Human Acts and Acts of Man

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

1. Articulate on the constituents of Human Acts;

2. determine the components of Moral Acts in a specific human action;
3. differentiate human acts from acts of man.

An Activity

For an opening, try to answer this activity. Inside the box, you will find a list of actions usually performed by man
as a moral agent. Identify which actions have value or import for the purpose of ethical analysis. List down as
many as you can. Find out later the correct answers.

Sleeping - Telling a lie - Talking

Yawning - Helping others - Slandering

Snoring - Urinating - Forgiving

Hearing - Eating - Eavesdropping

Which Acts are of Value to Ethics?

In the box above, only telling a lie, forgiving, eavesdropping and slandering have value for ethical analysis. All
the rest are not of value to moral analysis. We must admit that while there are actions that indispensably require
man’s rationality (human acts), there are also actions that do not require rationality (acts of man). Sleeping
and yawning, for instance, are natural acts and as such, they cannot be judged to be ethical or unethical, while
actions of telling a lie and helping others are acts that are purposive or performed with moral intent and they can
either be ethical or unethical. Let’s consider talking and compare it with slandering to clarify the point. Talking or
speaking per se is natural that proceeds from man’s natural power of speech. Thus, it is neither unethical nor
ethical. But slandering is an act that has moral value. It involves the question whether the act is in conformity or
non-conformity with the norm of morality. Hence, acts such as slandering are either ethical or unethical.

This shows that there are certain acts that are of value to Ethics while some are expendable for the purpose of
ethical analysis. And those acts that have some import to Ethics are the only ones to be considered as formal
objects of Ethics. But what exactly are these morally significant acts? Considering this question will require the
discussion of the two general types of acts, human acts and acts of man.

Acts of Man. This refers to certain types of actions that are naturally exhibited by man and as such, they are
morally indifferent (or neutral) because we cannot judge them to be either ethical or unethical. Acts of man are
natural acts that we usually perform by virtue of our nature as animal beings. There are two categories of natural
acts: natural-involuntary acts and natural voluntary acts.

 Natural-involuntary acts are forms of acts of man that intuitively or involuntarily (acts that man naturally
exhibits but are beyond his control). Examples are blinking of the eye, beating of the heart, etc. As you read this
item, your heart is beating and your eyes are blinking without you being constantly aware of it.
 Natural-voluntary acts are natural acts that man performs. But these acts are within his will to control at
least for some period of time. Breathing is a clear example. Momentarily we may stop breathing but we cannot
stop indefinitely without killing ourselves. The same is true with eating, sleeping, and drinking. We can stop
performing them but only for a moment. We can decide when and where to urinate but definitely we have no
power to decide never to urinate for the rest of our lives.

It is clear that acts of man are integral to the survival of human beings. It is because of their naturalness or their
being biological necessities that make them void of any moral worth (it does not mean however that they are
morally insignificant). Remember that before any act is to be viewed to be of some moral import, the act should
be a product of rationality and freedom – something that the one performing it could be made responsible for. And
since acts of man do not require rationality or freedom, they do not possess moral value.

The crux of the matter is whether acts of man can also become human acts; or they always remain acts of man
no matter what? Our answer to the former question is yes and no to the latter. In principle, acts of man can
become human acts. Spitting, for instance, is an act of man. But it can become human act if one deliberately
spits, for example, the face of a person.

In contrast to human acts, acts of man do not make man responsible for his actions. We have to make it clear
that man is responsible only for his action if he does the act out of knowledge, freedom and voluntariness (these
will be discussed in the Constituents of Human Acts). These are human acts. Actions done without knowledge,
freedom and voluntariness do not make man responsible. These acts are acts of man.

Human Acts. Human acts are actions that proceed from the deliberate free will of man. Hence, these are actions
that are conscious, intentional and voluntary. These actions are products of rationality and freedom of choice like
telling the truth, fulfilling a promise forgiving, including ethically dubious deeds such as murdering, stealing, lying,
etc. In short, human acts are acts that are either ethical or unethical., but not morally indifferent (not possible to
judge them as ethical or unethical).

