Computer Network

A computer network is a group of devices connected with each other through a

transmission medium such as wires, cables etc. These devices can be computers, printers,
scanners, Fax machines etc.

The purpose of having computer network is to send and receive data stored in other devices
over the network. These devices are often referred as nodes.

There are five basic components of a computer network

Message: It is the data or information which needs to be transferred from one device to
another device over a computer network.

Sender: Sender is the device that has the data and needs to send the data to other device
connected to the network.

Receiver: A receiver is the device which is expecting the data from other device on the
network.

Transmission media: In order to transfer data from one device to another device we need
a transmission media such as wires, cables, radio waves etc.

Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that are agreed by both sender and receiver, without
a protocol two devices can be connected to each other but they cannot communicate. In
order to establish a reliable communication or data sharing between two different devices
we need set of rules that are called protocol. For example, http and https are the two
protocols used by web browsers to get and post the data to internet, similarly smtp protocol
is used by email services connected to the internet.
Types of Computer Network: LAN, MAN and WAN
A computer network is a group of computers connected with each other through a
transmission medium such as cable, wire etc. In this guide, we will discuss the types of
computer networks in detail.

Types of Computer Network

There are mainly three types of computer networks based on their size:
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide area network (WAN)

1. Local Area Network (LAN)

1. Local area network is a group of computers connected with each other in a small
places such as school, hospital, apartment etc.
2. LAN is secure because there is no outside connection with the local area network thus
the data which is shared is safe on the local area network and can’t be accessed outside.
3. LAN due to their small size are considerably faster, their speed can range anywhere
from 100 to 100Mbps.
4. LANs are not limited to wire connection, there is a new evolution to the LANs that
allows local area network to work on a wireless connection.

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

MAN network covers larger area by connections LANs to a larger network of computers.
In Metropolitan area network various Local area networks are connected with each other
through telephone lines. The size of the Metropolitan area network is larger than LANs
and smaller than WANs(wide area networks), a MANs covers the larger area of a city or
town.

3. Wide area network (WAN)

Wide area network provides long distance transmission of data. The size of the WAN is
larger than LAN and MAN. A WAN can cover country, continent or even a whole world.
Internet connection is an example of WAN. Other examples of WAN are mobile
broadband connections such as 3G, 4G etc.

Advantages of WAN:
Centralized infrastructure: One of the main advantage of WAN is the that we do not need
to maintain the backup and store data on local system as everything is stored online on a
data centre, from where we can access the data through WAN.

Privacy: We can setup the WAN in such a way that it encrypts the data that we share online
that way the data is secure and minimises the risk of unauthorized access.

Increased Bandwidth: With the WAN we get to choose the bandwidth based on the need,
a large organization can have larger bandwidth that can carry large amount of data faster
and efficiently.

Area: A WAN can cover a large area or even a whole world though internet connection
thus we can connect with the person in another country through WAN which is not possible
is other type of computer networks.

Disadvantages of WAN:

Antivirus: Since our systems are connected with the large amount of systems, there is
possibility that we may unknowingly download the virus that can affect our system and
become threat to our privacy and may lead to data loss.
Expensive: Cost of installation is very high.
Issue resolution: Issue resolution takes time as the WAN covers large area, it is really
difficult to pin point the exact location where the issues raised and causing the problem.

Interconnection of Networks:

We have read LAN, MAN and WAN above, we also talked about internet. You can say
that an internet is a combination of LAN, MAN and WAN.

Data Transmission – Parallel vs Serial

Data transmission

Data transmission refers to the process of transferring data between two or more digital devices.
Data is transmitted from one device to another in analog or digital format. Basically, data
transmission enables devices or components within devices to speak to each other.
Data transmission between digital devices

Data is transferred in the form of bits between two or more digital devices. There are two
methods used to transmit data between digital devices: serial transmission and parallel
transmission. Serial data transmission sends data bits one after another over a single channel.
Parallel data transmission sends multiple data bits at the same time over multiple channels.

Serial transmission

When data is sent or received using serial data transmission, the data bits are organized in a
specific order, since they can only be sent one after another. The order of the data bits is
important as it dictates how the transmission is organized when it is received. It is viewed as a
reliable data transmission method because a data bit is only sent if the previous data bit has
already been received.

Example of Serial Data Transmission

Serial transmission has two classifications: asynchronous and synchronous.

Asynchronous Serial Transmission

Data bits can be sent at any point in time. Stop bits and start bits are used between data bytes to
synchronize the transmitter and receiver and to ensure that the data is transmitted correctly. The
time between sending and receiving data bits is not constant, so gaps are used to provide time
between transmissions.

The advantage of using the asynchronous method is that no synchronization is required between
the transmitter and receiver devices. It is also a more cost effective method. A disadvantage is
that data transmission can be slower, but this is not always the case.

Synchronous Serial Transmission

Data bits are transmitted as a continuous stream in time with a master clock. The data transmitter
and receiver both operate using a synchronized clock frequency; therefore, start bits, stop bits,
and gaps are not used. This means that data moves faster and timing errors are less frequent
because the transmitter and receiver time is synced. However, data accuracy is highly dependent
on timing being synced correctly between devices. In comparison with asynchronous serial
transmission, this method is usually more expensive.
When is serial transmission used to send data?

Serial transmission is normally used for long-distance data transfer. It is also used in cases where
the amount of data being sent is relatively small. It ensures that data integrity is maintained as it
transmits the data bits in a specific order, one after another. In this way, data bits are received in-
sync with one another.

Parallel transmission

When data is sent using parallel data transmission, multiple data bits are transmitted over
multiple channels at the same time. This means that data can be sent much faster than using
serial transmission methods.

