SCS Resources

LEVEL 3
STUDY AND COMMUNICATION SKILLS
RESOURCES
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SCS Resources V1.0

Modification History
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V1.0 June 2017 For Release
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SCS Resources V1.0

CONTENTS
1. Module Overview and Objectives p5

2. Resources p5
Topic 1 : Learning to Learn
Supporting Resources
Ice Breakers p7
Brainstorming p8
Study Skills Survey p9
Multiple Intelligences p17
Metacognition p19
Critical Thinking p24
Critical Thinking Exercise – Crime and Punishment p27
Self-Motivation p30
Managing My Time p36
How to be Organised p39
Topic 2 : Reading Textbooks and Note Taking
Helpful Abbreviations for Speedy Note-Taking p41

SQ3R Reading Method p43
Cornell Note Taking System p45
How to Read a Scientific Paper p46
Note Taking from Reading p48
What is Concept Mapping? P50
Topic 3 : Note Taking in Lectures
Hints for Good Note Taking p52

Pre-reading Strategies p53
Study Listening – strategies for surviving lectures p55
How to Prepare for and Give a Speech p57
Topic 4 : Library Research and Writing an Essay
Planning an Essay p60

How to use a Library p62
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NB : Further lesson linked resources in the student guide

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Topic 5 : Journal Based Research for Essay Writing
How to Write an Essay p67

Why Use Academic Journals? p69
Revising, Editing and Proofreading Your Own Work p71
Harvard Citations p74
Topic 6 : Plagiarism and Online Research
What is Plagiarism? and Avoiding Plagiarism p80

Evaluating Web Resources p82
Topic 7 : Writing a Research Report and Assignment C
Improving Your Sentence Structure and Grammar p87

How to Write a Good Paragraph p92
Strategies for Writing a Conclusion p94
Topic 8 : Examinations and Assessment
How to avoid exam stress p96

Revision and Exam Skills p101 4
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1. Module Overview and Objectives
This module aims to equip students with the skills needed to succeed in university. Students
will learn to critically reflect and analyse their own study habits and identify ways to improve.
They will learn the skills necessary to cope with lectures, conduct independent research, write
academic papers and give formal oral presentations.
These skills generally fall into three sections which form the basic process of producing
academic work: sourcing information, analysing and organising the information, and using this
to produce essays, presentations or take examinations.
Lectures
Journals & Essays & Reports

Articles
Analysing
Organising Oral presentations
Libraries
Synthesising
Internet Exams
Textbooks
The module focuses on the acquisition and mastering of these skills; students will research,
take notes, analyse and organise their research and present findings to their peers in the form
of formative assessment tasks. In this way they will become more familiar and comfortable
with what is likely to be expected of them at Higher Education level.
This module will have a heavy focus on the practical considerations of studying – students will
be explicitly introduced to the key metacognitive skills needed to acquire knowledge and
present what they know. Topics such as self assessment, goal setting, knowledge acquisition
and the theory of multiple intelligences will be covered.
2. Resources to Support your Delivery of this Module

Lecturer Guide: Contains notes for lecturers on the organisation of each topic, and
suggestions about how to use the resources in this document. A
suggested lesson plan is provided for each lesson including some
activities.
Student Guide: Contains topic overviews and all of the suggested exercises.
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Resources: (This document) Includes resources adapted from various sources that
are designed to support your teaching of each topic. You can find the
original versions of these resources online, or alternative resources of
your choosing online or in suitable text books. You may wish to use
some of these resources in class but should pay attention to original
sources and copyright restrictions.
You are also encouraged to use other materials that might compliment,
or even replace, the suggested articles, if you believe these will be more
relevant to the particular needs of your students.
Classroom
Resources: The resources required are listed at the beginning of each lesson plan in
the Lecturer Guide. Some lessons will require preparation of materials
and most lessons in this module are supported by online content.
Teachers will also need internet access during preparation time.
Some lessons will require:
 Examples of essays and assignments (from any subject)

 Examples of academic presentations
 Internet access for students
 Library access
 Overhead/digital projector
 Example quotations, data and sample essay topics
Many lessons require students to bring ongoing work or other materials

to class. Please remind students of this and give them advanced
warning.
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Icebreakers
You can find lots of ideas for suitable icebreakers by searching for ‘ice breakers’ on any
search engine.
Here is an example of an icebreaker you could use:
By Melissa Kelly
Although icebreakers can seem frivolous, they are an important first step to getting student
buy-in….Here are some great icebreakers that you can use in your classroom.
TAKE A STAND
The purpose of this activity is for students to get a feel about their peers' positions on various
matters. Unless you make the survey aspect of the exercise clear, students may think it is
ridiculous despite their enjoyment of the physical activity.
The teacher puts one long line of tape down the centre of the room, pushing desks out of the
way so that students can stand on either side of the tape. The teacher reads a statement
with "either-or" answers such as, "I prefer night or day," "Democrats or Republicans," "lizards
or snakes." Statements can range from silly trivia to serious content.
After hearing each statement, students agreeing with the first response move to one side of
the classroom and those agreeing with the second, to the other. Undecided or middle-of-the-
roaders, straddle the line.
https://www.thoughtco.com/fun-classroom-icebreakers
accessed May 2017
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Brainstorming
For information about how to brainstorm in a group or individual, try searching for
‘brainstorm’ or ‘brainstorming ideas’ using any search engine.
Here is some information about how to brainstorm in a group:
How to brainstorm in a medium sized group
Gather a group of people. Nominate one person to coordinate the proceedings, introduce
the purpose of the brainstorming session, outline the rules, ensure the rules are followed and
actively encourage participation.
With the purpose and topic of the brainstorming session established, everyone in the group
shouts out their ideas and they are all written down so they can be analysed later. The most
common method of recording the ideas is on flipcharts, but it’s fine to use a blackboard or
another method. A secretary or dedicated writer can be useful to ensure all ideas are
captured.
You should all follow the standard brainstorming rules:
 Postpone and withhold your judgement of ideas

 Encourage wild and exaggerated ideas
 Quantity counts at this stage, not quality
 Build on the ideas put forward by others
 Every persona and every idea has equal worth
The role of the participant is twofold:
1. To suggest ideas that will work as solutions

2. To suggest ideas which will stimulate solutions in others
Since you cannot presume what will stimulate solutions in others, it is your duty to provide
them with as many original stimuli as possible.
Adapted from www.brainstorming.co.uk/tutorials/howtobrainstorm.html

Accessed March 2017
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Study Skills Survey
There are several interactive study skills checklists to which you can direct your students.
The following were live in March 2017, but you can easily search for alternatives. Try
university websites as a good starting point.
Study Skills Survey

https://smgserv1.bu.edu/studyskills/
Study Skills Survey
http://www.lhps.org/studyskills/page1.htm
Otherwise, try using the checklist below.
Study Skills Checklist

What are your study habits? Review the checklist below and if you answer yes to two or
more questions in any category, check out the corresponding heading for more information
on how to improve your study skills in those areas.
Time and scheduling:
1. I spend too much time studying for what I am learning.
2. I usually spend hours cramming the night before an exam.
3. I spend as much time on my social activities as I want to, I don't have enough time left to
study, or when I study enough, I don't have time for a social life.
Concentration:
1. I usually try to study with the radio and TV turned on.
2. I can't sit and study for long periods of time without becoming tired or distracted.
3. I go to class, but I usually doodle, daydream, or fall asleep.

Listening & Notetaking:
1. My class notes are sometimes difficult to understand later.
2. I usually seem to get the wrong material into my class notes.
3. I don't review my class notes periodically throughout the semester in preparation for
tests.
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Reading:
1. When I get to the end of a chapter, I can't remember what I've just read.
2. I don't know how to pick out what is important in the text.
3. I can't keep up with my reading assignments, and then I have to cram the night
before a test.
4. I often find myself getting lost in the details of reading and have trouble
identifying the main ideas.
5. I rarely change my reading speed in response to the difficulty level of the

selection, or my familiarity with the content.
6. I often wish that I could read faster.
Exams:
1. I lose a lot of points on essay tests even when I know the material well.
2. I study enough for my test, but when I get there my mind goes blank.
3. I often study in a haphazard, disorganized way under the threat of the next test.
Writing Skills:
1. When my teachers assign papers I feel so overwhelmed that I can't get started.
2. I usually write my papers the night before they are due.
3. I can't seem to organise my thoughts into a paper that makes sense. 10

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Advice about:
Time and Scheduling:
1. Have, maintain, and use a semester calendar to indicate when major projects will
be due, exams will be given, and events will be held. Plan ahead to minimize the
effect of "crunch" periods.
2. Keep and use a date book for appointments, meetings, classes, and errands.
3. Take time each week to review what is coming up the next week and plan time
for doing assignments, projects, errands, etc. Ask yourself, "What are my goals
for the week?"
4. Maintain an on-going list of things to do. Better yet, prioritize your "things to-do"
according to their importance.
5. Use small bits of time effectively. In 15 minutes you can review, edit, and revise
your notes from a recent lecture. Think about other ways to effectively use these
small bits of time between classes and meetings. Ask yourself, "What is the best
use of my time right now?"
6. Know what times of day are best for you mentally and physically. Use that
information to help you plan your time.
7. Handle each piece of paper once. Stop shuffling paper from one pile to the next.
Make a decision about what to do with the paper, and do it.
8. Have a tough task to do? Do it now. Don't procrastinate. If the task looks
overwhelming, use the swiss cheese principle: Bite off small holes in that block.
9. Take time for you: exercise, attend cultural activities, maintain healthy
relationships, and get plenty of rest, otherwise, stress will mount and your quality
of life will plummet.
10. Learn to say, "No!
Concentration
Location, Location, Location
The study environment you choose can make the difference to how much
accomplish during that study session. A bad study environment is distracting and
takes away from your studies. A good study environment facilitates learning and
allows you to make the best use of your allotted time.
Factors to consider when picking a study environment:
 Lighting – there should be ample light to make reading and using a computer
easy.
 Noise – the location you choose should have a low level of noise. Classical
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music has been shown to aid learning in some cases, but music can often be
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distracting. Talking is also generally distracting, so you want to minimise the
amount of chatter you can hear from your study location.
 Possibility of interruption – you want to minimise the likelihood that you be
interrupted. If you choose to study at home, you may want to turn off your
ringer or put a ‘do not disturb’ sign on the door.
 Do NOT study in bed!
The human body gets trained to behave in certain ways based on the
environment it is in. When in bed, the environment is telling your body that it is
time to go to sleep, and you probably will.
Variety and Movement
 To fight boredom and burnout, try varying your subjects. Spend 45 minutes to
an hour on one then switch to another. Sometimes the changes of pace is all
you need.
 Take a short break. Get a drink of water. Walk around a little. This can
stimulate better blood circulation and help you concentrate for longer.
 Take some deep breaths. Breathe with your diaphragm. This allows more
oxygen into your system, which can help improve your concentration and
learning.
Listening and Note Taking
Active listening intentionally focuses on who you are listening to, whether in a group
or one-to-one, in order to understand what he or she is saying.
As the listener, you should then be able to repeat, in your own words, what they
have said. This does not mean that you necessarily agree with the person, but rather
that you understand what they have just said.
The external factors when listening:
Subject complexity Speaker

What do you think of the subject Is the speaker experienced or nervous?
matter? What are his or her non-verbal cues?
Do you have a lot of experience and What frame of mind is he or she in?
knowledge about this subject? How personable, threatening, intelligent,
Will it be hard to understand or easy? engaging etc does the speaker seem?
Is it important to you, or just for fun?
Presentation Environment
Is the message illustrated with visuals Is the space conducive to listening?
or examples? Is the space conducive to interaction or
Is technology used effectively? exchange with the speaker?
Are concepts introduced incrementally, Are there avoidable distractions?
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with examples or in another way?

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What about you; The Listener?
Prepare with a positive, engaged attitude:
 Focus your attention on the subject

 Stop all non-relevant activities
 Review mentally what you already know about the subject and organise in
advance relevant material in order to develop what you know further (eg
previous lectures, TV programmes, newspaper articles, web sites, prior real
life experience, etc)
 Avoid distractions (eg a window, a talkative neighbour, noise etc)
 Seat yourself appropriately close to the speaker
 Acknowledge any emotional state you are in, and try to actively suspend your
emotions until the lecture is over.
 Set aside any prejudices or opinions you might have. You are present to her
the speaker, not the other way round
Listen Actively
 Focus on the person speaking

 Follow carefully what the speaker is saying, with your ears, eyes and other
senses
 Be aware and acknowledge, non-verbally, points in the speech (eg by
nodding or smiling). Let the argument run its course – don’t agree or disagree,
just encourage the speaker
 Be involved – Actively respond to questions and directions. Use your body
position (eg lean forward) and attention to encourage the speaker and signal
your interest.
One-to-One
If it is appropriate, speak one-to-one with the speaker
 Give them time and space to rest after talking

 Express appreciation for what they’ve said (eg that was very interesting) to
build trust and encouraging dialogue
 Now, check if you have understood what the speaker has said.
 Restate key points
 Ask questions to build understanding
 Reflect on your experience and give the speaker feedback
If posing a question
 Quickly express appreciation


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Briefly summarise a point

 Ask the relevant question
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If making a point
 Quickly express appreciation

 Briefly restate the relevant idea
 State your idea, interpretation and reflection
 Invite a response
Continued Development
 Summarise what you have learned

 Write out a summary with questions for further review
Reading:
Reading difficult material can be a matter of concentration or of simply organising the

challenge into steps:
 Choose a moderate amount of material or a chapter to begin

 Get a grasp of how the material is organised: Scan the section for titles,
heading, sub-heading, and topic sentences to get its genera ideas, pay
attention to graphs, charts and diagrams.
 If there is a summary at the end of a chapter, read it.
 Check the beginning and the end for leading questions and exercises
 Read first for what you do understand, and to determine difficulty.
 Mark what you do not understand to review later.
As you read, practice the look-away method:
 Periodically, look away from the text and ask yourself a question relating to
the text
 Respond or restate what the text says in your own words.
Make connections and associations:
 Look up words whose meaning are important to your understanding of the

material
 Read to the end – do not get discouraged and stop reading. Ideas can
become clearer the more you read. When you finish reading, review to see
what you have learned, and reread those ideas that are not clear.
 Organise your notes by connecting ideas you choose into an outline or
concept map. Pay attention to relationships between ideas.
Don’t confine yourself to words!

Use representations, graphics, pictures, colours to visualise and connect ideas. Use
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At this point, if you’re still struggling to understand your reading, don’t panic. Set the
reading aside and read it again the next day. If necessary, repeat this process; it will
let your brain process the material, even whilst you’re asleep. This is sometimes
called distributed reading.
If the reading is still a challenge, get help from your teacher or your classmates.
Exams:
These suggestions might help you to prepare for tests:
1. Analyse how you did on similar tests in the past. Each test you take prepares
you for the next one.
2. Arrive early for tests so you’re calm and prepared when the test begins
3. Keep a good attitude and remind yourself that you are going to do your best
4. Read instructions on the test carefully to avoid careless mistakes
5. If there is time, read the test so you have an overview. Scan for keywords. If
permitted, jot down any notes that come to mind.
6. Answer questions in a strategic order. You might start with easy questions
first to build your confidence, then answer those with the highest point value.
7. Review your answer if you have time. Resist the urge to leave when you
complete the exam; check first if you have answered all the questions, then if
you have made any errors.
8. Change answers to questions if you have made errors
9. After the exam, review where you were successful and where you struggled.
Speak with your teacher or your peers.
Writing Skills:
Writing, no matter the topic is, is a process:
 Establish your topic and then narrow and define it

 State your thesis of theme in a sentence of two at most
 Define your audience – is it your instructor? Your classmates? Someone
else? – then keep your audience in mind when you write.
 Plan ahead
 Set a timeline and allow for unexpected developments
 Gather resources eg people: advice from your instructor, a librarian, subject
matter expert etc references: text books, reference works, web sites, journals
etc
 Research: Read, interview, experiment, gather data etc and take complete
notes.

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Organise your notes and undertake a pre-writing exercise such as brain-

storming, mapping or outlining your essay.
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 Write your first, rough, draft.
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 Determine how you will develop your argument; use good logic in a reasoned
argument to develop the theme and/or support the thesis. Will you compare or
define? Will you criticise or describe?
Your First Paragraph
 Introduce the topic

 Inform the reader of your point of view
 Entice the reader to read the rest of the paper
 Focus on three main point to develop
The first paragraph is often the most difficult to write. If you have trouble, just get it
down with the intention of re-writing it later.
Development
 Establish flow from paragraph to paragraph – use transition sentences,
clauses, or words at the beginning of a paragraph to connect one idea to the
next
 Use topic sentences in each paragraph
 Make sure each paragraph develops a point – avoid one or two sentence
paragraphs
 Write in the active voice eg He decided, rather than it was decided
 Introduce, explain and cite each quote
 Keep the primary focus of your essay in mind throughout
 Don’t start summarising your work during the development phase
Conclusion
 Read your first paragraph and the development
 Summarise
 Conclude your argument
 Refer to the first paragraph and the development
 Briefly restate your main ideas
 Reflect the succession of your argument
 Logically conclude the development of your essay
 Edit the first paragraph to better set your development and conclusion
Now take a day or two off!
 Reread your paper with a fresh mind and a sharp pencil

 Read aloud – this might help you phrase parts of your essay more clearly –
you could also read your essay to a friend or family member and get their
feedback
 Check that your essay has fulfilled its primary purpose – have you answered
the question? Is it suitable for your intended audience?
Adapted from https://www.radford.edu/content/LARC/homelearning-
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guides/writing.html
Accessed May 2017
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Multiple Intelligences
Multiple Intelligences Theory
Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligence Theory was first published in Howard

Gardner's book, Frames Of Mind (1983), and quickly became established as a
classical model by which to understand and teach many aspects of human
intelligence, learning style, personality and behaviour - in education and industry.
Howard Gardner initially developed his ideas and theory on multiple intelligences as
a contribution to psychology, however Gardner's theory was soon embraced by
education, teaching and training communities, for whom the appeal was immediate
and irresistible - a sure sign that Gardner had created a classic reference work and
learning model.
Howard Gardner was born in Scranton, Pennsylvania USA in 1943 to German
Jewish immigrant parents, and entered Harvard in 1961, where, after Gardner's shift
from history into social relations (which included psychology, sociology, and
anthropology) he met his early mentor Erik Erikson. Later Gardner was also
influenced by psychologists Jeane Piaget, Jerome Bruner, and philosopher Nelson
Goodman, with whom Gardner co-founded 'Project Zero' in 1967 (focusing on
studies of artistic thought and creativity). Project Zero's 1970's 'Project on Human
Potential', whose heady aim was to address 'the state of scientific knowledge
concerning human potential and its realization', seems to have been the platform
from which Gardner's multiple intelligences ideas grew, and were subsequently
published in Gardner's Frames Of Mind 1983 book. A wonderful example of 'thinking
big' if ever there was one.
At the time I write/revise this summary (2005-2012) Howard Gardner is the (John H
and Elisabeth A) Hobbs Professor of Cognition and Education at the Harvard
Graduate School of Education; he serves as adjunct Professor at Harvard University,
Boston University School of Medicine, and remains senior director of Harvard Project
Zero. Gardner has received honorary degrees from at least twenty foreign
institutions, and has written over twenty highly regarded books on the human mind,
learning and behaviour. How ironic then that Gardner, who has contributed so much
to the understanding of people and behaviour, was born (according to his brief auto-
biographical paper 'One Way To Make Social Scientist', 2003), cross-eyed, myopic,
colour-blind and unable to recognise faces. There's hope for us all.
Since establishing his original multiple intelligences model, Howard Gardner has
continued to develop his thinking and theory, so you will see references to more than
the seven intelligences nowadays. Gardner most recently refers to their being eight
or nine intelligences.
This article chiefly focuses on the original seven intelligences model.
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Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory
This simple grid diagram illustrates Howard Gardner’s model of the seven Multiple
Intelligences at a glance
Intelligence Type Capability and perception

