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PSYCHOSOCIAL PERSPECTIVE IN GENDER AND SEXUALITY (Part 2)
Psychosocial Dimension of Gender and Sexuality
Sexual behavior refers to a broad spectrum of behaviors in which humans display their
sexuality. These behavioral expressions contains both biological elements and cultural
influences and involves sexual arousal (with its physiological changes, both pronounced
and subtle, in the aroused person).
Sexual behavior ranges from the solitary (such as masturbation and autoerotic
stimulation) to partnered sex (intercourse, oral sex, non-penetrative sex, etc.) that is
engaged in periodically. Sexual behavior can also involve behavior that is aimed at
arousing desire in potential partners (courtship displays or rituals) or behavior aimed at
enhancing sexual experiences (foreplay, BDSM, etc.).
Sexual Behaviors - are actions humans agree to interpret as expression of their sexual
motivations and intentions. Sexual behaviors are also generally erotic behaviors,
meaning, they involve the body’s primary and secondary erogenous zones—face, neck,
genitalia, chest, etc. They may also be classified as auto-erotic (self-directed),
homoerotic (directed at the same sex) or hetero-erotic (directed at the other sex).
It may include copulation—the insertion of the penis in the vagina. However, sexual
behaviors are not only limited to that. It may also include a variety of non-copulatory
behaviors such as kissing, hugging and touching or erotic stimulation of various parts
of the body as well as various forms of verbal communication such as flirting.
Many of these behaviors are context-dependent, and thus, open to interpretation of
people observing or doing them. For instance, some people may feel that kissing and
hugging are expressions of friendship while others may see it as an expression of sexual
attraction. This means it is important to communicate with respect on these matters
and ensure that both parties understand and agree to the messaging of these
behaviors.
Sexual Response Cycle
During the 1960s, two pioneering researchers, William Masters and Virginia Johnson
studied males and females engaging in sexual activities in a laboratory, eventually
producing the groundbreaking model which contains four phases:
1. Excitement – As partners observe sexual cues or think of sexual fantasies, their body
begins to respond starting with erection or tumescence (elongation of the penis). The
testes and scrotum also elevate. For females, the vagina becomes lubricated and the
glans clitoris and labia minora swell. Certain parts of the skin in both males and females
become flushed. Heart rate also increases.
2. Plateau – Partners continue stimulating each other and eventually reach the peak
of organ stimulation. It is important to note that during intercourse, a male may
accidentally release pre-ejaculate into the woman’s body, making it possible to
impregnate the woman unknowingly.
3. Orgasm – At this stage, the male’s vas deference, seminal vesicles and urethral
sphincter contract leading to release of seminal fluid. In females, the vagina, uterus and
anal sphincter also contract, leading to involuntary pleasurable muscular contractions
that may be felt in the genital area or all over the body/ .
4. Resolution – During this stage, the genital organs relax.
Sexual Response Dysfunctions
It is possible for people to experience problems at various points in the sexual response
cycle. These may be organic—caused by biological/ physiological problems, or
psychosomatic—caused by psychological concerns that manifest physically. What is
important is for both partners to try to learn more about their experience and learn to
be open to seeking professional help for their concerns.
Unfortunately, in communities where sex is taboo, seeking help for various sexual
dysfunctions is often frowned upon.
Some examples of sexual dysfunctions are:
Sexual desire and arousal disorders – occurs when a partner persistently has no or
little interest and desire for sexual activity or when a partner finds it difficult to
experience arousal (e.g. erectile disorder, lacking in lubrication)
Orgasmic disorders – manifested when one partner orgasms too early (premature
ejaculation), takes a long time or cannot ejaculate (delayed ejaculation, female orgasmic
disorder)
Sexual pain disorders – manifested when one partner experiences intense pain
during the sexual act (e.g. dyspareunia or vaginal spasms or vaginismus)
 STEREOTYPE, PREJUDICE, DISCRIMINATION
Stereotypes
A stereotype is a specific belief or assumption (thoughts) about individuals based
solely on their membership in a group, regardless of their individual characteristics.
Stereotypes can be positive or negative and when overgeneralized are applied to all
members of a group.
A stereotype is a cognitive bias in which people are ascribed traits and characteristics
simply because they belong to or are identified to a specific group of people. Some