Example of Parallel Data Transmission

Given that multiple bits are sent over multiple channels at the same time, the order in which a bit string is
received can depend on various conditions, such as proximity to the data source, user location, and
bandwidth availability. Two examples of parallel interfaces can be seen below. In the first parallel
interface, the data is sent and received in the correct order. In the second parallel interface, the data is sent
in the correct order, but some bits were received faster than others.

Example of Parallel Transmission – Data Received Correctly

 Example of Parallel Transmission – Data Received Incorrectly

Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Parallel Data Transmission

The main advantages of parallel transmission over serial transmission are:

 it is easier to program;
 Data is sent faster.

Although parallel transmission can transfer data faster, it requires more transmission channels
than serial transmission. This means that data bits can be out of sync, depending on transfer
distance and how fast each bit loads. A simple of example of where this can be seen is with a
voice over IP (VOIP) call when distortion or interference is noticeable. It can also be seen when
there is skipping or interference on a video stream.

When is parallel transmission used to send data?

Parallel transmission is used when:

 a large amount of data is being sent;

 the data being sent is time-sensitive;
 and the data needs to be sent quickly.

A scenario where parallel transmission is used to send data is video streaming. When a video is
streamed to a viewer, bits need to be received quickly to prevent a video pausing or buffering.
Video streaming also requires the transmission of large volumes of data. The data being sent is
also time-sensitive as slow data streams result in poor viewer experience.

Comparison between Serial and Parallel Transmission

Basis for Serial Transmission Parallel Transmission

Comparison
Definition Data flows in 2 directions, bit by Data flows in multiple directions, 8
bit bits (1 byte) at a time
 Cost Economical Expensive
Number of bits 1 bit 8 bits or 1 byte
transferred per
clock pulse
Speed Slow Fast
Applications Used for long distance Used for short distance
communication communication
Example Computer to computer Computer to printer

Computer Network Transmission Modes

The data is transmitted from one device to another device through a transmission mode.
The transmission mode decides the direction of data in which the data needs to travel to
reach the receiver system or node. The transmission mode is divided in three categories:

1. Simplex
2. Half-Duplex
3. Full-Duplex

Simplex Mode

In Simplex Transmission Mode, communication can be done in a single direction only i.e. unidirectional.
It consist of a single sender and single/multiple users. For example: Radio, Pager.

Simplex Transmission
1. In simplex mode the data transmits in one direction only, from one system to another
system.
2. The sender device that sends data can only send data and cannot receive it. On the
other hand the receiver device can only receive the data and cannot send it.
3. Television is an example of simplex mode transmission as the broadcast sends signals
to our TV but never receives signals back from our TV. This is a unidirectional
transmission.

Advantages of Simplex Mode:

The full capacity of the transmission medium is utilized as the transmission is one way
and cannot have traffic issues.

Disadvantages of Simplex Mode:

No bidirectional communication is possible. Two devices cannot communicate with each

other using simplex mode of transmission.

Half-Duplex Mode
In Half Duplex Transmission Mode, communication can be done bi-direction-ally but one at a time. For
example: Walkies-talkie, Railway Track.

Half Duplex Transmission

1. In half duplex mode transmission can be done both ways which means if two systems
are connected with half-duplex mode of transmission, they both can send and receive data
but not at the same time.
2. If one device is sending data then other device cannot send data until it receives the data
which is already in transmission. You can say that the communication is not simultaneous.
3. The radio communication device that our soldiers use at the battle fields are the examples
of half duplex mode transmission as they send message and then say over and then the
person on other hand send his message and this way they communicate but not
simultaneously like we used to do on mobile.

Advantages of Half-Duplex mode:

Both devices can send and receive data.
Whole bandwidth can be utilised as at a time only one signal transmits.
Disadvantages of Half-Duplex mode:
The disadvantage in half duplex mode is that the other device cannot send data until it
receives the data which is already in transmission, this can cause delays to the
communication.

Full Duplex Mode

In Full Duplex Transmission Mode, data transmission can be done from both the nodes
simultaneously is known as two way communication mode. For example: Mobile.

Full Duplex Transmission

1. In full duplex mode both the connected devices can send and receive data
simultaneously. The mobile phone we use is an example of full duplex mode where we
can communicate simultaneously.
2. Both the devices can send and receive the data at the same time.

Advantages of Full Duplex mode:

No delays in communication as both can send and receive data simultaneously.

Disadvantages of Full Duplex mode:

No proper bandwidth utilization as the same line is used for sending and receiving data at
the same time.

Definition of Synchronous Transmission

In Synchronous Transmission, data flows in a full-duplex mode in the form of blocks or
frames. Synchronization between the sender and receiver is necessary so that the sender knows
where the new byte starts (since there is no gap between the data). Therefore, each block of
characters is labelled with the synchronization characters and the receiving device acquires the
data until a special ending character is identified.
Synchronous Transmission is efficient, reliable and is used for transferring a large amount of
data. It provides real-time communication between connected devices. Chat Rooms, Video
Conferencing, telephonic conversations, as well as face to face interactions, are some of the
examples of Synchronous Transmission.

The voice-band and broad-band channels are usually used in the synchronous transmission modes
as it provides a faster speed up to 1200 bps and serves the purpose of high data transfer speed.

Definition of Asynchronous Transmission

In Asynchronous Transmission data flows in a half-duplex mode, 1 byte or a character at a time.
It transmits the data in a continuous stream of bytes. In general, the size of a character sent is 8
bits to which a parity bit is added, i.e. a start and a stop bit that gives the total of 10 bits.
It does not require a clock for synchronization; rather it uses the parity bits to tell the receiver how
to interpret the data. These parity bits are known as start and stop bits which control the transfer
of data.

It uses character-based synchronization so that the receiving terminal could synchronize itself with
the receipt of data on a character. It is simple, fast, economical and does not require a 2-way
communication. Letters, emails, forums, televisions and radios are some of the examples of
Asynchronous Transmission.

