Sensors and Transducers

Sensors and Transducers
Prof. Vinay J. Patel

Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department
Birla Vishvakarma Mahavidyalaya (Engineering College)
Vallabh Vidyanagar – 388120. Gujarat, INDIA
Introduction
• A sensing unit can be as simple as a single sensor or can consist of additional
components such as filters, amplifiers, modulators, and other signal
conditioners.
• The controller accepts the information from the sensing unit, makes decisions
based on the control algorithm, and outputs commands to the actuating unit.
• The actuating unit consists of an actuator and optionally a power supply and a
coupling mechanism.
• Sensor is a device that when exposed to a physical phenomenon (temperature,
displacement, force, etc.) produces a proportional output signal (electrical,
mechanical, magnetic, etc.).
• The term transducer is often used synonymously with sensors.
• However, ideally, a sensor is a device that responds to a change in the physical
phenomenon.
• On the other hand, a transducer is a device that converts one form of energy
into another form of energy.
18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 2

Difference between Sensor and Transducer
• A Sensor can sense in any form(usually electronic) i.e due to some

mechanical change, it can react in electrical form. Thus there is a
conversion, similar to that of a transducer.
• A classic example would be a thermocouple. Or a pressure sensor which
might detect pressure and convert it into electric current (3-15psi to 4-
20ma)
• Therefore, a thermocouple can be called a sensor and or transducer.

• A Transducer is more than a sensor. It
consists of a sensor/actuator along with
signal conditioning circuits.
• So one way to define is that the output from
a sensor may or may not be meaningful i.e
most of the times it needs to be conditioned
and converted into various other forms.
• The transducer output is always meaningful.
• The output of a loudspeaker is meaningful.
They are transducers.
• A sensor is nothing but just a primary
element which senses any physical
phenomenon or it gives an indication in any
change of the physical phenomenon.
• We can say that Every transducer is also (or
has) a sensor but every sensor need not be
a transducer. Sometimes it is.

• Sometimes in a sensor, there is no
conversion at all.
• Ex. Thermometer, where the
temperature is sensed and is directly
measured.
• In a transducer there is always a
conversion i.e transduction.
• Ex. RTD, Thermocouple etc where the
temperature is sensed and the
measurement is made in terms of
voltage.
• Thus you can say that a SENSOR may

or may not have a conversion and it
only senses. A TRANSDUCER always
involves a conversion and also has
signal conditioning involved.

Position and Speed Measurement
• Most commonly measured quantity in mechatronic systems is position

• Proximity sensors
• Limit switches
• Potentiometers
• Linear Variable Differentiable Transformer (LVDT)
• Digital Encoders
• Rotary position sensors are more common than linear sensors.
• Linear motion can often be easily converted to rotary motion.
• Speed measurements can be obtained by taking consecutive position
Introduction
measurement at know time intervals and computing the time rate of

change of the position values.
• Tachometer

• A limit switch has the same

ON/OFF characteristics.
• The limit switch usually has a
pressure-sensitive mechanical arm.
• When an object applies pressure
on the mechanical arm, the switch
circuit is energized.
• An object might have a magnet
Limit Switches
attached that causes a contact to

rise and close when the object
passes over the arm.

• A limit switch can either

• Normally open (NO) or
• Normally closed (NC) and may have multiple poles.
• A normally open switch has continuity when
pressure applied and a contact is made.
• While a normally closed switch opens when
pressure is applied.
• A single pole switch allows one

Limit Switches
circuit to be opened or closed

upon switch contact.
• Multiple-pole switch allows
multiple circuits to be opened
or closed

Drawback
• They are subject to mechanical failure.
• Their mean time between failures (MTBF) is low compared to non-contact
sensors.
• Their speed of operation is relatively low; the switching speed of
photoelectric microsensors is up to 3000 times faster.
Limit Switches

Advantages
• Limit switches are mechanical position-sensing devices that offer simplicity,
robustness, and repeatability to processes.
• Mechanical limit switches are simplest in which contact is made and a switch is
engaged.
• Limit switches are easy to maintain because the operator can hear the operation
of the switch and can align it easily to fit the application.
• They are also robust. They can handle an inrush current 10 times that of their
steady state rating.
Limit Switches
• Reliability is another benefit. Published claims for repeat accuracy for standard
limit switches vary from within 0.03mm to within 0.001mm over temperature
range of -4 to +200F.
• Limit switch dissipate energy spikes and rarely break down under normal mode
surges. They will not be affected by electromagnetic interferences (EMI).
• Proximity sensing is the technique

of detecting the presence or
absence of an object with an
electronic non-contact sensor.
There are three types of proximity
sensors:
1. Inductive
Proximity Sensors
2. Capacitive
3. Magnetic