Constituents of Human Acts

A human act is an act done with knowledge. Doing an act with knowledge makes the act deliberate. This means
that the agent (the one who performs the act) has intellectual knowledge of the act. Hence, he has awareness
about the means to employ as he performs an act. And the agent has also an awareness of the end to achieve in
his actions.

 A human act is an act done with freedom. It means that the agent does an act under the control of his will.
This suggests that when the agent performs the act with freedom, his will is not affected or influenced by any
constraint either within or outside himself. In simple terms, the agent is not forced to do or not do a particular
action. Therefore, a human act is an act which is determined solely by the will.
 Voluntariness requires the presence of the other constituents because for the agent to will the act, he must
have knowledge of what the act is and he must also have freedom to perform or not to perform the act. Thus, a
voluntary act is a willful.
 An illustration. A student of the University of the Visayas is aware of the rules and regulations of the
institution. One of these rules and regulations is the wearing of uniform (knowledge). He is free to come to school
in uniform or to wear casual clothes (freedom). He comes to school in uniform (voluntariness).

Classifications of Human Acts

Human acts are classified into the following: 1) in relation to the will; and 2) in relation to reason. Human
acts stem from the human will. It is the will that controls or influences the internal and external actions of man.
The will stirs the person to act or to refrain from acting. It colours his motive as to why he engages or disengages
from a certain act.
  Human acts in relation to the will refer to those actions which are started by the will, performed, and
completed by the will either by the will alone or through other faculties which are under the control of the will.
 Human acts in relation to reason refer to those actions that are either in agreement or in disagreement
with reason,

Human Acts in Relation to the Will

There are two kinds of human acts in relation to the will:

 Elicited Acts are those which are started by the will, performed by the will, and are completed by the will as a
sole agent. There are elements involved in the completion of elicited acts.
 Wish – the tendency of the will toward something whether it is attainable or not. Hence, a student wishing to
be the topnotcher in his examination; a student wishing to be a famous talk show host; a tourist wishing to tour
around the world.

Intention – the tendency of the will toward something attainable but without necessarily committing oneself to
attain it. Following our previous example: a student who intend to prepare for the examination; a student who
intends to report a juicy gossip; a tourist who intends to go to Disneyland.

Consent – the acceptance of the will of what is needed to carry out the intention. Consent is simply the
determination of the alternative means necessary to realize the intention. The following are examples: consent for
the student is to whether to study the lesson or to cheat at the exam; consent of the student is to willfully search
for juicy gossip or to invent it; consent of the tourist is to whether to go to Disneyland by plane or by cruise ship.

Election – the selection of the will of those effective means to carry out the intention. Election, thus, include
studying hard and not to cheat at the exam; to willfully search for the juicy gossip and not to invent it; to take the
plane in going to Disneyland and not the boat.

Use – the command of the will to make use of those means elected to carry out the intention. Election, thus,
includes staying awake all night to study; going out and looking for a juicy gossip; leaving on a jet plane going to
Disneyland.

Fruition – the enjoyment of the will derived from the attainment of the thing desired. The following are
examples of this element: The euphoria of the student after besting the examination; the satisfaction of the
student at being called the master gossip; the happiness of the tourist enjoying the beautiful spots in Disneyland.

These enduced acts (self-motivated acts) demonstrate the power of the will to motivate the soul. It is the part of
the human soul that affects freedom and reason. The will is the agency of choice as it may prompt reason to
overpower passion. On the other hand, it may arouse passion and allow it to overrun reason. As such, the will is a
potential fore for both good and evil. The strength or the weakness of the will determines the strength or the
weakness of the human character. Action follows being. So, if the will affects moral action, the will must be
brought closer to reason and to the proper sense of morality and goodness.

Commanded Acts are those which begun in the will, performed by the will, but are completed by the will
through another medium which is under the control of the will. There are three kinds of commanded acts.

Internal Acts refer to the actions done by man by way of the internal mental powers under the command of
the will. Acts of remembering and controlling anger are internal commanded acts.

External Acts refer to those that are affected by bodily powers of man under the command of the will.
Deliberate eating, singing, and dancing are examples of this act.
 Mixed Acts refer to actions that include both bodily and mental powers. A student uses his intellect in
understanding what he is studying and his eyes in reading the materials of his study.