Difference between Synchronous and Asynchronous Transmission

 BASIS FOR SYNCHRONOUS ASYNCHRONOUS
COMPARISON TRANSMISSION TRANSMISSION
Meaning Transmission starts with the It uses start bit and stop bit
block header which holds a preceding and following a
sequence of bits. character respectively.
Transmission manner Sends data in the form of blocks Sends 1 byte or character at a
or frames time
Synchronization Present with the same clock Absent
pulse.
Transmission Speed Fast Slow
Gap between the data Does not exist Exist
Cost Expensive Economical
Time Interval Constant Random
Implemented by Hardware and software Hardware only
Examples Chat Rooms, Video Letters, emails, forums, etcetera.
Conferencing, Telephonic
Conversations, etcetera.

Types of Transmission Media

Data is represented by computers and other telecommunication devices using signals. Signals are
transmitted in the form of electromagnetic energy from one device to another. Electromagnetic
signals travel through vacuum, air or other transmission mediums to move from one point to
another (from sender to receiver).
In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path between the
transmitter and the receiver i.e it is the channel through which data is sent from one place to
another. Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:
Electromagnetic energy (includes electrical and magnetic fields) consists of power, voice, visible
light, radio waves, ultraviolet light, gamma rays etc.
Transmission medium is the means through which we send our data from one place to another.

Factors to be considered while selecting a Transmission Medium

1. Transmission Rate
2. Cost and Ease of Installation

3. Resistance to Environmental Conditions

4. Distances

1. Guided Media:
It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Guided media, which are those that
provide a conduit from one device to another, include Twisted-Pair Cable, Coaxial Cable,
and Fibre-Optic Cable.
A signal travelling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of the
medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and transport
signals in the form of electric current. Optical fibre is a cable that accepts and transports signals
in the form of light. Signals being transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by
using physical links.
Features:
 High Speed
 Secure
 Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 major types of Guided Media:
(i) Twisted Pair Cable –
This cable is the most commonly used and is cheaper than others. It is lightweight, cheap, can be
installed easily, and they support many different types of network. Some important points:

 Its frequency range is 0 to 3.5 kHz.

 Typical attenuation is 0.2 dB/Km @ 1kHz.

 Typical delay is 50 µs/km.

 Repeater spacing is 2km.

A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic insulation,
twisted together. One of these wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used
only as ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two. In addition to the
signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference (noise) and crosstalk may affect both
wires and create unwanted signals. If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals
is not the same in both wires because they are at different locations relative to the noise or crosstalk
sources. This results in a difference at the receiver.
Twisted Pair is of two types:

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable

This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a physical shield
for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.
It is the most common type of telecommunication when compared with Shielded Twisted Pair
Cable which consists of two conductors usually copper, each with its own colour plastic insulator.
Identification is the reason behind coloured plastic insulation.
UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11 connector and 4
pair cable use RJ-45 connector.

Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable

 Installation is easy

 Flexible

 Cheap

 It has high speed capacity,

 100 meter limit

  Higher grades of UTP are used in LAN technologies like Ethernet.

It consists of two insulating copper wires (1mm thick). The wires are twisted together in a helical
form to reduce electrical interference from similar pair.
Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable

 Bandwidth is low when compared with Coaxial Cable

 Provides less protection from interference.

 Susceptible to external interference

 Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP

 Short distance transmission due to attenuation

Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

This type of cable consists of a special jacket to block external interference. It is used in fast-
data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.
This cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering which encases each pair of insulated
conductors. Electromagnetic noise penetration is prevented by metal casing. Shielding also
eliminates crosstalk (explained in KEY TERMS Chapter).
It has same attenuation as unshielded twisted pair. It is faster the unshielded and coaxial cable. It
is more expensive than coaxial and unshielded twisted pair.

Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

 Easy to install

 Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP

  Comparitively faster

 Performance is adequate

 Can be used for Analog or Digital transmission

 Increases the signalling rate

 Higher capacity than unshielded twisted pair

 Eliminates crosstalk

Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

 Comparitively difficult to install and manufacture

 Heavy

 More expensive

 Bulky

Applications of Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

 In telephone lines to provide voice and data channels. The DSL lines that are used by the

telephone companies to provide high-data-rate connections also use the high-bandwidth

capability of unshielded twisted-pair cables.

 Local Area Network, such as 10Base-T and 100Base-T, also use twisted-pair cables.

(ii) Coaxial Cable

It has an outer plastic covering containing 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated
protection cover. Coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode (dedicated
cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode (cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable
TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.

Coaxial is called by this name because it contains two conductors that are parallel to each other.
Copper is used in this as centre conductor which can be a solid wire or a standard one. It is
surrounded by PVC installation, a sheath which is encased in an outer conductor of metal foil,
barid or both.
Outer metallic wrapping is used as a shield against noise and as the second conductor which
completes the circuit. The outer conductor is also encased in an insulating sheath. The outermost
part is the plastic cover which protects the whole cable.
Here the most common coaxial standards.
  50-Ohm RG-7 or RG-11 : used with thick Ethernet.

 50-Ohm RG-58 : used with thin Ethernet

 75-Ohm RG-59 : used with cable television

 93-Ohm RG-62 : used with ARCNET.

Coaxial Cable Standards

Coaxial cables are categorized by their Radio Government (RG) ratings. Each RG number
denotes a unique set of physical specifications, including the wire gauge of the inner conductor,
the thickness and the type of the inner insulator, the construction of the shield, and the size and
type of the outer casing. Each cable defined by an RG rating is adapted for a specialized
function, as shown in the table below:

Coaxial Cable Connectors

To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors. The most common type of
connector used today is the Bayonet Neill-Concelman (BNC) connector. The below figure shows
3 popular types of these connectors: the BNC Connector, the BNC T connector and the BNC
terminator.
The BNC connector is used to connect the end of the cable to the device, such as a TV set. The
BNC T connector is used in Ethernet networks to branch out to a connection to a computer or other
device. The BNC terminator is used at the end of the cable to prevent the reflection of the signal.
There are two types of Coaxial cables:
1. BaseBand
This is a 50 ohm (Ω) coaxial cable which is used for digital transmission. It is mostly used for
LAN's. Baseband transmits a single signal at a time with very high speed. The major drawback is
that it needs amplification after every 1000 feet.