• Mechanical limit switches are the

first devices to detect objects in
industrial applications.
• Inductive proximity sensors are
used in place of limit switches for
non-contact sensing of metallic
objects.
Proximity Sensors
• Capacitive proximity switches can

also detect non-metallic objects.
• Both inductive and capacitive
sensors are limit switches with
ranges up to 100mm.

• Inductive sensors are used to detect the
presence of metallic objects.
• These sensors require DC or AC voltage for the
power to drive circuitry to generate the fields
and to produce output signal.
Inductive Proximity Sensors
• An inductive proximity sensor consists of four

basic elements:
1. Sensor coil and ferrite core
2. Oscillator circuit
3. Trigger/Detector circuit
4. Solid-state output circuit

Working principle
• The oscillator circuit generates a radio-frequency electromagnetic field that radiates from the
ferrite core and coil assembly.
• The field is centered around the axis of the ferrite core, which shapes the field and directs it at
the sensor face.
• When a metal target approaches and enters the field, eddy current are induced into the
surfaces of the target.

• This results in a loading effect, or “damping” that causes a reduction in amplitude of the
oscillator signal.
• The detector circuit detects the change in oscillator amplitude. The detector will switch ON at
specific operate amplitude.
• This ON signal generates a signal to turn ON the solid state output. This is often referred to as
the damped condition.
• As the target leaves the sensing field, the oscillator responds with an increase in amplitude.
• As the amplitude increases above a specific value, it is detected by the detector circuit, which
switches OFF, causing the output signal to return to the normal or OFF(undamped) state.

• Typical applications of inductive proximity sensors in control systems:
• Motion position detection
• Motion control
• Conveyor system control
• Process control
• Machine control
• Verification and counting

• The capacitive proximity sensor has the

same four basic elements as
1. Sensor coil and ferrite core
2. Oscillator circuit
Capacitive Proximity Sensors
3. Trigger/Detector circuit
4. Solid-state output circuit

Working principle
• The oscillator circuit includes feedback capacitance from the external
target plate and the internal plate.
• In a capacitive switch, the oscillator starts oscillating when sufficient
feedback capacitance is detected.

• The oscillation begin with an approaching target until the value of
capacitance reaches a threshold.
• At threshold point the trigger circuit will turn on the output switching
device.
• Thus the output modules function as normally open, normally closed, or
changeover switches.

Features
• They can detect non-metallic targets.
• They can detect lightweight or small objects that cannot be detected by
mechanical limit switches.
• They provide a high switching rate for rapid response in object counting
applications.
• They can detect liquid targets through non-metallic barriers, (glass, plastic,
etc).
• They have long operational life with a virtually unlimited number of
operating cycles.
• The solid-state output provides a bounce-free contact signal.

Applications
• Liquid level detection
• Bulk material level control
• Process control

• As with inductive proximity sensors,

magnetic proximity sensor has
1. LC oscillating circuit
2. A signal strength indicator
Magnetic Proximity Sensors
3. A switching amplifier
4. Strip of magnetically soft-glass metal.

• This strip attenuates the oscillating circuit .

• If a magnet is brought closer, the oscillating de-attenuates.
• The power consumption of a magnetic proximity sensor therefore
Magnetic Proximity Sensors
increases as the magnet is brought closer (in inductive proximity sensor

the power consumption reduces as the switching target is brought closer.)
• A major advantage of this technology is that large sensing ranges are
possible even with small sensor types.
• Permanent magnets are usually used to trigger magnetic proximity sensors.
Eg: magnetically hard-substances, such as steel alloyed with other metals
such as aluminum, cobalt and nickel.

• A photoelectric sensor is a semiconductor component that reacts to light

or emits light. The light may be either in visible range or the invisible
infrared range.
• Infrared sensors may be active or passive. The active sensors send out an
infrared beam and respond to the reflection of the beam against a target.
• The distinct advantage of photoelectric sensors over inductive or
capacitive sensors is their increased range.
Photoelectric Sensors
• Dirt, oil mist and other environmental factors will hinder operation of
photoelectric sensors during manufacturing process.
• There are three modes of detection used by photoelectric sensors:
• Through-beam detection method
• Reflex/retro-reflective detection method
• Proximity/Diffuse reflective detection method

• The light source used for each of the three modes comes from a LED.
• LEDs emit a visible colored light (red, green, yellow) or invisible (infrared)
light.