In Relation to Reason

There are three kinds of human acts under this heading:

 Ethical/Good or Moral Acts. These are human acts that maybe in conformity to with dictates of reason.
Moral or ethical actions may include helping others in need, taking examinations honestly, keeping a promise, etc.
 Evil/Unethical or Immoral Acts. These are human acts that may be in contradiction to the dictates of
reason. Immoral or unethical actions may include refusing to help others in distress, cheating at examinations,
etc.

 Amoral or Indifferent Acts. These acts are also called neutral acts. They are neither moral nor immoral.
Acts without moral content (acts of man) are neither good nor bad in themselves but depending on the
circumstances.

Elements of Human Acts

In order to understand how ethical theories are used in analysing moral dilemmas, it is important to have a good
grasp of the elements present in any human act.

The intention of the act – the motive or the reason why the act is being done. The object or
intention is the end of the act, that is, moral agents act for a particular end. For instance, the act of
studying is intended to pass an exam.

The means of the act – the object employed or the medium used to carry out the intention of the
act. For instance, the act of taking one’s vitamins or exercising daily is the means for staying healthy.
The means could also be another person. A person who pretends to help another to advance his
selfish interests is a person who uses another person as a means to his personal ends.

 The end of the act – the intention of the act is directed at a desired end or a perceived good, such as living a
well-balanced life or graduating with honors. The end of the act is thus the inspiration behind the intention of the
act.

 The consequence of the act – the result, the outcome, or the actual conclusion or termination of the moral
act. This determines whether the intention of the act was carried out or if the end of the act is successfully
realized.

Norms of Human Acts

There are two norms of human acts, viz.:law and conscience. Human acts are properly directed to their
authentic end through the law, particularly the natural law. And through his conscience, man is made conscious of
the law.

LAW. It has been mentioned that ethics is founded on law, and that we, who are capable of knowing and
doing what the law requires, should act in accordance with it.

Law is defined as rule of action or a rule of conduct which directs things towards a definite goal.
Generally, the goal of law is the common good. Law, however, cannot be of use and cannot be obeyed unless it
is known. It must be made known or promulgated to the persons who are subjects to it.
 CONSCIENCE. The word conscience is derived from the Latin phrase cum alia scientia which means man’s
application of knowledge or “acting with knowledge.”

Philosophers say that conscience is the connecting link between law and individual acts. That is why
conscience is called the means by which law is applied to the acts of

the individual persons.

Conscience can be applied to the act itself and the consequence of the act. It is referred to as the judgment of
morality – goodness or badness – or acts done or about to be done. Hence, conscience is properly defined as
an act of the practical judgment of reason deciding upon an individual action as good and to be
performed or as evil and to be avoided. It is a judgment of moral values – a judgment of the goodness and
the badness of acts. When it finds the act good it imposes to the agent to do it, if bad, it imposes to the agent to
avoid doing it.

Place and Significance of Values in Ethics

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

1. apply the steps in ethical decision-making process;

2. promote awareness of audience and context in presenting ideas through a moral advocacy video; and

3. examine the role of values in moral decision making.

An Activity.

After reading the case below, please identify the values involved and the moral dilemma being faced by the moral
agent. You may answer the questions for your own consumption.

CASE: THE MOTHER AND HER BABY

The intense cry of the baby intuitively tells the mother that the baby is hungry. In all misery, there is no food to
eat; not even a single centavo to buy food. In a nearby honesty store, where one could get items without the
presence of a storekeeper, the mother has the opportunity to steal some food. The mother is conflicted between
wanting to feed her hungry, but then recognizing that it would be wrong for her to steal.

1. If you were the mother, what will you do?

2. What are the values at work in this case?
3. What is the moral dilemma that you can identify?

Introduction

Values are individual beliefs that motivate people to act one way or another. They serve as a guide for human
behaviour. Generally, people are predisposed to adopt the values that they are raised with. People also tend to
believe that those values are “right” because they are the values of their particular culture.
 Values are universally recognized as a driving force in ethical decision-making. Ethical decision-making often
involves weighing values against each other and choosing which values to elevate. Conflicts can result when
people have different values, leading to a clash of preferences and priorities. In the case above, a mother is facing
a moral dilemma in order to save her child. Does she have to save her baby by stealing? The value of saving one’s
life and the value of honesty are in conflict with each other. When both values are at work in the life of the agent,
one has to choose which value to elevate.