Linguistic Words and language
Logical-Mathematical Logic and numbers
Musical Music, sound, rhythm
Bodily-Kinesthetic Body movement control
Spatial-Visual Images and space
Interpersonal Other people’s feelings
Intrapersonal Self-awareness
Adapted from https://www.businessballs.com/howardgardnermultipleintelligences.htm

accessed May 2017
See the Multiple Intelligences Survey in Excel format on our virtual learning system.
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Metacognition
Metacognition is broadly defined as thinking about thinking, and includes activities

such as
 Learning about how people learn
 Developing an awareness of one's own learning processes
 Monitoring one's learning strategies and assessing their effectiveness (this is
called self-regulation, self-monitoring, or self-assessment)
 Consciously managing one's own motivation and attitudes toward learning
 Making adjustments to one's learning strategies when appropriate
High-performing students engage in metacognitive activities, monitoring and
adjusting their learning strategies (Lovett, 2008). Fortunately, these self-regulating
behaviours can be taught, resulting in improved classroom performance (Lovett,
2008; Weinstein et al., 2000).
Metacognition Can be Learned
A person’s ability to learn is mutable, not fixed. In fact, understanding this fact alone
can have a profound impact on students’ learning (Lovett, 2008). Teaching our
students to be strategic learners is therefore one of the most valuable skills we can
give them. Courses focusing on students' application of effective learning strategies
can improve students' performance in those courses, but can also improve long-term
performance and retention of students considered to be at risk (Lovett, 2008;
Weinstein et al., 2000). Surprisingly, self-regulating and adaptive behaviours can be
taught in minimal class time (literally a matter of minutes over the course of a
semester) and students quickly learn to apply these behaviours without prompting
(Lovett, 2008). Once the behaviours are internalized, students continue to use them
but focus their attention on the content they are learning. The page on teaching
metacognition summarizes the key factors in teaching metacognition and offers a
few strategies for doing so.
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Definitions
Learning Strategies "include any thoughts, behaviours, beliefs, or emotions that
facilitate the acquisition, understanding, or later transfer of new knowledge and skills"
(Weinstein et al, 2000). Learning strategies are most effective when students can
make informed choices about which strategies to use in particular learning situations.
This requires that learners have both procedural and conditional knowledge about
specific strategies. Procedural knowledge involves knowing how to use a particular
learning strategy; conditional knowledge is knowing under what circumstances it is
appropriate to use that strategy.
Self-Regulation includes monitoring and reflecting on one's learning strategies and
their effectiveness and adjusting accordingly. It also includes monitoring one's
affective state while learning and managing it if necessary.
References Cited
You may also wish to visit the selected references page.
Lovett, M. (2008). Teaching Metacognition. (more info) Presentation at the

Educause Learning Initiative 2008 annual meeting.
Weinstein, C. E., Husman, J., & Dierking, D. R. (2000). Self-Regulation

Interventions with a Focus on Learning Strategies. Chapter 22 in the Handbook
of Self-Regulation, M. Boekaerts, P.R. Pintrich & M. Zeidner (eds.), Academic Press,
p. 727-747.
www.serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/metacognition/introduction.html
accessed March 2017
Teaching Metacognition
Metacognition is a critically important, yet often overlooked component of learning.

Effective learning involves planning and goal-setting, monitoring one's progress, and
adapting as needed. All of these activities are metacognitive in nature. By teaching
students these skills - all of which can be learned - we can improve student learning.
There are three critical steps to teaching metacognition:
1. Teaching students that their ability to learn is mutable

2. Teaching planning and goal-setting
3. Giving students ample opportunities to practice monitoring their learning and
adapting as necessary
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Self-Regulated Learning
Expert learners consider their learning goals, plan accordingly, and monitor their own
learning as they carry out their plans. Novice learners, in contrast, don't have explicit
learning goals, fail to plan, and often have only one learning strategy, which they
apply without thinking about whether it's appropriate to the situation. Not surprisingly,
novice learners are often disappointed in the results of their studying, while expert
learners are generally satisfied with their results (and will make adjustments if not).
Expert learners engage in what we call Self-Regulated Learning. A Self-Regulated

Learner begins with goal-setting and planning, taking into account his or her time
constraints, strengths and weaknesses relevant to the learning task, and motivation
for learning. Having set reasonable goals and planned his or her learning strategies,
the Self-Regulated Learner then implements his or her plan, monitoring the results
as he or she studies. If the chosen strategies are working well, he or she continues;
if not, he or she makes adjustments and monitors the results until they are in line
with his or her learning goals.
Expert Learners Can be Made
Although early attempts to teach students metacognitive skills were unsuccessful,

more recent studies demonstrate that metacognition can be taught and learned.
Step 1: Teach students that the ability to learn is not a fixed quantity
The key to a student's ability to become a self-regulated (i.e., metacognitive) learner
is understanding that one's ability to learn is a skill that develops over time rather
than a fixed trait, inherited at birth. Students who believe that the ability to learn can
improve over time earn higher grades, even after controlling for prior achievement
(Henderson and Dweck, 1990). These students set reasonable learning goals for
themselves and have the self-efficacy to choose and use productive learning
strategies. These strategies then result in learning gains. Moreover, students can be
taught that their ability to learn can improve over time; those who learn this simple
lesson show increased motivation to learn and improved grades (Aronson et al.,
2002; Blackwell et al., 2007).
Step 2: Teach students how to set goals and plan to meet them
Many students don't set explicit learning goals for themselves, or make plans to meet
any goals they might have. Yet students who received as little as half an hour of
training (in the form of one-to-one tutoring) on the process of self-regulated learning
outperformed students who did not receive the training in several important ways.
First and foremost, they learned more. In addition, they planned how they would
spend their time in the learning task, spent more of their time in goal-oriented
searching, and periodically reminded themselves of their current goal (Azevedo and
Cromley, 2004).
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Step 3: Give students opportunities to practice self-monitoring and adapting
Accurate self-monitoring is quite difficult. Many first-year college students, in
particular, are over-confident. For example, first-year students at Carnegie Mellon
University were asked what grades they anticipated earning in their science and
math courses. While results varied somewhat by subject area, more than 90% of
students in biology, chemistry, physics and calculus courses expected to earn A's or
B's. These expectations were clearly not realistic and suggested some problems on
the horizon for these students.
Teaching Self-Monitoring Strategies

Monitoring and adapting strategies can be taught as learning habits. A wrapper is
one tool for teaching self-monitoring behaviour. A wrapper is an activity that
surrounds an existing assignment or activity and encourages metacognition. For
example, wrappers can be used with lectures, homework assignments, or exams.
Wrappers require just a few extra minutes of time, but can have a big impact. They
are effective because they integrate metacognitive behaviour where it is needed -
when the student is in a learning situation where self-monitoring can be helpful.
Students can also get immediate feedback on the accuracy of their perceptions, thus
alleviating the problem of over-confidence. Finally, wrappers require minimal faculty
time.
Example: homework wrappers

Before beginning a homework assignment, students answer a brief set of self-
assessment questions focusing on skills they should be monitoring. Students
complete the homework as usual, and then answer a follow-up set of self-
assessment questions. For example, for a homework assignment about vector
arithmetic, a student may be asked (beforehand) "How quickly and easily can you
solve problems that involve vector subtraction?" and (afterward) "Now that you have
completed this homework, how quickly and easily can you solve problems that
involve vector subtraction?" Student reports from the homework wrappers ranged
from noting that the practice exercises were helpful to them to commenting that they
were probably overconfident before doing the homework problems.
Example: exam wrappers

When graded exams are returned (as soon as possible after the exam was given),
students complete an exam reflection sheet. They describe their study strategies,
analyse the mistakes they made, and plan their study strategies for the next exam.
These reflection sheets are returned to students before the next exam, so that they
can make use of the ideas they had when the previous exam was still fresh in their
minds. Students identified several new approaches they would use in future exam
preparation.
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Conclusions
 "Metacognitive skills and beliefs about learning have consequences for students'
learning and performance.
 "Teaching metacognition - introducing these new skills and beliefs, and giving
students practice at applying them - improves students' learning.
 "Low-cost interventions can have big payoffs."
(Lovett, 2008)
References Cited
Aronson, J., Fried, C. & Good, C., 2002. Reducing the Effects of Stereotype Threat
on African American College Students by Shaping Theories of Intelligence. Journal
of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 113-125.
Azevedo and Cromley, 2004. Does Training on Self-Regulated Learning Facilitate

Students' Learning with Hypermedia? Journal of Educational Psychology, 96 (3),
523-535.
Blackwell, L., Trzesniewski, K. & Dweck, C. S., 2007. Implicit Theories of Intelligence
Predict Achievement Across an Adolescent Transition: A Longitudinal Study and an
Intervention. Child Development, 78, 246-263.
Henderson and Dweck, 1990. Achievement and Motivation in Adolescence: A New

Model and Data. In S. Feldman and G. Elliott (Eds.), At the Threshold: The
Developing Adolescent. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Lovett, 2008. Teaching Metacognition: Presentation to the Educause Learning

Initiative Annual Meeting, 29 January 2008.
www.serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/metacognition/teaching_metacognition.html
accessed May 2017
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Critical Thinking
Defining Critical Thinking
Critical thinking...the awakening of the intellect to the study of itself.

Critical thinking is a rich concept that has been developing throughout the past 2500
years. The term "critical thinking" has its roots in the mid-late 20th century. We offer
here overlapping definitions, together which form a substantive, transdisciplinary
conception of critical thinking.
Critical Thinking as Defined by the National Council for Excellence in Critical

Thinking, 1987
A statement by Michael Scriven & Richard Paul, presented at the 8th Annual
International Conference on Critical Thinking and Education Reform, Summer 1987.
Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skilfully
conceptualizing, applying, analysing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information
gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or
communication, as a guide to belief and action. In its exemplary form, it is based on
universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy,
precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth,
and fairness.
It entails the examination of those structures or elements of thought implicit in all

reasoning: purpose, problem, or question-at-issue; assumptions; concepts; empirical
grounding; reasoning leading to conclusions; implications and consequences;
objections from alternative viewpoints; and frame of reference. Critical thinking — in
being responsive to variable subject matter, issues, and purposes — is incorporated
in a family of interwoven modes of thinking, among them: scientific thinking,
mathematical thinking, historical thinking, anthropological thinking, economic
thinking, moral thinking, and philosophical thinking.
Critical thinking can be seen as having two components: 1) a set of information and
belief generating and processing skills, and 2) the habit, based on intellectual
commitment, of using those skills to guide behaviour. It is thus to be contrasted with:
1) the mere acquisition and retention of information alone, because it involves a
particular way in which information is sought and treated; 2) the mere possession of
a set of skills, because it involves the continual use of them; and 3) the mere use of
those skills ("as an exercise") without acceptance of their results.
Critical thinking varies according to the motivation underlying it. When grounded in
selfish motives, it is often manifested in the skilful manipulation of ideas in service of
one’s own, or one's groups’, vested interest. As such it is typically intellectually
flawed, however pragmatically successful it might be. When grounded in
fairmindedness and intellectual integrity, it is typically of a higher order intellectually,
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Critical thinking of any kind is never universal in any individual; everyone is subject to
episodes of undisciplined or irrational thought. Its quality is therefore typically a
matter of degree and dependent on, among other things, the quality and depth of
experience in a given domain of thinking or with respect to a particular class of
questions. No one is a critical thinker through-and-through, but only to such-and-
such a degree, with such-and-such insights and blind spots, subject to such-and-
such tendencies towards self-delusion. For this reason, the development of critical
thinking skills and dispositions is a life-long endeavour.
Another Brief Conceptualization of Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is self-guided, self-disciplined thinking which attempts to reason at
the highest level of quality in a fair-minded way. People who think critically
consistently attempt to live rationally, reasonably, empathically. They are keenly
aware of the inherently flawed nature of human thinking when left unchecked. They
strive to diminish the power of their egocentric and sociocentric tendencies. They
use the intellectual tools that critical thinking offers – concepts and principles that
enable them to analyse, assess, and improve thinking. They work diligently to
develop the intellectual virtues of intellectual integrity, intellectual humility, intellectual
civility, intellectual empathy, intellectual sense of justice and confidence in
reason. They realize that no matter how skilled they are as thinkers, they can
always improve their reasoning abilities and they will at times fall prey to mistakes in
reasoning, human irrationality, prejudices, biases, distortions, uncritically accepted
social rules and taboos, self-interest, and vested interest. They strive to improve the
world in whatever ways they can and contribute to a more rational, civilized
society. At the same time, they recognize the complexities often inherent in doing
so. They avoid thinking simplistically about complicated issues and strive to
appropriately consider the rights and needs of relevant others. They recognize the
complexities in developing as thinkers, and commit themselves to life-long practice
toward self-improvement. They embody the Socratic principle: The unexamined
life is not worth living , because they realise that many unexamined lives together
result in an uncritical, unjust, dangerous world. ~ Linda Elder, September,
2007
Why Critical Thinking?

The Problem
Everyone thinks; it is our nature to do so. But much of our thinking, left to itself, is
biased, distorted, partial, uninformed or down-right prejudiced. Yet the quality of our
life and that of what we produce, make, or build depends precisely on the quality of
our thought. Shoddy thinking is costly, both in money and in quality of life.
Excellence in thought, however, must be systematically cultivated.
A Definition
Critical thinking is that mode of thinking - about any subject, content, or problem - in
which the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skilfully taking charge
of the structures inherent in thinking and
imposing intellectual standards upon them.
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The Result
A well cultivated critical thinker:
 raises vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely;
 gathers and assesses relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it
effectively comes to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them
against relevant criteria and standards;
 thinks open mindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognizing and
assessing, as need be, their assumptions, implications, and practical
consequences; and
 communicates effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex
problems.
Critical thinking is, in short, self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-
corrective thinking. It presupposes assent to rigorous standards of excellence and
mindful command of their use. It entails effective communication and problem
solving abilities and a commitment to overcome our native egocentrism and
sociocentrism.
(Taken from Richard Paul and Linda Elder, The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking
Concepts and Tools, Foundation for Critical Thinking Press, 2008)
Critical Thinking Defined by Edward Glaser
In a seminal study on critical thinking and education in 1941, Edward Glaser defines
critical thinking as follows “The ability to think critically, as conceived in this volume,
involves three things: (1) an attitude of being disposed to consider in a thoughtful
way the problems and subjects that come within the range of one's experiences, (2)
knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning, and (3) some skill in
applying those methods. Critical thinking calls for a persistent effort to examine any
belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the evidence that supports it and
the further conclusions to which it tends. It also generally requires ability to recognize
problems, to find workable means for meeting those problems, to gather and
marshal pertinent information, to recognize unstated assumptions and values, to
comprehend and use language with accuracy, clarity, and discrimination, to interpret
data, to appraise evidence and evaluate arguments, to recognize the existence (or
non-existence) of logical relationships between propositions, to draw warranted
conclusions and generalizations, to put to test the conclusions and generalizations at
which one arrives, to reconstruct one's patterns of beliefs on the basis of wider
experience, and to render accurate judgments about specific things and qualities in
everyday life.
(Edward M. Glaser, An Experiment in the Development of Critical
Thinking, Teacher’s College, Columbia University, 1941)
Adapted from https://criticalthinking.org/pages/defining-critical-thinking/766 accessed May

2017
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Critical Thinking Exercise
Critical Thinking Exercise: Crime and Punishment
This critical thinking exercise is based on a current news article in which a

young woman was arrested for selling $400 worth of heroin to an
undercover police officer in 1974. She was sentenced to a 10-20 year
prison term, but escaped after 8 months. She was caught 34 years later in
2008. She had become a model citizen with 3 children that she had raised
as model citizens. She was returned to Michigan to complete her jail
sentence. Her family and friends petitioned the governor for
clemency. The details are described in the exercise, Crime and
Punishment. These is also a worksheet that helps students work through
the steps of critical thinking for this case. See the Critical Thinking
Worksheet: Crime and Punishment.
Review the concept that critical thinking involves looking at a problem from
many points of view. Divide students into discussion groups for this
exercise. Have each group write a different point of view on the board. As
a summary, have students volunteer to state their personal values and
reasonable point of view at the end. This exercise is included in the printed
text and available as a supplement for the online edition.
You can use any interesting and complex current event or social issue for
this type of exercise. Copy interesting shows or news specials from TV
and use them for this exercise. Topics that have been good for class
discussion include elections, health issues such as smoking, welfare,
violence in the schools, and cults such as Heaven’s Gate. If they are
complex and controversial, you will get a variety of opinions and the
discussion will be interesting. This exercise works well if students respect
each other’s point of view. If it becomes a debate, students can get side
tracked and have difficulty going through the critical thinking process.
Adapted from https://www.collegesuccess1.com/ThinkingM.htm accessed May 2017

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Name__________________________________________Date_____________
______
Crime and Punishment

In 1974, at the age of 19, Doris Drugdealer was arrested for selling $400 worth of heroin to
an undercover police officer in Michigan. She received a 10-20 year prison sentence for this
crime. After serving about 8 months of her sentence, she decided that she could not tolerate
prison and with the help of her grandfather, plotted an escape. She used a work pass to
walk away from prison. In May, 2008, after 34 years, Doris was captured again by
detectives who matched fingerprints from her driver’s license to her prison records.
Doris said that in 1974 she was a “stupid little …hippie-ish girl…a pothead.” During the 34
years that Doris evaded prison, she worried every day that she would be caught. While
looking at a sunset, she would marvel at her freedom and wonder if the past would catch up
with her. She was very careful to lead the life of a model citizen and even volunteered for
Common Cause, an organisation that promotes government ethics and accountability. She
married an executive and had three children and lived a comfortable life in an upper middle
class neighborhood in California. She never told her family about her past. Her husband of
23 years stated that he loved his wife as much as the day they were married and that she
was a “person of the highest integrity and compassion” and had dedicated her life to raising
her children. She taught her children to be responsible citizens and to avoid drugs. Her
husband said that the arrest “was the next worst thing to having a death in the family.” Doris
worried about the effect of her arrest on her son who had just graduated from high school
and her older daughters. A neighbour commented that it would not be useful to society to
send Doris back to prison.
Undercover drug officers believed that Doris had connections to “higher ups” in the drug
world and was a teenage leader in a 1970’s drug ring. They found $600 in her apartment,
paraphernalia for cutting heroin and pictures of her with other drug dealers. Doris described
herself as a recent high school graduate who was strapped for cash, working at a minimum
wage job and driving a $400 car. She said that every day of her life she regretted getting
herself into this situation. She was extradited back to Michigan to serve her original prison
term. Her family and friends submitted a plea for clemency to the governor of Michigan.
Should the governor grant her clemency?
Use your critical thinking to analyse this situation. Your professor may use this exercise as a
group discussion. Use the Critical Thinking Worksheet that follows for your analysis.
This exercise is based on excerpts from “Former Fugitive Drawing Sympathy” and “Captured Fugitive Now
Waiting for Extradition, and to Learn Fate” from the San Diego Union Tribune, May 1 and 2, 2008.
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Name__________________________________________Date_____________
______
Critical Thinking Worksheet: Crime and Punishment