2. BroadBand
This uses analog transmission on standard cable television cabling. It transmits several
simultaneous signal using different frequencies. It covers large area when compared with
Baseband Coaxial Cable.
Advantages of Coaxial Cable

 Easy to install and expand

 Bandwidth is high

 Used in long distance telephone lines.

 Transmits digital signals at a very high rate of 10Mbps.

 Much higher noise immunity

 Data transmission without distortion.

 The can span to longer distance at higher speeds as they have better shielding when compared to

twisted pair cable

 Inexpensive

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable

 Single cable failure can fail the entire network.

 Difficult to install and expensive when compared with twisted pair.

  If the shield is imperfect, it can lead to grounded loop.

Applications of Coaxial Cable

 Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks, where a single coaxial network

could carry 10,000 voice signals.

 Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables. In the traditional cable TV network, the entire

network used coaxial cable. Cable TV uses RG-59 coaxial cable.

 In traditional Ethernet LANs. Because of it high bandwidth, and consequence high data rate,

coaxial cable was chosen for digital transmission in early Ethernet LANs. The 10Base-2, or Thin

Ethernet, uses RG-58 coaxial cable with BNC connectors to transmit data at 10Mbps with a range

of 185 m.

(iii) Optical Fibre Cable

It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or plastic. The core is
surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It is used for
transmission of large volumes of data.

A fibre-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light. For better
understanding we first need to explore several aspects of the nature of light. Light travels in a
straight line as long as it is mobbing through a single uniform substance. If ray of light travelling
through one substance suddenly enters another substance (of a different density), the ray changes
direction. The below figure shows how a ray of light changes direction when going from a more
dense to a less dense substance.

Bending of a light ray

As the figure shows:
  If the angle of incidence I(the angle the ray makes with the line perpendicular to the interface
between the two substances) is less than the critical angle, the ray refracts and moves closer to
the surface.
 If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the ray reflects (makes a turn) and
travels again in the denser substance.
 If the angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle, the ray refracts and moves parallel to the
surface as shown.

Note: The critical angle is a property of the substance, and its value differs from one substance to
another.
Optical fibres use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic core is
surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic. The difference in density of the two
materials must be such that a beam of light moving through the core is reflected off the cladding
instead of being refracted into it.

Internal view of an Optical fibre

Propagation Modes of Fiber Optic Cable

Current technology supports two modes (Multimode and Single mode) for propagating light
along optical channels, each requiring fibre with different physical characteristics. Multimode can
be implemented in two forms: Step-index and Graded-index.
Multimode Propagation Mode
Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light source move through the core in
different paths. How these beams move within the cable depends on the structure of the core as
shown in the below figure.

 In multimode step-index fibre, the density of the core remains constant from the centre to the

edges. A beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight line until it reaches the

interface of the core and the cladding.

The term step-index refers to the suddenness of this change, which contributes to the distortion of

the signal as it passes through the fibre.

 In multimode graded-index fibre, this distortion gets decreases through the cable. The word

index here refers to the index of refraction. This index of refraction is related to the density. A

graded-index fibre, therefore, is one with varying densities. Density is highest at the centre of the

core and decreases gradually to its lowest at the edge.

Single Mode
Single mode uses step-index fibre and a highly focused source of light that limits beams to a
small range of angles, all close to the horizontal. The single-mode fibre itself is manufactured
with a much smaller diameter than that of multimode fibre, and with substantially lower density.
The decrease in density results in a critical angle that is close enough to 90 degree to make the
propagation of beams almost horizontal.
Fibre Sizes for Fiber Optic Cable
Optical fibres are defined by the ratio of the diameter or their core to the diameter of their
cladding, both expressed in micrometers. The common sizes are shown in the figure below:

Fibre Optic Cable Connectors

There are three types of connectors for fibre-optic cables, as shown in the figure below.

The Subscriber Channel (SC) connector is used for cable TV. It uses push/pull locking system.
The Straight-Tip (ST) connector is used for connecting cable to the networking devices. MT-RJ
is a connector that is the same size as RJ45.
Advantages of Fibre Optic Cable
Fibre optic has several advantages over metallic cable:

 Higher bandwidth

 Less signal attenuation

 Immunity to electromagnetic interference

 Resistance to corrosive materials

 Greater immunity to tapping

  Increased capacity and bandwidth

 Light weight

 Less signal attenuation

Disadvantages of Fibre Optic Cable
There are some disadvantages in the use of optical fibre:
 Installation and maintenance
 unidirectional, ie, will need another fibre, if we need bidirectional communication
 Difficult to install and maintain
 High cost
 Fragile

Performance of Fibre Optic Cable

Attenuation is flatter than in the case of twisted-pair cable and coaxial cable. The performance is
such that we need fewer (actually one tenth as many) repeaters when we use the fibre-optic
cable.
Applications of Fibre Optic Cable
 Often found in backbone networks because its wide bandwidth is cost-effective.
 Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fibre and coaxial cable thus creating
a hybrid network.
 Local-area Networks such as 100Base-FX network and 1000Base-X also use fibre-optic
cable.
2. Unguided Media:
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media.No physical medium is
required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features:
 Signal is broadcasted through air
 Less Secure
 Used for larger distances
There are 3 major types of Unguided Media:
(i) Radiowaves –
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and receiving
antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and cordless
phones use Radiowaves for transmission.
Further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite.
(ii) Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly
aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height
of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile phone
communication and television distribution.

(iii) Infrared
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate through
obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It
is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.