stereotypes seem positive and may even be beneficial to people on the receiving end
of it.
Prejudice
Prejudice is a negative attitude and feeling toward an individual based solely on one’s
membership in a particular social group (Allport, 1954; Brown, 2010). Prejudice is
common against people who are members of an unfamiliar cultural group.
Explicit prejudice, negative feelings about an out-group that are openly admitted, is
very difficult to measure because this is generally not socially acceptable. This means
that tests and instruments measuring prejudice may be susceptible to socially desirable
responding (Chapter 2).
Prejudice is any negative judgment of a group and its individual members. Often,
prejudice stems from the stereotypes we develop of people. What makes prejudice
dangerous is because it opens up the possibility for people to discriminate others.
Discrimination
When someone acts on prejudiced attitudes toward a group of people this is known as
discrimination. Discrimination is negative action , behavior toward an individual as a
result of one’s membership in a particular group (Allport, 1954; Dovidio & Gaertner,
2004). As a result of holding negative beliefs (stereotypes) and negative attitudes
(prejudice) about a particular group, people often treat the target of prejudice poorly.
Discrimination can extend to institutions or social and political systems.
Institutional discrimination refers to practices (at the social level) which serve to
reinforce social norms for preference, privilege and limited access to services and
resources.
Discrimination is the unjustified negative behavior toward a group and its members.
Discriminatory behaviors all involve a form of exclusion or rejection of a person or
group.
According a certain group of people certain rights while depriving other groups of it is
a form of discrimination. Discrimination may occur at an interpersonal level and it may
also be institutionalized.
An example of interpersonal discrimination is the following: Suppose a restaurant
owner may hold the stereotype that a certain group of people are disrespectful and
rowdy. Because of this, he may have negative feelings toward them. Suppose a group
of people enter his restaurant one day to order food. Even without just cause, the
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owner refuses to serve them food and tells them to leave. This is a form of
discrimination at the interpersonal level
On the other hand, institutionalized discrimination occurs when the state or
organization systematically deprives or restricts a certain group the rights and
opportunities that should be accorded them. For example, if a company’s policies have
restrictions against hiring a female on the basis of her being an unmarried mother,
despite the said female applicant having the appropriate credentials and skills, the
company is practicing institutionalized discrimination. Another example of this has to
do with the right to suffrage (vote during the elections) in the Philippines which was
accorded to women only in 1937. Before that, women were not allowed to vote
https://open.maricopa.edu/culturepsychology/chapter/stereotypes-prejudice-and-
discrimination/
Common types of stereotypes include:
1. Gender - This involves making assumptions about what a man or woman can
and can’t (or should and shouldn’t) do.
Gender stereotypes have been one of the most insidious types of stereotypes
throughout history. Today, gender prejudices continue to be harm both men
and women
2. Race And Ethnicity - Society creates archetypal ideas about people based on
their race, which can follow them throughout their lives
3. Sexual - gay and trans people continue to face prejudices based on
assumptions about their identities.
There remain insidious and untrue assumptions that gay men should not be
allowed to be around children, as well as homophobic views that may lead to
their exclusion from sports teams and even some militaries.
4. Social -class – status in life within the society triggers other people to connect
where they live to what they are.
5. (dis)ability - People with disabilities were long excluded from social
participation. For example, someone with speaking difficulties or who is
missing hands might be considered unable to do a job that, in reality, they’re
perfectly capable of executing.
6. Age - assumes older people are incapable and losing intellect (or similarly, a
young person is incapable purely due to their age).
7. Nationality – Here, you would be making an assumption about all people
from a nation that can be damaging to individuals from that nation who don’t
fit into the stereotypical mold.

8. Political – By getting to know one another outside of or media bubbles, we
can break down the insidious political stereotypes that drive our society to
extreme positions on the political spectrum. and
9. Religious stereotypes - A religious stereotype can create fear of religious
groups that you don’t belong to. It can involve ‘othering’ people of a certain
religion, such as Islam or Judaism. (EX. Germany World War 2)
Gender Stereotypes
Gender stereotypes develop when different institutions reinforce a biased perception
of a certain gender’s role. These institutions may include family, schools, the church or
religious groups, the state and the media. Gender stereotypical beliefs can be limiting
if seen as prescriptive of a gender’s role rather than descriptive of the many possible
roles one can have. They can be categorized as:
1. Sex stereotypes
Are generalized view of traits that should be possessed by men and women, specifically
physical and emotional roles. These stereotypes are unrelated to the roles women and
men actually perform.
2. Sexual stereotypes
These involve assumptions regarding a person’s sexuality that reinforce dominant
views. For example, a prevalent view is that all men are sexually dominant. Another
notion is heteronormativity, or the assumption that all persons are only attracted to the
sex opposite theirs.
3. Sex-role stereotypes
These encompass the roles that men and women are assigned to based on their sex
and what behaviors they must possess to fulfill these roles.
4. Compounded stereotypes
These are assumptions about a specific group belonging to a gender. Example of
groups subject to compounded stereotypes are young women, old men, single men or
women, women doing housework, etc.
It is also important to understand that there are two forms of stereotypes. Some are
implicit while others are explicit. An explicit stereotype is when one is conscious and
aware of one’s thoughts about a particular group of people. On the other hand, an
implicit stereotype is when a person is not fully conscious of one’s stereotypes
 LGBTQ+ Psychology
The Gender Spectrum
In the first module, you were introduced to some of the key terms regarding gender
and sexuality.
Here, additional concepts will be introduced. The first is the idea that gender is not
binary. It is neither Box A nor Box B. Gender intersects with sexuality and our expression.
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Here are some of the key terms in the LGBTQIA+
Lesbian – women who are emotionally and sexually attracted to women
Gay – men who are emotionally and sexually attracted to men
Bisexual – person who is emotionally and sexually attracted to both men and women
Transgender – gender identity that is not aligned with one’s physical sex
Queer – people who do not want to be restricted by a particular gender or sexual
orientation label Intersex – people whose genitalia or chromosome patterns do not fit
the typical male/female physical body
Asexual – people who do not feel sexual attraction to anyone
Plus (+) – covers all other people whose identities and sexuality is not covered by those
above
Note that the first three concepts as well as being ‘asexual’ are concerned with the
person’s sexual orientation—a person’s sexual and emotional attraction to another
person and the behavior and/or social affiliation that may result from this attraction.
Hence, a person may be attracted to someone of the same sex (gays, lesbians), or both
sexes (bisexual). In some cases, people identify as pansexual.
Pansexual – a more inclusive term referring to attraction to different sexes and gender
identities, often preferred by trans people, as opposed to the use of bisexual (which
implies a gender binary). Being ‘queer’ is a more general term regarding identity and
sexuality. Intersex, on the other hand is focused more on non-binary physical bodies.
In terms of gender expression, some people may behave or dress according to gender
roles expected of a particular cultural group. For instance, someone considered a
biological female may wear their hair long, put on lipstick and heels. On the other hand,
another biological female may choose to sport a bob cut, wear loose shirt typically
associated with males. Of course, there are also people who are androgynous:
Androgynous – people whose gender expression may or may not be distinctly
masculine or feminine (e.g. their choice of clothing, hairstyle, gesturing and posturing)
In some instances, people believe they are still at a point in their lives where they are
still exploring their gender identity and sexual orientation. In these instances, people
often used the label questioning.
Transgenderism
This is defined as an umbrella term for persons whose gender identity, gender
expression or behavior does not conform to that typically associated with the sex to
which they were assigned at birth (APA, 2020)