Use the summary of the news article on crime and punishment to answer the questions
below. Discuss the issues with a group of students in your class and then write your
reasonable point of view.
1. State the problem as simply and clearly as you can.
2. Describe the values and point of view of Doris Drugdealer.
3. Describe the values and point of view of her husband.
4. Describe the values and point of view of her children.
5. Describe the values and point of view of her neighbours.
6. Describe the legal and societal issues.
7. After discussing the issues and looking at different points of view, what is your
reasonable point of view? Why? Include a brief description of your values. Use the
back of this sheet of paper to explain your point of view.
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Self Motivation
Motivating Yourself
 As young children, we have a great ability to learn and to see past setbacks.
We try things, again and again, until we get them right.
Setbacks are only part of a successful process of learning.
Our drive, motivation, even curiosity to learn is personal, or intrinsic.
 As we age, we begin to get expectations created by our families, schools, and

environment. The motivation of our early years can shift from our personal
(intrinsic) goals to pleasing or fearing others (extrinsic), and often our desire to
learn suffers.
Let's regain a sense of discovery!
 Take control and responsibility for your learning, and accept risks with
confidence, competence, and autonomy: Recognize that "failure" is success(!)
and that learning what doesn't work is on the same path as learning what does
work.
How can you motivate yourself, or regain your personal sense of

accomplishment?
PART 1 Motivating Yourself: Intrinsic Motivation
If you are intrinsically motivated, studies have found that you will...
- put in more effort
- try different ways to succeed
- be more persistent and learn more deeply
Intrinsic motivation includes your personal goals, values, and interests.
Examples:
I want to learn to text faster to communicate with my friends.
I want to explore Africa to learn about my family's history.
I want to work in a ski shop so I can learn to ski better.
I want carpentry skills to make my gaming centre.
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What benefit will you find in continuing your education? Please ‘tick’ all that apply
Independence Creativity
Intellectual pursuits New friends
Sports/athletics Dating
Religion Other
Write a sentence or two about your favourite reason above:
Curiosity is your desire to learn about something. In one or two words, what topic or
subject would you really like to learn about?
___________________________________________________________________
__
This subject should fill a need that you have. Why do you think learning about it is
important?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
______________________________
Challenge, curiosity, control, fantasy, cooperation, competition: These can move you
towards your goals and stimulate you.
Select one of the words above and write a couple of sentence about why it appeals
to you.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
______________________________
What would be the end result/ the benefit of this?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
______________________________
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PART 2 – Motivating Yourself: Extrinsic Motivation
 Extrinsic motivation comes from outside yourself: It is immediate and not long
term, and can be in the form of a given reward even penalty. It includes the
requirements, goals, and values of others as they affect you.
Examples:
I take the test.

I become more efficient at work.
I complete my programming assignment.
I follow coach’s directions.
I turn my cell phone off in class.
I take required courses.
I complete my reading assignments.
Who affects your choices about your education? Who do you think has control over
what, how and when you learn? Tick all that apply
Parents/guardians Academic counselling

children teachers
Partners/spouses employers
Bank/loan officers Other
Briefly describe how this person or office affects your education

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
______________________________
What do they have to gain?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
______________________________
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If you wanted a clearer understanding of their influence, what third party would you
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PART 3: Turn Extrinsic into Intrinsic Motivation: Keep Perspective
An early American saying encourages us to ‘keep our eyes on the prize’ Focus on
day to day responsibilities with your goals (or the ‘prize’) in mind, especially when
things seem difficult.
Examples:
I learn dates for a history test; when I pass history, I'll graduate!
I complete work assignments well in order to get a raise to buy a car.
I learn this computer program as a job requirement, but this added skill will get me
that promotion.
I practice extra kicking to please my coach, but my skills will help the team win
games.
I turn off my cell phone so I concentrate better on the lecture.
I complete my reading assignments, but more reading will increase my vocabulary.
PART 4: Pressure and External Challenges
Treat your education as a continuing project.
Keep external rewards and penalties in perspective.

Focus on your goals and their outcomes, rather than outside responses to your work.
What is a recent penalty you received?

Whether or not you think you deserved it, what did you do to receive it?
What is a recent reward you received?
Whether or not you think you deserved it, what did you do to receive it?
PART 5: Learn from a mistake!
Scenario 1
You are motivated to explore financial aid options to help pay expenses since you
moved near your school from your family home. You found that you probably qualify
for a scholarship and the due date is the first day of school. You call the financial aid
office and the administrator says he will send you the forms. However, the move
and beginning of school distract you, and after school starts you realize you have not
received the forms, and the deadline has passed. You call the administrator, and he
says he sent them to you, but that the deadline has passed and the applications are
already processed. What to do?
Keeping perspective is difficult when you are being penalised, or you have not met
your own expectations. But how will you learn from the experience?
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First, let’s analyse what happened. There were two outside agents that affected this
scenario: having the forms and the due date. Either you received the forms and
forgot about them, or they were lost in the mail, or they weren’t sent. But now that is
not important. The due date has passed, and accusations will not succeed in
changing the situation.
However, if you had scheduled completing the forms in your calendar, you would
have avoided the problem! When you went to complete them, you would have
noticed that you didn’t have them, and would have followed up.
What are the next steps?
You can schedule in your calendar applying for the next round of scholarships
You can meet with your financial aid officer and discuss other possible scholarships
and loans
You can discuss meeting your financial responsibilities with your parents or guardian
Learn from your experience: renew your motivation to resolve the problem with
additional strategies.
Scenario 2
You are highly motivated to study a subject and register for an entry-level course
with a teacher you really admire. The first test is coming up and focuses on
vocabulary necessary for its field of study. You are confident about acing the test.
The night before the test, your friends celebrate a birthday and you go out with them,
and stay out late. The next day you take the test. A few days later you get the test
results, and find that not only did you not pass, but that you were near the bottom of
the class. What to do?
We can be confident that you over-estimated what you knew, and did not take the
time for review and/or study. You did not consider the effect of celebrating and/or
staying out late. In this case, the exam and your friends were the outside agents that
affected your ability and motivation to continue in this class and field.
What are the next steps?

Review the test for errors.
Study the corrections.
After feeling confident about the content, explain to the teacher that you over-
estimated your ability to do well on the test.
Ask if there is a make-up option.
Approach your friends and explain to them what happened.
Ask for their support in future situations in scheduling celebrations and nights out.
If any are in the same field of study or class, start a study group.
Develop a schedule and note important test and assignment due dates.
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Prioritise your activities so that you have enough time to study and complete what is
required.
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Try, Try Again.
Thomas Edison took pride in unsuccessful experiments as part of his journey to

successful outcomes!
He once said that he didn’t fail; he succeeded in finding 10,000 ways that didn’t
work.
Let's discover where this leads us... Answer the questions below.
1. What is one time that you through either that you did not succeed of could
have done much better at a challenge?
2. Why do you think you did not perform well?
3. What could you have done differently?
4. What did you learn from the experience?
5. Who would be one neutral person who could help you evaluate what you did?
6. Which of your intrinsic goals could apply to this situation?
7. What is a similar situation you are now in?
8. What one thing could you change to alter your performance, the impression it
made, or its result?
9. What would be one lesson you could apply to other situations?
10. How would this fit into achieving your long term goals?
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Managing my Time
Answer the following questions:
Not at all (1), Rarely (2), Sometimes (3), Often (4), Very Often (5)
1. The tasks I work on are the ones with the highest priority
2. I find myself completing tasks at the last minute, or asking for extensions
3. I set aside time for planning and scheduling
4. I know how much time I spend on each of the various tasks I do
5. I find myself dealing with interruptions
6. I use goal setting to decide what tasks and activities I should work on
7. I leave contingency time in my schedule to deal with ‘the unexpected’?
8. I know whether the tasks I am working on are high, medium, or low value.
9. When I am given a new assignment, I analyse it for importance and prioritise
it accordingly
10. I am stressed about deadlines and commitments
11. Distractions keep me from working on critical tasks.
12. I have to take work home in order to get it done
13. I prioritise my To Do list or Action programme
14. I confirm my priorities with my boss/ teacher
15. Before I take on a task, I check that the results will be worth the time put in.
Goal Setting
Question 6, 10
6. I use goal setting to decide what tasks and activities I should work on (high)
10. I am stressed about deadlines and commitments (low)
The ideal is a high score for question 6 eg often (4) or very often (5) and a low score for
question 10 eg rarely (1) or not at all (2)
To start managing time effectively you need to set goals. When you know where you’re
going, you can then figure out what exactly needs to be done, in what order. Without proper
goal setting, you’ll waste your time on a confusion of conflicting priorities.
People tend to neglect goal setting because it requires time and effort. What they fail to
consider is that a little time an effort put in now saves an enormous amount of time, effort
and frustration in the future.
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Prioritisation
Question 1, 4, 8, 13, 14, 15
1. The tasks I work on are the ones with the highest priority (high)
4. I know how much time I spend on each of the various tasks I do (high)
8. I know whether the tasks I am working on are high, medium, or low value. (high)
13. I prioritise my To Do list or Action programme (high)
14. I confirm my priorities with my boss/ teacher (high)
15. Before I take on a task, I check that the results will be worth the time put in. (high)
The ideal is a high score for all of these questions eg often (4) or very often (5)
Prioritising what needs to be done is especially important. Without it, you may work very
hard, but you won’t achieve the results you want because what you are working on is not
strategically important.
Most people have a ‘to do’ list of some sort. The problem with many of these lists is they are
just a collection of things that need to get done. There is no rhyme or reason to the list and,
because of this, the work they do is just as unstructured. So how do you work on To Do List
tasks – top down, bottom up, easiest to hardest?
To work efficiently, you need to work on the most important, high value tasks. This way you
won’t get caught scrambling to get something critical done as the deadline approaches.
Managing Interruptions
Questions 5, 9, 11, 12
5. I find myself dealing with interruptions (low)

9. When I am given a new assignment, I analyse it for importance and prioritise it
accordingly (high)
11. Distractions keep me from working on critical tasks. (low)
12. I have to take work home in order to get it done. (low)
The ideal is a high score for question 9 and a low score for the other 3 questions.
Having a plan and knowing how to prioritise it is one thing. The next issue is knowing what to
do to minimise the interruptions you face during your day. It is widely recognised that
managers get very little uninterrupted time to work on their priority tasks. Equally, if you are
studying lots of different subject, have a busy social life, play sports and have responsibilities
at home, lots of things can crop up unexpectedly. Some do need to be dealt with
immediately, but others needs to be managed.
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Procrastination
Question 2
1. I find myself completing tasks at the last minute, or asking for extensions (low)
The ideal is a low score for this question.
‘I’ll get to it later’ had led to the downfall of many a good employee. After too many ‘laters’
the work piles up so high that any task can seem insurmountable. Procrastination is as
tempting as it is deadly. The best way to beat it is to recognise that you do indeed
procrastinate. Then you need to figure out why. Perhaps you are afraid of failing? (and some
people are actually afraid of success!)
Once you know why you procrastinate then you can plan to get out of the habit. Reward
yourself for getting jobs done, and remind yourself regularly of the horrible consequences of
not doing those boring tasks!
Scheduling
Question 3, 7
2. I set aside time for planning and scheduling (high)

7. I leave contingency time in my schedule to deal with ‘the unexpected’? (high)
The ideal is a high score for both of these questions.
Much of time management comes down to effective scheduling of your time. When you
know what your goals and priorities are, you then need to know how to go about creating a
schedule that keeps you on track and protects you from stress.
This mean understanding the factors that affect the time you have available for work. You
not only have to schedule priority tasks, you have to leave room for interruptions, and
contingency time for those unexpected events that otherwise wreak chaos with your
schedule. By creating a robust schedule that reflects your priorities as well as supports your
personal goals, you have a winning combination: One that will allow you to control your time
and keep your life in balance.
Key Points
Time management is an essential skill that helps you keep your work under control, at the
same time that it helps you keep stress to a minimum.
We would all love to have an extra couple of hours in every day. Seeing as that is
impossible, we need to work smarter on things that have the highest priority, and then
creating a schedule that reflects our work and personal priorities.
With this in place, we can work in a focused and effective way, and really start achieving
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How to be Organised
How to be organised in 6 easy steps – Advice from one student to another.

Juggling deadlines and commitments can be difficult but getting organised can save
you a whole lot of time and stress.
1. Keep a Diary
This might seem old-fashioned, but keeping a diary might be a really useful
tool to keep you organised.
Use your diary to keep track of all the deadline you have ahead of you. You
can even put warning messages to yourself in the days before the deadline
(eg CS coursework due 1 week from now) so you don’t get any nasty
surprises.
Once you’re in the habit of checking your diary on a daily basis and using it to
keep note of every commitment and deadline, nothing will catch you out and
leave you rushing to get your work done.
2. Write To Do Lists
The best thing about a To Do list is the sense of achievement you feel as you
tick things off it.
If you feel you’ve got a lot of work piling up, break it down into smaller tasks
and split them across a few days. This way, even if you can only manage to
do a little bit of what you need to do each day, you’ll know that you’re still on
track to get everything finished by the deadline.
If you don’t managed to complete everything on your list for the day, transfer
any unfinished tasks to the next day (but do try to avoid this as much as
possible, or your list will keep on growing!)
3. Get Enough Sleep
You’re never going to feel like you’re in control of things if you’ve only
managed to get a few hours of sleep. It’s recommended that you get 8 hours
sleep a night, and you’ll be surprised how much better you feel when you’re
well-rested and alert.
If you’re exhausted, the chances of you missing appointment, classes or

deadline are much higher, and you’ll lack the motivation to tackle your to do
list.
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4. Compartmentalise
Folders will become your new best friend on your journey to becoming more
organised. There’s perfect for storing lecture notes, seminar work or anything
else that will be useful for your studies. You’ll save yourself a lot of time
searching for relevant materials, especially for revision, if you file everything in
your folders as you go along.
5. Learn How to Say ‘No’
If you have a deadline coming up that you’re struggling with, and a classmate
asks for your help – it’s okay to say that you can’t help. Don’t feel obliged.
Remember to prioritise your long term goals, so, if someone asks you to do
something and it will get in the way of your long term goals, just say no!
6. Don’t Panic
Last but not least – remember that panicking about having too much to do
won’t solve anything.
Take a deep breath and start tackling one thing at a time. Go back to the top
of this list, work your way through, and you’ll get back on track in no time.
Adapted from http://www.savethestudent.org/extra-guides/how-to-be-

organised-in-6-easy-steps.html accessed May 2017
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Helpful abbreviations for speedy note-taking
This handout lists a number of common abbreviations that may be helpful when note-taking,
especially from lectures. It also explains two common abbreviating techniques that can be
applied to almost any word.
You should remember, however, that you can and should also invent and use your own
abbreviations, especially for words or phrases that occur frequently in your subject area. The
key to success in using your own abbreviations is not to invent too many and, more
importantly, to use them consistently.
Common symbols used in note-taking
& or + And, plus, with

- Minus, without
= equals
≠ Does not equal, is not the same as, does not result in
≈ Approximately equal to, similar to
< Is less than, is smaller than
> Is more than, is bigger than
↑ Increase, rise, growth
↑↑ Rapid increase
↓ Decrease, fall, shrinkage
↓↓ Rapid decrease
∴ Therefore, thus
→ Leads on to, produces, causes
x No, not, incorrect
xx Definitely not, disproved
? Uncertain, possibly, unproven
✓ Yes, correct
✓✓ Definitely, certain, proven
# number
✳ Special, important, notable (when added to a word or phrase)
/ Per (eg £50/day instead of £50 per day 41
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Some common general abbreviations
c. Approximately, roughly, about

eg For example
ie In other words (usually used when adding more detail or an explanation
cf Compared to, by comparison with
w/ With
w/o Without
v Very
vv Extremely
C Century (eg C19 for ‘Nineteenth Century)
etc And so on
K or k A thousand (eg 500k for ‘five hundred thousand)
m A million (eg $6m (for ‘six million dollars)
vs against
Two Abbreviation Techniques

1. Use the first few letter of the word – just enough to remember what the abbreviation
stands for eg imp for important
info for information
eval for evaluation
2. Remove all (or most of) the vowels from the word and use just the key consonants
bunched together e.g. mngmt for management
Mkt for market (mkting for marketing)
Dvpt for development
Example
Imagine you heard the following in a lecture:
“At the end of the twentieth century the United Kingdom’s population, at around sixty million,
was similar to that of Italy, but Italy’s population was shrinking because its birth rate had
fallen below its death rate. The UK’s population was still growing, albeit very slowly – at a
rate of 0.09% between 1995 and 2000.”
Your notes on this part of the lecture might look like this:
end 20 UK pop c60m ≈ I. BUT I. ↓ due BR < DR – cf. UK ↑ slow ie 0.09% 95–2K
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SQ3R reading method
SQ3R is a reading strategy formed from its letters:

Survey! Question! Read! Recite! Review!
SQ3R will help you build a framework to understand your reading assignment.
Before you read, Survey the chapter:
 the title, headings, and subheadings

 captions under pictures, charts, graphs or maps
 review questions or teacher-made study guides
 introductory and concluding paragraphs
 summary
Question while you are surveying:

 Turn the title, headings, and/or subheadings into questions
 Read questions at the end of the chapters or after each subheading
 Ask yourself,
"What did my instructor say about this chapter or subject
when it was assigned?"
 Ask yourself,
"What do I already know about this subject?"
Note: If it is helpful to you, write out these questions for consideration.
This variation is called SQW3R
When you begin to Read:

 Look for answers to the questions you first raised
 Answer questions at the beginning or end of chapters or study guides
 Reread captions under pictures, graphs, etc.
 Note all the underlined, italicized, bold printed words or phrases
 Study graphic aids
 Reduce your speed for difficult passages
 Stop and reread parts which are not clear
 Read only a section at a time and recite after each section
Recite after you've read a section:

 Orally ask yourself questions about what you have just read, or summarize, in
your own words, what you read
 Take notes from the text but write the information in your own words
 Underline or highlight important points you've just read
 Reciting:
The more senses you use the more likely you are to remember what you read
Triple strength learning: Seeing, saying, hearing
Quadruple strength learning: Seeing, saying, hearing, writing!!!
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Review: an ongoing process
Day One
 After you have read and recited the entire chapter,
write questions in the margins for those points
you have highlighted or underlined.
 If you took notes while reciting,
write questions for the notes you have taken
in the left hand margins of your notebook.
 Complete the form for a critical reading review
Day Two
 Page through the text and/or your notebook to re-acquaint yourself
with the important points.
 Cover the right hand column of your text/note-book
and orally ask yourself the questions in the left hand margins.
 Orally recite or write the answers from memory.
 Develop mnemonic devices for material which need to be memorised.
Make flash cards for those questions which give you difficulty.
Days Three, Four and Five

 Alternate between your flash cards and notes and test yourself
(orally or in writing) on the questions you formulated.
 Make additional flash cards if necessary.
Weekend
 Using the text and notebook, make a Table of Contents - list all the topics and
sub-topics you need to know from the chapter.
 From the Table of Contents, make a Study Sheet/ Spatial Map.
 Recite the information orally and in your own words as you put the Study
Sheet/Map together.
 As you have consolidated all the information you need for this chapter,
periodically review the Sheet/Map so that at test time
you will not have to cram.
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Cornell Note Taking System
Divide your paper into 2 columns, one twice as wide as the other.
Label the smaller column ‘questions’ and the larger column’ notes
Create a section at the bottom of your paper labelled ‘summary’
Notes Questions/ cue words

Summary
Record: During a lecture or when reading a chapter, use the notes column to record the
lecture/ notes on the chapter. Don’t use complete sentences – use abbreviations and
shorthand.
Review and Clarify: As soon after class as possible, review the notes, pull out the main
ideas, key points, dates, people etc and turn into a summary to write in the section at the
bottom of your paper.
Questions/ cue words: As soon after class as possible, formulate questions based on the
notes and ‘cue words’ that remind you of the content of the lecture/ chapter. Writing
questions helps to clarify meanings, reveal relationships, establish continuity, and strengthen
memory. Also, writing the questions sets up a perfect stage for revision later.
Recite: Cover the notes column with a sheet of paper. Looking at the questions or cue words
in the question column say, aloud, in your own words, the answers to the questions, or the
facts or ideas prompted by the cue words.
Reflect: Reflect on the material by asking yourself questions, for example: What is the
significance of these facts? What principles are they based on? How can I apply them? How
do they fit in with what I already know? What’s beyond them?
Review: Spend at least ten minutes every week reviewing all your previous notes. If you do,
you’ll retain a great deal for current use, as well as for the exam
Adapted from https://www.lsc.cornell.edu/study-skills/cornell-note-taking-system

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How to read a scientific paper
Much of a scientist’s work involves reading research papers, whether it’s to stay up to date in
their field, advance their scientific understanding, review manuscripts, or gather information
for a project proposal or grant application. Because scientific articles are different from other
texts, like novels or newspaper stories, they should be read differently.
Research papers follow the well-known IMRD format — an abstract followed by

the Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion. They have multiple cross references and
tables as well as supplementary material, such as data sets, lab protocols and gene
sequences. All those characteristics can make them dense and complex. Being able to
effectively understanding them is a matter of practice.
Reading a scientific paper should not be done in a linear way (from beginning to end);
instead, it should be done strategically and with a critical mindset, questioning your
understanding and the findings. Sometimes you will have to go backwards and forwards,
take notes and have multiples tabs opened in your browser.
Here are some tips for reading and understanding research papers.
1. Skim
First, get the big picture by reading the title, key words, and abstract carefully; this
will tell you the major finding and why they matter
 Quickly scan the article without taking notes; focus on headings and
subheadings
 Note the publishing date; for many areas, current research is more relevant
 Note any terms and parts you don’t understand for further reading
2. Re-read
Read the article again, asking yourself questions such as:
 What problem is the study trying to solve?

 Are the findings well supported by evidence?
 Are the findings unique and supported by other work in the field?
 What was the sample size? Is it representative of the larger population
 Is the study repeatable?
 What factors might affect the results
If you are unfamiliar with key concepts, look them up.
3. Interpret
 Examine graphs and tables carefully

 Try to interpret data first before looking at captions
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 When reading the discussion and results, look for key issues and new
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 Make sure you have distinguished the main points. If not, go over the text
again.
4. Summarise
 Take notes; it improves reading comprehension and helps you remember key
points.
 If you have a printed version, highlight key points and write on the article. If
it’s on screen, make use of markers and comments
Adapted from https://www.elsevier.com/connect/infographic-how-to-read-a-scientific-paper

accessed June 2017
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Note Taking from Reading
When engaged in some form of study or research, you will no doubt need to read
information and potentially lots of it.
Taking Notes when Reading
When you are studying, reading should be seen as an ‘active’ exercise; in other words, you
need to actively engage with your reading to maximise your learning. One of the most
effective ways to do this is to make notes as you go along, linking points, pulling out key
pieces of information etc. By writing notes, in your own words, you will be forced to think
about the ideas that are presented in the text and how you can explain them coherently. The
process of note-taking should help you to retain, analyse and ultimately remember and learn
what you have read.
What NOT to do
It is important to understand that effective note-taking means writing notes on what you have
read in your own words
Copying what others have said is not note-taking, and is only appropriate when you want to
directly quote the author. It can be tempting to ‘copy and paste’ but you won’t engage with
the text if you don’t rewrite it in your own words. And remember, copied text that ends up in
your assignment is plagiarism and a serious academic offence.
Effective Steps for Note-Taking
There is not magic formula to taking notes when reading; you have to find out what works
best for you. Your note-taking skills will develop with practice and as you realise the benefits.
Here are some hints and tips to get you started:
Highlight and Emphasising
A quick and easy way to be active when reading is to highlight/ underline pieces of text.
Whilst highlighting isn’t note taking, it’s a good first step. You could also use sticky notes or
similar.
Highlighting key words or phrases will help you to:
 Focus your attention on what you are reading and make it easy to see key points
when re-reading.
 Think more carefully about what the key concepts and ideas in the text are
 At a glance you will be able to see that you have already read pages or sections on
text
When you come across words or phrases that you are not familiar with it may be useful to
add them to a personal glossary of terms. Make a glossary on a separate sheet of notes, so
you can easily refer to it and update it as necessary. Write descriptions of the terms in your
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Making Written Notes
Although highlighting is a quick way of emphasising key points, it is no substitute for taking
proper notes.
Remember your main purpose for note-taking is to learn, and probably to prepare for some
form of writing. When you first start out note-taking you may find that you take too many
notes, or not enough, or that when you revisit them they are unclear, or which is your opinion
and which the opinion of author. You will need to work on these areas – like all life skills,
taking effective notes improve with practice.
Tips for Making Effective Notes
The following guidelines may be of help:
IT is important to keep your notes organised and well-structured so you can easily find them
later. Use a notebook or set up folders on your computer.
Use headings or different sheets to separate different themes and ideas
Use bright colours to highlight important points in your notes. You may find it useful to have
a simple system of colour coding, using different colours for related content.
Top Tip: Always keep a record of your information source so you can easily find it
again. In academia it is ESSENTIAL that you reference your work.
When referring to a book, record the author’s name, the date of publication, the title of the
book, the relevant page number, the name of the publisher and the place of publication.
When referring to a magazine or newspaper, record the name of the author of the article, the
date of publication, the name of the article, the name of the publication, the publication
number and page number.
When referring to internet sources, record (At least) the full URL or web address and the
date you accessed the information.
Adapted from https://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/notes-reading.html accessed June 2017
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What is Concept Mapping?
Concept mapping is a technique for representing knowledge in graphs. Knowledge graphs

are networks of concepts. Networks consist of nodes (points/vertices) and links (arcs/edges).
Nodes represent concepts and links represent the relations between concepts.
Concepts and sometimes links are labeled. Links can be non-, uni- or bi-directional.
Concepts and links may be categorised, they can be simply associative, specified or divided
in categories such as causal or temporal relations.
Concept mapping can be done for several purposes:
 to generate ideas (brain storming, etc.);

 to design a complex structure (long texts, hypermedia, large web sites, etc.);
 to communicate complex ideas;
 to aid learning by explicitly integrating new and old knowledge;
 to assess understanding or diagnose misunderstanding.
The concept mapping technique was developed by Prof. Joseph D. Novak at Cornell
University in the 1960s. This work was based on the theories of David Ausubel, who
stressed the importance of prior knowledge in being able to learn about new concepts.
Novak concluded that "Meaningful learning involves the assimilation of new concepts and
propositions into existing cognitive structures".
Mind Mapping® is a popular related technique, invented (and copyrighted) by Tony Buzan in
the UK. He describes mind maps as: "a mind map consists of a central word or concept,
around the central word you draw the 5 to 10 main ideas that relate to that word. You then
take each of those child words and again draw the 5 to 10 main ideas that relate to each of
those words."
The difference between concept maps and mind maps is that a mind map has only one main
concept, while a concept map may have several. This comes down to the point that a mind
map can be represented as a tree, while a concept map may need a network representation.
An example Concept Map
Here is an example of a concept map. In this example the nodes are labeled, the links are
also labeled and uni-directional.
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Adapted from http://users.edte.utwente.nl/lanzing/cm_home.htm accessed May 2017
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Hints for Good Note Taking – Ten Basic Steps
1. Don’t write down everything that you read or hear. Be alert and attentive to the main
points. Concentrate on the “meat” of the subjects and forget the “trimmings.”
2. Notes should consist of key words, or very short sentences. As a speaker gets side-
tracked you can go back and add further information.
3. Take accurate notes. You should usually use your own words, but try not to change the
meaning. If you quote directly from the author, quote correctly and record the citation.
4. Think a minute about your material before you start making notes. Don’t take notes just
to be taking notes! Take notes that will be of real value to you when you look over them
later.
5. Have a uniform system of punctuation and abbreviation that will make sense to you.
Use a skeleton outline and show importance by indenting. Leave white space for later
additions.
6. Omit descriptions and full explanations. Keep your notes short and to the point.
Condense your material so you can grasp it rapidly.
7. Do not worry about missing a point. Leave space and try to pick up the material you
miss at a later date, either through reading, questioning, or common sense.
8. Don’t keep notes on oddly shaped pieces of paper. Keep notes in order and in one
place.
9. Shortly after making your notes, go back and rework (not recopy!) your notes by adding
extra points, spelling out unclear items, etc. Remember, we forget quickly. Budget time
for this vital step just as you do for the class itself.
10. Review your notes periodically. This is the only way to achieve lasting memory.
Adapted from https://www.chapman.edu/students/academic-resources/tutoring-

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Pre-reading Strategies
What you bring to the printed page will affect how you understand what you read. So you
need to organise yourself before you read
Strategies to activate your prior knowledge:
Brainstorming:
 Read the title of what you are about to read

 List all the information that comes to mind about this title
 Use these pieces of information to recall and understand the material
 Use this knowledge to reorder what you know, or to note what you disagree with, for
further research
Group Discussion:
Group discussion in and out of class will help you to discover what you already know about
what you’re about to read, and what your views and pre-conceptions already are, as well as
what the group know and think.
Pre-Questions:
Often chapters in texts provide organising questions. You can write out a series of questions
you expect to be answered when reading.
Eg
Definition : What is…..? Where does … fit with other similar ideas/ concepts?
Characteristics : How would I describe…? What does… look like? What are its parts?
Examples : What is a good example of …?

What are similar examples that share attributes but differ in some way?
Experience : What experience have I had with… ? What can I imagine about…?
Visual Aids :
Pictures and other visual material can activate your prior knowledge.
Use the Internet to search for pictures related to your title/ topic to give you visual images of
what you are about to read.
Advance Organisers:
Relate new reading material to something you already know, to your background, or
experiences. Ask your teacher for assistance in developing these.
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Additional Pre-reading Strategies:
Overviews:
Discussing information about the selection or assignment prior to reading must take place.
This may take the form of class discussions, printed previews, photographs, outlines, or
films. Spend enough time before the students begin the assignment to ensure understanding
of it.
Vocabulary Previews:
Unfamiliar key words need to be taught to students before reading so that new words,
background information, and comprehension can improve together.
List all words in the assignment that may be important for students to understand. Arrange
words to show the relationships to the learning task. Add words students probably already
understand to connect relationships between what is known and the unknown. Share
information with students. Verbally quiz them on the information before assigned reading
begins.
Structural Organizers:
Before reading an assignment, basic frameworks which are included in the text should be
pointed out such as cause-effect or problem-solution. It can be beneficial to call attention to
specific plans of paragraph or text organization such as signal words, main idea sentences,
highlighted phrases, headings and subtitles. A review of skimming techniques might also be
appropriate as these various areas are covered.
A Purpose for Reading:
When students have a purpose for reading a selection, they find that purpose not only
directs their reading towards a goal, but helps to focus their attention. Purposes may come
from teacher directed questions, questions from class discussions or brainstorming, or from
the individual student. Along with the question, it is a good idea to pose predictions of the
outcome and problems which need to be solved. These may be generated by the student or
the teacher, but the teacher should use these to guide students in the needed direction for
the assigned selection.
Author Consideration:
Depending upon the content area, a discussion of the author of the particular work can be
helpful to the understanding of it. What is the author trying to say? What is his point of view
and his reason for writing the particular work?
KWL: This strategy consists of three steps for students to use with expository text:
What do I Know? What do I Want to learn? What did I Learn?
A good strategy for group discussions.

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Develop a three column poster with each question in a column and list out responses.
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Study Listening
How to listen to lectures and take notes
Strategy 1: Predicting
We make predictions all the time. For example, we predit how long it will take to write an
email, or how a friend will react to some news we have to give them.
When listening to a lecture, we can use two main types of information to help us to predict
what is going to be said next; Background knowledge and context
Background Knowledge:
General knowledge of the world

Specific subject knowledge
Context:
The situation (who is speaking, where, when and why)

What has been said so far
Guessing ahead can help you to make notes of the most important aspects of a lecture
because you’re predicting what’s coming next and can prepapre yourself to capture the most
relevant information
Strategy 2: Signpost markers and list markers
Lecturers often use signpost markers to outline the structure of the lecture and list markers
to separate the points in each section of the lecture.
Typical signpost markers you might hear at the beginning of a lecture;
I’d like to…

I’m going to…
I want to…
I plan to….
At the start of a new section, you might hear;
I’d like to move on to…

I’ve like to look now at…
Moving on to…
Having looked at X, I want to move on to…
Signpost markers in lectures are words and expressions used by the lecturer to indicate the
direction their lecture is going to take. If you listen out for signpost markers you will hear the
‘heading’ or main themes and topics of the lecture. You can then note these down to give
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Typical list makers are words such as
Firstly, secondly, thirdly

And then
Another thing
Not only X but…
Listening out for list markers will help you to write notes that capture the key elements of the
lecture .
Strategy 3: Re-reading your Notes
By looking at the sign-post markers and list markers you have noted down, you can see if
you have captured everything in your notes that you should have. For example, you might
have noted at the beginning of a lecture that the lecturer said that they were going to make 5
points. Have you captured all 5 points? You can return to the lecture or compare your notes
with a classmate.
Strategy 4: Comparing Notes
It’s often useful to compare your notes with the notes of a classmate. They might have
included information that you have missed out and vice versa. Don’t copy their notes, or let
them copy yours, but do discuss what you’ve both chosen to leave out, or differences in
interpretation to make sure you have the best set of notes you can have.
Adapted from Cambridge Second Edition Study Listening – A course in listening to lectures
and note taking. Tony Lynch.
http://assets.cambridge.org/97805215/33874/sample/9780521533874ws.pdf accessed June
2017
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How to Prepare for and Give a Speech
Planning your Speech
Identify the topic of your speech.

Choose a single focused message rather than trying to cover multiple topics
Pinpoint your Audience

Are you speaking to an audience who know nothing about your topic, or people who are
experts? Understanding your audience will help you to target what you say appropriately.
Consider your motives

A good speech answers a need that the audience has. Are you trying to make your audience
laugh? Are you trying to build their morale, or are you communicating a sober and direct
message? These questions will set the mood and tone of your speech.
Think about the setting

Is this speech for a small group or for a large audience? You can often be more informal with
a small audience. Is this a speech at work, at a social occasion, as part of an assessment?
What would be the appropriate tone and register?
Writing your Speech
Write a succinct, single sentence statement about your subject.

Try to write something that will interest your audience straight away and help you to
immediately grab their attention.
You could use an anecdote or a quote but please be sure to credit your source. You might
start with a joke, but be careful – your audience might not find it funny!
Choose 3 to 5 supporting points for your topic

Make sure that you points are concise and direct. You can start by looking at generic
sources of information such as an encyclopedia or Wikipedia, but you need to fact check
your ideas with more authorative sources after you generally understand your subject.
Draw on your own experience.