• Visible LEDs are used for in retro-reflective applications, they provide easy
reflector alignment to the sensor.
• Light intensity of infrared LEDs is greater than the visible ones. They are better
suited for through-beam and diffused style sensors.
• Switching the LED off and on at a predetermined frequency (modulating),
increases the light intensity and lifetime of the LED while reducing the average
power consumed.
• The pulsed LED provides a stronger signal when compared to a continuously

illuminated LED, therefore, a larger sensing range can be obtained.
• Another key advantage to modulating the sensor is to provide protection against
external light interference.
• The receiving circuit, typically phototransistor based, is modulated at the same
frequency as the emitter’s.

Through beam-detection method
• Sensor have separate source and
detector elements aligned opposite
each other, with the beam of light
crossing the path that an object
must cross.
• When an object passes between the

source and detector, the beam is
broken, signaling detection of the
object.
• The effective beam area is that of
column of light travels straight
between the lenses.
Through beam-detection method
• Light from the source is transmitted directly to the photo-detector, through-beam sensors offer the following
benefits:
• Longest sensing range
• Highest possible signal strength
• Greatest light/dark contrast ratio
• Best trip point repeatability
• Through-beam detection generally provides the longest range of the three operating modes and provides high
power at a shorter range to penetrate steam, dirt, or other contaminants between the source and detector.
• The limitation of through-beam sensors are as follows:
• They require wiring of the two components across the detection zone.
• It may be difficult to align the source and the detector.
• If the object to be detected is smaller than the effective beam diameter, an aperture over the lens may be required.
• Alignment of the source and detector must be accurate.

Reflex/Retro-Reflective detection
method
• Reflex photoelectric controls
position the source and detection
parallel to each other on the same
side of the target.
• The light is directed to a retro-

reflector and returns to the
detector. The switching and
output occur when an object
breaks the beam.

Reflex/Retro-Reflective detection method
• Since the light travels in two directions (hence
twice the distance), reflex controls will not
sense as far as through-beam sensors. However,
reflex controls offer a powerful sensing system
that is easy to mount and does not require that
electrical wire to be run on both sides of the
sensing areas.
• The main limitation of these sensors is that a

shiny surface on the target object can trigger
false detection. Hence the object to be
detected must be less reflective than the retro-
reflector.
• The reflex method is widely used because it is
flexible and easy to install and provides the best
cost-performance ratio of the three methods.
Proximity/Diffuse reflective detection method
• The proximity detection method requires that the
source and detector are installed on the same side of
the object to be detected and aimed at a point in
front of the sensor.
• When an object passes in front of the source and
detector, light from the source is reflected from the
object’s surface back to the detector, and the object is
detected.
• Each sensor type has a specific operating range. In
general, through-beam sensors offer the greatest
range, followed by reflex sensors, then by proximity
sensors.
• The maximum range for through-beam sensors is of
primary importance. At any distance less than the
maximum range, the sensor has more than enough
power to detect an object.

Proximity/Diffuse reflective detection

method
• The optimum range for the proximity
and reflex sensors is more than
significant than the maximum range. The
optimum range is the range at which the

sensor has the most power available to
detect objects.

• Ultrasonic sensors are used in non-contact material monitoring applications

including web loop control, level control, positioning, flow monitoring and
conveyor transfer.
• Ultrasonic sensors use the propagation time of sound pulse to calculate the
distance of a target. Sound pulses are emitted and received by a diaphragm in
the face of the transducer as illustrated in the diagram below.
Ultrasonic Sensors

Terminology
Beam Angle: The beam angle is the angle
formed by sound waves as they emanate
from an ultrasonic sensor. The beam angle
defines the usable area in which target
detection is possible.
Deadband: The deadband is the unusable
Ultrasonic Sensors
region that defines the minimum distance

for target detection. The unusable region
occurs because a transducer must be pulsed
in order to produce a sound wave, and the
oscillations from the shocked must stop
before the transducer can register its echo
pulse.