For instance, a person may have been born with male genitalia and assigned male
during birth. However, the person may feel and see the self as female. This feeling
persists through time as the person grows older. Take note that this is not about sexual
attraction. It is not about who one finds attractive sexually and romantically. Instead, it
is about how a person views the self.
In a heteronormative society, this would be seen as unacceptable, something that must
be “corrected”. In a gender inclusive society, however, this would be embraced. One
way by which transgender tries to align physical appearance with one’s gender identity
is through a transitioning process.
Transitioning Process
Transgender people who decide they want their physique to be aligned with their
gender identity often choose to undergo a number of biological treatments. They are
referred to as transsexuals. The process takes time and a very important first step is
when a psychologist assesses and guides a person through their planned transition
especially since transitioning includes many changes in one’s physique, lifestyle, etc.
This guidance is particularly important if the person wants to undergo sex
reassignment surgery.
Other ways by which someone may transition is through hormone replacement
therapy. For instance, someone who was born female but whose gender identity is
male may want to have testosterone injected, which, in time, will change certain aspects
of the body as though the person is going through puberty, developing secondary sex
characteristics of a male.
In some other countries, people are allowed to change their legal sex from male to
female vice versa. This may then be reflected in legal documents such as their license
card, etc. An example of this is Geena Rocero, a Filipina model who, upon migrating to
the United States with her mother, was able to have her legal documents changed to
her preferred gender identity (Rocero, 2014).
Some terms to remember regarding transgenderism are:
FTM – female to male; a person whose biological sex is female and has transitioned to
life as a male
MTF – male to female; a person whose biological sex is male and has transitioned to
life as female
Gender queer – people who feel that their gender does not fit the gender binary—male
or female
 Men and Masculinities
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Think about what it means to be a “good man”. This time, think about what it means
to be a “real man”? How similar or different are the images of a good man vs a real
man? There is little difference between the male and female brain at birth (Eliot, 2010).
However, men and women often eventually end up behaving quite differently as they
grow older. This points to important environmental factors that shape gendered
behavior.
Masculinities refer to social roles, behaviors and meanings prescribed for men in any
society at any given time (Kimmel, 2001).
Some important ideas regarding this are:
1. What it means to be “a man” varies across time, place, and context. For instance,
other societies equate manliness with how willing a person is to fight during war,
exhibiting aggression for one’s countrymen. For others, violence and aggression are
seen as unacceptable regardless of sex or gender. Also, what it means to be a man may
be very different for the wealthy as it is for the poor. In some places, a man is expected
to be the breadwinner and overseer of the family property while in others, it is primarily
the task of the woman.
2. Masculinities are interpreted within a hierarchy and hegemony. Certain
masculinities are sometimes more valued and seen as of higher status. The form of
masculinity that is dominant in a particular society/culture is called hegemonic
masculinity. This leads to certain men who embody the hegemonic masculinity
becoming more influential and dominating other men as well as women. An example
of this is the reference to an “alpha male” implying the superiority of men who fit a
particular set of characteristics.
3. People’s behaviors are often classified either as “masculine” or “feminine”. Certain
behavior patterns are sometimes assumed both on an individual as well as institutional
level. For instance, someone in the military is expected to be tough, and unemotional
as part of what it means to be masculine. These behavioral patterns are also observed
on how men are portrayed in popular media. Based on these schemas, males and
females are classified based on how well they ‘fit’ the said categories
One example of masculinity is described below:
Toxic masculinity is a narrow and repressive description of manhood, designating
manhood as defined by violence, sex, status and aggression. It’s the cultural ideal of
manliness, where strength is everything while emotions are a weakness; where sex and
brutality are yardsticks by which men are measured, while supposedly “feminine” traits
— which can range from emotional vulnerability to simply not being hypersexual — are
 GED 182 – H3 Page 1 of 5

