoraci
d anhydr
idest
ogi
veacyl
ated
products

4.Amino aci
ds r
eacts wi
th di
oxoni
trat
e(I
II
)aci
dto gi
ve ni
trogen and t
he
cor
res
pondi
nghydroxylcar
boxyl
icaci
d

PROTEI
NS

Protei
nsmayber egar
dedast heproductsofs uccess
ivecondens at
ionbetween
carbonylgroupofoneami noacidandt heami nogroupofanot herami noacid.
protei
nsarecompl excombinati
onsofami noacidswhi chareessentialconst
ituents
oflivi
ngcells,bei
ngresponsi
bleforgrowt handt hemaintei
nanceofal lt
iss
ues .

SOURCESOFPROTEI N:Mil
k,Egg,Fis
h,Cheese,Meat
,Chi
cken.Whi
lepl
ant
sour
cesar
e:Beans
,gr
oundnut,s
oyabeans,cowpeae.
t.
c
PROPERTI
ESOFPROTEI
NS

1
.Denat
urat
ion

2.Hydr
olys
is

TESTFORPROTEI
NS

1.Biur
ettes
t:Addabout1 cm3ofdilutecausi
cs odas oluti
onintoat es
ttube
contai
ningsomedilut
eeggwhi t
esoluti
on.Thenadd1 %copper (
II)
tet
raoxosul
phate(
vi)sol
utiondropbydr opands hakethoroughly.Theformat
ionof
avioletcol
ourati
onindi
cat est
hepresenceofpr otei
ns.

2.Mill
ion’
stes
t:Addf ew dr
opsofmi l
lion’
sreagenttos
omeegg–whites
olut
ioni
n
atestt
ube.Theformationofawhi t
eprecipi
tat
ewhi cht
urnsbr
ick–r
edonheati
ng
i
ndicat
esthepresenceofpropt
eins

3.Trioxoni
trat
e(V)acidTes
t:Addfew dr
opsofconcentratedhydrogen
3
tr
ioxonit
rat
e(v)acidto2cm ofegg–whitesolut
ion.Theformati
onofanint
ens
e
yell
ow colourindi
catest
hepres
enceofprot
eins.

I
MPORTNCEOFPROTEI
N

1
.Pr
otei
nsi
sus
edf
ort
hegr
owt
hofyoungones

2.I
tisus
edf
ort
her
epai
rofwor
n–outt
iss
uesorcel
ls

3.I
tai
dsr
epr
oduct
ion

4.I
tisus
edf
ort
hepr
oduct
ionofenzymes

5.I
tisal
sous
edf
orpr
oduct
ionofhor
mones

6.I
tisus
edf
ort
iss
ueandcel
lfor
mat
ion.

AMI
NES
Organiccompoundsthatareobtai
nedbyr epl
aci
ngoneormoreofhydrogenatoms
ofammoni a(NH3)byal kylorarylgroups.Aminesar
edri
vedfrom ammoniaby
replaci
ngthehydrogenatoms,oneatat i
mewi t
hcarbon–cont
aini
nggroups.The
fundamentgroupsareR-NH2,R2 –NH,R3–N

Amineareclas
sif
iedi nt
opr
imar
y,s
econdar
yandt
ert
iar
yaccor
dingt
othenumber
ofs
ubsti
tut
edhydr ogen.
CLASSI
FICATI
ONOFAMI
NES

PRIMARYAMI NES:Thes
eareami
nest
hathaveoneal
kylorar
ylgr
oupat
tached
t
otheni
trogenofanaminee.
g H

R–NH2 R–N

H. CH3

(
i)CH3NH2 (
ii
)C6H5NH2 (
ii
i)C6H5CH2NH2 (
iv)CH3(
CH2)
3CHNH2

Met
hyl
ami
ne phenyl
ami
ne phenyl
met
hyl
ami
ne hexyl
-2-
ami
neor

(
benzyl
ami
ne) haxan-
2-ami
ne

(
v)CH3CH2NH2 (
vi)