Networking Devices:
 Networking devices hold the key to generate a network through which communication
can occur. These devices are responsible smooth data transmission among different nodes
of same network and/or nodes of different network.
 There are five basic devices which are used for data transmission. These are:

Networking Devices
1. Networking Devices: Bridge

 Bridge is a device which is used for connecting similar or dissimilar Local Area
Networks(LANs).
 It’s concept is based upon store and forward technology.
 By connecting different LANs, it can expand the geographical are of a network.
 A bridge consists of two ports and different LANs can be connected through these ports.
 Brides amplifies the signals and filter the data packets as required.

Networking Devices: Bridge

2. Networking Devices: Router

 A router is a device which is used for connecting similar and dissimilar networks.
 In any network whenever data transmission occurs, it is done through a series of nodes that are
connected from source to destination. The shortest path to transmit the data from source to
destination is called as route and this process is called as routing and this is achieved using
routers.
 Routers are combination of software and hardware. A simple network connected through router is
depicted below.

Networking Devices: Router

If node N3 wants to transmit data to node N11, it will be transmitted through routers with the
shortest path possible.
 Networking Devices: Router

3. Networking Devices: Gateway

 Gateway is another network device which is used for connecting networks with different types of
architectures. For Example: Communication between a mobile device having 4G connection and
landline device having 2G connection can be done using gateway.

4. Networking Devices: HUBs

 A HUB is a multi-port repeater in which, signals received at a port and floods out that signal to all
other ports connected to the devices except the one that originated the signal.

Networking Devices: HUB

5. Networking Devices: Repeater

 In all communication channels, signals get week after they travel some particular amount of
distance. So it is necessary to boost up these week signals, which is done with the help of
repeaters.

Networking Devices : Repeater

6. Networking Devices: Modem

 Modem is a combinatory network device consisting of Modulator and De-modulator. It is a type

of signal converter.
 Modem is responsible for converting analog to digital signals and/or digital to analog signal. This
process is called modulation.
 It allow transmission of analog data signals to digital data signals from landline telephone cables
to computers. The data packets are segmented into smaller packets and are transmitted through
the medium. Modem restructure those smaller data packets before receiver receives it.

Networking Devices: Modem

Performance of the Network

One important issue in networking is the performance of the network. The different factors which
effects performance of the Network are as follows:

1. Bandwidth

One characteristic that measures network performance is bandwidth. However, the term can be
used in two different contexts with two different measuring values: bandwidth in hertz and
bandwidth in bits per second.
a. Bandwidth in Hertz
Bandwidth in hertz is the range of frequencies contained in a composite signal or the range of
frequencies a channel can pass. For example, we can say the bandwidth of a subscriber telephone
line is 4 kHz.
b. Bandwidth in Bits per Seconds

The term bandwidth can also refer to the number of bits per second that a channel, a link, or even
a network can transmit. For example, one can say the bandwidth of a Fast Ethernet network (or
the links in this network) is a maximum of 100 Mbps. This means that this network can send 100
Mbps.
c. Relationship

There is an explicit relationship between the bandwidth in hertz and bandwidth in bits per seconds.
Basically, an increase in bandwidth in hertz means an increase in bandwidth in bits per second.
The relationship depends on whether we have baseband transmission or transmission with
modulation.

2. Throughput
The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a network. Although,
at first glance, bandwidth in bits per second and throughput seem the same, they are different. A
link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can only send T bps through this link with T always
less than B. In other words, the bandwidth is a potential measurement of a link; the throughput is
an actual measurement of how fast we can send data. For example, we may have a link with a
bandwidth of 1 Mbps, but the devices connected to the end of the link may handle only 200 kbps.
This means that we cannot send more than 200 kbps through this link.

3. Latency (Delay)
The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire message to completely arrive at the
destination from the time the first bit is sent out from the source. We can say that latency is made
of four components: propagation time, transmission time, queuing time and processing delay.
Latency =propagation time +transmission time +queuing time + processing delay

4. Propagation Time
Propagation time measures the time required for a bit to travel from the source to the destination.
The propagation time is calculated by dividing the distance by the propagation speed.

Propagation time = Distance /Propagation speed

The propagation speed of electromagnetic signals depends on the medium and on the frequency of
the signal. For example, in a vacuum, light is propagated with a speed of 3x108mfs. It is lower in
air; it is much lower in cable.

5. Transmission time
In data communications we don't send just 1 bit, we send a message. The first bit may take a time
equal to the propagation time to reach its destination; the last bit also may take the same amount
of time. However, there is a time between the first bit leaving the sender and the last bit arriving
at the receiver. The first bit leaves earlier and arrives earlier; the last bit leaves later and arrives
later. The time required for transmission of a message depends on the size of the message and the
bandwidth of the channel.
Transmission time =Message size / Bandwidth

6. Queuing Time
The third component in latency is the queuing time, the time needed for each intermediate or end
device to hold the message before it can be processed. The queuing time is not a fixed factor; it
changes with the load imposed on the network. When there is heavy traffic on the network, the
queuing time increases. An intermediate device, such as a router, queues the arrived messages and
processes them one by one. If there are many messages, each message will have to wait.

7. Jitter
Another performance issue that is related to delay is jitter. Jitter is a problem if different packets
of data encounter different delays and the application using the data at the receiver site is time-
sensitive (audio and video data, for example). If the delay for the first packet is 20 ms, for the
second is 45 ms, and for the third is 40 ms, then the real-time application that uses the packets
endures jitter.

The Open System Interconnection (OSI)

The Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model describes how information from a software
application in one computer moves through a network medium to a software application in another
computer. The OSI reference model is a conceptual model composed of seven layers, each specifying
particular network functions. The model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered the primary architectural model for inter-
computer communications. The OSI model divides the tasks involved with moving information
between networked computers into seven smaller, more manageable task groups. A task or group of
tasks is then assigned to each of the seven OSI layers. Each layer is reasonably self-contained so that
the tasks assigned to each layer can be implemented independently. This enables the solutions offered
by one layer to be updated without adversely affecting the other layers.