the means by which your status as “man” can be taken away (The Good Men Project, mental well-being or that they are less likely to reach out for help to resolve it. Keep in
n.d.). mind that hegemonic masculinity often communicates that men should not be
“emotional” and so any sign of emotionality or of men talking about their feelings and
Below is a comparison of two other kinds of masculinities. mental health may be perceived as a weakness. As mentioned previously, men have
higher rates of substance use and are reportedly more likely to suffer from substance
Protest Masculinity Caring Masculinity dependence. This is important because alcohol intake impairs judgment, makes a
person more impulsive, and thus, is a risk factor to suicide. Indeed, while there is a
greater number of women who are reported to have suicidal intent, more men
Masculine identity that includes Masculine identities that exclude complete their suicide attempts (Schumacher, 2019).
destructiveness, low tolerance for domination and embrace the affective,
delay of gratification, crime, drinking, relational, emotional and
and similar dispositions (Braud, 1990 interdependent qualities of care (Elliot,
as cited in Peralta, et al, 2019) 2015; Miller, 2011 as cited in Peralta, et
al, 2019)

What are the consequences of the dominance of toxic and/or protest masculinities?

1. Alcohol and drug use

In general, males tend to have higher rates of substance use compared to females
(National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2020). While both men and women consume
alcohol, for instance, society tends to consider social drinking as part of the male
bonding script. Hence, while society often does not approve of excessive drinking or
substance abuse in general, there seems to be more tolerance for males who consume
more alcohol. Unfortunately, men are also almost twice as likely to suffer from
substance dependence compared to women (Schumacher, 2019).

2. Care work and domestic roles

When we think about parental roles, it is common to think of fathers as the breadwinner
of the family and the mother as caretaker of the household, including the children.
While this made more sense during a time when only male members of the family
engaged in paid labor, today, it is common to see both men and women contributing
to household expenses through fulltime work. Thus, it would be expected that the
couple would share the domestic roles and obligations, especially if it involves caring
for their children. However, various studies show that women still carry much of the
burden especially when it comes to child-rearing responsibilities, likely the result of
gender role stereotypes (Cerrato & Cifre, 2018)

3. Mental health and well-being

Men are reported to be less likely than women to seek consultation and mental health
support. This does not necessarily mean that men are less likely to suffer from mental
health problems. Instead, it may be that men are less aware that of the state of their

POLITICAL-LEGAL PERSPECTIVE IN GENDER AND SEXUALITY
Human Rights
- Are universal, inalienable, indivisible interconnected and interdependent.
Everyone is entitled to all rights and freedom, without discrimination of any
kind. Such as race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion,
national or social origin, property, birth or other status.
- are norms that aspire to protect all people everywhere from severe political,
legal, and social abuses.
- are the basic rights and freedoms that belong to every person in the world,
from birth until death.
Human rights in the Philippines are protected by the Constitution of the Philippines,
to make sure that persons in the Philippines are able to live peacefully and with dignity,
safe from the abuse of any individuals or institutions, including the state.
The concept and practice of human rights within the Philippines is defined by Article III
of the Philippine Constitution,[3] as well as the United Nations' International Bill of
Human Rights, to which the Philippines is a signatory.[1]
10 Examples of Human Rights
In 1948, the United Nations ratified The Universal Declaration of Human Rights. This
wasn’t the first introduction to the concept of human rights or even the first time the
term appeared, but it was the first global agreement on what human rights meant.
Human rights should never depend on someone’s race, gender, class, sexuality,
abilities, religion, or any other part of their identity. No one “earns” human rights; they’re
born with their rights intact. With the UDHR, the world’s major leaders agreed that
human rights were universal. Here are ten examples of human rights:
#1. The right to life
This right means that no one – including individuals and the government- can kill you.
Because it is the government’s responsibility to protect human rights, they must create
laws that safeguard human life and protect you if your life is in danger. The right to life
is often invoked in discussions surrounding war, police brutality, capital punishment,
and self-defense.
#2. The right to freedom from torture and inhumane treatment
This right is one of the “negative” rights in the UDHR, which means freedom from
something. It states that no one should be subject to “torture or to cruel, inhuman, or
degrading treatment or punishment.” This applies to medical and scientific
experimentation, meaning that no one should be subjected to it without consent. The
UDHR specifically says that the government needs to protect people with disabilities
because they are at an increased risk for degrading treatment.
#3. The right to equal treatment before the law
The right to equal protection, which is present in documents like the US Constitution,
means that individuals must be treated the same as others in similar conditions.
Different treatment under the law based on things like race or gender violates a
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person’s human rights. In the UDHR, equal protection is described in Article 7: “All are
equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of
the law.”
#4. The right to privacy
Over 150 national constitutions include the right to privacy. It protects citizens from
government or corporate overreach and surveillance. In Article 12 of the UDHR, this
right is described as freedom from “arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home,
or correspondence.” The right to privacy frequently comes in discussions on
advancements in technology, the power of intelligence agencies when dealing with
terrorism, and data collection from organizations like Facebook and Google.
#5. The right to asylum
This is a very old right that dates back to ancient times. It often had a religious
component. Churches were allowed to protect anyone – even criminals – who sought
refuge in a church or on church property. Today, the right to asylum protects people
fleeing their home countries because of persecution. It’s listed in the UDHR, as well as
the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees.
#6. The right to marry and have family
This right states that everyone of “full age without any limitation due to race, nationality,
or religion” has the right to get married and start a family. Both people in the marriage
must also give their free and full consent. No one has the right to marry someone who
doesn’t consent. The right to marry is not an absolute right, which means that it’s
subject to national laws that make certain marriages (like a marriage between close
relatives) illegal.
#7. The right to freedom of thought, religion, opinion, and expression
Everyone has the right to hold opinions, follow a religion, and change their beliefs. This
applies to both individual practice or within a community. The right also protects a
person’s right to “seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media.”
In many countries, “freedom of expression” or “freedom of speech” is considered the
most important right. What counts as “protected speech” is frequently debated.
#8. The right to work
This right encompasses a variety of work-related concerns. Everyone has the right to
work, but they also have the right to “favorable conditions” and protection against
unemployment. People must also receive equal pay for equal work, as well as the right
to form and join trade unions. “Equal pay for equal work” remains a big issue around
the world and intersects with discrimination based on gender and race.
#9. The right to education
All human rights are interdependent, but many consider the right to education a top
priority for the world. The UDHR states that education must be free through elementary
school. Later education, as well as technical and professional education, should be
available and accessible. The United States, where student debt is a massive problem,

