UNIT-II

2.1 Water treatment

2.1.1 Introduction of water

Water is one of the natural resources, which are found in an adequate amount. It is
an essential source for the existence of life on the planet earth. It is widely used for
various purposes such as drinking, washing, bathing, cleaning, cooking, irrigation, and
other industrial and domestic uses.

Sources of Water

There are various sources of water. About 97% of the water on the Earth’s surface is
covered with water. The three main sources of water are:

 Rainwater.

 Groundwater – This includes water bodies like Wells and Springs.

 Surface water – This includes different water bodies like Reservoirs, Rivers,
Streams, Ponds, Lakes and Tanks.

 Water never stops moving. The

water cycle

mainly describes the process of the continuous movement of water from the
surface of the earth and it is usually carried out in four different stages. The
entire cycle is controlled by the sun and is also known as the hydrological cycle

 Evaporation: In this stage, the heat from the sun heats up the water from oceans
and other water bodies and evaporates the water in the form of vapours which
rises up and form clouds.
 Condensation: The water vapour’s in the clouds cools down.
  Precipitation: The cooled water vapours in the clouds form droplets and
released in the form of Precipitation back to the earth surface in the form of rain
or snow.
 Collection: The rainwater runs off to the ground and gets collected into the river,
ponds, well, and back to the sea.
 As mentioned above, about 97% of the water on the Earth’s surface is covered
with water. Only 2 to 3% is available and safe for drinking. Rest of the water is
saltwater and other two-thirds of the Earth’s freshwater is frozen in glaciers and
these water resources are mostly inaccessible for human use.

A.) Hardness of water or Carbonate hardness

Hard water has high mineral content. It is formed when water percolates through the
deposits of chalk and limestone, which are made up of magnesium and calcium
carbonates. It does not lather with soap, so it is not suitable for laundry purposes.

The hardness of water is harmful to the boilers as the deposition of salts occurs, which
reduces the efficiency of the boiler. Hard water is safe to drink, but using it over a long
interval of time can lead to many problems like:

 Strains in skin
 Water appliances work harder, resulting in higher water bills
 Spots appear on clothes and linens

Water can be classified as hard water and soft water.

 Soft water: It lathers with soap. Water which is obtained from the rains is soft
water. This water is suitable for household purposes, for example, laundry and
cleaning.

 Hard water: It is known as hard water because of the presence of calcium and
magnesium salts. Hard water does not lather with soap but instead forms a
precipitate.

B.) Types of Hardness of Water

Hardness of water can be classified into two types:

 Temporary Hardness

 Permanent Hardness

Temporary Hardness of Water

The presence of magnesium and calcium carbonates in water makes it temporarily

hard. In this case, the hardness in water can be removed by boiling the water.

When we boil water, the soluble salts of Mg(HCO 3)2 are converted to Mg(OH)2, which is
insoluble, and hence gets precipitated and is removed. After filtration, the water we get
is soft water.

Permanent Hardness of Water

When the soluble salts of magnesium and calcium are present in the form of chlorides
and sulphides in water, we call it permanent hardness because this hardness cannot be
removed by boiling.

We can remove this hardness by treating the water with washing soda. Insoluble
carbonates are formed when washing soda reacts with the sulphide and chloride salts of
magnesium and calcium, and thus, hard water is converted to soft water.

Disadvantages of Hardness

 Wastage of soap

 Wastage of fuel

Formation of scales on metallic boilers.

a.) Ion Exchange Resin Method:

In this method, the permanent hardness of water is removed by using resins. Ca ++/Mg+
+
ions are exchanged with Cl–, and SO4-2 ions are exchanged with anion exchange resin
(RNH2OH). Demineralised water is formed in this process

2RCOOH + Ca++ → (RCOO)2Ca + 2H+

⇒ RNH2OH + Cl– → RNH2Cl + OH–

⇒ H+ + OH– → H2O

Permanent Hardness of Water

Gan’s Permutit Method:

In this method, sodium aluminium ortho silicate, known as permutit or zeolite, is used
to remove the permanent hardness of the water.