Terminology
Linearity: If the “perfect” analog
ultrasonic sensor could be produced,
its output, from beginning-to-end of
the span limits, would appear in
graphical form as a perfect straight
line. Linearity defines the tolerances
Ultrasonic Sensors
within which the sensor’s output may

vary from the “perfect” line during
“real life” target monitoring. Linearity
specifications are always given as a
percentage.

Terminology
Resolution: Resolution is the smallest target movement an ultrasonic sensor can identify and evaluate. For
example, if an ultrasonic sensor has a resolution of 10mm, the sensor output remains unchanged until the target
moves more than 10mm.
Repeatability: Repeatability is the ability of a sensor to consistently detect a target at the same point.
Repeatability is expressed as a percentage of sensing range and is frequently affected by environmental
conditions.
Good Targets: Ultrasonic sensors function best in the detection and monitoring of objects with a relatively high
density. Solid, liquid or granular media make ideal targets due to their high acoustic reflectivity. Unlike
Ultrasonic Sensors
photoelectric sensors, target color and dusty atmospheric conditions do not affect ultrasonic sensors.
Poor Targets: Porous targets such as felt, cloth or foam rubber have very high sound absorption properties, and
subsequently make poor candidates for ultrasonic detection. In addition, liquid targets, typically excellent for
ultrasonic detection, may become undetectable if bubbles or foam cover the surface.
Unstable Targets: Standard ultrasonic sensors can generate erroneous output signal when monitoring turbulent
or unstable targets.

• The rotary potentiometer (pot) is a

variable resistance device that can be
used to measure angular position.
• It consists of a wiper that makes contact
with a resistive element, and as this
point of contact moves, the resistance
between the wiper and end leads of the
device changes in proportion to the
angular displacement.
Potentiometer

• The LVDT is a transducer for measuring
Linear Variable Differential Transformer(LVDT)
linear displacement.
• It consist of primary and secondary
windings and a movable iron core.
• It functions much like transformer, where
voltages are induced in secondary coil in
response to excitation in the primary coil.
• The LVDT must be excited by an AC signal
to induce an AC response in the
secondary coil.
• The core position can be determined by
measuring the secondary response.
• with two secondary coils connected in
the series-opposing configuration as
show, the output signal describes both
the magnitude and direction of the core
motion.

• The primary AC excitation 𝑉𝑖𝑛 and the
output signal 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 for two different

core positions are shown in figure.
• There is a midpoint in the core’s
position where the voltage induced in
each coil is of the same amplitude
and 180° out of phase, producing a
“null” output.
• As the core moves from null position,
the output amplitude increases a
proportional amount over a linear
range around the null as shown in
figure.
• Therefore, by measuring the output
voltage amplitude, we can easily and
accurately determine the magnitude
of the core displacement.

• To determine the direction of the core
displacement, the secondary coils can be

connected to a demodulation circuit as
shown in figure.
• The diode bridge in this circuit produce a
positive or negative rectified sine ware,
depending on which side of the null position
the core is located.
• The advantage of the LVDT are accuracy over
the linear range and an analog output that
may not require amplification.
• Also, it is less sensitive to wide ranges in
temperature than other position
transducers.
• The disadvantages include limited range of
motion and limited frequency response. The
overall frequency response is limited by
inertial effects associated with core’s mass
and choice of the primary excitation
frequency and the filter cutoff frequency.

• A resolver is an analog rotary position sensor that operates very much like
the LVDT. It consists of a rotating shaft (rotor) with a primary winding and
a stationary housing (stator) with two secondary winding offset by 90°.
• Two other types of linear position sensors that measure linear
displacement directly, based on magnetic principles, are the voice coil and
magnetostrictive position transducers.

• Covered in 3ME08: Computer Aided Manufacturing

Digital Optical Encoders

Stress and Strain Measurement
• Frequently used in Mechanical
Research
• Measure stress generated by machinery
Electrical Resistance Strain Gauge
• Strain Gauges are smaller than a

postage stamp.
• Very thin conductors (1/1000 inch
diameter)
• Device that changes resistance when
it is stressed.
• With contact the wires stretch or
compress changing their resistance
proportional to the applied load.
• One or more strain gages are used in
the making of a load cell.

Total resistance is given by

𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴
To see how the resistance changes under deformation, we need to take the
differential of above equation. If we first take the natural logarithm of both
sides,
ln 𝑅 = ln 𝜌 + ln 𝐿 − ln 𝐴
Taking the differential yields
𝑑𝑅 Τ𝑅 = 𝑑𝜌Τ𝜌 + 𝑑𝐿Τ𝐿 − 𝑑𝐴Τ𝐴
As we would expect, the signs in this equation imply that the resistance of
the conductor increases 𝑑𝑅 > 0 with increased resistivity and increased
length and decreases with increased cross-sectional area.