Et
hyl
ami
ne CH2NH2

Benzyl
ami
ne

SECONDARY AMI NES:These ar

e ami
ne t
hathave t
wo al
kylorar
ylgr
oups
at
tachedt
otheni
trogenofami
nee.
g

(
i)CH3CH2 –N–CH2CH3 (
ii
) CH3 CH3

H N

di
ethyl
ami
ne

N,N–di
met
hyl
ami
ne

TERTI ARY AMI

NES:Thes e ar
e ami
ne t
hathave t
hree al
kylorar
ylgr
oups
at
tachedtot
heni
trogenofami
nee.g CH3

(
i)(
C2H5)
3N (
ii
)CH3–N–CH3

t
riet
hyl
ami
ne

N,
N,N–t
rimet
hyl
ami
ne
LABORATORYPREPARATI
ONOFAMI
NE

1.Fr
om al
kylhal
ide:canbepr
epar
efr
om al
kyl
hal
idesi
nthepr
esenceofexces
s
ammoni
a

2.By thereducti
onofni t
ril
es: Ni
tri
lesgi
vepr
imar
y ami
neonr
educt
ionwi
th
power
fulreducingagent
sinether
.

I
NDUSTRI
ALPREPARATI
ONOFAMI
NES

Tri
oxo-
nit
rat
e(v)aci
dreadi
lyconver
tsal
kanest
oni
troal
kanesus
ingni
ckelasa
cat
alys
t

PHYSI
CALPROPERTI
ESOFAMI
NES

1.f
irs
ttwomembersofamine–mt
hyl
ami neand–et
hyl
ami
near
egas
,whi
leot
her
s
areli
qui
datroom t
emper
atur
eandpres
sure.

2.Thes
mal
lerami
nesar
esol
ubl
einwat
er.

3.Ami
nehaves
trongodourchar
act
eri
sti
cofdeadf
ish.

CHEMI
CALPROPERTI
ESOFAMI
NES

1
.Reaci
onasorgani
cbase:pri
mary,secondar
yandter
tiaryaminear
eal
lbas
ic,
l
ikeammoni
atheyhavealonepai
rofelectr
onsont
heni
trogenat
oms.

C6H5N+H3Cl
+
C6H5NH2 +HCl

Phenylammoni
um chl
ori
de

2.Like ammonias econdar

y and t
ert
iar
y ami
nes ar
e al
kyl
ated t
o gi
ve _ -
subs
tit
utedder
ivat
ives.

H CH3

CH3–N–CH3+C2H5Br
. CH3–N–CH3+HBr

USESOFAMI
NES

Ami
nesar
eus
edi
nthemanuf
act
ureofpol
yami
desornyl
on.
 AMI
DES
AMI
DES

Anami deisacompoundi nwhi chthe–OHgr oupofacarboxyl

icacidisreplaced
by–NH2.Whent he–OH i sreplacedby–NHR,t hepr
oductiscal
ledani t
rogen–
subst
it
uted amide i.e N-subs t
it
uted ami
de.Amide ar
e character
ised by the
pres
enceoff unct
ionalaminogroup.

-C

NH2

Amidesar
enamedasder i
vati
vesofcarboxyli
cacids,bydroppi
ngtheendi
ng–oi
c
oft
heparentcar
boxyl
icacidandrepl
acewi t
htheendingamidee.g.

O O

CH3–C CH3–C

OH NH2

Et
hani
oc et
hanami
de

Ot
herexampl
esofami
desar
e:

(
i) O (
ii
) O

H–C C2H5–C

NH2 NH2

Met
hanami
de pr
opanami
de

(
ii
i) O (
iv) CH3 O

CH3–C CH3–(
CH2)
7CHC

NH–CH3 NH2

N-Met
hylet
hanami
de 2-met
hyldecanami
de
(
v) NH2 (
vi) CH3 CH3

CH3

P-t
olui
dine N,
N–di
met
hyl
ami
ne

(
vii
) CH3

NH CH

CH3

N-i
sopr
opyl
cycl
opent
ylami
ne

(
vii
i) NH2 (
ix) NH2 (
x) NH2

OH

NO2 OCH3 O-hydr

oxyani
li
ne

M -ni
troani
li
ne

P-met
hoxyani
li
ne
PREPARATI
ONOFAMI
DES:

1.from es
ter
,acyl hali
desoracid anhydri
des:whenes
ter
s,acyl
hali
desoraci
d
anhydri
desar etreated wi
thconcent
rated ammoni
asol
uti
onorliqui
d ammoni
a,
amidesareobtai
ned

O O

CH3C +NH3 CH3–C +CH3OH

O–CH3 NH2

Met
hylet
hanoat
e et
hanami
de

2.by part
ialhydrol
ysisofnitr
iles:thi
sisachi
eved by di
ssol
ving t
heni
tri
lei
n
concent
rat
edtet
raoxosul
phat
e(vi)acid.t
hemi
xturei
sthenpouredint
owater

PHYSI
CALPROPERTI
ESOFAMI
DES

1.Wit
htheexcept
ionofmethanami
de,ali
qui
dwi
thahi
ghboi
li
ngpoi
nt,ami
desar
e
crys
tall
ines
oli
dsatroom t
emperat
ure.

2.Themel
ti
ngandboi
li
ngpoi
ntsofami
dear
emuchhi
ghert
hanexpect
ed.

CHEMI
CALPROPERTI
ESOFAMI
DES

1
.Ami
desar
ever
yweakbas
eandal
sover
yweakaci
ds

2.Amidearereadi
lyhydr
olysedwhentreat
edwi
thdi
lut
eaci
doral
kal
itogi
vet
he
carboxyl
icaci
dandammoni aisl
iber
ated.

3.Pri
maryamidesarereducedtopri
mar
yami
neswi
ths
odi
um andet
hanolorwi
th
li
thi
um t
etr
ahydr
idoaluminate(
II
I)
.

4.Reacti
onwi
thdi
oxoni
trat
e(I
II
)aci
dtoyi
eldcar
boxyl
icaci
dwi
tht
heevol
uti
on
ofni
trogen
WEEK5
POLYMERI
ZATI
ON

Thephenomenonwher ebys mall

ermol eculescombinetogethert
of or
m ver ylarge
orcomplexmoleculesisknownasPOLYMERI ZATION.Pol ymerizat
iontherefor
e
ist
heproces
swher esmal lermolecul
ecombi netogethertoform onegiantor
complexmolecul
ewi thnogai norlossofanymat erials
.Theor i
ginalmaterialis
cal
ledthemonomerwhi l
et hepr
oductf or
mi scalledapol ymer.

Forexampl
e,i
fet
hynei
sheat
edi
nar
edhott
ube,i
tispol
ymer
izedi
ntobenzene.

3C2H2 C6H6

Pol
ymer izat
ionasachemicalr
eact
ioni
scharacter
ist
icofunsat
urat
edcompounds
.
Int
her eacti
on,t
hedoubl
ebondsarebrokent
of orm alongchai
nofsingl
ebond
uni
ts.

POLYMER

Pol
ymer saresubs
tanceswithverylargemol eculeswhicharethemsel
vesbui
ltup
bytherepet
it
ionofsmallerchemicaluni
ts.Thef ormat
ionofapol ymerfr
om
small
erchemicaluni
tisthuster
medpol ymerizationasintheequati
onbel
ow:

n(
CH2=CH2) (
-CH2-
CH2-
)n

CHARACTERI
STI
CSOFPOLYMER

1
.Hi
ghl
ybr
andedpol
ymert
endt
ohavel
owert
ens
iles
trengt
handmel
teas
ily

2.Pol
ymerwi
thmuchcr
oss
-li
nki
ngt
endt
ober
igi
d,har
dandf
air
lybr
itt
le

3.Polymerst
endtobestr
onganddi
ffi
cul
ttomel
tast
hei
nter
mol
ecul
arf
orces
betweenchai
narehigh

4.Thes
trengt
handmel
ti
ngpoi
ntofapol
ymeri
ncr
eas
ewi
thchai
nlengt
h
NATURALOCCURI
NGPOLYMERS

1
.Wood

2.Wool

3.Cot
ton

4.Rubber

5.Pr
otei
n

SYNTHETI
CPOLYMERS

1
.Nyl
on

2.Pl
ast
ic

3.Text
il
es

4.Per
spex

5.Pol
yvi
nyl
chl
ori
de

DI
SADVANTAGESOFSYNTHETI
CPOLYMER

1
.Theynon-
biodegr
adabl
ei.
ecannotbebr
okendownbybact
eri
a

2.t
heycannotbeeconomi
cal
lyr
ecycl
ed.