Reaction: Na2 Al2 Si2 O8.KH2O + Ca++→ 2Na+ + Ca Al2 Si2 O8.xH2O

Calgon’s Process:

In this method, sodium-hexa-meta-phosphate (NaPO3)6, known as Calgon, is used. The

hardness in water is removed by the adsorption of Ca++ and Mg++ ions.

Disadvantages of hardness

Hard water has several advantages to the human body, like strengthening bones and
teeth, reducing constipation, and improving gut health. But hard water being a problem
is a long list to explain.

1.Soap scum

When two substances react, their atoms and molecules react with each other and
form a product. When hard water and soap react, magnesium or calcium ions in hard
water react with soap molecules and form a precipitate. Precipitation is a type of
chemical reaction where the product is solid. Here, soap scum is the precipitate, which
is insoluble. It may look more like soap molecules, but it doesn’t lather.
2.Stains

Hard water leaves stains everywhere. Due to dissolved minerals, cloudy stains will be
present in tubs, dishes, and pipes. Over time, because of continuous deposition, these
stains become hard to remove.

3.Dry skin and hair

We have sebaceous glands and sweat to keep our skin hydrated and not flaky. When
we use hard water, magnesium and calcium ions clog our pores. It leads to flaky,
irritable dry skin and hair.

4.Faded and brittle laundry

As we mentioned earlier, soap and detergents react with hard water forming soap scum
and less lather. Because of this, hard water does not clean laundry properly and also
leaves behind scum in clothes, which becomes hard on drying. As a result, clothes
appear faded and brittle.

2.1.2 Estimation of EDTA

ESTIMATION OF HARDNESS

The estimation of hardness of water is of great importance for the chemical industry
in general. There are various methods available for estimating the hardness of water.
Some of them are

1.Soap titration method

2. Alkali titration method

3. DTA method

Here, let us discuss the determination of hardness of water is Ethylene Di-amine Tetra
Acetic acid. The structure of EDTA

Principle
 The amount of hardness causing ions (Ca2+ and Mg2+) can be estimated by titrating
the water sample against EDTA using Eriochrome-Black-T indicator (EBT) at a pH of 8-
10. In order tomaintain the pH, buffer solution (NH4Cl − NH4OH mixture) is added.
Only at this pH such a complexation is possible. When the EBT indicator is added to the
water sample, it forms wine red coloured weak complex with Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions.

[Ca2+ Mg2+] + EBT [Ca Mg EBT] complex

When this solution is titrated against EDTA, it replaces the indicator from the weak
complex form stable EDTA complex. When all the hardness causing ions are complexed
by EDTA,the indicator is set free. The color of the free indicator is steel blue. Thus the
end point is the changeof color from wine red to steel blue. Ca Mg EBT] complex +
EDTA [Ca Mg EDTA]+ EBT Wine red colored weak complex Stable complex Steel blue

Preparation of solutions EDTA Solution

It is prepared by dissolving 4 gms of EDTA in 1000 ml of distilled water.

Standard hard water

1 gm of pure CaCO3 is dissolved in minimum quantity of HCl and then made up to

1000 ml using distilled water. ∴ 1 ml of standard hard water ≡ 1 mg of CaCO3
equivalent hardness

. EBT indicator

0.5 gms of EBT is dissolved in 100 ml of alcohol.

Buffer solution

67.5 gms of NH4Cl and 570 ml of NH3 are dissolved and the solution is made up to
1000 mlusing distilled water.

Experimental procedure Standardization of EDTA

Pipette out 50 ml of standard hard water into a clean conical flask. Add 10 ml of buffer
solution and 4-5 drops of EBT indicator and titrate it against EDTA solution taken in the
burette. The end point is the change of colour from wine red to steeblue Let the volume
of EDTA consumed be V1 ml

Estimation of total hardness of water

sample Pipette out 50 ml of the given hard water sample into a clean conical flask and
titrate it against EDTA as before. Let the volume of EDTA consumed be V2 ml

Estimation of permanent hardness of water sample

Take 100 ml of the same hard water sample in a 250 ml beaker. Boil it for 15 minutes.
During boiling temporary hardness gets removed. Cool and filter the solution and make
up to 100 ml in a standard flask by adding distilled water

. Pipette out 50 ml of the made up solution into a clean conical flask and titrate it against
EDTA as before.

Let the volume of EDTA consumed be V3 ml.