Values as judgments of worth are often equated with moral judgments of goodness. Values only become clear
when there is a choice to be made; for instance, when you must choose between friendship and honesty, or
material success and family. Behaviour is generally consistent with values.

Etymological definition of values.

It is derived from the Latin word “Valere” which means to measure the worth of something.

Values are the elements of life prevailing in any society. They lie at the core of man’s life. They shape and
determine an individual’s or group’s decision to like or dislike, favour or disfavour, change or not to change.

Economists’ perspective. Economists introduced values in man’s conduct.

Two Kinds of Values

Value in Use – capacity of an object to satisfy human needs or desires.
Value in Exchange – refers to the amount of a commodity obtained in exchange for another.

Real Definition of Values.

Values are elements of desirability, worth, or importance.
Values are the object of human desire and striving; they are also the subjective assessment of a particular
object insofar as it is good.
Values are our beliefs, those beliefs which we hold to be true. Thus values inspire us to struggle towards our
proximate and ultimate ends.
Values refer to things, persons, ideas, or goals which are important to life; they enable us to direct,
understand, and evaluate our lives. They refer to our ideals and our principles by which we live.

Properties of Values

Values are Subjective The existence and validity of values are dependent on the feelings or attitudes of the
subject. However, it should not be purely subjective because our appraisal of a certain thing does not make the
thing a thing. We must know first what we must value in order for us to value what to value. What action should
be valued? Morality requires that it should be the good one. Why? Because everybody wants to be moral.

Values are Objective. Do we desire or crave for things because they are valuable or are things valuable
because we desire and crave for them? Values are objective means that the existence and the nature of values
are independent of a subject. There is nothing to value if there is nothing to be valued. Values exist first before
they are apprehended, desired, or craved. It means, values are primarily objective. Not our feelings,
apprehensions, craving, or desires, but values themselves need to be expressed to be known. Values are known,
expressed and carried by our actions.

 Values are Relative We have to remember that values are relative only in the context of subjectivism, not
in objectivism. In understanding the relativity of values, we are viewing the actual interplay between the
properties of values as subjective and relative. Now in considering values as relative, we have to raise two
substantial questions: First, what are values good for? And second, for whom are they good? In the case of
eyeglasses, “Is it good for what? And is it good for whom?” The intrinsic value in eyeglasses cannot be imposed on
all so that everybody should crave for them. To apply the relativity of values in ethics we have to understand that
some actions that are of value to us cannot bear a blanket-good for all. It is true that some of our principles or
actions are only good to us.
 Values are Hierarchical Hierarchical means we rank values, and we establish order of importance among
them. We prioritize them. We draw order of importance of values. When we are confronted with two values, we
usually prefer the one which we think is higher than the other. A moral man is a man who prefers positive values
to negative ones; he prefers superior to the inferior values.

 Values are Bipolar It means that values do not exist alone; they exist with their counter values. Values are
either positive or negative. Positive and negative values are independent of each other. It does not mean that a
negative value is negative (destructive) because it lacks a positive element with itself. A bad act like abortion,
murder, etc. is evil in itself and therefore a negative value. Every positive value exists with its corresponding
negative value. Values therefore have pairs : good and bad, beautiful and ugly, just and unjust, health and
sickness, and life and death, etc. A thing, a person, an idea, or a goal is either positive or negative; good or bad.

Classifications of Values
 Intrinsic and Instrumental Values
 Intrinsic Values – are those which are considered values in themselves. It is the value that an entity has in
itself, for what it is, or as an end. Friendship, love, wisdom, and pleasure
 Instrumental Values – are those construed as desired good because of their good to us and to others. It is
the value that something has because it helps us to get or achieve some other thing. Money, vitamins, etc.