CLASSESOFPOLYMERS

1
.Addi
ti
onPol
ymer

2.Condens
ati
onPol
ymer

ADDI TI
ONPOLYMERS:Thi sisthebuil
tupofpolymerfrom monomerwit
houtany
eli
minati
on,s
othattheempi
ricalformul
arofbot
ht hemonomerandpolymerare
thesame.Examplesofaddi
ti
onpol ymersar
e:

(
a)Pol
ythene-us
edf
ormaki
ngf
irmsands
heet
ingf
orbagsandwr
apper
s.

(
b)Pol
ypr
opyl
ene-us
edf
ormaki
ngr
opes
.

(
c)Pol
yst
yrene–us
edt
opr
oduceel
ect
rici
nsul
ator
s,t
oys
,shoess
olesanddi
shes

(
d)Pol
ybut
ylene–us
eformaki
ngcart
yres
(
e)Per
spex–us
edf
ormaki
nggl
ass

(f
)Polyvi
nyl
chl
ori
de(PVC)–usedforcoat
ingf
abr
ics
,forcover
ingwi
resand
cabl
esandmakinggr
amophonerecor
ds.

(
g)Acr
ilan–us
edf
ormaki
ngt
ext
il
es

CONDENSATI ONPOLYMERS:Thisist
hebuil
tupofpolymerfr
om monomerwith
eli
minat
ionofsmal
lmol
ecul
emateri
alsuchaswat
er.Exampleofcondens
ati
on
polymerare:

(
a)Polyes
ters–usedasthebondi
ngr es
ini
ngl
ass
,fi
bre,pl
ast
icsaswel
lasi
n
wideappl
icati
oni
nthetext
il
eindust
ry.

(
b)Ter
ylene–us
edi
ntext
il
eindus
tri
es.

Pl
ast
ics
:ar
epol
ymerwhi
char
emor
eeas
ilydef
ormed

TYPESOFPLASTI
CS

1.Thermosof
teni
ng:t
hes
ear
epl
ast
icst
hatcanbemoul
dedbymel
ti
ng.E.
g
polyt
hene

2.Ther
mos
ett
ing:t
hes
ear
epl
ast
icst
hatcannotber
emel
ted.E.
gbakel
it
e.
WEEK6
CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydr atesarecompoundscont ainingcarbon,hydr

ogenandoxygenonl y.The
hydrogenandoxygenat omsar einr atio2:
1.Thegeneralmolecularfor
mulaf or
thi
sclassofhomol ogousseriesisCxH2yOy orCx(H2O)y.Exampleofcarbohydrates
arewat ers olubl
es ugar
ss uchass ucr oseandglucoseandlargerins
olubl
es ugars
suchass tarch,glycogenandcel lulose.

SOURCESOFCARBOHYDRATES:Ri
ce,yam,mai
ze,mi
llet
,gui
neacor
n,pot
atoes
,
bread,Gar
rie.
t.
c

CLASSESOFCARBOHYDRATES.

1
.SI
MPLESUGARS:thesear
ecrys
tal
lineands
olubl
einwat
erandhaves
weet
t
ast
e.E.
ggl
ucos
e,f
ruct
oseands
ucrose

2.COMPLEXSUGARS:t heseareotherwis
ecall
edpolysacchari
de.Theyarenon–
cryst
alli
ne,i
nsolubl
einwaterandtas t
eles
se.
gs t
archandcellul
ose.Theyhave
veryhighrelat
ivemolecul
armas s
es .

Carbonhydr
atesarepol
yhydr
oxylandaldehydes
.Pol
yhydroxyl(
ket
ones
compound)whichyei
ldoneofthes
ecompoundsonhydrol
ysis
.