Strain Gauge Installation

• The Strain Gauge is bonded to the specimen under test, only after the
following:
• cleaning the surface using a degreaser
• cleaning it again with a conditioner solution (mild acid that accelerates the cleaning
process)
• neutralizing by applying a base (neutralizes any chemical reaction introduced by the
Conditioner)
• finally bonding it with a super glue.
• The Strain Gauge has 2 leads which exhibit variation in resistance when
strain is applied.

• The metallic strain gauge consists of a
very fine wire or metallic foil arranged
in a grid pattern.
• The grid pattern maximizes the amount

of metallic wire or foil subject to strain
in the parallel direction.
• The grid is bonded to a thin backing,
called the carrier, which is attached
directly to the test specimen.
• The strain experienced by the test
specimen is transferred directly to the
strain gauge, which responds with a
linear change in electrical resistance.
• Gauge factor is defined as:
∆𝑅/𝑅
𝐺𝐹 =
∆𝐿/𝐿

Measuring Resistance Change with a
Wheatstone Bridge
• In order to measure strain with a
bonded resistance strain gauge, it

must be connected to an electric
circuit that is capable of measuring
the minute changes in resistance
corresponding to strain
• Strain gauge is connected in a
Wheatstone bridge circuit
• A strain gauge bridge circuit indicates
measured strain by the degree of
imbalance
• It provides an accurate measurement
of that imbalance


Wheatstone Bridge
• In Figure, if R1, R2, R3, and Strain

gauge are equal, and a voltage, VIN, is
applied between points A and C, then
the output between points B and D
will show no potential difference.
• However, if R4 is changed to some
value which does not equal R1, R2,
and R3, the bridge will become
unbalanced and a voltage will exist at
the output terminals.
• The variable strain sensor has
resistance Rg, while the other arms
are fixed value resistors.
Measuring Resistance Change with

a Wheatstone Bridge
• The sensor, however, can occupy

one, two, or four arms of the
bridge, depending on the
application.
• The total strain, or output voltage
of the circuit (Vout) is equivalent to
the difference between the voltage
drop across R1 and R4, or Rg.
• It is given by Vout = Vcd – Vcb

Wheatstone Bridge
• The bridge is considered balanced
when R1/R2 = Rg/R3 and, therefore,

VOUT equals zero.
• Any small change in the resistance of
the sensing grid will throw the bridge
out of balance, making it suitable for
the detection of strain.
• A small change in Rg will result in an
output voltage from the bridge.
• If the gage factor is GF, the strain
measurement is related to the change
in Rg as follows:
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = ∆𝑅𝑔 /𝑅𝑔 Τ𝐺𝐹

Problems
• The output of a strain gauge circuit is a very low-level voltage signal
• The low level of the signal makes it particularly susceptible to unwanted

noise from other electrical devices.
• Capacitive coupling caused by the lead wires' running too close to AC
power cables or ground currents are potential error sources in strain
measurement.
• Other error sources may include magnetically induced voltages when the
lead wires pass through variable magnetic fields, parasitic (unwanted)
contact resistances of lead wires, insulation failure, and thermocouple
effects at the junction of dissimilar metals.
• The sum of such interferences can result in significant signal degradation.

Solution
• Shielding: Most electric interference and noise problems can be solved by
shielding.
• A shield around the measurement lead wires will intercept interferences
and may also reduce any errors caused by insulation degradation.
• Shielding also will guard the measurement from capacitive coupling.
• If the measurement leads are routed near electromagnetic interference
sources such as transformers, twisting the leads will minimize signal
degradation due to magnetic induction.
• By twisting the wire, the flux-induced current is inverted and the areas
that the flux crosses cancel out.
• For industrial process applications, twisted and shielded lead wires are
used almost without exception.
Instrumental Amplifier
• The variation in voltage at the output of the bridge is in the range of
millivolts. It needs to be amplified in order to calculate precise value of

strain.
+vcc
3 10 K 10K
+V1 + 6
-
2 10K
-Vcc
+Vcc
500 ohms
-
2 6
Vout
+
3
-Vcc
+Vcc
10K
10K 10K
-
2 6
+V2 +
3
-Vcc
Instrumentation
Amplifier

Temperature Measurement
• A simple nonelectrical temperature-measuring device is the liquid-in-glass

thermometer.
• It typically uses alcohol or mercury as the working fluid, which expands
and contracts relative to the glass container.
Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer
• The upper range is usually on the order of 600℉.