has issues with the accessibility of its higher education system. Globally, women and
girls still face significant barriers to their education.
#10. The right to social services
“Social services” ensure that everyone has a certain standard of living. Article 25 in the
UDHR defines this standard as “adequate” for the well-being and health of an individual
and their family. That includes clothing, housing, food, water, medical care, and security
in case someone is unable to earn money due to illness, unemployment, etc. While
“universal healthcare” does not appear in the UDHR, people use Article 25 to support
this goal.
POWER. Perpetrators can have real or perceived power.
- possession of control, authority, or influence over others
- refers to the ability to have one's will carried out despite the resistance of
others.
Different types of power and powerful people
a. Social – peer pressure, bullying, leader, teacher, parents
b. Economics – the perpetrator controls money or access to
goods/services/money favors;
c. Political – elected leaders, discriminatory laws, leaders of a state
d. Physical - strength, size, use of weapons, controlling access or security.
e. Gender based – male are usually in ma more powerful position than females
f. Age-related – often, the young and elderly people have least power.
USE OF FORCE AND VIOLENCE
“Force” might be physical, emotional, social or economic in nature. It may also
involve coercion or pressure. Force also include intimidations, threats, persecution, or
other forms of psychological or social pressure.
“Violence” consist of a use of physical force to other means of coercion such as
threat, inducement or promise of a benefit to obtain something form a weaker or more
vulnerable person. Using violence involves forcing someone to do something against
her/his will – use of force
Women and the Law
The 1987 Constitution – Article III
Women:
Section 14. The State shall protect working women by providing safe and healthful
working conditions, taking into account their maternal functions, and such facilities and
opportunities that will enhance their welfare and enable them to realize their full
potential in the service of the nation.
Various Laws promoting Gender Equality
 Local Government code of 1991 – provides for election of sectoral representation,
including women , in local legislative councils.
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 Party List Law- provides for the creation of women-oriented or women-based parties
to compete under the party list system. Women is one of the n9 sectors identified in
the law.
 Labor code of 1989 – covers issues such as nigh work prohibition specifies that
employers must provide special facilities for women, prohibition of discriminations
against women in respect to terms and conditions of employment prohibition of
discrimination by reason of marriage of a woman worker.
 Women in Nation Building Law. Republic Act 7192(1991) - An Act Promoting the
Integration of Women as Full and Equal Partners of Men in Development and Nation
Building and For Other Purposes. The law provides a substantial portion of
government resources shall be set aside and utilized by the agencies concerned to
support programs and activities for women.
In relation to gender budgeting, the law specifically mandated all genies to
allocate a minimum of 5% - 30% , of all official development funds in mainstreaming
gender concerns.
 1988 Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law – gave Filipino women the rights to own
the land that previously reverted to sons and other male family members.
 Republic Act 7688 (1994) - an act giving representation to women in the social
security commission
 Anti- Sexual Harassment La. RA 7877(1995) – An act declaring sexual harassment
to be unlawful in work, education or training-related environment. When an employer,
teacher, or any person who has authority, influence or moral ascendancy over
another (a) demands, (b) requests or (c) otherwise requires any sexual favor from the
latter, regardless of whether the demand, request or requirement for submission is
accepted by the object of said act.
 The Magna Carta of Women (Republic Act No. 9710) defines Gender and
Development Program (GAD) as the development perspective and process that is
participatory and empowering, equitable, sustainable, free from violence, respectful
of human rights, supportive of self-determination and actualization of human
potentials
It may be committed by the following:
 Employer
 Employee
 Manager or supervisor
 Agent of the employer
 Teacher, instructor, or professor
 Coach or trainor
 Any other person who has authority, influence or moral ascendancy over
another in a work or training or education environment
 Any person who directs or induces another to commit any act of sexual
harassment or who cooperates in the commission thereof by another without
which it would not have been committed, shall also be held liable under this
Act