CHO CH2OH

H-
C-OH C=O

OH-
C-H C-
H

H-
C-OH H-
C-OH *
Leaveabout6-7l
ines

H-
C-OH H-
C-OH f
ort
hiss
truct
ure.

CH2OH CH2OH

Gl
ucos
e Fr
uct
ose
Monos
acchari
de:Acarbohydr
atethatcannotbehydr
olyzedt
osi
mpl
ercompound,
e.
gGlucos
e,Fruct
oseandGalact
ose.

Di
sacchari
de:Acarbohydratethatcanbehydr
olyzedt
otwomonos
acchar
ide
molecul
es.E.
gSucr
os e,Lact
oseandMal t
ose

Pol
ys acchari
de:Acarbohydrat
ethatcanbehydrol
yzedt
omanymonos
acchar
ide
molecules.E.
gCell
ulose,St
archandGlycogen.

Amonosacchari
dewi thanaldehyde(Alkanal
)gr
oupi
sknownsasALDOSEandi
f
i
tcont
ainsket
o(Alkanone)gr
oupi sknownasKETOSE.

DependingonthenumberofCat omsi
tcont
ains
,amonos
acchar
idei
sknownas
t
rios
e,tetr
ose,pent
ose,hexos
eandsoon.

Gl
ucosei
saldohexosewhil
efr
uctosei
sketo-
hexose.Mos
tnat
ural
lyoccur
ring
monos
acchar
idesarepent
ose(
5-C)andhexoses(
6-C).

Carbohydratesthatreducef ehli
ng(orBenedict
’s)orTollen’
sreagent
sareknown
asreducings ugars.Al
ldi sacchari
deswhetheral doseorket
osearereducings
ugar
.
Mos tdi
sacchar i
desarer educingsugar.Sucr
ose( tabl
esugar)isanotabl
e
excepti
on,foritisnon-r
educi ngsugar.

GLUCOSE:

Glucos
eisthemos timport
antsimplesugarfound i
nf rui
tssuchasgrapes,in
honeyandthecellsapofplant
s.Glucosei
sthemainsourceofenergyforanimal
ti
ssueanditi
ssythesi
zedbyplantsduri
ngphot
osynt
hesisandexisti
ntwoforms–
anopenchainandacyl i
cforms.

C=O

H-
C-OH

OH-
C-H

H-
C-OH

H-
C-OH

CH2OH

Openchai
nGl
ucos
e
LABORATORYPREPARATI
ONOFGLUCOSE

Byhydr
olys
isofs
ucr
osewi
thdi
lut
eaci
dint
hepr
esenceofet
hanol

C12H22O11 + H2O heatH2SO4 C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

I
NDUSTRI
ALPREPARATI
ONOFGLUCOSE

Byhydr
olys
isofs
tar
chus
ingdi
lut
eaci
dunderpr
ess
ure
+nH2O
(
C5H10O5)
n nC6H12O6

St
arch Gl
ucos
e

PROPERTI
ESOFGLUCOSE

1
.gl
ucos
eisas
trongr
educi
ngagentbecaus
eoft
hepr
esenceoft
he–CHO gr
oup

2.when heat
ed glucose wi
th concent
rat
ed t
etr
aoxos
ulphat
e(vi
)aci
d,a bl
ack
res
idueofcar
bonisformed

3.Glucos
es ol
uti
oni
sreadi
lyf
erment
ed t
oet
hanoland car
bon(
iv)oxi
debyt
he
enzymeszymase.

TESTFORGLUCOSE

Addafew dropsoffehl
ing’
ss ol
uti
ont
ogl
ucos
esol
uti
oni
nat
estt
ube.Abr
ick-
red
pr
eci
pit
atei
sobtainedonboi
ling

USESOFGLUCOSE

1
.Gl
ucos
eisus
eint
hemanuf
act
uri
ngofj
am ands
weet
s.