• When making measurements in a liquid, the depth of immersion is
important, as it can result in different measurements.
• Because readings are made visually, and there can be a meniscus at the
top of the working fluid, measurements must be made carefully and
consistently.

• Another nonelectrical temperature-
measuring device used in simple control
systems is the bimetallic strip.
• As shown in the figure, it is composed of
two or more metal layers having different
coefficients of thermal expansion.
• Because these layers are permanently
bonded together, the structure will
deform when the temperature changes.
• This is due to the difference in thermal
expansion of the two metal layers.
Bimetallic Strip
• The deflection can be related to the

temperature of the strip.
• Bimetallic strips are used in household
and industrial thermostats where the
mechanical motion of the strip makes or
breaks an electrical contact.

• A resistance temperature device (RTD) is constructed of metallic wires

wound around a ceramic or glass core and hermitically sealed.
Electrical Resistance Thermometer
• The resistance of the metallic wire increases with temperature. The

resistance-temperature relationship is usually approximated by the
following linear expression:
𝑅 = 𝑅0 1 + 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑇0
where 𝑇0 is a reference temperature, 𝑅0 is the resistance at the reference
temperature, and 𝛼 is a calibration constant. The sensitivity 𝑑𝑅/𝑑𝑇 is
𝑅0 𝛼. The reference temperature is usually the ice point of water 0℃ .
• The most common metal used in RTDs is platinum because of its high
melting point, resistance to oxidation, predictable temperature
characteristics and stable calibration values.
• The operating range for typical platinum RTD is −220℃ to 750℃.

• A thermistor is a semiconductor device, available in probes of different shapes
and sizes, whose resistance changes exponentially with temperature.
• Its resistance temperature relationship is usually expressed in the form
1 1
𝛽 −
𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝑟 𝑇 𝑇0
where 𝑇0 is a reference temperature, 𝑅0 is the resistance at the reference

temperature, and 𝛽 is calibration constant called the characteristic temperature of
the material.
• A well-calibrated thermistor can be accurate to within 0.01℃ or better, which is
better than RTD accuracies.
• However, thermistors have much narrower operating ranges than RTDs.
Thermistor
• Note that a thermistor’s resistance actually decreases with increasing

temperature. This is a very different from metal conductors that experience
increasing resistance with increasing temperature.

Two dissimilar metals in contact form a thermoelectric junction that

produces a voltage proportional to the temperature of the junction. This is
known as the Seebeck effect.
Thermocouple

Seebeck effect: A conductor generates a voltage when it is subjected to a temperature
gradient
• Measuring this voltage requires the use of a second conductor material
• The other material needs to be composed of a different material
Nickel-Chromium
+ Alloy
The voltage difference of the
two dissimilar metals can be
measured and related to the VS = SΔT
Thermocouple
corresponding temperature
gradient
- Copper-Nickel
Alloy

Measuring temperature:
• To measure temperature using a thermocouple, you can’t just connect the
thermocouple to a measurement system (e.g. voltmeter)
• The voltage measured by your system is proportional to the temperature
difference between the primary junction (hot junction) and the junction where
the voltage is being measured (Ref junction)
To determine the You need to

absolute know the
Thermocouple
temperature at temperature at
the hot the Ref junction!
junction… How can we determine
the temperature at the
reference junction?
Vibration and Acceleration Measurement
• An accelerometer is a sensor designed to measure acceleration, or rate of

change of speed, due to motion (e.g. in a video game controller), vibration
(e.g. from rotating equipment), and impact events (e.g. to deploy an
automobile airbag).
• Accelerometers are normally mechanically attached or bonded to an
object or structure for which acceleration is to be measured.
• The accelerometer detects acceleration along one axis and is insensitive to
motion in orthogonal directions.
Accelerometer
• Strain gauges or piezoelectric elements constitute the sensing element of

an accelerometer, converting acceleration into a voltage signal.