If you have a lot of personal experience of a particular topic this can be a great resource, just
keep your stories short so you don’t lose your audience’s attention.
Decide whether you want to write our your speech or outline the speech on index cards
Consider your comfort level with the topic. If you know the topic well and can improvise
easily, then use index cards. Use 1 car for the introduction – this should include your
opening statement. Use 1 or 2 cards for each supporting point. Then, create 1 card for the
conclusion which ties back to the main ideas of your speech. Write brief sentence fragments
or even single words on your cards – these should contain key phrases that remind you of
what you want to say. If you’re not so certain about your knowledge of your subject, write out
more of the speech, and some sections perhaps just as you want to say them.
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Decide whether you want visual aids
You might create a Prezi or a powerpoint presentation to go along with your speech, or you
might used paper-based charts, or photogrpahs etc
Generally, keep the visuals to a minimum – you want them to aid your speech, not
overshadow it. Make sure your audience can easily read the content of your visuals – too big
is better than not big enough. And, remember, check the facilities in the room you’ll be using.
If you need the interest or a projector, make sure you have one.
Prepare handouts
If your subject is detailed and technical provide some handouts that cover the most
important points in your speech. This will give your audience a reference for the more
detailed points that they can return to later.
Practicing the Speech
Set a timer
You should know how long your speech needs to be. If you can’t deliver yoru speech in the
given amount of time, you need to shorten it. This will actually strengthen it by making it
more succinct. Remember to include time for a question and answer period at the end if
appropriate.
Rehearse your speech with a friend or in front of a mirror or make a video

Practice looking up at your audience so thtat your eyes aren’t always on yoru notes. This will
help you engage better with your audience and improve their experience of your speech.
You can get feedback from your friend, or notice in the mirror or on video, about your body
language, appearance and delivery. For example, make sure your hand gestures are natural
– don’t make them too wild, but, equally, don’t fix your arms to your sides or hang on to the
table.
Speak slowly
Speak slowly and enunciate clearly. Pause between the sections of your speech so your
audience can digest the information you’ve just given them.
Mark up your speech as you practice

If words sound unnatural to you as you say them, or a sentence sounds awkward, mark it up
on your copy of the speech and edit it to make it sound better.
On the Day of Your Speech
Dress appropriately
If you need to appear authorative, choose formal business clothes. Don’t wear anything that
is too distracting, like very bold accessories.
Make sure you have all your materials in order

Bring your visual, your laptop/ copy of your speech and any handouts you might have made.
Ask for a sound check

If you’re in a small room ask someone to stand at the back and tell you whether they can
hear you. If youre in a bigger room, practice using the microphone.
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Set up your equipment
Make sure any equipment you’re using is positioned well for you and for you audience. For
example, make sure everyone can see the projector screen if you’re using one
Get a glass of water

If you’re speech is long, then you’ll pronably need some water to sip at some point. Making a
speech is thirsty business.
During your Speech
Look around at the audience

Don’t focus on one person or one point on the back wall. Try to make eye contact with
members of your audience briefly and move your eyes around the audience so that
everyone feels included in your presentation
Speak slowly
The natural adrebnaline rush you might get speaking in front of a group of people can cause
you to speak too quickly for your audience to hear you well. Remember to speak slowly,
enunciate clearly and smile. Having a confident smile can really help your audience connect
with you and pay more attention to what you’re saying.
Laugh at yourself if something goes wrong

If you forget parts of your speech just move on to the next topic. Don’t be worried about
telling your audience that you’ve forgotten a piece of information or that you’re going to skip
part of your speech. If it’s something important, reassure them that you’ll share notes
afterwards.
Give your audience a chance to interact with you

Ask them questions, invite them to ask you questions, acknowledge your audience by
smiling at them and looking at them frequently. This will better engage your audience and
help them to pay more attention to what you’re saying .
Adapted from http://www.wikihow.com/Prepare-and-Give-a-Speech accessed June 2017
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Planning an Essay
This article covers the planning stages of essay writing which as important to the overall
process.
Developing the skill of essay writing takes practice, time and patience, your essay writing
skills will improve and develop the more you write.
With the help of your teacher and your peers and from constructive feedback that you
receive when your work is marked, writing an essay will become easier as you progress
through your studies and your confidence increases.
Writing an essay helps you to consider the issues raised in your course and to relate them to
your own experience, way of thinking, and any wider additional reading and research you
may have undertaken in order to tackle the essay topic.
Writing an essay is an important part of the learning process. In the writing of an assignment,
learning occurs as you think through and interpret the points raised. Presenting your
experience and showing understanding within your assignment will, from the marker’s point
of view, demonstrate knowledge of the subject area.
The Purpose of an Essay
The original meaning of an essay is ‘an attempt’ at something. It is therefore appropriate to

consider writing an essay as a learning exercise.
Planning your Essay
Planning is the process of sorting out what you want to include in your essay.
We well-planned and organised essay indicate that you have your ideas in order and it will
make points clearly and logically. In this way, a well-planned and structured essay enable
the person reading and maybe marking your essay to easily follow the points being made.
Essays/ Assignments are usually formulated in one of the following ways:
 As a question
 As a statement that you are asked to comment on
 As an invitation to ‘outline’, ‘discuss’ or ‘critically assess’ a particular argument or
point of view.
Remember: Always write your essay on the question that has been set and not on another
aspect of the subject. Although this might sound obvious, many students do not fully answer
an essay question or include irrelevant information. The primary aim of an academic essay is
to answer the task set.
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Producing an Essay Plan
1. Study the essay question carefully

2. Write the essay question out in full
3. Spend some time, at least half an hour, brainstorming the subject area.
4. Write down your thoughts on the question subject, its scope and the different ways in
which you could tackle it.
5. List words of phrases that you think are relevant to answering the question
6. Note the main points you should include when answering the question.
At this point, check whether you’re on track – if you’re not sure, speak with your teacher
or another student to sense check what you’ve written so far.
7. Skim through any course material or lecture notes and start to build a more detailed
outline.
8. Write down where you will find the necessary information on each of the points in
your more detailed outlined (eg research, lecture notes etc). Indicate if you need to
do further research to understand a particular part of your planned essay.
9. Note down further sources of information eg books, journals, webpages etc
Be careful not to let your outline become too complicated; stick to the main points and
make sure everything you note down is directly relevant to the essay question. If you
have been given a reading list or core text book, check the relevant sections of that.
10. Once your plan is complete, stop and think about the proportions i.e. how many
words in total you need to write and how many words to allocate to each part of your
essay.
Academic essays normally have a word limit and writing within that word limit is
important.
Think about the main things that need to be covered in the essay. Make sure you
allocate most of the words to the main issues, not to any subsidiary points (no matter
how interesting)
Adapted from https://www.skillsyouneed.com/learn/essay-planning.html accessed May 2017 61

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How to Use a Library
Though it might sound strange, many people have forgotten about using the library. Because
many libraries now offer their collections online, many people are forgoing the library in favor
of heading to their computers. While this makes sense for those who might not be in driving
distance of a high quality library, this also means many people are forgetting how to use a
library.
When you walk into a library, there are many resources at your fingertips. You just need to
know what to use, how to use it, and when to ask for help.
Orient yourself. If you have not been to a library in a while, you need to orient yourself
again. Most libraries are arranged in a similar pattern, so this section will help you learn
more about your local library as well.
 New Books section: When you walk into a library, one of the first displays you might
see is the New Books section. This is where the latest books are on display so
that visitors can find them easily. Here, you might find the latest nonfiction books
to support your research topic.
 Special display cases and tables: Sometimes there will be special displays during
holiday seasons or when an author comes out with a new book in a series.
 Adult fiction: A large section, the adult fiction section is a place where you can find
books arranged by the author's last name.
 Non-fiction and reference books: If you are looking for the reference section, you
will want to seek out nonfiction. This area is going to be arranged by the Dewey
Decimal system.
 Card catalogues: You might also notice there are card catalogues or computers that
will allow you to find the books you need. These catalogues might allow you to
search by title, author, or subject, depending on your question.
If you have not been to the library in a few years, simply take a moment to walk around first
so you can go to the section you need without wasting time.
Ideally, you will go to the computers or the card catalogues to search for the books you
need, write down their numbers or authors, and then move into the sections to find the books
on the shelves.
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Different Types of Libraries to Use
Depending on the topic you need to research, you might find that different libraries might
serve you better. Many people do not realize it, but there is more than one type of library in
most cities.
Other libraries include:
 Public: This library is the typical library, funded by tax dollars and working to make
sure the local community has the books it needs without having to charge anyone
to read them.
 Academic: If you need to research something that is more complicated, heading to
an academic library might be a wise choice. These libraries are often specifically
tailored to one subject. For example, you might go to a medical school library when
researching a health-related topic. Other possible academic libraries include
engineering, nursing, law, etc.
 School: While universities and colleges have their own libraries, many other schools
and grade levels do, too. Depending on the research you need to do, you might
not be able to use these libraries because they may not have the items you need
in order to successfully research your topic. Think about your topic and what you
need to find before you head to a library for younger students.
 Miscellaneous libraries: There are other libraries that are also available in your
local surroundings, though you might need to call to see if you can use them. For
example, if you need to research a local company, you might be able to see their
personal library for reports, statistics, financial records, etc.
Think about the topic you need to cover and what this might mean in terms of where you
need to be for your research. In most cases, a public library will work well, but when you
need to access cutting edge information, the universities offer a wider collection of resource
materials.
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The New Computer Systems
You may not have used the card catalogue system before, so the computer systems are
more familiar to use. Set up to be accessible for anyone, these computers offer a wealth
of information.
To make sure you can find what you are looking for, here are some tips to make the
computers help you more effectively:
 Have titles in mind. If you are heading to the library, it never hurts to have the titles
you want in your mind already. This will allow you to easily type in the title names
and then begin to use the books for your personal research. Double-check the title
names before you leave for the library.
 Know author names. If you do not know the titles, perhaps you know the names of
authors and experts in the field. These will be easy to input into the computer to
see what you can find.
 Pick out keywords. When you are researching a specific subject, try to choose one
to five keywords that come up frequently in the literature. For example, if you
research "weight loss," you might also type in "diet." Have this list of keywords
available to find as many related books as possible.
 Have a question. Before you walk into the library, have a question or two that you
are trying to answer. This will focus your research and allow you to make the most
of your time.
 Bring related book titles. If you already have done some research elsewhere, bring
those titles along with you. Even if you already have those books at home, look for
them in the library and then look to the right and the left of the book on the shelf.
More often than not, those adjacent books will offer you additional ideas and
information about your topic.
 Use a notepad. As you walk along, make sure to bring your notepad. This will keep
track of the numbers and letters you need to find for each book or topic you
research. The more numbers you have, the more you will head in the proper
direction when you are in the library.
Using the library is easy and it only takes a little direction from you in order to fully realize
how many books can help you with your topic of study.
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Ask the Librarian
At times, you may not know where to begin with a research topic. Though you might have
basic research skills, if you are not sure where to go or what questions to ask, it can help to
bring in a third party who is not attached to your research: the librarian.
Interested in learning more? Why not take an online class in Basic Research Skills?
Librarians are trained to help people find the books they need or the topics they are
interested in. By talking to librarians about what you want and what you need to cover in
your research, they may be able to point out additional resources you had not yet
considered.
When you talk with the librarian, it can help to:
 have book titles that have been helpful to you. If you already have found helpful
books, show the librarian so she or he can look for similar books in the stacks.
 have a question you need to answer. Yes, it can help to have a question in mind
when you talk to librarians. They will help you answer it.
 introduce the problem you have. When you have a problem with your research, be
clear about what you are being troubled by. Chances are good the librarian can
point you in a better direction.
The librarians are there to help you with your research. They have gone to school and
received a master's degree in library sciences to learn how to use the reference materials
and how to ensure that you find the answers you need.
Talking to Other Libraries
One of the best innovations of the library system is that you can now communicate with
other libraries in the same way that librarians can. If you go to a computer terminal and you
find a book you want, but it is not at that library, you can have the book sent to your home
library.
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Remember, you can:
 request to put an item on hold;

 request that a book be transferred to your library;
 renew a book you already have out;
 find out how long it might be until a book comes back into circulation.
The library system is designed to help you get the book you want as quickly as possible. You
can take control of the process by telling the computer what you want it to do with the books
you need.
Adapted from https://www.universalclass.com/articles/writing/Research-skills/how-to-make-

effective-use-of-a-library.htm accessed June 2017
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How to Write an Essay
Writing essays is a fundamental part of academic learning at every level, yet many students
lose valuable marks by failing to structure their essays clearly and concisely to make the
best of their ideas. So how do you structure academic writing? What is the best essay
format? Follow this simple guide to how to structure an essay by clearly introducing and
concluding your argument, and laying out your paragraphs coherently in between. Your
essay writing can be dramatically improved overnight simply by using the correct essay
structure.
How to start an essay
Always begin writing essays with an introduction that clearly sets out the aims of what you
are about to write and references the title of the piece of work. State what the essay will try
to achieve and briefly mention some of the main points you will consider. The idea is to give
the marker an overview of your argument, to show that your thought process is logical and
coherent and that you have carefully thought the question through. Don’t try to go into any of
your key points in depth in your introduction – they will each be covered by a full paragraph
later on. If the question is an ‘either or’ or a ‘how far do you agree’ question, it is useful to set
out both sides of the argument briefly in the introduction in preparation for exploring the two
sides later in the essay.
For example: if the essay title is “The main purpose of Gothic fiction is to break normal moral
and social codes. Discuss”
Essay introduction example:
“It is certainly true that many works of Gothic fiction manifest the transgression of normal
moral and social codes as their major theme. Their emphasis on female sexuality, their
breaking of the boundaries between life and death and their shocking displays of immoral
religious characters would all suggest that this is indeed the case. However it is also
important to consider other major aspects of the genre that might be considered equally
important in purpose, such as its fascination with the supernatural, its portrayal of artificial
humanity and its satirical social attacks. This essay will explore these conflicting purposes
with reference to several different Gothic texts to discover what might be best described as
the ‘main’ purpose of the genre.
Paragraph Structure in essay writing
You should start a new paragraph for each major new idea within your essay, to clearly
show the examiner the structure of your argument. Each paragraph should begin with a
signpost sentence that sets out the main point you are going to explore in that section. It is
sometimes helpful to refer back to the title of the essay in the signpost sentence, to remind
the examiner of the relevance of your point. Essay writing becomes much easier for you too
this way, as you remind yourself exactly what you are focusing on each step of the way.
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Signpost sentence example: One important way in which Gothic fiction transgresses normal
moral and social codes is in its portrayal of the female heroine.
Further sentences in this paragraph then go on to expand and back up your point in greater
detail and with relevant examples. The paragraph should not contain any sentences not
directly related to the issue set out in the signpost sentence. So you are writing an essay that
clearly separates its ideas into structured sections.
How to finish your essay
Every well-structured essay ends with a conclusion. Its purpose is to summarise the main
points of your argument and, if appropriate, to draw a final decision or judgement about the
issues you have been discussing. It is important not to introduce any new ideas in the
conclusion – it is simply a reminder of what your essay has already covered. It may be useful
again to refer back to the title in the conclusion to make it very clear to the examiner that you
have thoroughly answered the question at hand. Make sure you remind them of your
argument by very concisely touching on each key point.
Essay conclusion example:
“Overall, whilst it is certainly true that the characters, plots and settings of Gothic fiction
seem firmly intended to break normal moral and social codes, the great incidence within the
genre of the depiction of the supernatural, and in particular its insistent reference to social
injustice and hypocrisy might suggest that in fact its main purpose was the criticism and
reform of society.”
Final essay structure top tip:
To check over the structure of your finished essay, see if you can write a summary of it
where you state in one sentence what each paragraph is about. If you need to write more
than one sentence for a paragraph your structure isn’t clear enough, you need to split that
paragraph into two to separate the key points out. Your essay writing should come on in
leaps and bounds if you follow these top tips to good essay structure.
Adapted from https://www.oxbridgeessays.com/blog/essay-writing-structure-essay/

accessed June 2017
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Why Use Academic Journals?
Your tutors will have no doubt stressed to you the importance of using academic journals as
a key source of information for your essays and research projects, but why are these
journals so important?
What are academic journals?
Put simply, academic journals are academic magazines. Like magazines they are
periodicals, meaning they are published periodically e.g. monthly or bi-monthly, and contain
a series of articles in each published issue. However, unlike the kind of popular magazines
that you would buy on the high street, journals are written by and for experts in their chosen
field. They are used as a means for scholars and researchers to share their research with
the academic community. Whilst there are many popular magazines on more ‘serious’
subjects e.g. New Scientist, The Economist, which can be excellent sources of background
information, they are written with the lay person in mind and do not include the depth of
coverage that an academic researcher would need. For in-depth examination of a topic,
academic journals should be your first choice.
Primary research
Academic journals are the main forum by which research is published. Often the articles in
academic journals will report in detail the finding of research studies. Whilst text books will
frequently make reference to key pieces of research, this will be secondary commentary on
the research rather than allowing you to read the actual findings of the study. Important
studies published in academic journals may be reported in more mainstream magazines
such as New Scientist and The Economist or in newspapers, but the reports of the studies
may greatly simplify the findings so that they are easily accessible to the lay person.
Focus
Each article published in a journal will also explore a very narrow, specific topic in depth.
You can learn about a particular aspect of your topic in far greater detail than that which
would be afforded in a text book or if it was reported in a popular magazine or newspaper.
Currency
The process of writing an academic book may take a long time, even years. While the
information contained within them is clearly very useful, it may not be very up to date. As
issues of journals are published more frequently they are the best way of keeping up to date
with the latest research in your field. This is particularly pertinent if your topic is subject to
frequent changes and developments.
Quality
Decisions on whether to publish an author’s article in an academic journal are made by a

process called peer review. When an author submits an article to the journal the article will
be reviewed by other subject experts in the same field to verify that its methodology is sound
and that its conclusions are valid. The author may be asked to re-draft the article several
times before it is of a suitable standard to be published.
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Through peer review, academic journals can be seen as the ‘gold standard’ for academic
research, ensuring a high level of quality and academic rigor in the articles that are
published.
The process of getting published in an academic journal, therefore, is very different to how
an article in a popular magazine or newspaper is published, where decisions on what to
publish are solely at the discretion of an editor.
Adapted from an article published by Liverpool Hope University

https://www.hope.ac.uk/media/liverpoolhope/contentassets/documents/library/help/media,12
430,en.pdf accessed June 2017
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Revising, Editing and Proofreading Your Own Work
You can use these guides in your writing process to check for common errors, language
used, formatting, reference and citations, and much more.
Revising your work

Key Issues:
 Content
 Relevance
 Argument
 Structure
 Criticality - description, analysis, evaluation
Tips and Tricks
 Build time for revision into your plan for how long it will take you write your essay
 Print a hard copy that is double spaced, includes pages numbers and has wide
margins
 ‘Reverse outline’ your essay – as you read it highlight your topic sentences to check
they’re there and that they make sense. Label each section of your essay with a
heading (delete these afterwards) to make sure you’re saying everything you want to
say.
Focus
 Rethink
 Rewrite
 Cut sections
 Add sections
 Reorganise
 Introduction – check you have a thesis, check your outline and see what you say
the scope of your essay is going to be – does your essay live up to this?
Questions
 Have I answered the question set?
 Is there a balance between description and analysis?
 Does my writing match the outline in the introduction?
 Have I said what I meant to say?
 Am I clear?
 Are my ideas linked?
 Is the sequence of ideas logical?
 Are there any gaps?
 Is there anything that isn’t relevant?
 Are there any assumptions I make that I haven’t explained?
 Does my conclusion follow on from what I’ve written?
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Editing
Key issues:
Make it easy for the reader to understand your work
Tips and Tricks:

 Build time for editing into your plan for how long it will take to write your essay
 Leave a day or two between edits
 Try to read your essay from your audience’s perspective
Focus:
 Sentence/ word level
 Academic voice – Have I avoided using emotional language, is my style and choice
of words formal, have I written in the active voice, have I avoided using ‘I’ (remember,
everything in an essay needs to be supported – ‘I think’ isn’t evidence!)
 Navigation, linking words and topic sentences
 Structure – Statement/ assertion, evidence, evaluation/ explanation of significance
 Reduce – check for duplication, extra unnecessary words, and think about including
fewer examples if you have too many
 Increase – where are the gaps? Have I answered the question? Do I need to do
more reading? Have I considered any counter arguments properly?
Questions:
 What is the main focus?
 How can I show the structure of my argument?
 Does every sentence do something to support my thesis?
 Am I clear?
 Have I met all the requirements?
Proofreading
Key issues:
 Details
 Accuracy
 Any specific requirements
Tips and Tricks:

 Use technology – word tools such as spell check, use ‘find’ to locate and change
repeated words or correct American spelling to English spelling
 Check meaning
 Read aloud, read sentences backwards for spelling errors
 Separate your focus eg check language first, then check overall appearance, then
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Focus:
 Language – punctuation, spelling, British vs American English, Grammar, Syntax,
wrong words, repetition of same words showing poor vocabulary, abbreviations that
aren’t explained, typing errors
 Appearance – layout such as line spacing, margins, presenting quotations in a
suitable and consistent way, font, font size, numbering (pages, sections, any figures
or tables)
 Referencing eg Harvard, Numerical, MHRA – make sure your referencing is accurate
and consistent in format.
Questions:
 Is there a house style ie is there a specific way you’ve been asked to present your
work?
 Does it read well?
 Am I clear?
 Have I used the right referencing system and have I used it consistently?
 Does every citation have a reference?
 Does every reference have a citation?
 Does it make sense?
 Have I used appropriate technical vocabulary?
Adapted from Skills@Library, the University Library, University of Leeds

https://library.leeds.ac.uk/info/486/academic_writing/331/academic_writing/7 accessed June
2017
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Harvard Citations
A citation is the part of the reference that you include within the main body of your work
whenever you directly quote from, paraphrase, summarise or refer to work produced by
another author. In the Harvard style, the citation includes the author's surname and year of
publication.
You should include page numbers if you quote directly from the text, paraphrase specific
ideas or explanations, or use an image, diagram, table, etc. from a source.
Citing in the text