The OSI Reference Model includes seven layers:

7. Application Layer: Provides Applications with access to network services.

Examples WWW browsers, NFS, SNMP, Telnet, HTTP, FTP

6. Presentation Layer: Determines the format used to exchange data among networked
computers
Examples encryption, ASCII, EBCDIC, TIFF, GIF, PICT, JPEG, MPEG, MIDI.

5. Session Layer: Allows two applications to establish, use and disconnect a connection between
them called a session. Provides for name recognition and additional functions like security, which
are needed to allow applications to communicate over the network.

Examples NFS, NetBios names, RPC, SQL.

4. Transport Layer: Ensures that data is delivered error free, in sequence and with no loss,
duplications or corruption. This layer also repackages data by assembling long messages into lots
of smaller messages for sending, and repackaging the smaller messages into the original larger
message at the receiving end.

Examples SPX, TCP, UDP.

3. Network Layer: This is responsible for addressing messages and data so they are sent to the
correct destination, and for translating logical addresses and names (like a machine name
FLAME) into physical addresses. This layer is also responsible for finding a path through the
network to the destination computer.
Examples AppleTalk DDP, IP, IPX.

2. Data-Link Layer: This layer takes the data frames or messages from the Network Layer and
provides for their actual transmission. At the receiving computer, this layer receives the incoming
data and sends it to the network layer for handling. The Data-Link Layer also provides error-free
delivery of data between the two computers by using the physical layer. It does this by packaging
the data from the Network Layer into a frame, which includes error detection information. At the
receiving computer, the Data-Link Layer reads the incoming frame, and generates its own error
detection information based on the received frames data. After receiving the entire frame, it then
compares its error detection value with that of the incoming frames, and if they match, the frame
has been received correctly.

Examples PPP, FDDI, ATM, IEEE 802.5/ 802.2, IEEE 802.3/802.2, HDLC, Frame Relay.

1. Physical Layer: Controls the transmission of the actual data onto the network cable. It defines
the electrical signals, line states and encoding of the data and the connector types used. An example
is 10BaseT.

Examples Ethernet, FDDI, B8ZS, V.35, V.24, RJ45.

Characteristics of the OSI Layers

The seven layers of the OSI reference model can be divided into two categories: upper layers and lower
layers

The upper layers of the OSI model deal with application issues and generally are implemented only in
software. The highest layer, the application layer, is closest to the end user. Both users and application
layer processes interact with software applications that contain a communications component. The
term upper layer is sometimes used to refer to any layer above another layer in the OSI model.

The lower layers of the OSI model handle data transport issues. The physical layer and the data link
layer are implemented in hardware and software. The lowest layer, the physical layer, is closest to the
physical network medium (the network cabling, for example) and is responsible for actually placing
information on the medium.
 Two sets of layers make up the OSI layers
PROTOCOL
Protocol is a formal set of rules and conventions that governs how computers exchange
information over a network medium. A protocol implements the functions of one or more of the
OSI layers

Functions of the OSI Layers

Physical Layer
The physical layer is concerned with transmission of raw bits over a communication channel. It
specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications and the physical
transmission of bit streams over a transmission medium connecting two pieces of communication
equipment. In simple terms, the physical layer decides the following:
 Number of pins and functions of each pin of the network connector (Mechanical)
 Signal Level, Data rate (Electrical)
 Whether simultaneous transmission in both directions
 Establishing and breaking of connection
 Deals with physical transmission

There exist a variety of physical layer protocols such as RS-232C, Rs-449 standards developed by
Electronics Industries Association (EIA).

Data Link Layer

The goal of the data link layer is to provide reliable, efficient communication between adjacent
machines connected by a single communication channel. Specifically:
1. Group the physical layer bit stream into units called frames. Note that frames are nothing more than
``packets'' or ``messages''. By convention, we shall use the term ``frames'' when discussing DLL
packets.
2. Sender calculates the checksum and sends checksum together with data. The checksum allows the
receiver to determine when a frame has been damaged in transit or received correctly.
3. Receiver recomputes the checksum and compares it with the received value. If they differ, an error
has occurred and the frame is discarded.
4. Error control protocol returns a positive or negative acknowledgment to the sender. A positive
acknowledgment indicates the frame was received without errors, while a negative acknowledgment
indicates the opposite.
5. Flow control prevents a fast sender from overwhelming a slower receiver. For example, a
supercomputer can easily generate data faster than a PC can consume it.
6. In general, data link layer provides service to the network layer. The network layer wants to be
able to send packets to its neighbors without worrying about the details of getting it there in one
piece.
Below are the some of the important design issues of the data link layer:
a). Reliable Delivery:
Frames are delivered to the receiver reliably and in the same order as generated by the sender.
Connection state keeps track of sending order and which frames require retransmission. For example,
receiver state includes which frames have been received, which ones have not, etc.
b). Best Effort: The receiver does not return acknowledgments to the sender, so the sender has no
way of knowing if a frame has been successfully delivered.
When would such a service be appropriate?
1. When higher layers can recover from errors with little loss in performance. That is, when errors are
so infrequent that there is little to be gained by the data link layer performing the recovery. It is just as
easy to have higher layers deal with occasional loss of packet.
2. For real-time applications requiring ``better never than late'' semantics. Old data may be worse than
no data.
c). Acknowledged Delivery
The receiver returns an acknowledgment frame to the sender indicating that a data frame was
properly received. This sits somewhere between the other two in that the sender keeps connection
state