2.I
tisus
easani
mmedi
ates
our
ceofener
gyf
ors
ickpeopl
eands
por
tmen.
FRUCTOSE(
Frui
tsugarorl
aevul
ose)

Fr
uct
osel
ikegl
ucos
ehast
hemol
ecul
arf
ormul
aeC6H12O6andi
tss
truct
urei
s:

CH2OH

C=O

OH-
C-H

H-
C-OH

H-
C-OH

CH2OH

Openchai
nFr
uct
cos
e

Fructoseisusuallyfoundtoget
herwi t
hgl ucosei
ns weetfrui
tandhoney.Iti
salso
obtainedfrom thehydrolys
isofsucrose.I
nmanywayf ruct
oseresembl
esglucose.
Theonl ydi f
ferenceisthebehaviouroft hetwos ugartowardsoxidati
onagents.
E.gonoxi dationwithtri
oxoni
trat
e(v)acid,fruct
osegivesami xtureofacideach
containi
nglessthansixcarbonatom.

DI
SACCHARI
DES

Dis
accharide are pr oduced by t he condens at
ion of two molecules of
monosacchari
desand el i
minationofonemol eculeofwat er
.Thetwomol ecule
componentmonosaccharidesmay bedi f
ferentort hesame.They havegener al
for
mularofC12H22O11.Alldisacchar
idearecr ystall
inesol
idwhi
chares ol
ubl ein
water
.

Component Di
sacchar
ide

Gl
ucos
e+f
ruct
ose Sucr
ose(
Canes
ugar
)

Gl
ucos
e+Gal
act
ose Lact
ose(
mil
ksugar
)

Gl
ucos
e+Gl
ucos
e Mal
tos
e(mal
tsugar
)
SUCROSE

Sucros
ehasthemolecul
arf or
mularC12H22O11.I
tist
hecommongranul
ateds
ugar
used t
osweetenf
ood.Itoccur snat
urall
yi nmany plant
sand f
ruit
s.Themain
sour
ceiss
ugarcaneands ugarbeef

PREPARATI
ONOFSUCROSE

Sucrosei
spreparedf r
om juiceofs ugarcaneorsugarbeef
.Thejuicefr
om
0
suagarcaneorbeefisf i
rstextract
edwi t
hwat erwarmedtoabout80C.the
solut
ioni
sthenpuri
fiedbyt reatmentwithslakedli
meandcarbon(i
v)oxi
de.The
purif
iedsol
uti
onisconcentratedbyevapor ati
on.

PHYSI
CALPROPERTI
ESOFSUCROSE

1
.Sucr
osei
scol
our
les
scr
yst
all
ines
oli
d,wi
thver
ysweett
ast
e

2.I
tdi
ssol
vesr
eadi
lyi
nwat
erbutnoti
nakanol

CHEMI
CALPREPERTI
ESOFSUCROSE

1
.Sucr
osechar
sons
trongheat
ingwi
thconcent
rat
edH2SO4

2.Whensucros
eisheat
edtoatemperat
ur 00C,whi
eofabout21 chi
saboveits
melt
ingpoi
ntbutbel
ow it
schar
ringt
emperat
ure,ayel
low-br
owns ubs
tanceknown
ascarameli
sobtai
ned

3.Sucr
osei
sreadi
lyhydr
olys
edbydi
lut
eaci
dsorenzyme.

TESTFORSUCROSE

Addfew dr
opsoffr
eshl
ypr eparedsel
iwanoffr
eagentto5cm3ofsucrosesol
uti
on
i
natestt
ube,warminwaterbath.Themixtur
eturnsredaftert
en(
10)minut
es

USESOFSUCROSE

1
.Sucr
osei
sus
edf
ors
weet
enf
ood

2.I
tisus
edf
orpr
eser
vingf
ood

3.I
tisal
sous
edt
opr
oduceet
hanolbyf
erment
ati
on

4.Car
ameli
sus
edf
orf
lavour
ingandi
nconf
ect
ioner
y
MALTOSE

Mal
tos
eisanot
herdi
sacchar
idewi
thmol
ecul
arf
ormul
arC12H22O11.