Accidental and Natural Values

Accidental Values – value which befits a man with respect to the accidents found in him, characterized by
variability, temporarily and impermanence. Vigorous exercise – beneficial to any man who is fit but detrimental to one who has
heart ailment.
Natural Values – values which befits a man with regard to permanent force found in him or his nature
( permanent in human nature). It befits any man in every place or every time. In other words, natural human
values are essential in life.

Primary and Secondary Values

Primary values – values chosen, acted upon, cherished and are necessary for human development. They help
the human being develop the best of his capacity and, as such, motivate him to move beyond the normal
functioning in society.
Secondary Values – are obligatory values determined by society through long experience and practice which
are consistently necessary for the well-being of its members. These are values held by society which every
member must keep.
Children live by obligatory values set by their parents but as they grow and mature, they develop their own set of values guided by the basic
value structure transmitted by their parents through culture.

Religious Values – they are those that enable us to encounter the Absolute: God. They aim for the Absolute
Good. It refers to the attachment to the right attitudes towards reality as a whole or to the worship of Good, and
communion with God. It means the encounter with the Holy One.

Cultural Values– They are those values that embrace poetry, painting, architecture, music,
literature, society’s model of living, etc.
 Social Values – The perfection assigned to an object or attitude in virtue of a relationship between means and
ends in society. Social values initiate the formation or building of a society. Ex nationalism, patriotism, family ties,
friendship, liberty, initiative, economic productivity, social consciousness

Moral Values (or Ethical Values) – those values that go either morally good or morally evil acts. They refer to
those qualities of an act performed by man freely and knowingly. It involves, therefore, our freedom to choose
and the indispensability of They characterized as basic values, more important than all other values, permanent,
universal, absolute, objective, and freely chosen by us. They are the only grade of values that single out man
towards goodness. Non-moral values do not make us good.; it is the moral values that make us good. We may be
good entertainers, good teachers, good businessmen, etc. and, yet, we may not be good men. A good man is
good because he respects the moral order, not because he values good non-moral values.

Moral Dilemmas

There are occasions when problems are too complicated. When we are faced with overwhelming difficulties in
deciding what to do we are in a state of moral dilemma. Moral dilemma occurs when there is uncertainty or
perplexity in selecting best choice of action between two or more unfavourable options. In other words, we are in
a dilemma when we are forced to choose between two necessary evils. Ordinarily, we all desire some sort of quick
fix when we deal with difficult problems. However, there is no easy way out in complex and confusing problems.
The layman’s rule, when forced to choose between two evils, is to choose the lesser one. However, this is of no
practical use because choosing the lesser evil, by itself, prove to be very confusing. Choices can be both greater
and lesser evils. For instance, if I am forced to save only one, who am I going to save, my father or my mother?
Choosing whom to save would be very difficult and I might even choose not to choose at all.

Essentially, moral dilemma is not only about conflict of choices but about conflict of obligation. To take
another example: between saving your daughter’s life by stealing the store’s goods and respecting others’ rights
to their property at the expense of failing to save your daughter’s life, there exists in you a conflict of obligation
toward your daughter and your neighbour. You have an obligation to save your daughter but you also have an
obligation to respect the rights of your neighbour over his property.

What makes a moral dilemma different from other difficult problems (like solving a mathematics problem) is the
test it gives to the moral character, or to the integrity, of human beings in making decisions. A moral dilemma
complicates a person’s obligation to his family, to his community, to his religion, and to the entire community to
which he belongs. How he deals with his moral dilemma will reveal the kind of person he really is.

Ethics and Moral Dilemmas :We expect Ethics to help us solve our moral problems by providing us with rich
insights when dealing with moral issues. Indeed, Ethics or Moral Philosophy can clarify our beliefs about morality
and it can show how these beliefs can consistently be put into practice. However, we should not expect Ethics to
solve our problems in a blink of an eye. It cannot solve our moral problems with absolute certainty. It can provide
us with a theory or a principle, a method or technique for solving a difficult moral problem. All these theories are
merely tools that we choose from making the right decisions. Our next important task is to choose the theory
which may best help us make the right decisions.