 Republic act 7822 (1995)- an act providing assistance to women engaging in micro and
cottage business enterprises.
 Republic Act 8353 (1997 – an act expanding the definition of crime of rape reclassifying
the same as a crime against persons)
Violence Against Women and Children RA No. 9262
Anti – Violence Against Women and Their Children Act of 2004 or otherwise known as
VAWC, is a law passed in the Philippines for the protection of women and children from
violence and to address violence committed against women and children in keeping
with the fundamental freedoms guaranteed under the Constitution and the Provisions
of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, among others.
How is violence against women and their children committed as stated under
R.A. No. 9262?
The crime of violence against women and their children is committed by means of any
or a series of acts done by any person which result in or is likely to result in:
1. Physical or acts including bodily or physical harm,
2. Sexual violence or any act which is sexual in nature,
3. Psychological harm or to cause mental or emotional suffering, or
4. Economic abuse.
It shall also include threats of such acts, battery, assault, coercion, harassment or
arbitrary deprivation of liberty.
Who are persons protected under R.A. No. 9262?
The following persons are protected under the law: (a) Wife, (b) Former wife; (c) A
woman with whom the offender has or had sexual relations or a dating relationship; (d)
A woman with whom the offender has common child with; and (e) The legitimate or
illegitimate child of the woman within or without the family abode.
LGBTQ+ and the Law
Various Laws
a. Anti-Bullying Act of 2013 (RA 10627) – includes gender-based bullying as a
prohibited and punishable act.
b. Anti-child Abuse Act or RA 7610 – parents of children who suffer abuse at the hand
of teachers or members of the school’s administration.
c.Child Protection Policy 20123 – this policy includes the protection of students from
any form of violence regardless of their sexual orientation or gender identity.
d. Labor code of the Philippines PD 442- Declaration Policy Art. 3 that the “State shall
afford protection to labor, promote full employment, ensure equal work opportunity”
e. CSC No. 01-0940 – the Civil Service Policy on anti- Sexual Harassment – These
include prohibiting “derogatory and degrading remarks or innuendoes directed toward
the members of one’s sex, or one’s sexual orientation or used to describe a person.
GED 182 – H4 Page 1 of 4
Discrimination and SOGIE
In the Philippines, there is a bill seeking to end gender-based discrimination: the Anti-
Discrimination Bill or the Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Expression (SOGIE)
Equality Bill, which Congress proposed in 2000. It aims to end gender-based
discrimination by penalizing people involved in such activity.
It was initially filed by the late Miriam Defensor-Santiago and former Akbayan party-list
Representative Etta Rosales. The bill's current version is backed by Bataan 1st district
Representative Geraldine Roman and Akbayan Partylist Representative Tom Villarin
in the House and Risa Hontiveros in the Senate.
How will SOGIE Equality Bill Protect The LGBTQIA+?
The SOGIE Equality Bill recognizes the fundamental rights of every person regardless
of sex, gender, age, class, status, disability, religion, and political beliefs. This means
that the law protects members of the LGBTQIA+ from discrimination and
marginalization.
Without marginalization, everyone will have an equal opportunity and access to
healthcare, housing, public services, education, employment, and licensure.
The bill also covers hate crimes and harassment. With SOGIE Equality present, those
who commit discrimination against the LGBTQIA+ will be fined PHP100,000 but not
more than PHP500,000, or imprisonment of not less than one year but not more than
six years or both, depending on the decision of the court.
Implications of SOGIE Bill to the LGBT+ Filipinos.
1. Creating an inclusive culture that respects diversity and human rights
The bill provides measures such as education and awareness raising within
government on SOGIE, on human rights.
Civil servants especially those interacting directly with people can have better
awareness about another person's SOGIE, Sex and Character. With that, people are
encourage to be more sensitive in using the correct pronouns and preferred name.
Thus, the sector is essentially creating a compassionate society in this regard.
2. Prevention measure
SOGIE based discrimination will be treated as a crime. This can be a deterrent to
people in undertaking forms of discrimination, including harassment, cat calling, etc.
3. An inclusive business climate
LGBTIQ owned businesses or entrepreneurs will be more encouraged to invest and
venture to serve the wider public. LGBTIQ consumers will feel recognized to having a
stake in the market.
4. Political participation of LGBTIQ in governance
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By passing the bill, LGBT+ Filipinos will feel recognized that our government does its
part to address our rights as a sector.