How to incorporate citations into your work
It is good practice to vary the way you incorporate in-text citations; this will help enhance the
flow and style of your academic writing.
You may sometimes use the author's name in the text or just refer to the author in brackets
and citations might appear at the start, middle or end of your sentences.
You can also refer to multiple authors at once; this will not only help to make your writing
more succinct, but will also improve the synthesis of sources, research or ideas within your
assignments.
Examples
Biggs and Smith (2012) offer a convincing argument...
In contrast, Grayson (2012) identified the main determinant as...
Ramirez (2010), Schneider (2011) and Roberts (2013) discuss the challenges faced by...
There seems to be a correlation between students' use of the library and high degree marks
(Stone and Collins, 2012)
The research of Dalton (2012) has been challenged by...
A number of studies have shown that ... (Chan, 2012; Elston, 2011; Graham, 2009;
Richards, 2007)
Socio-economic factors such as class and education, as well as "hereditary determinants"

(Civaner and Arda, 2008, p.267), can have a detrimental effect on an individual's health.
Citing Direct Quotations

In scientific writing, it is generally the case that you should paraphrase from sources, rather
than quote directly. Quoting more extended sections of text tends to be more common in arts
and humanities subjects where it may be appropriate to quote frequently from the literature
that is being analysed.
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What is quoting?
Quoting is where you copy an author's text word for word, place quotation marks around the
words and add a citation at the end of the quote. Quotes should be using sparingly as over
quoting can suggest a lack of understanding of the text you are referring to.
In scientific writing, it is generally the case that you should paraphrase from sources, rather
than quote directly. Quoting more extended sections of text tends to be more common in arts
and humanities subjects where it may be appropriate to quote frequently from the literature
that is being analysed.
As you take notes, ensure you clearly mark where you have quoted directly from the source.
Direct quotations
If you use a direct quotation from an author, you should:
 enclose this in quotation marks

 give the author, date and page number(s) that the quotation was taken from, in
brackets.
If however you are quoting from a website or webpage that does not have page numbers,
you do not need to include anything to indicate this in the citation.
Example:
"Language is subject to change, and is not caused by unnecessary sloppiness, laziness or
ignorance" (Aitchison, 1981, p.67).
If the quotation is more than two lines:
 It is separated from the rest of the paragraph by one free line above and below
 It is indented at left and right margins
 It may be in a smaller point size
 It is preceded by a colon
 It does not use quotation marks
 The citation includes author, date and page number(s) that the quotation was taken
from.
Example:
One answer to this is that language has always been subject to change, just as everything
else in the world is, and we should not feel that this is a bad thing. As Aitchison (1981, p.16)
puts it:
Language, then, like everything else, gradually transforms itself over the centuries. There is
nothing surprising in this. In a world where humans grow old, tadpoles change into frogs,
and milk turns into cheese, it would be strange if language alone remained unaltered. In
spite of this, large numbers of intelligent people condemn and resent language change,
regarding alterations as due to unnecessary sloppiness, laziness or ignorance.
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Editing a quote
You may want to make minor changes to a direct quotation. This is possible (as long as you
don't change the meaning), but you must follow the rules.
 If you omit parts of the quotation, use an ellipsis. An ellipsis consists of three dots
(...). Do not begin or end a direct quotation with ellipsis points. The reader already
assumes that the quote has been excerpted from a larger work
 If you want to insert your own words, or different words, into a quotation, put them in
square brackets [ ]
 If you want to draw attention to an error in a quotation, for example a spelling mistake
or wrong date, do not correct it; write [sic] in square brackets
 If you want to emphasise something in a quotation that is particularly relevant to your
essay, put the emphasised words in italics, and state that the emphasis is your own
 If the original has italics, state that the italics are in the original.
Example 1:
Language changes are natural and inevitable. It has been argued that language:
gradually transforms itself over the centuries. In a world where [everything changes], it would
be strange if language alone remained unaltered. In spite of this, large numbers of intelligent
people condemn and resent language change(Aitchison, 1981, p.16, my italics).
Example 2:
According to Smith (1992, p.45), "Aitcheson [sic] appears to believe that everything
changes; but this is questionable" (italics in original).
Citation details
One Author
When the author name is not mentioned in the text, the citation consists of the author's
surname and the date of publication in brackets:
Example:
It was emphasised that citations in a text should be consistent (Jones, 2011).
If you have already named the author in the text, only the year needs to be included in
brackets.
Example:
Jones (2011) emphasised that citations in a text should be consistent.
You should also include page numbers if you quote directly from the text, paraphrase
specific ideas or explanations, or use an image, diagram, table, etc from a source.
Two Authors
If a source has two authors, both names should be given.
When the authors' names are not mentioned in the text, the citation consists of the authors'
surnames and the date of publication in brackets:
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Example:
It was emphasised that citations in a text should be consistent (Jones and Baker, 2011).
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If you have already named the authors in the text, only the year needs to be included in
brackets.
Example:
Jones and Baker (2011) emphasised that citations in a text should be consistent.
Three or More Authors
If a source has three or more authors, the name of the first author should be given, followed
by the phrase "et al".
Example:
When the authors' names are not mentioned in the text, the citation consists of the first
author's surname and "et al.", followed by the date of publication, in brackets:
It was emphasised that citations in a text should be consistent (Jones et al., 2011).
If you have already named the authors in the text, only the year needs to be included in
brackets.
Example:
Jones et al. (2011) emphasised that citations in a text should be consistent.
When to Include Page Numbers
You should include page numbers if you quote directly from the text, paraphrase specific
ideas or explanations, or use an image, diagram, table, etc from a source.
Example:
"It was emphasised that citations in a text should be consistent" (Jones, 1998, p.24).
When referencing a single page, you should use p. For a range of pages, use pp.
Example:
p.7 or pp.20-29.
If the page numbers are in Roman numerals, do not include p. before them.
Example:
(Amis, 1958, iv)

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Citing Irregular Sources
Book Introduction, Foreword, or Preface
If the introduction, foreword or preface is written by the primary author of the book, cite and
reference it using the same format as book.
When citing part of a work that has been written by someone other than the author (eg an
introduction written by an editor), give the name of the section author:
(Malcolm, 2012, p.15)
Malcolm (2012, p.15) suggests....
If the page numbers are in Roman numerals, do not include p. before them:
(Amis, 1958, iv)
In your reference list, the reference would be given under the name of the author of the
section.
Examples
Malcolm, N. 2012. Introduction. In: Hobbes, T. Leviathan. Malcolm, N. ed. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, pp. 1-6.
Amis, K. 1958. Foreword. In: Ulanov, B. A handbook of jazz. London: Hutchinson, i-iv.
Government Document
Bills, Acts and Statutory Instruments
The full title of the document is used as the citation.
Examples:
(Access to Justice Act 1999)
(Anti-social Behaviour, Crime and Policing Bill 2013-14)
(The Bathing Water Regulations 2013)
Command papers, Departmental circulars, House of Commons/Lords papers
Use the Government department/committee/organisation in place of the author.
Examples:
(Home Office, 2003)
(Lord Chancellor's Department and Department of Health, 1993)
(National Audit Office, 2005)
Film, Video or Broadcast
If you refer to a film, video or broadcast, you should cite the title and the date.
When the title is not mentioned in the text, the citation should consist of the title and the date
in brackets:
Example:
The way the characters interact reveals... (The Godfather, 1972)
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Example:
The way the characters interact in The Godfather (1972) reveals...
If you are referring to a particular scene or quote, you should include in the citation the times
(hours, minutes and seconds) between which it takes place in the film.
Example:
The conversation between the characters Rhett Butler and Scarlett O'Hara reveals... (Gone
with the Wind, 1939, 01:32:03-01:33:05).
Adapted from https://library.leeds.ac.uk/skills-citations-harvard#activate-

website_or_webpage accessed June 2017
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What is Plagiarism? and Avoiding Plagiarism
Many people think of plagiarism as copying another's work or borrowing someone else's
original ideas. But terms like "copying" and "borrowing" can disguise the seriousness of the
offense:
ACCORDING TO THE MERRIAM-WEBSTER ONLINE DICTIONARY, TO
"PLAGIARISE" MEANS
 to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as one's own
 to use (another's production) without crediting the source
 to commit literary theft
 to present as new and original an idea or product derived from an existing source
In other words, plagiarism is an act of fraud. It involves both stealing someone else's work
and lying about it afterward.
BUT CAN WORDS AND IDEAS REALLY BE STOLEN?
According to U.S. and British law, the answer is yes. The expression of original ideas is
considered intellectual property and is protected by copyright laws, just like original
inventions. Almost all forms of expression fall under copyright protection as long as they are
recorded in some way (such as a book or a computer file).
ALL OF THE FOLLOWING ARE CONSIDERED PLAGIARISM:
 turning in someone else's work as your own

 copying words or ideas from someone else without giving credit
 failing to put a quotation in quotation marks
 giving incorrect information about the source of a quotation
 changing words but copying the sentence structure of a source without giving credit
 copying so many words or ideas from a source that it makes up the majority of your work,
whether you give credit or not
Most cases of plagiarism can be avoided, however, by citing sources. Simply acknowledging
that certain material has been borrowed and providing your audience with the information
necessary to find that source is usually enough to prevent plagiarism.
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WHAT ARE THE PENALTIES FOR PLAGIARISM?
Different educational organisation have different penalties for plagiarism and you should
always read the plagiarism policy of the school college or university attend or the exam
board who writes your exams.
Here is an example of how Manchester University defines plagiarism:
Plagiarism is presenting the ideas, work or words of other people without proper, clear and
unambiguous acknowledgement. It also includes ‘self plagiarism’ (which occurs where, for
example, you submit work that you have presented for assessment on a previous occasion),
and the submission of material from ‘essay banks’ (even if the authors of such material
appear to be giving you permission to use it in this way). Obviously, the most blatant
example of plagiarism would be to copy another student’s work.
…So far, plagiarism has been described as using the words or work of someone else
(without proper attribution), but it could also include a close paraphrase of their words, or a
minimally adapted version of a computer program, a diagram, a graph, an illustration, etc
taken from a variety of sources without proper acknowledgement. These could be lectures,
printed material, the Internet or other electronic/AV sources.
Remember: no matter what pressure you may be under to complete an assignment, you
should never succumb to the temptation to take a ‘short cut’ and use someone else’s
material inappropriately. No amount of mitigating circumstances will get you off the hook,
and if you persuade other students to let you copy their work, they risk being disciplined as
well (see below).
Dependent on the level of plagiarism detected in your work, Manchester Universities

plagiarism policy states that a student might be required to:
 undertake a piece of work, not connected to the student’s academic programme, but
related to the offence committed
 the examining authrity to be informed…the mark for the piece of work… be reduced
by a specified amount
 recorded mark of zero for the examination…
 recorded mark of zero for the course…
Adapted from http://documents.manchester.ac.uk/display.aspx?DocID=639 accessed June

2017
HOW IS PLAGIARISM DETECTED?
Teachers, examiners and exam markers are very experienced in detecting plagiarism. It is
often obvious from what you say or how you say it that you have plagiarised an idea, a
quote, some text or similar from someone else.
There is also sophisticated software, such as Turn It In, that can detect any kind of
plagiarism, whether you have copied from a book, a website, your cousin or a classmate,
even if you have translated the material from another language!
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Evaluating Web resources
Purpose
Occasionally, Web sites pretending to be objective have a hidden agenda and may be trying
to persuade, promote, or sell something.
 What is the purpose or motive for the site? (e.g., educational, commercial,
entertainment, promotional)
 Is the site trying to sell you something?
 How easy is it to differentiate advertisement from content?
 Based on your knowledge, is the information factual, opinion, propaganda, et cetera?
 Who is the intended audience, and how is this reflected in the organization and
presentation of the site?
Authority
 Is the author identifiable? Look for links that say "Who We Are," "About This Site" or
something similar.
 Is there contact information for the author? (e.g., e-mail address, mailing address,
phone number)
 What is the author's background? (e.g., experience, credentials, occupation, whether
he or she has written other publications on the topic)
 Does the author cite his or her sources?
 Is this site linked to often by other sites?
 Do links on this site lead to other reputable sites?
 Are there spelling errors or incorrect use of grammar?
 What domain does the site belong to? (e.g., .edu, .gov, .com, .net, .org)?
Reliability
The dependability of a Web site is important if it is going to be cited as a source in other

works or recommended for use by others.
 Do most of the links on the page work?

 From your evaluation of currency and authority, do you think the site will be there
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Currency
 When was site last updated or revised? If you cannot find a date on the page,
type javascript:alert(document.lastModified) in the address bar and hit Enter. A
pop-up window will display the date and time when the page was last updated.
 How often is the site updated?
 Do the links on the site work?
Coverage
 What information is included or omitted?

 Is the page completed or under construction?
 See also: University of California Berkeley's guide.
Evaluating resources
When using a book, article, report, or Web site for your research, it is important to gauge
how reliable the source is.
Initial appraisal
 Author or creator: What are the author's credentials (educational background, past
writing, experience) in this area? Have you seen the author's name cited in other
sources or bibliographies? Respected authors are cited frequently by other scholars.
For this reason, always note names that appear in many different sources.
 Year of publication: Is the source current or out of date for your topic? Topic areas of
continuing and rapid development, such as the sciences, demand more current
information. Topics in the humanities often require material that was written many
years ago.
 Edition: Is this a first edition? Later editions indicate a source has been revised and
updated. Multiple printings or editions may indicate that the work has become a
standard source in the area and is reliable.
 Publisher: Is it a university press or a large reputable publisher?
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Content analysis
Intentions: Read the preface (book) or abstract (article) to determine the author's intentions.
Scan the table of contents and the index to get a broad overview of the material covered.
Note whether bibliographies are included.
Intended audience: What type of audience is the author addressing? Is this source too
elementary, too technical, too advanced, or just right for your needs?
Objective reasoning:
 Is the information fact, opinion, or propaganda? It is not always easy to separate fact
from opinion.
 Does the information appear to be valid and well-researched, or is it questionable
and unsupported by evidence?
 Is the author's point of view objective and impartial? Is the language free of emotion-
rousing words or bias?
Coverage:
 Does the work update other sources, substantiate other materials you have read, or
add new information? You should explore enough sources to obtain a variety of
viewpoints.
 Is the material primary or secondary in nature? Primary sources are the raw material
of the research process; secondary sources are based on primary sources.
Writing style: Is the publication organized logically? Are the main points clearly presented?
Do you find the text easy to read? Is the author repetitive?
Evaluative reviews (books):
 Locate critical reviews of books in a reviewing source, such as Book Review Digest.
Is the book considered a valuable contribution to the field? Does the reviewer
mention other books that might be better? If so, locate these sources.
 Do the various reviewers agree on the value or attributes of the book, or has it
aroused controversy among the critics?
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Distinguishing scholarly from non-scholarly periodicals (articles and papers):
Journals and magazines are important sources for up-to-date information in all disciplines. In
this guide we have divided periodical literature into four categories:
 Scholarly
 Substantive news or general interest
 Popular
 Sensational
Scholarly
 Scholarly journals generally have a sober, serious look. They often contain many
graphs and charts but few glossy pages or exciting pictures.
 Scholarly journals always cite their sources in the form of footnotes or bibliographies.
 Articles are written by a scholar or someone who has done research in the field.
 The language of scholarly journals is that of the discipline covered. It assumes some
scholarly background on the part of the reader.
 The main purpose of a scholarly journal is to report on original research or
experimentation to make the information available to the rest of the scholarly world.
 Examples of scholarly journals: American Economic Review, Archives of Sexual
Behavior, JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, Modern Fiction
Studies
Substantive news or general interest
 These periodicals may be quite attractive in appearance. Some are in newspaper