Moral Dilemmas and Moral Theories

A moral theory is an organized system of moral principles that applies in a variety of circumstances to explain
the morality of human actions. Moral principles are generalizations that are accepted as true and that can be
used as bases for reasoning or conduct. It provides criteria for distinguishing good and evil or right and wrong. For
instance, we have the Christian Theory of Morality and with it, the Ten Commandments. When I am forced to
choose between killing a person or not, the theory tells me not to kill because the laws of God command that I
should not kill. A moral theory also reminds us of cases we need to consider and other features we need to ignore
when making decisions. The Christian Theory of Morality advises that we have a sacred duty to live by God’s laws.
Because of its well-substantiated explanation of what makes a particular act good or bad, right or wrong, a moral
theory is a powerful tool for solving moral dilemmas.

Moral Theories and Moral Responsibility

When we act, we are held responsible for actions: when we act rightly, we alone deserve praise; when we act
badly, we alone deserve the blame. Good acts stem from good decisions, and good decisions are usually the fruits
of careful decision-making. If we make poor decisions, we tend to act badly. Since we are held responsible for our
actions and their consequences, we therefore need to make decisions more carefully. Moral theories offer us
valuable help by providing us with clear principles and rules for making enlightened decisions.

Moral Analysis

We usually perform an analysis before arriving at decisions or making solutions to difficult

problems. Analysis refers to the abstract separation of a whole into its constituent parts. Studying the
components of a problem allows us to see the issues in a much better and clearer light. For instance, a graduating
student analyses his problem as whether to pursue engineering or law by identifying and evaluating his interests,
his intellectual capabilities, the financial capabilities of his parents, and so on. In Ethics, we perform a special kind
of analysis when we try to solve moral dilemmas. We call it moral analysis.

Steps in Resolving Moral Dilemmas

If confronted with an ethical dilemma, one can follow a series of steps to come to an ethical resolution. The steps
below are suggestions from Douglas R. May, Professor and Co-Director, International Center for Ethics in
Business, University of Kansas.

 Identify the Facts. Don’t jump to conclusions without the facts.

 Questions to ask: Who, what, where, when, how, and why.
 However, facts may be difficult to find because of the uncertainty often found around ethical issues

 Some facts are not available

 Assemble as many facts as possible before proceeding
 Clarify what assumptions you are making!

 Define the Ethical Issue(s)

 Don’t jump to solutions without first identifying the ethical issue(s) in the situation.
 Define the ethical basis for the issue you want to focus on.
 There may be multiple ethical issues – focus on one major one at a time.
 Identify the Affected Parties
 Identify all of the stakeholders
 Who are the primary or direct stakeholders?
 Who are the secondary or indirect stakeholders?
 Why are they stakeholders for the issue?
 Perspective-taking -- Try to see things through the eyes of those individuals affected

 Identify the Consequences

 Think about potential positive and negative consequences for affected parties by the decision (Focus on
primary stakeholders to simplify analysis until you become comfortable with the process).
 What are the magnitude of the consequences and the probability that the consequences will happen.
 Short term vs. Long term consequences – will decision be valid over time.
 Broader systemic consequences – tied to symbolic and secrecy
 Symbolic consequences – Each decision sends a message.
  Secrecy consequences – What are the consequences if the decision or action becomes public?
 Did you consider relevant cognitive barriers/biases?
 Consider what your decision would be based only on consequences – then move on and see if it is similar
given other considerations.

 Identify the Relevant Principles, Rights, and Justice Issues

 Obligations should be thought of in terms of principles and rights involved

1. A) What obligations are created because of particular ethical principles you might use in the
situation? v Examples: Do no harm; Do unto others as you would have them do unto you; Do what you would
have anyone in your shoes do in the given context.
2. B) What obligations are created because of the specific rights of the stakeholders?

 What rights are more basic vs. secondary in nature? Which help protect an individual’s basic autonomy?
 What types of rights are involved – negative or positive?

1. C) What concepts of justice (fairness) are relevant – distributive or procedural justice?

 Did you consider any relevant cognitive barriers/biases?

 Formulate the appropriate decision or action based solely on the above analysis of these obligations.