Gender equality, also known as sexual equality or equality of the sexes, is the state
of equal ease of access to resources and opportunities regardless of gender, including
economic participation and decision-making; and the state of valuing different
behaviors, aspirations and needs equally, regardless of gender.
Gender equality is the goal, while gender neutrality and gender equity are practices
and ways of thinking that help in achieving the goal. Gender parity, which is used to
measure gender balance in a given situation, can aid in achieving gender equality but
is not the goal in and of itself. Gender equality is more than just equal representation,
it is strongly tied to women's rights, and often requires policy changes. As of 2017, the
global movement for gender equality has not incorporated the proposition of genders
besides women and men, or gender identities outside of the gender binary.
Gender equality is when people of all genders have equal rights, responsibilities and
opportunities. Everyone is affected by gender inequality - women, men, trans and
gender diverse people, children and families. It impacts people of all ages and
backgrounds.
We need gender equality urgently. Gender equality prevents violence against women
and girls. It’s essential for economic prosperity. Societies that value women and men
as equal are safer and healthier. Gender equality is a human right. Everyone benefits
from gender equality.
ACHIEVE GENDER EQUALITY AND EMPOWER ALL WOMEN AND GIRLS
Gender bias is undermining our social fabric and devalues all of us. It is not just a
human rights issue; it is a tremendous waste of the world’s human potential. By denying
women equal rights, we deny half the population a chance to live life at its fullest.
Political, economic and social equality for women will benefit all the world’s citizens.
Together we can eradicate prejudice and work for equal rights and respect for all.
THE TARGETS
Everyone can help to make sure that we meet the Global Goals. Use these nine targets
to create action for gender equality.
1. END DISCRIMINATION AGAINST WOMEN AND GIRLS
End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere.
2. END ALL VIOLENCE AGAINST AND EXPLOITATION OF WOMEN AND GIRLS
Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private
spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation.
3. ELIMINATE FORCED MARRIAGES AND GENITAL MUTILATION
Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage and female
genital mutilation.
4. VALUE UNPAID CARE AND PROMOTE SHARED DOMESTIC
RESPONSIBILITIES
Hand Out 5 Gender Equality Page i of 3
Recognize and value unpaid care and domestic work through the provision of public
services, infrastructure and social protection policies and the promotion of shared
responsibility within the household and the family as nationally appropriate.
5. ENSURE FULL PARTICIPATION IN LEADERSHIP AND DECISION-MAKING
Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership
at all levels of decision-making in political, economic and public life.
6. UNIVERSAL ACCESS TO REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH AND RIGHTS
Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights as
agreed in accordance with the Programme of Action of the International Conference on
Population and Development and the Beijing Platform for Action and the outcome
documents of their review conferences.
7. EQUAL RIGHTS TO ECONOMIC RESOURCES, PROPERTY OWNERSHIP AND
FINANCIAL SERVICES
Undertake reforms to give women equal rights to economic resources, as well as
access to ownership and control over land and other forms of property, financial
services, inheritance and natural resources, in accordance with national laws.
8. PROMOTE EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN THROUGH TECHNOLOGY
Enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications
technology, to promote the empowerment of women.
9. ADOPT AND STRENGTHEN POLICIES AND ENFORCEABLE LEGISLATION
FOR GENDER EQUALITY
Adopt and strengthen sound policies and enforceable legislation for the promotion of
gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls at all levels.
10 Causes of Gender Inequality
Over the years, the world has gotten closer to achieving gender equality. There is better
representation of women in politics, more economic opportunities, and better
healthcare in many places of the world. However, the World Economic Forum estimates
it will take another century before true gender equality becomes a reality. What drives
the gap between genders? Here are 10 causes of gender inequality:
#1. Uneven access to education
Around the world, women still have less access to education than men. ¼ of young
women between 15-24 will not finish primary school. That group makes up 58% of the
people not completing that basic education. Of all the illiterate people in the world, ⅔
are women. When girls are not educated on the same level as boys, it has a huge effect
on their future and the kinds of opportunities they’ll get.
#2. Lack of employment equality
Only 6 countries in the world give women the same legal work rights as men. In fact,
most economies give women only ¾ the rights of men. Studies show that if employment
became a more even playing field, it has a positive domino effect on other areas prone
to gender inequality.
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#3. Job segregation #9. Racism

One of the causes for gender inequality within employment is the division of jobs. In
most societies, there’s an inherent belief that men are simply better equipped to handle
certain jobs. Most of the time, those are the jobs that pay the best. This discrimination
results in lower income for women. Women also take on the primary responsibility for
unpaid labor, so even as they participate in the paid workforce, they have extra work
that never gets recognized financially.
#4. Lack of legal protections
According to research from the World Bank, over one billion women don’t have legal
protection against domestic sexual violence or domestic economic violence. Both have
a significant impact on women’s ability to thrive and live in freedom. In many countries,
there’s also a lack of legal protections against harassment in the workplace, at school,
and in public. These places become unsafe and without protection, women frequently
have to make decisions that compromise and limit their goals.
It would be impossible to talk about gender inequality without talking about racism. It
affects what jobs women of color are able to get and how much they’re paid, as well as
how they are viewed by legal and healthcare systems. Gender inequality and racism
have been closely-linked for a long time.
#10. Societal mindsets
It’s less tangible than some of the other causes on this list, but the overall mindset of a
society has a significant impact on gender inequality. How society determines the
differences and value of men vs. women plays a starring role in every arena, whether
it’s employment or the legal system or healthcare. Beliefs about gender run deep and
even though progress can be made through laws and structural changes, there’s often
a pushback following times of major change. It’s also common for everyone (men and
women) to ignore other areas of gender inequality when there’s progress, such as
better representation for women in leadership.