Malt
osei
sobt
ainedbyt
heact
ionofmal
tons
tar
ch.Mal
tos
econt
ainst
heenzyme
di
ast
ase

PHYSI
CALPROPERTI
ESOFMALTOSE

1
.Iti
sacr
yst
all
ine,whi
tes
oli
dands
olubl
e

2.I
tmel
tsbet 600C–1
ween1 650C

3.Mal
tos
eishydr
olys
edbydi
lut
eaci
dsorbyenzymemal
tas
e

4.Mal
tos
eisar
educi
ngs
ugar

LACTOSE

Lactos
eisals
oknownasmi lks
ugarandoccursi nthemi
lkofmammal
s.I
tisnot
foundinpl
ants.I
tsmol
ecul
arformul
arisC12H22O11.

PROPERTI
ESOFLACTOSE

1
.Lact
osei
scr
yst
all
ine,s
olubl
e,whi
tes
oli
d

2.I
tmel
tsat2030C

3.I
tishydr
olysedbydil
uteacidsorbyt
heenzymesl
act
aset
oanequi
mol
ar
mixtur
eofglucoseandgalact
ose.

POLYSACCHARI
DES

Polysacchari
desar ehi
ghpol ymer
sofveryl ongchainofmonosaccharidesli
nked
t
ogetherbycondens ati
onwi t
hthemolecul
arwei ghtsr
angi
ngfrom af ew
t
housandst oseveralmill
ions.I
mport
antpolysacchari
deareglycogen,cell
ulose,
st
archandi nsuli
n.
PREPARATI
ONOFSTARCH

Theraw mat er
ials(e.
gpot at
oorcas s
avat ubers)ar ef i
rstpeel
edandcrushedto
breakt
hepl antcell
sandr el
easethestarchgranul es.Thecr us
hedpulpisthen
mixedwithwat ertoextr
actt hest
arch.Itfor
mss uspens i
onwhichisal
lowedt o
st
andfors omet i
me,leavingbehindthewhi t
estar chr esi
dueandthewaterabove
i
sdecanted.

PROPERTI
ESOFSTARCH

1
.St
archi
sawhi
te,odour
les
sandt
eas
tel
esspowder
.

2.I
tisi
nsol
ublei
ncoldwaterbutsol
ubl
einhotwat
er,f
ormi
ngacol
loi
dals
olut
ion
whichs
etsi
ntoajel
lyoncooli
ng.

3.St
archishydrolys
edbydiluteaci
dst
oyi
eldami
xtur
eofmal
tos
eandgl
ucos
e.
Furt
herhydrolysi
sgivegl
ucose.

4.I
tisdcomposedonheat
ingi
nthepr
esenceoft
heenzymedi
ast
atet
ofor
m
maltos
esugar

5.Starchdoesnotcont
ainanyfreecarbonylgr
oup,i
tdoesnotr
educef
ehl
ing’
s
sol
ution.Hencei
tisnotareduci
ngs ugar.

TESTFORSTARCH

Addaf ew dr
opsiodinet
osomeboileds
tar
ch.Adark–bluecol
our
ati
on,whi
ch
di
sappearsonheati
ngandreappear
soncooli
ngr
esult
s.

USESOFSTARCH

1
.Iti
sus
edmai
nlyasf
ood

2.I
tisus
edt
opr
oduceet
hanolandgl
ucos
e

3.I
tisus
edasas
tif
feni
ngagent
.

CELLULOSE

Cell
ulos
ei sthemai nstr
uctur
alcomponentofpl
antcel
lwallsandplantf
ibres
.
Themains our cesofcel
lul
oseincl
udecott
onandwood.Iti
sthemostwidely
dis
tri
butedor ganiccompound.
PROPERTI
ESOFCELLULOSE

1
.Cellul
osei
swhi
tes
oli
dwhi
chi
snots
olubl
einwat
erandor
dinar
yor
gani
c
s
olvent.

2.I
tisnoteas
ilyhydr
olys
edbydi
lut
eaci
ds

3.Theenzymescel
lul
aser
eadi
lyhydr
olys
ecel
lul
ose

USESOFCELLULOSE

1
.Us
edi
nthemanuf
act
uri
ngofpaper
,cel
lophane,t
ext
il
eandr
opes
.

2.Al
sous
edi
nthemanuf
act
uri
ngofgum,cot
tonandexpl
osi
ves
.