Calculations Standardization of EDTA 1 ml of Std.

hard water = 1 mg of CaCO3 50 ml of Std.

hard water = 50 mgs of CaCO3 50 ml of Std.

hard water consumes = V1 ml of EDTA

V1 ml of EDTA ≡ 50 mgs of CaCO3 equivalent hardness (or)

1 ml of EDTA ≡ 50 V1 mgs of CaCO3 equivalent hardness

Estimation of EDTA of structure

2.1.3 Water softening methods

Water softening is the removal of calcium, magnesium, and certain other

metal cations in hard water. The resulting soft water requires less soap for the same
cleaning effort, as soap is not wasted bonding with calcium ions.

Soft water also extends the lifetime of plumbing by reducing or eliminating scale build-
up in pipes and fittings. Water softening is usually achieved using lime
softening or ion-exchange resins but is increasingly being accomplished
using nanofiltration] or reverse osmosis membranes.

The most common means for removing water hardness rely on ion-exchange
resin or reverse osmosis. Other approaches include precipitation methods and
sequestration by the addition of chelating agents. Distillation and reverse osmosis are
the most widely used two non-chemical methods of water softening.

Ion-exchange resin method

Conventional water-softening appliances intended for household use depend on an ion-

exchange resin in which "hardness ions"—mainly Ca2+ and Mg2+—are exchanged
for sodium ions.[6] As described by NSF/ANSI Standard 44,[7] ion-exchange devices
reduce the hardness by replacing magnesium and calcium (Mg 2+ and Ca2+) with sodium
or potassium ions (Na+ and K+)."
Ion-exchange resins are organic polymers containing anionic functional groups to
which the divalent cations (Ca2+) bind more strongly than monovalent cations (Na+).
Inorganic materials called zeolites also exhibit ion-exchange properties. These minerals
are widely used in laundry detergents. Resins are also available to remove the
carbonate, bicarbonate, and sulfate ions that are absorbed and hydroxide ions that are
released from the resin. [8]

When all the available Na+ ions have been replaced with calcium or magnesium ions,
the resin must be recharged by eluting the Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions using a solution
of sodium chloride or sodium hydroxide, depending on the type of resin used.[9] For
anionic resins, regeneration typically uses a solution of sodium hydroxide (lye) or
potassium hydroxide. The waste waters eluted from the ion-exchange column
containing the unwanted calcium and magnesium salts are typically discharged to
the sewage system.

Recharge typically takes the following steps:

Backwash: Water is directed through the resin in the direction opposite to that of
normal flow, and the output is sent to a drain for disposal. This ten-minute process
flushes out solids, and expands the resin bed.

Brine draw: Water is directed through a jet pump, which pulls salt water from
the brine tank, before the water and brine pass through the resin bed in the normal
direction, if co-current, or in the reverse direction, if counter-current.[11] The output of
this typically thirty-minute process is discarded through the drain hose.

Rinse: Brine draw stops, but water continues to flow from the inlet to the outlet,
gradually flushing the brine out of the resin bed. The flushing water flows slowly
for several minutes, then at a faster rate for as long as an hour. At some point, the
brine reservoir is refilled with fresh water.
a.)Lime softening
 Lime softening is the process in which lime is added to hard water to make it softer.
It has several advantagesover the ion-exchange method but is mainly suited to
commercial treatment applications.

b.)Chelating agents

Chelators are used in chemical analysis, as water softeners, and are ingredients in
many commercial products such as shampoos and food preservatives. Citric acid is
used to soften water in soaps, personal care products and laundry detergents. A
commonly used synthetic chelator is ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), which
may exist as a tetrasodium or disodium salt. Due to environmental and aquatic
toxicity concerns regarding widespread use of EDTA in household and personal care
products, alternatives such as sodium phytate/phytic acid, tetrasodium glutamate
diacetate and trisodium ethylenediamine disuccinate are finding more prevalent usage.

Washing soda method[edit]

In this method, water is treated with a calculated amount of washing soda (Na2CO3),
which converts the chlorides and sulphates of calcium and magnesium into their
respective carbonates, which get precipitated.

a.) Distillation and rain water

Since Ca2+ and Mg2+ exist as nonvolatile salts, they can be removed by distilling the
water. Distillation is too expensive in most cases. Rainwater is soft because it is
naturally distilled during the water cycle of evaporation, condensation and
precipitation.