d). Framing
The DLL translates the physical layer's raw bit stream into discrete units (messages) called frames.
How can the receiver detect frame boundaries? Various techniques are used for this: Length Count, Bit
Stuffing, and Character stuffing.
e). Error Control
Error control is concerned with insuring that all frames are eventually delivered (possibly in order) to
a destination. To achieve this, three items are required: Acknowledgements, Timers, and Sequence
Numbers.
f). Flow Control
Flow control deals with throttling the speed of the sender to match that of the receiver. Usually, this is
a dynamic process, as the receiving speed depends on such changing factors as the load, and availability
of buffer space.
Error Detection and Correction
In data communication, error may occur because of various reasons including attenuation, noise.
Moreover, error usually occurs as bursts rather than independent, single bit errors. For example, a burst
of lightning will affect a set of bits for a short time after the lightning strike. Detecting and correcting
errors requires redundancy (i.e., sending additional information along with the data).
There are two types of attacks against errors:
Error Detecting Codes: Include enough redundancy bits to detect errors and use ACKs and
retransmissions to recover from the errors. Example: parity encoding.
Error Correcting Codes: Include enough redundancy to detect and correct errors. Examples: CRC
checksum, MD5.

Network Layer
The basic purpose of the network layer is to provide an end-to-end communication capability in
contrast to machine-to-machine communication provided by the data link layer. This end-to-end is
performed using two basic approaches known as connection-oriented or connectionless network-layer
services.
Four issues:
1. Interface between the host and the network (the network layer is typically the boundary between the
host and subnet)
2. Routing
3. Congestion and deadlock
4. Internetworking (A path may traverse different network technologies (e.g., Ethernet, point-to-point
links, etc.)
The network layer is responsible for routing packets from the source to destination. The routing
algorithm is the piece of software that decides where a packet goes next (e.g., which output line, or
which node on a broadcast channel).
For connectionless networks, the routing decision is made for each datagram. For connection-
oriented networks, the decision is made once, at circuit setup time.
Routing Issues:
The routing algorithm must deal with the following issues:
Correctness and simplicity: networks are never taken down; individual parts (e.g., links, routers) may
fail, but the whole network should not.
Stability: if a link or router fails, how much time elapses before the remaining routers recognize the
topology change? (Some never do.)
Fairness and optimality: an inherently intractable problem. Definition of optimality usually doesn't
consider fairness. Do we want to maximize channel usage? Minimize average delay?
When we look at routing in detail, we'll consider both adaptive--those that take current traffic and
topology into consideration--and non-adaptive algorithms.
Congestion The network layer also must deal with congestion:
When more packets enter an area than can be processed, delays increase and performance decreases.
If the situation continues, the subnet may have no alternative but to discard packets.
If the delay increases, the sender may (incorrectly) retransmit, making a bad situation even worse.
Overall, performance degrades because the network is using (wasting) resources processing packets
that eventually get discarded.
Internetworking Finally, when we consider internetworking -- connecting different network
technologies together -- one finds the same problems, only worse:
Packets may travel through many different networks
Each network may have a different frame format
Some networks may be connectionless, other connection oriented.

Transport Layer
The transport level provides end-to-end communication between processes executing on different
machines. Although the services provided by a transport protocol are similar to those provided by a
data link layer protocol, there are several important differences between the transport and lower
layers:

1. User Oriented. Application programmers interact directly with the transport layer, and from
the programmers perspective, the transport layer is the ``network''. Thus, the transport layer should
be oriented more towards user services than simply reflect what the underlying layers happen to
provide. (Similar to the beautification principle in operating systems.)

2. Negotiation of Quality and Type of Services. The user and transport protocol may need to
negotiate as to the quality or type of service to be provided. Examples? A user may want to
negotiate such options as: throughput, delay, protection, priority, reliability, etc.
3. Guarantee Service. The transport layer may have to overcome service deficiencies of the
lower layers (e.g. providing reliable service over an unreliable network layer).
4. Addressing becomes a significant issue. That is, now the user must deal with it; before it was
buried in lower levels.
Two solutions:
Use well-known addresses that rarely if ever change, allowing programs to ``wire in''
addresses. For what types of service does this work? While this works for services that
are well established (e.g., mail, or telnet), it doesn't allow a user to easily experiment with
new services.

Use a name server. Servers register services with the name server, which clients contact
to find the transport address of a given service.
5. Storage capacity of the subnet. Assumptions valid at the data link layer do not necessarily
hold at the transport Layer. Specifically, the subnet may buffer messages for a potentially long
time, and an ``old'' packet may arrive at a destination at unexpected times.
6. We need a dynamic flow control mechanism. The data link layer solution of reallocating
buffers is inappropriate because a machine may have hundreds of connections sharing a single
physical link. In addition, appropriate settings for the flow control parameters depend on the
communicating end points (e.g., Cray supercomputers vs. PCs), not on the protocol used.
7. Deal with congestion control. In connectionless Internets, transport protocols must exercise
congestion control. When the network becomes congested, they must reduce rate at which they
insert packets into the subnet, because the subnet has no way to prevent itself from becoming
overloaded.
8. Connection establishment. Transport level protocols go through three phases: establishing,
using, and terminating a connection. For data gram-oriented protocols, opening a connection
simply allocates and initializes data structures in the operating system kernel

Session Layer

This layer allows users on different machines to establish session between them. A session allows
ordinary data transport but it also provides enhanced services useful in some applications. A session
may be used to allow a user to log into a remote time- sharing machine or to transfer a file between
two machines. Some of the session related services are:

1. This layer manages Dialogue Control. Session can allow traffic to go in both direction at the same
time, or in only one direction at one time.
2. Token management. For some protocols, it is required that both sides don't attempt same operation
at the same time. To manage these activities, the session layer provides tokens that can be exchanged.
Only one side that is holding token can perform the critical operation. This concept can be seen as
entering into a critical section in operating system using semaphores.
3. Synchronization. Consider the problem that might occur when trying to transfer a 4-hour file transfer
with a 2-hour mean time between crashes. After each transfer was aborted, the whole transfer has to
start again and again would probably fail. To eliminate this problem, Session layer provides a way to
insert checkpoints into data streams, so that after a crash, only the data transferred after the last
checkpoint have to be repeated.