#5. Lack of bodily autonomy GENDER ISSUES IN EDUCATION

Many women around the world do not have authority over their own bodies or when
they become parents. Accessing birth control is frequently very difficult. According to GENDER
the World Health Organization, over 200 million women who don’t want to get pregnant • Gender is a social construct that impacts attitudes, roles and responsibilities and
are not using contraception. There are various reasons for this such as a lack of behavior patterns of boys and girls, men and women.
options, limited access, and cultural/religious opposition. On a global scale, about 40% • Increasing attention has been given to the importance of achieving gender equality in
of pregnancies are not planned and while 50% of them do end in abortion, 38% result education.
in births. These mothers often become financially dependent on another person or the
state, losing their freedom. GENDER BIAS
• Gender bias is preference toward one gender over the other.
#6. Poor medical care • Gender bias occurs when people make assumptions regarding behaviors, abilities of
In addition to limited access to contraception, women overall receive lower-quality others based upon their gender.
medical care than men. This is linked to other gender inequality reasons such as a lack
of education and job opportunities, which results in more women being in poverty. They Gender bias in school enrollments
are less likely to be able to afford good healthcare. There’s also been less research • Boys have to do work rather than attend school.
into diseases that affect women more than men, such as autoimmune disorders and • Financial responsibilities.
chronic pain conditions. Many women also experience discrimination and dismissal
from their doctors, broadening the gender gap in healthcare quality. Gender bias in dropouts
• The social barriers standing in the way of girls attending schools.
#7. Lack of religious freedom 1) Poverty
When religious freedom is attacked, women suffer the most. According to the World 2) Misconceptions
Economic Forum, when extremist ideologies (such as ISIS) come into a community and 3) limited benefits in educating girls.
restrict religious freedom, gender inequality gets worse. When there’s more religious 4) lack of women teachers.
freedom, an economy becomes more stable thanks to women’s participation. 5) Supportive facilities.

#8. Lack of political representation Social attitudes towards girls education

Despite progress in the whole world over the years, women are still grossly • After marriage girls are part of another family, so educating girls are not necessary.
underrepresented in government and the political process in some countries. This • Two types of parental and social attitude.
means that certain issues that female politicians tend to bring up – such as parental 1) Perfect altruistic 2) perfect capitalistic
leave and childcare, pensions, gender equality laws and gender-based violence – are Unequal access to education
often neglected. • Literacy
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• Schooling • All students are culturally diverse regardless of their ethnicity, race or socio economic
• Violence against women status.
• Disabled girls • multicultural and multilingual classrooms have become the norm in many educational
• school availability settings due to changing immigration patterns caused by globalization.
• analyzing cultural issues can shed light on some of the unconscious process that
Gender concerns in education shape individuals perception of reality as well as patterns of interaction.
1. SCHOOL AVAILABILITY • The analysis of cultural issues may benefit teachers as well as learners by raising
• unable to access primary education within 1km and upper primary school is not awareness of the hidden cultural assumptions and biases that they bring to the class
available with in 3km. room.
• In order to educate the future generations of our society effectively, the education
Text book and gender system must be successful teaching all children to communicate and interact with
• books attempt to mirror social realities. people from different backgrounds and different abilities.
• addresses contributions of men and women in adequate manner. • Educators must find ways to offer an excellent education to all students regardless of
• it reflect heterogeneous identities of gaps in an inclusive manner. their backgrounds.
• for culturally and linguistically diverse students, issues of diversity, difference and
Teaching and learning disability can be quite complex and challenging for classroom teachers.
• The methodology followed in delivering content related to various domains of • Understanding the role that culture plays in the classroom is essential to effective
knowledge not only promotes learning and understanding of but also overall personality teaching, learning and communicative interaction in general.
of children. • designing programs for diverse audience is not an easy process. It involves linguistic
translation although language is important.
2. HIDDEN CURRICULUM • more over programs must be designed to be sustainable within the communities they
• related to transmission of norms, values beliefs existing social and cultural ethos of seek to involve.
society.
• Activities
1) Use of language
2) body language
3) touch
4) eye contact
5) gestures
6) addressing physical and emotional conflicts

3. CLASSROOM ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

• promote healthy relationship between boys and girls.
• equal participation
• the classroom culture should built in a manner that interactions between boys and
girls reflect mutual respect.
• use visual aids like women working in fields along with men.

CULTURAL ISSUES IN EDUCATION

• Issues refers to the conflicts, misinterpretations that take place in the classroom.
• Culture is a broad comprehensive concept that includes all the way of being.
• several components - values , behavior styles, language and dialects, non verbal
communications etc..

Individuals, groups, and the surrounding environment are always changing.

• in every culture sub groups may form. Subgroups can differ by any of the components
of culture ,including ethnicity, language, class, religion and geography.