Reverse osmosis

Reverse osmosis uses an applied pressure gradient across a semipermeable

membrane to overcome osmotic pressure and remove water molecules from the
solution with hardness ions. The membrane has pores large enough to admit water
molecules for passage; hardness ions such as Ca2+ and Mg2+ will not fit through the
pores. The resulting soft water supply is free of hardness ions without any other ions
being added. Membranes are a type of water filter requiring regular cleaning or
replacement maintenance.

1.) Lime soda process

Lime soda process is one of the water softener systems. In this system calcium
hydroxide and soda ash are used as reagents. By this process soluble magnesium and
calcium salts are removed as calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide
precipitated. After removal of this precipitated, we obtain soft water. Both temporary
water hardness and permanent water hardness are removed by this lime softening
water softener systems. Before water treatment calculate the amount of temporary and
permanent water hardness, and then estimate the amount of lime and soda ash and
added control with careful. In case of temporary water hardness the following reactions
are take places:

Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 → 2CaCO3 + 2H2O

Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 → 2CaCO3 + MgCO3 + 2H2O

MgCO3 + Ca(OH)2 → Mg(OH)2 + CaCO3

In case of permanent water hardness the following reactions are take

places:

CaSO4 + Na2CO3→ CaCO3 + Na2SO4

MgSO4 + Na2CO3→ MgCO3 + Na2SO4

MgCO3 + Ca(OH)2 → Mg(OH)2 + CaCO3

There are two type lime-soda process; cold lime soda process and hot
lime soda process.

Zeolite Softening Process

 Zeolite Softening Process is the process of removing permanent as well as
temporary hardness of the water. Zeolite Softening occurs when magnesium (Mg) and
calcium (Ca) zeolites (insoluble) in water get precipitated. In this zeolite softening
process, zeolite works as a catalyst which helps in exchanging ions from Ca 2+ or
Mg2+ with sodium ions.
Certain complex inorganic salts possess the property of exchanging calcium and
magnesium ions present in hard water for Na 2+ ions. An important salt of this type is
sodium aluminium orthosilicate or sodium zeolite (Na 2Al2Si2O8.xH2O), commonly
known as permutit (artificially synthesized zeolite). This sodium zeolite salt belongs to
a family of complex salts known as zeolites.
Zeolite Softening Process of Water

When hard water containing magnesium and calcium ions passes through a zeolite bed
of sodium, then sodium (Na2+) ions get displaced or replaced by the ions of Mg 2+ and
Ca2+ and when the replacement is complete i.e. all the sodium ions get replaced by
Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions then the zeolite get inactivated. This zeolite then gets regenerated by
passing brine solution through the inactive zeolite bed. This process of softening water
is mainly used in laundry.

Reactions involved;
Ca2+ + Na2Al2Si2O8.xH2O → CaAl2Si2O8.xH2O + 2Na+
Mg2+ + Na2Al2Si2O8.xH2O → MgAl2Si2O8.xH2O + 2Na+
Limitations

In case of turbid water supply, the suspended matter has to be removed by processes
like coagulation, filtration or others before its administration to the zeolite bed as it may
cause clogging.

The presence of large quantities of Mn2+ or Fe2+ coloured ions has to be removed from
water as they may produce their own zeolites.

Soda acid must neutralise the mineral acids as they may destroy the bed of zeolites.

ION EXCHANGE METHOD

 Ion exchange is a reversible interchange of one kind of ion present in an insoluble
solid with another of like charge present in a solution surrounding the solid with the
reaction being used especially for softening or making water demineralised, the
purification of chemicals and separation of substances.
 Ion exchange usually describes a process of purification of aqueous solutions using
solid polymeric ion-exchange resin. More precisely, the term encompasses a large
variety of processes where ions are exchanged between two electrolytes.[1] Aside
from its use to purify drinking water, the technique is widely applied for
purification and separation of a variety of industrially and medicinally important
chemicals. Although the term usually refers to applications of synthetic (human-
made) resins, it can include many other materials such as soil.