Presentation Layer
This layer is concerned with Syntax and Semantics of the information transmitted, unlike other layers,
which are interested in moving data reliably from one machine to other. Few of the services that
Presentation layer provides are:

1. Encoding data in a standard agreed upon way.

2. It manages the abstract data structures and converts from representation used inside computer to
network standard representation and back.
Application Layer
The application layer consists of what most users think of as programs. The application does the actual
work at hand. Although each application is different, some applications are so useful that they have
become standardized. The Internet has defined standards for:

File transfer (FTP): Connect to a remote machine and send or fetch an arbitrary file. FTP deals with
authentication, listing a directory contents, ASCII or binary files, etc.
Remote login (telnet): A remote terminal protocol that allows a user at one site to establish a TCP
connection to another site, and then pass keystrokes from the local host to the remote host.
Mail (SMTP): Allow a mail delivery agent on a local machine to connect to a mail delivery agent on
a remote machine and deliver mail.
News (NNTP): Allows communication between a news server and a news client.
Web (HTTP): Base protocol for communication on the World Wide Web.

The TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. It is the network model used
in the current Internet architecture as well. Protocols are set of rules which govern every possible
communication over a network. These protocols describe the movement of data between the source
and destination or the internet. They also offer simple naming and addressing schemes.

Protocols and networks in the TCP/IP model:

 Overview of TCP/IP reference model
TCP/IP that is Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol was developed by Department
of Defence's Project Research Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) as a part of a research project of
network interconnection to connect remote machines.
The features that stood out during the research, which led to making the TCP/IP reference model
were:
 Support for a flexible architecture. Adding more machines to a network was easy.

 The network was robust, and connections remained intact untill the source and destination

machines were functioning.

The overall idea was to allow one application on one computer to talk to(send data packets)
another application running on different computer.

Different Layers of TCP/IP Reference Model

Below we have discussed the 4 layers that form the TCP/IP reference model:

Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer

1. Lowest layer of the all.

2. Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent over it.

3. Varies from host to host and network to network.

Layer 2: Internet layer

1. Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a connectionless internetwork layer is

called a internet layer.

2. It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.

3. It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.

4. Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are sent.

5. IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.

6. The various functions performed by the Internet Layer are:

o Delivering IP packets

o Performing routing

o Avoiding congestion
Layer 3: Transport Layer

1. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.

2. Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data is done by transport layer.

3. The applications can read and write to the transport layer.

4. Transport layer adds header information to the data.

5. Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more

efficiently by the network layer.

6. Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in sequence.

Layer 4: Application Layer

The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were at the top of the protocol stack.
Some of them were TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.

1. TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows connecting to a remote machine

and run applications on it.

2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol,that allows File transfer amongst computer users

connected over a network. It is reliable, simple and efficient.

3. SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to transport electronic mail

between a source and destination, directed via a route.

4. DNS (Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual address for Hosts connected

over a network.

5. It allows peer entities to carry conversation.

6. It defines two end-to-end protocols: TCP and UDP

o TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): It is a reliable connection-oriented protocol

which handles byte-stream from source to destination without error and flow control.

o UDP (User-Datagram Protocol): It is an unreliable connection-less protocol that do not

want TCPs, sequencing and flow control. Eg: One-shot request-reply kind of service.

Merits of TCP/IP model

1. It operated independently.
 2. It is scalable.

3. Client/server architecture.

4. Supports a number of routing protocols.

5. Can be used to establish a connection between two computers.

Demerits of TCP/IP

1. In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.

2. The model cannot be used in any other application.

3. Replacing protocol is not easy.

4. It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and protocols.

Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP Reference Model

Now it's time to compare both the reference model that we have learned till now. Let's start by
addressing the similarities that both of these models have.
Following are some similarities between OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP Reference Model.
 Both have layered architecture.
 Layers provide similar functionalities.
 Both are protocol stack.
 Both are reference models.

Difference between OSI and TCP/IP Reference Model

Following are some major differences between OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP Reference
Model, with diagrammatic comparison below.
OSI(Open System Interconnection)
1. OSI is a generic, protocol independent
standard, acting as a communication
gateway between the network and end
user.
2. In OSI model the transport layer
guarantees the delivery of packets.
3. Follows vertical approach.
TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol /
Internet Protocol)
1. TCP/IP model is based on standard protocols
around which the Internet has developed. It is a
communication protocol, which allows connection
of hosts over a network.
2. In TCP/IP model the transport layer does not
guarantees delivery of packets. Still the TCP/IP
model is more reliable.
3. Follows horizontal approach.
4. OSI model has a separate Presentation
layer and Session layer.
5. Transport Layer is Connection
Oriented.
6. Network Layer is both Connection
Oriented and Connection less.
7. OSI is a reference model around
which the networks are built. Generally
it is used as a guidance tool.
8. Network layer of OSI model provides
both connection oriented and
connectionless service.
9. OSI model has a problem of fitting the
protocols into the model.
10. Protocols are hidden in OSI model
and are easily replaced as the technology
changes.
11. OSI model defines services,
interfaces and protocols very clearly and
makes clear distinction between them. It
is protocol independent.
12. It has 7 layers
Diagrammatic Comparison between OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP Reference Model
4. TCP/IP does not have a separate Presentation
layer or Session layer.
5. Transport Layer is both Connection Oriented and
Connection less.
6. Network Layer is Connection less.
7. TCP/IP model is, in a way implementation of the
OSI model.
8. The Network layer in TCP/IP model provides
connectionless service.
9. TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
10. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
11. In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and protocols are
not clearly separated. It is also protocol dependent.
12. It has 4 layers