format. Articles are often heavily illustrated and generally contain photographs.
 News and general interest periodicals sometimes cite sources, a scholar, or a
freelance writer.
 The language of these publications is geared to any educated audience. There is no
special training assumed, only interest and a certain level of intelligence.
 They are generally published by commercial enterprises or individuals, although
some come from professional organizations.
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 The main purpose of periodicals in this category is to provide general information to a
broad audience of concerned citizens.
 Examples of substantive news or general-interest periodicals: The Economist,
National Geographic, The New York Times, Scientific American
Popular
 Popular periodicals come in many formats, although they are often somewhat slick
and attractive in appearance and have many graphics.
 These publications rarely, if ever, cite sources. Information published in such journals
is often second- or third-hand, and the original source is sometimes obscured.
 Articles are usually very short, written in simple language, and designed to meet a
minimal education level. There is generally little depth to the content of these articles.
 Articles are written by staff members or freelance writers.
 The main purpose of popular periodicals is to entertain the reader, sell products (their
own or their advertisers'), and/or promote a viewpoint.
 Examples of popular periodicals: Ebony, Parents, People, Reader's Digest, Sports
Illustrated, Time, Vogue
Sensational
 Sensational periodicals come in a variety of styles but often use a newspaper format.
 The language is elementary and occasionally inflammatory or sensational. They
assume a certain gullibility in their audience.
 The main purpose of sensational magazines seems to be to arouse curiosity and
cater to popular superstitions. They often do so with flashy headlines designed to
astonish (e.g., "Half-man Half-woman Makes Self Pregnant").
 Examples of sensational periodicals: The Globe, The National Enquirer, The Star,
Weekly World News
Adapted from
https://www.library.cornell.edu/research/introduction#2Findingbooks,articles,andothermater
accessed June 2017
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Improving your Sentence Structure and Grammar
To improve your academic writing skills, you must first understand possible problems with
sentence structure so that you can not only recognize but write effective sentences.
To understand sentences, you must first understand clauses, which make up sentences. A
clause is defined as a group of words containing both a subject and a verb.
Clauses can be independent or dependent.
 An independent clause contains both a subject and a verb and can stand alone as a
sentence.
 A dependent clause contains both a subject and a verb, but cannot stand alone as a
sentence.
Dependent clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions such as because, that,
what, while, who, which, although, if, etc.
1.1 Kinds of Sentences
There are three kinds of sentences:
1. SIMPLE: A simple sentence consists of one main (or independent) clause. To be complete,
a simple sentence must have at least one SUBJECT and one 'verb'.
Example:
The MAN 'went' to the store.
A simple sentence may also have a compound subject and/or a compound verb.
Example:
The MAN and his SON 'went' to the store and 'bought' some milk.
2. COMPOUND: A compound sentence has at least two main (or independent) clauses,
connected by coordinating conjunctions (such as and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet). Each clause
has its own subject(s) and verb(s). The second clause should be separated from the first by
a comma in front of the coordinating conjunction.
Example:
The man went to the store, and the sales clerk sold him some milk.
3. COMPLEX: A complex sentence has one main (or independent) clause and one or more
dependent (or subordinate) clauses.
Example:
When an atom is split, it releases neutrons.
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Dependent clauses can function in the sentence as nouns, adjectives or adverbs:
 NOUN CLAUSES function as nouns in the sentence and can be used as subjects, objects,
predicate nominatives, and objects of prepositions.
Example:
WHAT IS MOST IMPORTANT TO HIM is his family. (subject) That critic writes THAT AL
PURDY IS THE BEST POET IN CANADA. (object)
You are WHAT YOU EAT. (predicate nominative)
She is very suspicious about WHAT HE SAID. (object of preposition about)
 ADJECTIVE CLAUSES start with a relative pronoun( such as who, which, or that) and
function as adjectives.
The pronoun refers to a noun that usually precedes it directly.
Example:
The woman WHO BOUGHT THE RED DRESS is my aunt. That dress, WHICH IS MY
FAVOURITE, was expensive. The problem THAT HE SOLVED was a difficult one.
NOTE: Use commas around the adjective clause to indicate that the information there is not
essential to the sentence, i.e., not needed to identify the subject (see Improving Your
Punctuation).
Absence of commas, on the other hand, indicates the information is essential to the
sentence.
Example:
The bull that is in the pasture belongs to Joe. (suggests that, of all the other bulls on the
farm, the one in the pasture is being identified as belonging to Joe)
OR
The bull, which is in the pasture, belongs to Joe. (suggests that there is only one bull on the
farm, so the writer is giving non-essential information by mentioning that it is in the pasture)
NOTE: The word THAT is used to introduce an essential clause (without commas), whereas
WHICH is used to introduce a non-essential clause (with commas). Some grammar
textbooks suggest WHICH can be used for either essential or non-essential clauses.
NOTE: A pronoun (such as which, that) must always refer specifically to one noun. The word
WHICH is often used incorrectly.
Example:
NO:
Your essays should be submitted on time, WHICH is one way to be a successful student.
(Vague reference because the word which in this sentence refers to neither time nor
essays.)
YES:
One way for you to be successful as a student is to submit your essays on time.
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 ADVERB CLAUSES function as adverbs in the sentence, modifying verbs, adjectives, or
adverbs. They may tell how, why, when, where, etc.
Conjunctions used include although, after, if, because, while, since, whether, etc.
Example:
WHEN I ARRIVED AT THE UNIVERSITY, classes had already started.
Stan is happy BECAUSE HE RECEIVED A GOOD GRADE ON HIS HISTORY MIDTERM.
ALTHOUGH BOB IS INTELLIGENT, he doesn’t work very hard.
1.2 Problems with Sentences
1. Sentence Fragments
A sentence fragment is not a complete sentence. It usually lacks either a subject or a verb,
or both, or contains only a dependent clause.
Example:
For example, three dogs and a goat. (no verb – what did the animals do?)
Studying too hard on weekends. (no subject – who was studying?)
Because I couldn’t find my shoes. (contains a subject and verb, but is a dependent clause)
2. Run-on Sentences: Fused Sentences and Comma Splices
A run-on sentence is one in which two or more independent clauses are inappropriately
joined. Remember that the length of a sentence does not determine whether it is a run-on
sentence: a sentence that is correctly punctuated and correctly joined can be extremely long.
Two types of run-on sentences are fused sentences and sentences with comma splice
errors.
 In a fused sentence, clauses run into each other with no punctuation.

Example:
The experiment failed it had been left unobserved for too long.
 A comma splice refers to the error of placing only a comma between two complete
sentences, without a connecting word (such as and, but, or because).
Example:
The experiment failed, it had been left unobserved for too long.
To correct a fused sentence or a comma splice error, you can use either a period, semi-
colon, colon, coordinating conjunction, or subordinating conjunction.
Example:
The experiment failed. It had been left unobserved for too long.
The experiment failed; it had been left unobserved for too long.
The experiment failed: it had been left unobserved for too long.
The experiment had been left unobserved for too long, SO it failed.
The experiment failed BECAUSE it had been left unobserved for too long.
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 A comma splice also occurs when commas are used before conjunctive adverbs (therefore,
however, nevertheless, moreover, etc.) connecting two sentences.
Example:
NO:
The experiment had been left unobserved for too long, therefore it failed.
YES:
The experiment had been left unobserved for too long; therefore, it failed.
YES:
He wasn’t prepared to defend a client who was guilty; however, he could be persuaded to
accept a bribe.
NOTE: When the conjunctive adverb is within the clause rather than at the beginning, place
it between commas.
Example:
He wasn’t prepared to defend a client who was guilty; he could be persuaded, however, to
accept a bribe.
3. Loose Sentences
 A loose sentence may result if you use too many “and ” connectives when other conjunctions
would convey a more precise meaning.
Example:
John had a weight problem, and he dropped out of school. (what is the most accurate
connection: John had a weight problem so he dropped out of school or because he dropped
out of school?)
 A loose sentence also results from weak sentence construction and the inclusion of many
phrases and clauses in no particular order.
Example:
In the event that we get the contract, we must be ready by June 1 with the necessary
personnel and equipment to get the job done, so with this end in mind a staff meeting, which
all group managers are expected to attend, is scheduled for February 12.
NOTE: Writing the previous passage as several sentences would be more effective.
4. Choppy Sentences
A succession of short sentences, without transitions to link them to each other, results in
choppy sentences.
Example:
NO:
Our results were inconsistent. The program obviously contains an error. We need to talk to
Paul Davis. We will ask him to review the program.
YES:
We will ask Paul Davis to review the program because it produced inconsistent results.
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5. Excessive Subordination
Excessive subordination is not an effective substitute for choppiness.

Example:
NO:
Doug thought that he was prepared but he failed the examination which meant that he had
to repeat the course before he could graduate which he didn’t want to do because it would
conflict with his summer job.
YES:
Doug thought that he was prepared, but he failed the examination. Therefore, he would have
to repeat the course before he could graduate. He did not want to do that because it would
conflict with his summer job.
6. Parallel Structure
Parts of a sentence which are in sequence must all follow the same grammatical or
structural principle.
Example:
NO:
I like to swim, to sail, and rowing.
YES:
I like to swim, to sail, and to row.
YES:
I like swimming, sailing, and rowing.
NO:
This report is an overview of the processes involved, the problems encountered, and how
they were solved.
YES:
This report is an overview of the processes involved, the problems encountered, and the
solutions devised.
Adapted from http://www.lib.uoguelph.ca/get-assistance/writing/grammar-style/improving-

your-sentence-structure accessed June 2017
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How to Write a Good Paragraph: A Step-by-Step Guide
Writing well composed academic paragraphs can be tricky. The following is a guide on how
to draft, expand, refine, and explain your ideas so that you write clear, well-developed
paragraphs and discussion posts:
Step 1:
Decide the Topic of Your Paragraph Before you can begin writing, you need to know what
you are writing about. First, look at the writing prompt or assignment topic. As you look at the
prompt, note any key terms or repeated phrases because you will want to use those words
in your response. Then ask yourself:
• On what topic am I supposed to be writing?
• What do I know about this topic already?
• If I don’t know how to respond to this assignment, where can I go to find some
answers? What does this assignment mean to me?
• How do I relate to it?
After looking at the prompt and doing some additional reading and research, you should
better understand your topic and what you need to discuss.
Step 2:
Develop a Topic Sentence
Before writing a paragraph, it is important to think first about the topic and then what you
want to say about the topic. Most often, the topic is easy, but the question then turns to what
you want to say about the topic. This concept is sometimes called the controlling idea.
Strong paragraphs are typically about one main idea or topic, which is often explicitly stated
in a topic sentence. Good topic sentences should always contain both (1) a topic and (2) a
controlling idea.
The topic – The main subject matter or idea covered in the paragraph.
The controlling idea – This idea focuses the topic by providing direction to the composition.
Read the following topic sentences.
They all contain a topic and a controlling idea. When your paragraphs contain a clearly
stated topic sentence such as one of the following, your reader will know what to expect and,
therefore, understand your ideas better.
Examples of topic sentences:
• People can avoid plagiarizing by taking certain precautions.
• There are several advantages to online education.
• Effective leadership requires specific qualities that anyone can develop.
Step 3:
Demonstrate Your Point
After stating your topic sentence, you need to provide information to prove, illustrate, clarify,
and/or exemplify your point. Ask yourself:
• What examples can I use to support my point?
• What information can I provide to help clarify my thoughts?
• How can I support my point with specific data, experiences, or other factual material?
• What information does the reader need to know in order to see my point?
• Here is a list of the kinds of information you can add to your paragraph:
• Facts, details, reasons, examples • Information from the readings or class
discussions
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• Paraphrases or short quotations
• Statistics, polls, percentages, data from research studies
• Personal experience, stories, anecdotes, examples from your life
Sometimes, adding transitional or introductory phrases like: for example, for instance, first,
second, or last can help guide the reader. Also, make sure you are citing your sources
appropriately.
Step 4:
Give Your Paragraph Meaning
After you have given the reader enough information to see and understand your point, you
need to explain why this information is relevant, meaningful, or interesting. Ask yourself:
• What does the provided information mean?
• How does it relate to your overall point, argument, or thesis?
• Why is this information important/significant/meaningful?
• How does this information relate to the assignment or course I am taking?
Step 5:
Conclude
After illustrating your point with relevant information, add a concluding sentence. Concluding
sentences link one paragraph to the next and provide another device for helping you ensure
your paragraph is unified. While not all paragraphs include a concluding sentence, you
should always consider whether one is appropriate. Concluding sentences have two crucial
roles in paragraph writing: First, they draw together the information you have presented to
elaborate your controlling idea by:
• Summarising the point(s) you have made.
• Repeating words or phrases from the topic sentence.
• Using linking words that indicate that conclusions are being drawn (e.g., therefore,
thus, resulting). Second, they often link the current paragraph to the following
paragraph.
• They may anticipate the topic sentence of the next paragraph by:
• Introducing a word/phrase or new concept which will then be picked up in the topic
sentence of the next paragraph.
• Using words or phrases that point ahead (e.g., the following, another, other).
Step 6: Look Over and Proofread
The last step in good paragraph writing is proofreading and revision. Before you submit your
writing, look over your work at least one more time. Try reading your paragraph out loud to
make sure it makes sense. Also, ask yourself these questions:
• Does my paragraph answer the prompt and support my thesis?
• Does it make sense?
 Does it use the appropriate academic voice?
Adapted from
https://awc.ashford.edu/PDFHandouts%5CHow%20to%20Write%20a%20Good%20Paragra
ph_final.pdf accessed June 2017
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Strategies for Writing a Conclusion
Conclusions are often the most difficult part of an essay to write, and many writers feel that
they have nothing left to say after having written the paper. A writer needs to keep in mind
that the conclusion is often what a reader remembers best. Your conclusion should be the
best part of your paper.
A conclusion should
 stress the importance of the thesis statement,

 give the essay a sense of completeness, and
 leave a final impression on the reader.
Suggestions
 Answer the question "So What?"

o Show your readers why this paper was important. Show them that your paper
was meaningful and useful.
 Synthesize, don't summarize

o Don't simply repeat things that were in your paper. They have read it. Show
them how the points you made and the support and examples you used were
not random, but fit together.
 Redirect your readers

o Give your reader something to think about, perhaps a way to use your paper
in the "real" world. If your introduction went from general to specific, make
your conclusion go from specific to general. Think globally.
 Create a new meaning

o You don't have to give new information to create a new meaning. By
demonstrating how your ideas work together, you can create a new picture.
Often the sum of the paper is worth more than its parts.
Strategies
 Echoing the introduction: Echoing your introduction can be a good strategy if it is

meant to bring the reader full-circle. If you begin by describing a scenario, you can
end with the same scenario as proof that your essay was helpful in creating a new
understanding.
Example
Introduction
From the parking lot, I could see the towers of the castle of the Magic Kingdom standing
stately against the blue sky. To the right, the tall peak of The Matterhorn rose even higher.
From the left, I could hear the jungle sounds of Adventureland. As I entered the gate, Main
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Street stretched before me with its quaint shops evoking an old-fashioned small town so
charming it could never have existed. I was entranced. Disneyland may have been built for
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children, but it brings out the child in adults.
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Conclusion
I thought I would spend a few hours at Disneyland, but here I was at 1:00 A.M., closing time,
leaving the front gates with the now dark towers of the Magic Kingdom behind me. I could
see tired children, toddling along and struggling to keep their eyes open as best they could.
Others slept in their parents' arms as we waited for the parking lot tram that would take us to
our cars. My forty-year-old feet ached, and I felt a bit sad to think that in a couple of days I
would be leaving California, my vacation over, to go back to my desk. But then I smiled to
think that for at least a day I felt ten years old again.
 Challenging the reader: By issuing a challenge to your readers, you are helping
them to redirect the information in the paper, and they may apply it to their own lives.
Example
Though serving on a jury is not only a civic responsibility but also an interesting
experience, many people still view jury duty as a chore that interrupts their jobs and
the routine of their daily lives. However, juries are part of America's attempt to be a
free and just society. Thus, jury duty challenges us to be interested and responsible
citizens.
 Looking to the future: Looking to the future can emphasize the importance of your
paper or redirect the readers' thought process. It may help them apply the new
information to their lives or see things more globally.
Example
Without well-qualified teachers, schools are little more than buildings and equipment.
If higher-paying careers continue to attract the best and the brightest students, there
will not only be a shortage of teachers, but the teachers available may not have the
best qualifications. Our youth will suffer. And when youth suffers, the future suffers.
 Posing questions: Posing questions, either to your readers or in general, may help
your readers gain a new perspective on the topic, which they may not have held
before reading your conclusion. It may also bring your main ideas together to create
a new meaning.
Example
Campaign advertisements should help us understand the candidate's qualifications

and positions on the issues. Instead, most tell us what a boob or knave the opposing
candidate is, or they present general images of the candidate as a family person or
God-fearing American. Do such advertisements contribute to creating an informed
electorate or a people who choose political leaders the same way they choose soft
drinks and soap?
Adapted from http://leo.stcloudstate.edu/acadwrite/conclude.html accessed June

2017
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How to Avoid Exam Stress
What is stress?
Stress is one of the body's natural responses to something that is threatening or frightening.
It is something that we all experience from time to time. Many aspects of life have the
potential to cause stress, including adjusting to a new living environment, fulfilling academic
requirements, developing friendships and preparing for and sitting exams.
Stress is not necessarily harmful: mild forms of stress can motivate and energise you.
Slightly increased stress levels may make you more alert and motivated to do your work.
However, if your stress level is too high then it can cause difficulties, including impairing your
ability to prepare for and perform during exams.
What causes stress?
To understand what produces the responses associated with anxiety and stress, think about
how your body responded at times when you felt threatened or frightened. It is likely that you
will have experienced the following physical responses:
 increased muscle tension to prepare your muscles for use;
 increased heart rate to boost blood flow and energy levels;
 increased breathing rate to supply oxygen required for energy;
 extra alert senses to produce a reaction from the slightest touch or sound.
All these reactions happen automatically when we are under stress; they are driven by the
production of hormones, including adrenaline. This is called the flight or fight response
because it equips you to fight or escape from situations which are dangerous or threatening;
your body is alert and ready for action. Once the danger has gone, your body will gradually
return to normal.
People also respond similarly to situations that feel threatening but which cannot be resolved
by fighting or running away. Imagine that it is a few weeks until the start of your exams, your
revision is not going well and you are starting to feel "stressed out". In this instance there
may be some time between when you start to feel stressed and the end of the "danger"
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(which may be the completion of the exams). During this time your body may remain
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mentally overactive and physically tense. It is when you are in this uncomfortable state that
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you are stressed or in a state of anxiety; the flight or fight response is switched on and
remains on, causing additional difficulties for some individuals. It is only when you perceive
that the danger has passed that your body returns to normal. This may be as soon as you
have sat the exam, but it could be when the results come out, or even later.
What are the signs that I am stressed?
There is a whole range of different signs which may indicate that someone is feeling
stressed. The signs could include: strong feelings such as feeling scared or irritable;
changes in your thinking such as being unable to concentrate and remember things;
behavioural changes such as changes in your appetite, increased use of drugs or alcohol
and sleeping difficulties; physical changes such as headaches or other pains from muscles
that have become tense. People vary greatly in the way that they react to stress, and you
should therefore try to become aware of how your body and behaviour change and take
action to minimise any negative effects.
What can I do to help a friend who is feeling stressed?
Friends can often take on an important supportive role during the exam periods and at other
times of stress; often very simple things can help.
 Accept that your friend is anxious, whatever the cause of the anxiety and whether or not you
feel they have a good reason to be anxious.
 Encourage them to talk about their concerns and listen carefully.
 Help them to build up a group of people, including friends and family who can support them.
 Encourage them to relax and to try and follow the strategies outlined below.
 Encourage them to seek further guidance and help.
1.3 Six strategies for dealing with stress
Unfortunately there is no magic wand that will remove the impact of stress on your life.
Controlling stress is an active process which means that you will have to take steps to limit
its impact. However, there are some very simple steps that you can take to do this which
may help your stress levels work for you instead of against you.
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Step One: Be careful about what you eat and drink
Try to eat a well-balanced diet, eating at least three regular meals a day. Eat foods which will
release energy slowly and are likely to have a calming effect. Food or drink high in sugar
may give you instant energy, but in the long term may wind you up leaving you feeling more
nervy and edgy than you did before.
Limit your consumption of caffeine particularly found in tea, coffee, fizzy soft drinks and
"Proplus" tablets. Excess caffeine tends to heighten arousal and increases "jittery" feelings;
it can also impair your concentration and may keep you awake at night.
Try to also limit your use of alcohol and to avoid all use of non-prescribed drugs. These may
make you feel better in the short term, but can prevent you from sleeping properly; they can
also impair your ability to remember the work that you are trying to revise. Some people
drink alcohol and / or smoke more to control their stress levels, but it would be a good
decision to try to develop more healthy ways of controlling your stress.
Step Two: Get enough sleep
Make sure that you get plenty of rest; six to eight hours a night are recommended. If getting
to sleep is a problem, ensure that you have at least a half an hour break from your revision
before going to bed. Use this break to do anything relaxing which will take your mind off your
work such as:
 having a soak in the bath;
 chatting to your friends;
 writing a letter;
 listening to some music.
Step Three: Take regular exercise
Exercising regularly will not only help to keep you physically healthy, but also uses up the
hormones and nervous energy produced when you are stressed. Exercise will also help to
relax the muscles which become tense when you are stressed, and, as exercise increases
the blood flow around the body, it can help you to think more clearly.
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You do not have to take up a strenuous sport: try swimming, walking, cycling or dancing.
Anything that gets you moving around and is enjoyable is beneficial, especially if it involves
spending at least half an hour in the fresh air every day.
Step Four: Control your breathing
If you notice that you are starting to feel very stressed, for example as you wait for the
examination to start, try to regulate your breathing by concentrating on breathing out to a
slow count of four; the breathing in will take care of itself. It will be helpful if you practise this
exercise when you are not stressed so that you are very familiar with the technique when
you need actually need it.
Step Five: Make time for fun
Build leisure time into your revision days and the days that you sit your exams. Get involved
in a non-academic activity, such as sports, crafts, hobbies or music. Anything that you find
relaxing or enjoyable which will give you a break from thinking or worrying about your exams
will be beneficial.
Step Six: Improve your study skills
Effective study skills can reduce stress by making you feel more in control of your work and
more confident that you will succeed. It may be useful to talk to your course tutor to get
subject specific advice to help make your revision more focused.
Remember that most of your fellow students will be feeling the same way as you do. Tell
your friends and family how you feel and find ways of relaxing with them which will help to
support you.
1.4 On the day of the exams and during the exam:
 Have a good but moderate breakfast and lunch, remembering not to drink too much caffeine.
 Try to do something relaxing for the last hour before the exam. Last minute cramming could
cloud your ability to remember the overall concepts.
 Try to avoid fellow students who may increase your anxiety levels by asking what you
have or have not revised etc.
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 Use the breathing exercise that you have practised to regulate your breathing; exhale slowly.
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 If you find even getting into the examinations hall a problem, talk to a trusted friend and ask
them to walk to the exam hall with you.
 Have a plan for how you will use your time in the exam hall
Adapted from http://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/ld/resources/study/exam-stress accessed June