Ion exchangers can have binding preferences for certain ions or classes of ions,
depending on the physical properties and chemical structure of both the ion exchanger
and ion. This can be dependent on the size, charge, or structure of the ions. Common
examples of ions that can bind to ion exchangers are:

applications

In soil science, cation-exchange capacity is the ion-exchange capacity of soil for

positively charged ions. Soils can be considered as natural weak cation exchangers.

In pollution remediation and geotechnical engineering, ion-exchange capacity

determines the swelling capacity of swelling or expansive clay such
as montmorillonite, which can be used to "capture" pollutants and charged ions.

In planar waveguide manufacturing, ion exchange is used to create the guiding

layer of higher index of refraction.

Dealkalization, removal of alkali ions from a glass surface.

Chemically strengthened glass, produced by exchanging K+ for Na+ in soda

glass surfaces using KNO3 melts.
Waste water produced by resin regeneration

Most ion-exchange systems use columns of ion-exchange resin that are operated on a
cyclic basis.

During the filtration process, water flows through the resin column until the resin is
considered exhausted. That happens only when water leaving the column contains
more than the maximal desired concentration of the ions being removed. Resin is then
regenerated by sequentially backwashing the resin bed to remove accumulated
suspended solids, flushing removed ions from the resin with a concentrated solution of
replacement ions, and rinsing the flushing solution from the resin. Production of
backwash, flushing, and rinsing wastewater during regeneration of ion-exchange media
limits the usefulness of ion exchange for wastewater treatment.[6]

Water softeners are usually regenerated with brine containing 10% sodium
chloride. Aside from the soluble chloride salts of divalent cations removed from the
softened water, softener regeneration wastewater contains the unused 50–70% of the
sodium chloride regeneration flushing brine required to reverse ion-exchange resin
equilibria. Deionizing resin regeneration with sulfuric acid and sodium hydroxide is
approximately 20–40% efficient. Neutralized deionizer regeneration wastewater
contains all of the removed ions plus 2.5–5 times their equivalent
concentration as sodium sulfate.

2.1.4 Ion Exchange or Deionisation or Demineralization Process

Dimeralised water is soft water but soft water is not demineralised water Deionisation
process removes all the anions and cations present in the hard water. TDS is as low as
10 ppm and the water can be used even in high pressure boilers Demineralisation of
water is done in an ion exchanger. Ion Exchange resins are insoluble cross linked long
chain macro polymer with micro porous structure and the functional groups attached to
the chains are responsible for the ion exchanging properties. The equipment contains a
cation exchanger and an anion exchanger.
Demineralization & Deionization. Demineralization and deionization are frequently
accomplished with in-plant deionizers that consume caustic and acid. The deionizers
regenerate automatically at pre-established intervals and discharge highly concentrated
amounts of caustic and acid into the waste stream

 Ion Exchange ( Cation- Anion- Mixed Bed) Treatment

 Membrane Filtration (Like Reverse Osmosis followed by MB )
 Electro DeIonisation (EDI)- RO+ EDI
 Distillation / Evaporation

Cation Exchanger: Resins containing acidic functional group (▬ COOH, ▬SO3H) are
capable of exchanging their H + ions with other cations of hard water. Cation exchange
resin is represented as RH +
Anion Exchanger: Resins containing basic functional groups (▬ NH2 ) or quaternary
ammonium groups are capable of exchanging their OH▬ ions with other anions of
hard water. Anion exchange resin is represented as ROH

Process:

The hard water is first passed through a cation exchange column, which removes all
the cations like Calcium, Magnesium from it and equivalent amount of H+ ions are
released.

2RH+ + Ca2+ ▬▬▬► R2Ca2+ + 2H+

2RH+ + Mg2+ ▬▬▬► R2Mg2+ + 2H+

Advantages of ion exchange process: Highly acidic or alkaline water can be treated
The water obtained will have very low TDS (< 5ppm)

Disadvantages of ion exchange process:

The equipment is costly Resins are expensive Turbid water cannot be used because it
reduces the efficiency of the process Water containing Fe / Mn cannot be treated since
it forms stable compound with the resin and regeneration of such resins failS

Removel of susbended process

A total suspended solids removal process using dissolved air flotation is carried out in
five stages:

First, a coagulation process is carried out, which consists of adding chemicals

such as alumina sulfate or ferric chloride to the wastewater to destabilize
suspended solids and precipitate them.