 Consider your Character and Integrity

 Consider what your relevant community members would consider to be the kind of decision that an individual
of integrity would make in this situation.
 What specific virtues are relevant in the situation?
 Disclosure rule – what would you do if the New York Times reported your action and everyone was to read it.
 Think about how your decision will be remembered when you are gone.
 Did you consider any relevant cognitive biases/barriers?
 What decision would you come to based solely on character considerations?

 Think Creatively About Potential Action

 Be sure you have not been unnecessarily forced into a corner
 You may have some choices or alternatives that have not been considered
 If you have come up with solutions “a” and “b,” try to brainstorm and come up with a “c” solution that might
satisfy the interests of the primary parties involved in the situation.

 Decide on Your Course of Action and Prepare Responses to Those Who May Oppose Your Position
 Consider potential actions based on the consequences, obligations, and character approaches.
 Do you come up with similar answers from the different perspectives?
 How can you protect the rights of those involved (or your own character) while still maximizing the overall
good for all of the stakeholders?
 What arguments are most compelling to you to justify the action ethically? How will you respond to those with
opposing viewpoints?

ETHICS
This is the science of morality and how to live a good, happy, and fulfilling life.
It is the rational reflection on what is good and what is bad in terms of human behavior

It is the evaluation of moral values, principles and standards of human conduct and its application in daily life to determine
acceptable human behaviour.
 Types of ethics
1. NORMATIVE - Searcg for norms, not in the sense of ethics, what is average, but
in a sense of what is “ought” to be, an authorative standards
2. Descriptive ethics- Empirically based as it aims to discover and describe moral
beliefs of a specific culture.
3. Metaethics- The study of the discipline of ethics itself.
4. Applied ethics- This concern as to how a certain theory of ethics is applicable in real lifesituations.

NORMATIVE VS. DESCRIPTIVE

Normative ethics is the study of ethical action while descriptive analyzes how people ought to act.
Attempts to evaluate or to create moral standards and prescribes how people ought to act.
Analyses people’s moral values, standards and behaviour.

Descriptive ethics is the study od peoples views about moral beliefs. Describes how people behave what types of moral standards
they claim to follow.

MORAL STANDARDS VS. NON- MORAL STANDARDS

Moral standards are those concerned with or relating to human behaviour, especially the distinction of good and bad behaviour.
Moral standards involves the rules people have about the kinds of actions they believe are morally right and wrong. The rules
people have about the kinds of actions they believe are right or wrong as well as the values they put to things which they believe
are right or wrong.

Non-moral- The rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical considerations.

Either these standards are not necessarily linked to morality or by nature lack ethical sense.

It basically about preference and taste.

Examples: etiquette, fashion standards, rules in games, household chores,etc.

6 CHARACTERISTICS OF MORAL

1. STANDARDS- Moral standards involve behaviours that seriously affect other people’s well-being.
Actions that involve a serious effect to people affected by the action
2. Moral standards take more important and consideration than other standards, including selfinterest Moral standards have an

overriding principle (hegemonic authority); meaning, if the standard state that a person has the moral obligation to do
something, then he/she is supposed to do that even if it conflicts to non-moral standards or even self-interest
3. Moral standards are not based on external authority but in how people perceives the reasonableness of the action.
Moral standards are not invented, formed, generated by authoritative figures, instead, these values precedes laws. It cannot be
overridden by laws created by man to men.
4. Moral standards are believed to be universal.
Everyone should live up to these moral standards. Moral standards follows through the concept of consistency, thus, one should

be consistent to one’s values and judgements .

5. Moral standards are based on objectivity.
Moral standards follow through the concept of impartialitythat is, moral standards does not evaluate an act based on the interest
of the people involved. hence, moral standards are free from biases and prejudices
6.Moral standards are associated with vocabulary that depicts emotions and feelings through the concept of prescriptivity which
is the practical and guiding nature of moral standards. This specific feature of morality is used to evaluate behavior, to assign
praise and blame, and to produce feelings of satisfaction or guilt.
Moral standards involve behaviours that seriously affect other people’s well-being. Actions that involve a serious effect to people
affected by the action
MORAL DILEMMA
-These are situations in which an agent stands under two conflicting moral requirements of
this, none of which overrides the other - The most common definition concept is the
phenomenon in which all choices leads to a ‘wrongchoice’or would merit an ethical discourse