• The design of an accelerometer is based on
the inertial effects associated with a mass
connected to a moving object through a
spring, damper, and displacement sensor.
• Figure illustrates the components of an
accelerometer along with the displacement
references, terminology, and free-body
diagram.
• When the object accelerates, there is relative
motion between the housing and the seismic
mass.
• A displacement transducer senses the
relative motion.
Accelerometer
• Through a frequency response analysis of the

second-order system modeling the
accelerometer, we can relate the Strain
gauges or piezoelectric elements constitute
the sensing element of an accelerometer,
converting acceleration into a voltage signal.

To determine the frequency response of the accelerometer, we first express the forces shown in
the free-body diagram. To do this, we define the relative displacement 𝑥𝑟 between the seismic
mass and the object as
𝑥𝑟 = 𝑥𝑜 − 𝑥𝑖
It is measured by a position transducer between the seismic mass and the housing. Therefore,
the spring force can be expressed as
𝐹𝑘 = 𝑘 𝑥𝑜 − 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑘𝑥𝑟
and the damper force can be expressed as
𝐹𝑏 = 𝑏 𝑥ሶ 𝑜 − 𝑥ሶ 𝑖 = 𝑏𝑥ሶ 𝑟
Applying Newton’s second law, the equation of motion for the seismic mass is
෍ 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑚𝑥ሷ 𝑜
Accelerometer
or
−𝐹𝑘 − 𝐹𝑏 = 𝑚𝑥ሷ 𝑜
The forces have negative signs in this equation because they are in the opposite direction from
the reference direction xo in the free-body diagram. Substituting previous results
−𝑘𝑥𝑟 − 𝑏𝑥ሶ 𝑟 = 𝑚𝑥ሷ 𝑜

Because the relative displacement 𝑥𝑟 is
𝑥𝑟 = 𝑥𝑜 − 𝑥𝑖
We can replace 𝑥ሷ 𝑜 with
𝑥ሷ 𝑜 = 𝑥ሷ 𝑟 + 𝑥ሷ 𝑖
Therefore, we can write as
−𝑘𝑥𝑟 − 𝑏𝑥ሶ 𝑟 = 𝑚 𝑥ሷ 𝑟 + 𝑥ሷ 𝑖
which can be rearranged as
𝑚𝑥ሷ 𝑟 + 𝑏𝑥ሶ 𝑟 + 𝑘𝑥𝑟 = −𝑚𝑥ሷ 𝑖
This second-order differential equation relates the measured relative displacement 𝑥𝑟 to the input displacement 𝑥𝑖 . As
in the analysis of a second-order system presented previously, we can rewrite this equation as
𝑥ሷ 𝑟 = 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑥ሶ 𝑟 + 𝜔𝑛2 𝑥𝑟 = −𝑥ሷ 𝑖
where the natural frequency is
Accelerometer
𝑘
𝜔𝑛 =
𝑚
and the damping ratio is
𝑏
𝜁=
2 𝑘𝑚

For a frequency response analysis, the input displacement is assumed to be composed of
sinusoidal terms of the form:
𝑥𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑋𝑖 sin 𝜔𝑡
Because the system is linear, the resulting relative output displacement is also sinusoidal
of the same frequency but different phase:
𝑥𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑋𝑖 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
Using the procedure presented in previous class discussions, the frequency response
analysis results in the amplitude ratio
𝑋𝑟 𝜔Τ𝜔𝑛 2
=
𝑋𝑖 2 2 2
𝜔 𝜔
1− + 4𝜉 2
Accelerometer
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛
and the phase angle
2𝜉 𝜔Τ𝜔𝑛
𝜙= − tan−1 2
𝜔
1−
𝜔𝑛

To relate the relative output displacement signal 𝑥𝑟 to the input acceleration

𝑥𝑖 , we differentiate 𝑥𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑋𝑖 sin 𝜔𝑡, resulting in
𝑥ሷ 𝑖 𝑡 = −𝑋𝑖 𝜔2 sin 𝜔𝑡
Note that the amplitude of the input acceleration is
𝑋𝑖 𝜔2
Rearranging amplitude ratio2 equation, we have
𝑋𝑟 𝜔𝑛 1
𝐻𝑎 𝜔 = 2
= 1Τ2
𝑋𝑖 𝜔
2 2 2
𝜔 𝜔
Accelerometer
1− + 4𝜉 2
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛
where 𝐻𝑎 𝜔 is used to represent the ratio 𝑋𝑟 𝜔𝑛2 Τ𝑋𝑖 𝜔2 as a function of
frequency 𝜔.