The next step is a flocculation process in which polyelectrolytes aggregate

destabilized solids to form larger particles called flocs.
 Dissolved air flotation is carried out in the DAF system, where wastewater is
introduced into a tank where air is dissolved under pressure. Air bubbles adhere
to the flocs, causing them to rise to the surface.

Skimming is the next stage. During this process, the surface layer of water
containing the floating solids is removed with a device consisting of a surface
sweeping system, so that the amount of water carried away is much less than
that collected from a settling system.

DAF systems are particularly effective in removing total suspended solids in

wastewater that are difficult to treat by other methods, such as oily or greasy
wastewater, or wastewater containing very fine particles.

2.1.5 removel of micro organisim

Microbial removal is not very effective for food preservation, but it may help reduce the
number of microbes under special conditions. Removal can be done by centrifugation,
filtration, trimming, and washing. The main purpose of cleaning is to remove dirt, dirt
particles, and contaminants on the surface and remove pesticide residues, fertilisers,
and chemicals used during the manufacturing process and reduce the load of
microorganisms and improve the product’s appearance. Cleaning reduces the number
of microorganisms from the cleaned area.

Principles of food preservation

Food preservation is the process of dealing and processing food to prevent or delay
spoilage (deterioration of quality, edibility, nutritional value) caused or accelerated by
microorganisms. In order to maintain its value as a food, it is important to maintain or
create its nutritional value, texture and flavour.
Prevent or delay microbial degradation of food

While keeping microorganisms away (asepsis)

 By removing microorganisms (filtration)

By inhibiting the growth as well as activity of microorganisms (using low

temperatures, implementing anaerobic conditions, by applying chemicals).

By killing microorganisms (by heat or radiation).

Prevent or delay food autolysis

By destroying or inactivating food enzymes (balancing or cooking)

By preventing or delaying pure chemical chain reactions (using antioxidants

preventing oxidation).

Prevent damage caused by insects, different animals, or even mechanical influences

(applying fumigants, fillings, packaging, etc.).

article aims to emphasise on prevention of microbial degradation of food mainly by

the removal of microorganisms.

Preventing of microbial decomposition

Asepsis refers to keeping microorganisms away from food by using a natural cover or
by placing an artificial cover outside the food. Therefore, the natural barriers to food
include nutshells (almonds, walnuts, and pecans), fruit and vegetable skins (bananas,
mangoes, citrus fruits, ash gourds, etc.), eggshells or fats in meat. Packaging also
prevents the invasion of microorganisms into a food. For example, peaches and
mushrooms sealed in cans and clean bottles in a hygienic environment help keep
microorganisms away and prevent milk spoilage during processing and collection.

Bacterial proof filters are widely used to transfer microorganisms from liquid
foodproducts. A variety of materials, including asbestos pads, diatomaceous earth, as
well as unglazed porcelain, are used to filter fluid food products already when they
enter the human body. As a result of the way liquid foods operate. Centrifugation,
trimming, cleaning, etc., can also be used, but they are not good enough. By inhibiting
the growth or activity of microorganisms

Chlorinaaation

A common and relatively inexpensive method of disinfecting water is chlorination,

where a solution of chlorine or hypochlorite is added to the water. The method kills
disease-causing microorganisms including bacteria and certain viruses but does not
kill the protozoa Cryptosporidium, Giardia, and some others. The process also
removes some bad odors,

Water can be chlorinated in two ways:

1. Shock chlorination is when a strong chlorine solution is added into a well or

pumped through the plumbing system to kill microorganisms on a one-time basis.
Shock chlorination is usually recommended when a well is constructed, repaired, or
a new pump is installed to kill bacteria that may be present on the pipes or
installation equipment. It is also recommended if a well is contaminated due to a
faulty well cap or seal.
Reverse osmis

Reverse osmosis is one of the oldest and most popular separation techniques used mainly for
the purification of water. The process was mainly adopted for the desalination of seawater
in the year 1950 when the whole process was relatively slow and limited to certain
laboratories. However, after a lot of research and advancements in technology, there
were significant developments, especially in the field of polymers and the production of
efficient membranes.