2017
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Revision and Exam Skills
Revision is a personal, individual process
Revision must be one of the most individualised processes within academic life. Students
begin it with:
 different sets of knowledge and understandings;
 different responses to the stress of the revision and exam period;
 different preferred revision techniques; and
 different psychological and life contexts into which to fit the revision.
While it is possible to get ideas from others and from books, about how to revise, you also
need to get to know what your own personal strengths and weaknesses are. How much do
you already know? How do you revise? What are the factors that usually cause problems for
you in managing your revision?
The following list may be useful in identifying combinations of contexts in which you prefer to
revise.
 Early-mid morning
 Mid-late morning
 Early-mid afternoon
 Mid-late afternoon
 Early-mid evening
 Mid-late evening
 In the library
 In a cafe
 On a bus/train journey
 At home
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 Outside
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 On your own in silence
 On your own with background music
 With someone else but working independently
 With someone else and working interactively
 In a revision tutorial
Different stages of revision can fit with different contexts. Early on you may prefer to work
individually; mid-morning, in silence, at home. Later, you may prefer to work mid-afternoon,
interactively, in a café. The important thing is that you match the type of revision you are
doing with the context in which you, personally, are able to do that best.
Taking control
It is easy to feel overwhelmed. You may feel that the task is too big, and that whatever you
do you will not succeed. It is important to appreciate the size of the task, but it is also
important to be realistic about what you can do in the time available. The revision and exam
period will inevitably involve stress. You need to monitor this and, ideally, make it
work for you not against you.
The key is to be realistic. Yes, you will have less free time temporarily. No, you will not
have to go without free time completely.
If you find yourself feeling generally worried, give yourself 10 minutes to write down exactly
what it is that you are worrying about. You are then in a better position to devise some
strategies for addressing those specific concerns. You can compare the concept of ‘revision’
with that of athletic ‘training’. First read the following list as it stands. Then try reading it
again but substituting: ‘students’ for ‘athletes’; ‘revision’ for ‘training’; and ‘exams’ for
‘competition’.
Athletes in training
 Athletes need to consider both the quantity and the quality of their training.
 Training volume is essential, but so is planned recovery time, otherwise athletes will
experience ‘burn-out’, and performance in competition will drop.
 Training needs to be tailored closely to what will be required in competition, rather than just
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being random, unstructured effort that will fill in time but not bring the rewards in competition.
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 Athletes have stronger aspects of their performance, which they need to maintain and
capitalise on. But they also need to work on their weaknesses to achieve a successful
overall performance.
 Athletes need a high degree of self-awareness to know how they personally respond to
training and to recovery, so they can optimise their performance on the day.
 By planning training sensibly, it will be possible to schedule in high quality sessions close to
competition, but also to schedule in appropriate rest to support top performance on the day.
Quality above quantity
It is important to focus on the quality rather than just the quantity of your revision. This
means that, whatever time you do spend revising, you try to make sure that it:
 is quality time;
 with full concentration; and
 with the most appropriate revision method.
Just as recovery has to be built into physical training sessions to optimise the training effect
of the effort, so breaks need to be built into the revision schedule to give the brain time to
consolidate the learning.
Set a realistic, definite time to stop each revision session. This should help to maintain
the quality of each session. The session should be short enough to guarantee your full
attention throughout. You could:
 agree with yourself that you will exclude other distractions for that period of revision;
 decide your specific revision goals for that session;
 allow yourself to be totally focussed for that period, knowing that, when it ends, you can walk
away.
Another way to use short specific time slots to do quality revision sessions is to look for
opportunities to mix revision productively with other activities. For example:
 a bus or train journey could give you a defined and limited block of time during which you
could rehearse in your mind an explanation of a topic;
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 you could take an exam question or two on a walk or a run with you.
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You could find that being outside and getting exercise will have a dual benefit of keeping fit
and freeing your brain to think laterally around the topic in question.
Scoping the task

The earlier you can scope the size and characteristics of the revision task the better. Make a
systematic list of exactly what you need to cover, and in what depth. This allows you to
collect further information or resources to support your revision before you start the serious
work. Make sure you have any information that is available on what is expected of you and,
importantly, what you are not expected to revise.
Active versus passive revision
Active revision is much more effective than passive revision. Passive revision is associated
with such activities as reading notes, and copying material. Active revision is concerned
with using and organising material.
Unfortunately, the basic revision technique, on which most other ideas are built, of:
reading and understanding the material; ‘reducing’ it to a smaller amount of material in note
form; reviewing this again; reducing it again perhaps to a list of bullet points
…can become a passive, time consuming exercise if you aren’t careful.
While this kind of activity may legitimately form the foundation of your revision, you need to
make sure you do not spend huge amounts of time copying material in a passive way.
Active and passive learning can be compared with the concepts of recognition and recall. It
is much easier to recognise someone’s name when you are told it, than it is to recall their
name without any clues. Similarly it is much easier to read through a page of notes and
think, “Yes, I know this”, than it is to cover up the page and to give a talk on the topic.
Words associated with an active approach to revision
 organise
 select
 interpret
 link
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 explore
 use
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 calculate
 explain
 recall
 categorise
 teach
 reorganise
 develop
 argue
 diagnose
The University of Edinburgh has a useful section on revision on its website. It gives some
suggestions for ways of making your revision active:
“Revising actively implies making a real effort to understand what you are learning, rather
than simply memorising by rote. Even if your exams require you to remember a lot of facts,
you are much more likely to retain detailed information if it is related to an underlying
understanding. There are many ways to achieve this; here are some suggestions you might
like to try:
 Looking for underlying themes or principles.
 Thinking about inter-relationships.
 Relating what you are learning to ‘real-life’ situations.
 Thinking how the solution to one problem may help you solve others.
 Organising material into a hierarchical structure.
 Creating a diagram or chart to represent a topic.
 Looking for similarities or differences.
 Looking for points for and against an argument.

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 Trying to really understand how formulae work.

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 Critically evaluating what you are learning.
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Timetabling
There are several different stages in revision, and it is likely that you will want to cover some
elements of your syllabus several times in slightly different ways. When you are preparing
your revision timetable you need to build in repeat sessions where possible. Here are three
timetable designs you might find useful.
Planner A: Possible design of a planner to cover the whole revision period
Planner B: Possible design of a planner to cover the forthcoming week
Planner C: Possible design of a planner to cover the next day
On Planner A you can:
1. mark when the exams are;
2. block out time that you already know will be unavailable e.g.: sporting event, concert etc.
3. work back from each exam and schedule in repeat and last minute revision sessions for
each topic, close to the relevant exam.
4. within the exam period itself you will probably be able to schedule in revision sessions for the
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later exams, once earlier exams are out of the way: this should free up time earlier on.
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Use Planners B and C to take more specific control on a weekly and daily basis. Again be
sure to be realistic about how much quality revision you can do at a time before you need a
break.
You could start by revising a couple of topics that you feel quite confident about. This
could remind you of the level you need to aim for with the rest of the topics. It could also let
you feel you’ve made a solid start.
Monitor how things are going
It is vital to monitor regularly how your revision is going, and to modify your plans
accordingly. If you find that it is taking longer than you anticipated, there are several options:
 add in more revision sessions;
 change your revision style to become more efficient;
 if you really have to, then be more selective and reduce the amount you plan to do.
By monitoring your experiences in the early days of revision, it should be possible to modify
your revision timetable for the remaining time so that it works most effectively for you.
Be ready to step up your revision techniques
You may find that revision techniques you have used very successfully in the past now need
to be modified, extended, or changed in some way to cope with new challenges. Take a
critical and honest look at your revision habits. If you find they are not up to the task ahead,
find new ways of working. You may find you can make significant improvements. It may even
feel as if you have created more time.
Memory techniques
In addition to reading, understanding, and making revision notes, you may feel that you need
to use some specific memory techniques to remember collections of facts, or processes.
Discover the potential of mnemonics. A mnemonic is a device by which you think of
something quite easy to remember, which then prompts you to remember material that is
more difficult to remember. A famous mnemonic based on the initial letters of words is
‘Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain’ for the order of the colours of the rainbow. Two
musical examples are: ‘Every Good Boy Deserves Food’ for the names of the lines on the
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treble clef; and ‘Father Charles Goes Down And Ends Battle’ for the order in which sharps
appear in a key signature.
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Some disciplines have their own favourites. You can also make up your own mnemonics to
help you remember list of ideas, questions, stages, dimensions etc. You could also use a
mnemonic to make sure you don’t miss out a crucial stage in a process, or a
dimension of a problem.
Similar to a mnemonic is the amazingly useful list of simple questions that you can use to
practise lateral thinking around a topic: what? how? where? when? who? why? so what?
This list can be useful within the exam to help you think around possible answers to a
question, or possible essay plans to use.
When memorising a lot of material you will need to find a range of methods that suit you.
Typical advice is to use associations, diagrams, mind maps, narratives, colours,
places and so on, to link course content to memorable images or experiences.
Testing yourself
As you revise you could create a list of questions relating to what you’ve just revised.
When you come back to that topic you could start by seeing how you do with those
questions. This will highlight where you need to pay particular attention.
It’s always a good idea to see how much you can remember about a topic before you look at
your notes again. You could try allowing yourself time to think through as much as you can
before returning to your notes. Thinking hard through a topic like this means that, when you
finally check out your notes, you can quickly identify which elements you had forgotten
about, and be ready to slot them firmly into your memory.
‘Mind maps’ or ‘thought maps’ are useful if you want to find out how much you can
remember on a topic. After you have written down everything you can remember, try to
extend the map by adding more to each branch e.g.: a link, an idea, a query, extra
description, references, a debate point, or a conclusion.
Explaining
A particularly effective way of engaging actively with what you are revising is to learn about a
topic then to try to explain it in your own words. You don’t necessarily need any audience
except yourself. By trying to explain a topic you quickly discover which aspects you
understand and remember well, and which you need to investigate and revise further. Be
prepared to have a good go at the explanation before reaching for the answers.
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Group work
Although revision is very much an individual process, it is surprising how much you can gain
by working with others for some revision sessions, either in pairs or in larger groups. Some
of the work is best done face to face, but some can be done using electronic communication.
Ideas include:
 revising different but closely related topics in advance, then each giving a short talk on their
topic, with the others asking questions;
 revising the same topic and coming together to talk about what you’ve learnt and what you
can’t understand/remember;
 creating practice exam questions as you revise and putting these into a collective pool of
questions that you can all dip into;
 swapping mnemonics you’ve made up. When you ask someone else to explain something
that you don’t understand you will gain from their help.
 When someone else asks for your help, you gain by having to provide a comprehensive,
clear and informed explanation.
Working with exam questions
If your exam will involve tackling a problem, or doing calculations, active revision is
crucial. Passive revision would be to read through a completed calculation, or the solution to
a problem, and to say to yourself, ‘Yes, I can follow that’. Active revision involves working
through a new question or problem on your own. For example:
 in mathematics, it is not enough to follow through calculations: you need to practise doing
them on your own;
 in medicine, it is not enough to learn material by rote within each topic: you need to practise
making links across topics;
 in law, it is not enough to read through cases: you may need to find or create case studies to
practise on;
 in psychology it is not enough to read through examples of how statistical tests can be used,
you need to try to work through them for yourself.
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If essays are required, however, it is not best use of your time to practise writing full essay
responses to exam questions. It may be useful to do this once or twice if you want to, to get
an idea of the timing, but this is probably not the most efficient or effective way of using your
revision time.
Skeleton essays
More useful than practising writing full essays is to practise creating essay plans, or
‘skeleton essays’. These are a bit like a site map for a website: they will include the main
headings relating to the planned structure of your essay, and the associated sub-headings of
examples, arguments, and references, etc, but the full content would not appear unless you
wrote the full essay.
Allow yourself ten minutes to prepare a detailed plan for your essay, so that writing it would
then be straightforward. You will thus have practised the hard part of remembering and
selecting information, and creating the best structure for its presentation, but will have taken
only ten minutes.
Remember that there may be several ways to answer to a question, and you need to identify
the most effective approach to take. Practise identifying the biggest turning point / the
information of most consequence / the best examples / the most powerful evidence.
When you practise creating essay plans for exam questions, a four-stage approach can be
useful:
 Squeeze everything you can out of the essay title to make sure that you fully understand it
and that you are addressing each element of it.
 Brainstorm all relevant ideas onto paper, including references, examples, arguments,
queries, links…
 Match up ideas to aspects of the title and organise them into the most powerful order.
 Squeeze out more ideas using a systematic approach of, for example, adding dimensions or
asking why, where, who, what, where, when etc, or whatever questions are appropriate to
your subject.
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Timings in the exam
It is useful to plan how you will allocate your time within the exam. This is not necessarily
relevant for exams where short answers are required. Where you will need to write essays,
however, it is important to know how much time you can allocate to each individual essay.
Here is an example of a timings plan for a 2 hour exam: 13.00-15.00; where you need to
write 3 essays.
13.00-13.05 = settling in; reading instructions; noting down your timings plan; making initial
essay choices.
 13.05-13.45 = essay 1: 5 minutes planning; 35 minutes writing
Make sure that you make as good an attempt as you can for ALL of your responses. In
general it is considerably easier to get the first 50% of marks for each question than it is
to get the second 50%. So, for example, make sure that you make a significant effort for
each essay rather than using too much extra time on your favourite ones. With an essay-
based exam it can be useful to begin with the question for which you can think of the most
material. This can boost your confidence and get your thoughts flowing. In a paper with no
choice of questions, it can be most productive to go through the paper answering all of the
questions that you are sure of. This will stimulate your thoughts and help you recall
information, putting you in a more active frame of mind for when you go back to the start and
give more thought to the remaining questions.
On the start line
When you are waiting to go into the exam room there is no point looking backwards over
what you haven’t covered; what you never understood; or what you thought you’d learnt but
can’t seem to remember. All you can influence now is the future. You are where you are:
now you have to make the best of what you’ve got. Athletes at the start of a race can’t do
anything about the training they missed. There is no point in worrying about whether they are
less well-prepared than they had hoped. All they can influence now is what happens after
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the starting gun goes off. They need to concentrate fully on the race ahead, and use their
training as best they can.
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Go!
Here are some ideas to help you in the exam:
 Begin by checking very carefully the instructions of the exam paper. Highlight or underline
the key instructions.
 Note down (and check) any timings plan you have prepared, so you have it to refer to, and to
stop you spending too much or too little time on one question.
 Where there is a choice of tasks or essays, check out the potential of all of the options
before making your decision.
 For an essay-based paper, it can be helpful to begin with the title for which you have the
most to write. This can boost your confidence, and get you into the swing of planning and
writing exam essays.
 Do not be rushed into starting to write your first essay. Remember to take adequate time to
prepare a strong essay plan first.
 Even if you have already written a similar essay before, try to bring fresh energy on this
occasion.
 Don’t waste energy judging a question. You may think it’s irrelevant, or boring, or badly
phrased, but put those feelings to one side. Re-read the question to check if there was
anything you missed.
 Respect the question. Take time to 'listen' to the question before thinking of the answer,
rather than assuming that you know what the question will be. It may be slightly different
from what you expect.
 Read all parts of a question before beginning to answer. In that way you can see how the
examiner has divided the knowledge between the different parts of the question, so you can
be sure to focus on the specific response needed for each part.
 If there is a question you cannot answer, leave it and continue with the rest of the paper.
Come back later to make your best effort with the question(s) you left out
Adapted from http://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/ld/resources/study/revision-exam accessed June

2017
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LEVEL 3

STUDY AND COMMUNICATION SKILLS

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Version Date Revision Description

© NCC Education Limited

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1. Module Overview and Objectives p5

Topic 1 : Learning to Learn

Topic 2 : Reading Textbooks and Note Taking

Helpful Abbreviations for Speedy Note-Taking p41

Topic 3 : Note Taking in Lectures

Hints for Good Note Taking p52

Topic 4 : Library Research and Writing an Essay

Planning an Essay p60

NB : Further lesson linked resources in the student guide

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How to Write an Essay p67

Topic 6 : Plagiarism and Online Research

What is Plagiarism? and Avoiding Plagiarism p80

Topic 7 : Writing a Research Report and Assignment C

Improving Your Sentence Structure and Grammar p87

NB : Further lesson linked resources in the student guide

Topic 8 : Examinations and Assessment

How to avoid exam stress p96

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Journals & Essays & Reports

2. Resources to Support your Delivery of this Module

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Some lessons will require:

 Examples of essays and assignments (from any subject)

Many lessons require students to bring ongoing work or other materials

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Here is an example of an icebreaker you could use:

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Here is some information about how to brainstorm in a group:

How to brainstorm in a medium sized group

You should all follow the standard brainstorming rules:

 Postpone and withhold your judgement of ideas

The role of the participant is twofold:

1. To suggest ideas that will work as solutions

Adapted from www.brainstorming.co.uk/tutorials/howtobrainstorm.html

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Study Skills Survey

Study Skills Survey

Otherwise, try using the checklist below.

Study Skills Checklist

Time and scheduling:

1. I spend too much time studying for what I am learning.

2. I usually spend hours cramming the night before an exam.

1. I usually try to study with the radio and TV turned on.

3. I go to class, but I usually doodle, daydream, or fall asleep.

1. My class notes are sometimes difficult to understand later.

2. I usually seem to get the wrong material into my class notes.

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2. I don't know how to pick out what is important in the text.

5. I rarely change my reading speed in response to the difficulty level of the

6. I often wish that I could read faster.

2. I usually write my papers the night before they are due.

3. I can't seem to organise my thoughts into a paper that makes sense. 10

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Time and Scheduling:

10. Learn to say, "No!

Location, Location, Location