GARRIPRODUCTI
ON

TomakeGar ri
,cassavatubersarepeel ed,washedandgr at
edorcr ushedt o
produceamas h.Themas hcouldbemi xedwithpalm oil(
Oi lGar r
i)bef orebeing
placedinapor ousbag.Itist
henpl acedi nanadjustablepressmachi neorpl ace
heavys toneont hebagfor1–3hour stor emoveexces sst
archywat er.Whent he
cassavahasbecomedr yenough,i tisreadyforthenexts t
ep.I ti
sthens ievedand
fri
edinal argeclayorironfryingpotwi t
horwithoutpalm oil.Ther esulti
ngdr y
granularGar ricanbes t
oredf orlongper i
ods.I
tmaybepour edorgr oundt omake
af i
nef l
our .
TESTFORPROTEI
N,STARCH,SUGAR,FATSANDOI
LS,WATER

S/N COMPOUNDS TEST OBVERSATI

ON I
NFERENCE

1 TESTFOR (
i)Bi
uret
’st
est
PROTEI
NS
(i
)takeasmall
quanti
tyoffr
eshmilk
oreggwhitesol
uti
on.

(i
i)Add1cm3ofpr ot
ein
ands odi
um hydr de Mi
oxi xturewill Prot
eini
s
and1 %copper(i
i) turnt opurpl
eor pr
esent.
solut
ionindrops violetcolour

(i
ii
)Shakethemixt
ure
aftereachdrop

(
iv)donotheat

(
ii
)Mi
lli
on’
sTes
t

(
i)Put3cm3ofpr ot
ein
food,e.
gf r
eshegg
Ared Prot
eini
s
whiteintes
ttube
pr
eci
pit
ate pr
esent
(
i)Add3cm3of
i woul
dappear
mil
lion’
sreagent

(
ii
i)warmthemixt
ure
i
nawat erbat
hforfew
minut
es

(i
ii
)Xanthoprot
ei cTest Awhi t
e
precipit
ate
()Put2cm3ofegg
i
forms ,which
whiteormilksol uti
on
turnsyellow on
inatestt
ube
heating.On
Prot
eini
s
(i
i)Addabout1 cm3of cool ingthe
pr
esent
conc.Tri
oxonit
r at v) cont
e( entafter
aci 3
dand3cm of addingexces s
 ammonium hydr
oxi
de NH4OH,the
sol
uti
on sol
uti
on
becomesor
ange.
(
ii
i)Heatt
hes
olut
ion

(
iv)al
low i
ttocool

2. TESTFOR (i
)Col
lectanys
tarch Thecolourwil
l St
archis
STARCH mater
ialli
kebreador changetobl
ue- pr
esent
yam, black

(i
i)Addf ew dropsof
dilut
eiodinesolut
ion

3 TESTFOR (i)Putas mallquant

it
y Abr i
ck-redor Glucoseis
SI
MPLE ofgl ucosesol
uti
onina orange pr
es ent
SUGARS,e.g testtube preci
pit
ateis
glucos
eand seen
(ii
)Add2%Benedi ct
fr
uctose
solution

(
ii
i)Boi
lthemixt
uref
or
4–6mi nutes

4 TESTFOR (i)Putas mal

lquanti
ty
REDUCI NG ofs ucros
esolut
ioni
na
SUGAR,e.g testtube
sucros
e, Ayellow Sucroseornon
(
ii)Addf ew dr
opsof
maltoseor preci
pitat
eis -reduci
ng
BenedictorFehli
ng’
s
lact
ose obversed sugaris
solut
ion
present
(
ii
i)Addf
ew dr
opsof
HCl

(
iv)Boilthemixt
ure
f
orf ew minut
es

NOTE:Di lut
eHCland
boil
ingwillhel
pto
hydroli
zedthesucr
ose
tosimplesugar
s,e.
g
glucose
5 TESTFOR Dipablue,dry Thecolour
WATER cobal
tchlori
de ofthepaper
Wateri
s
paperinafoodit
em changes
pr
esent
.
from bl
ueto
pink

Pr
epar
edbyLawal
,A.A.(
Mr)