Figures illustrate this term and the phase angle
relationship graphically for different values of damping
ratio.
The denominator of 𝐻𝑎 𝜔 is the input acceleration
amplitude 𝑋𝑖 𝜔2 , and the numerator is the product of
the output displacement amplitude 𝑋𝑟 and the square
of the natural frequency 𝜔𝑛2 .
Therefore, we can relate the measured output
displacement amplitude to the input acceleration
amplitude as
1
Accelerometer
2
𝑋𝑟 = 𝐻𝑎 𝜔 𝑋 𝑖 𝜔
𝜔𝑛2
So the input acceleration amplitude can be expressed as
𝑋 𝜔 2
𝑟 𝑛
𝑋𝑖 𝜔2 =
𝐻𝑎 𝜔

If we design the accelerometer so that 𝐻𝑎 𝜔 is
nearly 1 over a large frequency range, then the
input acceleration amplitude is given directly in
terms of the relative displacement amplitude
scaled by a constant factor 𝜔𝑛2 .
𝑋𝑖 𝜔2 = 𝜔𝑛2 𝑋𝑟
As can be seen in figure, the largest frequency
range resulting in a unity amplitude ratio occurs
when the damping ratio 𝜉 = 0.707 and the
natural frequency 𝜔𝑛 is phase linearity for the
Accelerometer
system.
We can make the natural frequency large by
choosing a small seismic mass and a large spring
constant.

The same spring-mass-damper configuration used to measure
acerbation can be designed to measure displacement instead.
This type of device is called a vibrometer.
The amplitude ratio provides us with the necessary
relationship between the input and output displacements.
As we did in the accelerometer analysis, in the accelerometer
analysis, we can now define a displacement ratio as
𝑋𝑟
𝐻𝑑 𝜔 =
𝑋𝑖
As shown in figure (bottom right), the amplitude ratio to
frequency relationship for different values of the damping
ratio. The phase angle relationship is the same as for the
Accelerometer
accelerometer (figure upper right).

We can make the natural frequency small by choosing a large
seismic mass and a small spring constant.
This explains the large size of seismographs used to measure
motion due to an earthquake.

The input displacement amplitude 𝑋𝑖 is related
to the measured relative displacement
amplitude 𝑋𝑟 as
𝑋𝑟
𝑋𝑖 =
𝐻𝑑 𝜔
If we design the vibrometer so that 𝐻𝑑 𝜔 is
nearly 1 over a large frequency range, then the
input displacement amplitude is given directly
by the relative displacement amplitude.
Accelerometer
As shown in figure (bottom right), the largest

frequency range resulting in a unity amplitude
ratio occurs when the damping ratio 𝜉 = 0.707
and the natural frequency 𝜔𝑛 is as small as
possible (so 𝜔/𝜔𝑛 is large).

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Sensors and Transducers

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Sensors and Transducers

Prof. Vinay J. Patel

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 2

• A Sensor can sense in any form(usually electronic) i.e due to some

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 3

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 4

• Thus you can say that a SENSOR may

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 5

• Most commonly measured quantity in mechatronic systems is position

measurement at know time intervals and computing the time rate of

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 6

• A limit switch has the same

attached that causes a contact to

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 7

• A limit switch can either

• A single pole switch allows one

circuit to be opened or closed

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 8

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 9

• Proximity sensing is the technique

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 11

• Mechanical limit switches are the

• Capacitive proximity switches can

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 12

• An inductive proximity sensor consists of four

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 13

surfaces of the target.

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 14

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 15

• The capacitive proximity sensor has the

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 16

feedback capacitance is detected.

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 17

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 18

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 19

• As with inductive proximity sensors,

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 20

• This strip attenuates the oscillating circuit .

increases as the magnet is brought closer (in inductive proximity sensor

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 21

• A photoelectric sensor is a semiconductor component that reacts to light

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 22

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 23

• The pulsed LED provides a stronger signal when compared to a continuously

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 24

• When an object passes between the

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 26

• The light is directed to a retro-

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 27

• The main limitation of these sensors is that a

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 29

Proximity/Diffuse reflective detection

optimum range is the range at which the

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 30

• Ultrasonic sensors are used in non-contact material monitoring applications

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 31

region that defines the minimum distance

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 32

within which the sensor’s output may

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 33

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 34

• The rotary potentiometer (pot) is a

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 35

18-Oct-21 Sensors and Transducers: Prof. Vinay J. Patel 36