Today, this technique is extensively used by many around the world to purify water for
industrial, residential, commercial and scientific purposes. While reverse osmosis
technology is one of humanity’s important scientific innovations we will develop a
basic understanding of the whole process here on this page.
An easy experiment can be conducted by taking some freshwater and a concentrated
aqueous solution. The solutions should be kept on opposite sides with a semipermeable
membrane placed in between to separate the two solutions. Pressure should be applied
on the side with the concentrated solution. Now this will result in water molecules
moving through the membrane to the freshwater side. This basically sums up the
process of reverse osmosis.

Advantages of Reverse Osmosis

Reverse Osmosis has several advantages, including the following:

Bacteria, viruses and pyrogen materials are rejected by the intact membrane. In
this respect, RO water approaches distilled water in quality.

Available units are relatively compact and require little space. They are well
suited to home dialysis.

In average use, the membrane has a life of a little more than one to two years
before replacement is necessary.

Periodic complete sterilization of the RO system with formalin or other sterilant

is practical.

Disadvantages of Reverse Osmosis

The disadvantages of RO systems include the following;

 Cellulose acetate membranes have limited pH tolerance. They degrade at

temperatures greater than 35oC. They are vulnerable to bacteria. They eventually
hydrolyze.

 Polyamide membranes are intolerant of temperatures greater than 35oC. They

have poor tolerance for free chlorine.

 Thin-film composites are intolerant of chlorine. High flux polysulfones require

softening or deionization of feed water to function properly.
desalmition

Desalination is a process that takes away mineral components from saline water. More
generally, desalination refers to the removal of salts and minerals from a target
substance,[1] as in soil desalination, which is an issue for
agriculture. Saltwater (especially sea water) is desalinated to produce water suitable
for human consumption or irrigation. The by-product of the desalination process
is brine.[2] Desalination is used on many seagoing ships and submarines. Most of the
modern interest in desalination is focused on cost-effective provision of fresh water for
human use. Along with recycled wastewater, it is one of the few rainfall-
independent water resources

Distillation

1 Solar distillatio

Solar distillation mimics the natural water cycle, in which the sun heats sea water
enough for evaporation to occur.[44] After evaporation, the water vapor is condensed
onto a cool surface.[44] There are two types of solar desalination. The first type uses
photovoltaic cells to convert solar energy to electrical energy to power desalination. The
second type converts solar energy to heat, and is known as solar thermal powered
desalination.

2 Natural evaporation

Water can evaporate through several other physical effects besides solar irradiation.
These effects have been included in a multidisciplinary desalination methodology in
the IBTS Greenhouse. The IBTS is an industrial desalination (power)plant on one side
and a greenhouse operating with the natural water cycle (scaled down 1:10) on the
other side. The various processes of evaporation and condensation are hosted in low-
tech utilities, partly underground and the architectural shape of the building itself. This
integrated biotectural system is most suitable for large scale desert greening as it has a
km2 footprint for the water distillation and the same for landscape transformation in
desert greening, respectively the regeneration of natural fresh water cycles.[citation needed]

3.Vacuum distillation[

In vacuum distillation atmospheric pressure is reduced, thus lowering the temperature

required to evaporate the water. Liquids boil when the vapor pressure equals the
ambient pressure and vapor pressure increases with temperature. Effectively, liquids
boil at a lower temperature, when the ambient atmospheric pressure is less than usual
atmospheric pressure. Thus, because of the reduced pressure, low-temperature "waste"
heat from electrical power generation or industrial processes can be employed.

4.Multi-stage flash distillation

Water is evaporated and separated from sea water through multi-stage flash
distillation, which is a series of flash evaporations. Each subsequent flash process
utilizes energy released from the condensation of the water vapor from the previous
step.

5.Multiple-effect distillation[

Multiple-effect distillation (MED) works through a series of steps called

"effects".] Incoming water is sprayed onto pipes which are then heated to generate
steam. The steam is then used to heat the next batch of incoming sea water. [ To increase
efficiency, the steam used to heat the sea water can be taken from nearby power
plants. Although this method is the most thermodynamically efficient among methods
powered by heat,] a few limitations exist such as a max temperature and max number of
effects.