Topic 4 : COLD WATER SUPPLY

 Water is the essence of life

 An adequate supply of pure water on tap is one of the prerequisites of modern living.
 Before water is distributed throughout the water mains systems to individual
premises, it must be collected and treated to rid it of any harmful water-borne
bacteria ,suspended organic and non-organic solids matters.
 One of the basic human needs is a supply of fresh drinking water, and it is your job as
a plumber to get the cold water from the mains to the consumer’s cold water taps.

Water regulations
The purpose of water regulations are as follows :

 Prevention of contamination
 Prevention of waste
 Prevention of mis-use
 Prevention of undue consumption.

Definition of terms used in cold water supply

1. Communication pipe—is that which runs from the authorities water main to the water
meter
2. Service pipe –is that pipe which runs from the meter to the appliance in the building.
3. Distribution pipe—is the pipe which distributes water from cold water storage cistern
(CWSC) or tanks to the appliances below it.
4. Supply pipe—is that pipe which supplies water to the CWSC in an indirect cold water
supply system.
5. Ferrule –is a valve that is tapped into the main with a connection to the supply pipe.
6. Cistern –it is an open topped vessel designed to hold a supply of water which will
have a free surface , which will only be subjected to a pressure of the atmosphere.
7. Storage cistern –it is designed to hold a reserve of cold water supply to cold water
taps and flushing cistern below it.
8. Feed cistern –it is designed to hold a reserve of cold water for the hot water systems
only.
9. Capacity –is the amount of water a cistern will hold if filled to a level.
10. Nominal capacity –this is the amount of water a cistern will hold when filled to the
brim.
11. Actual capacity –is the amount of water a cistern will hold when filled to its water
level.
12. Head of water—it refers to the vertical height of the water in a system and is
measured in meters

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 13. Pressure—it is the force applied per unit area. It is the result of gravitational force
acting down upon water. The deeper the water the greater the pressure. Pressure is
measured in bars /pascals.
14. Intensity of pressure--- is defined as that force generated by a given mass of water
(kg) acting one unit of area (1m2).
15. Static pressure--- is a term given to the pressure within a system when the water is at
rest.

Water
 It is a compound of two gases hydrogen and oxygen.
 Pure water consist of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom oxygen (H2O)

Properties of water
Understanding the properties of water helps the Plumber to appreciate why systems are
designed the way they are, as well as some of the problems that can occur in the system, eg
what happens when water freezes or when lime scale deposits are formed. Or when water
containing calcium carbonate is heated above 65-70oc.
Electronic attraction between the hydrogen atoms gives water some unique and peculiar
properties.

 Water has a high surface tension, it falls as drops and forms a puddle on a flat surface.
 It has a capillary action that allows it to run through the tightest of spaces,
 It is lighter as a solid than it is as a liquid, hence ice floats on water.
 Water is a universal solvent. It is capable of dissolving most of the materials and
carrying that dissolved material in solution. An example of this is when rain water
dissolves limestone rock, resulting in high concentrations of calcium in the water
supply, and of course if it is not treated it will cause limescale deposits in hot water
systems, reducing efficiency, and providing a hiding place for Legionella bacteria
 Wholesome or drinking water must be colourless.
 It must be free from suspended matters and harmfull bacterias.
 It must be pleasant to taste, that is it should be odourless and tasteless and for health
reasons it should be moderately hard.
 Water expands by 1/10 of its original volume when it freezes.
 Its boiling point is 100oC and it freezes at 0oC.
 It expands by 1725 times when it boils.
 Pure water has a PH (potential of hydrogen) of 7. Acidic and Alkaline water can both
damage the materials used in plumbing systems, by causing corrosion especially
metals.
 Water becomes less dense when heated.

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Sources of water
Rainwater

 All water is derived from rainfall, which after use in various ways is returned to lakes,
rivers or the seas, from where it evaporates to form water vapour and eventually falls
again as rain. The term applied to this continuous succession of events is the water
cycle.

Water Suppliers usually obtain their water for public consumption from two main sources:

 Surface sources such as:

 Upland surface water
 Rivers and streams.
 Runoff from roofs and paved areas
 Underground sources such as:
 Wells
 Artesian wells
 Springs.
 Water from these sources cannot be supplied directly to the consumer as it is likely to
be contaminated, river water being a good example. It is vital that the water is treated
first, and that also is the job of the Water Supplier

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NB: Artesian well is a well at which water rises under pressure from a permeable stratum
overlaid by an impermeable rock.

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 Classification of water
 Water is classified as being hard or soft by the number of parts of calcium it contains
per million parts of water.
 Water is classified in two groups ie soft and hard.
 Generally surface waters are soft and subterranean or deep waters are hard.

Soft water

 Water that is free from dissolved salts such as calcium carbonates (chalk and lime)
and sulphates is said to be soft.
 It is slightly acidic because it absorbs carbon dioxide and other gases from the
atmosphere.
Characteristics of soft water

 It produce a lathe easily with soap.

 It has a detrimental effect on most metals
 It causes rapid corrosion particularly of those metals which contain organic
solutions.
 It is slightly acidic.
 Not very palatable.
 Soft water can dissolve lead (plumbo solvent)

Hard water

 Water is classified as hard when it is difficult to produce lather with normal soap. This
is because the rain water has fallen on ground containing calcium carbonates or
sulphates , dissolving them and taking them into solution as ti passes through.
 Hard water is more common where water is extraction is from boreholes into chalky
strata.
 Hard water is undesirable in domestic installations as it produces limescale in
pipework, heating equipment and sanitary appliances. This can result in higher
maintenance costs.
 Hard water also requires the use of a lot more soap and detergent for washing
purposes as the ‘hardness’ makes producing a lather far more difficult

The reaction causes the chalk or calcium carbonate to dissolve and change to calcium
bicarbonate to give the water extract hardness characteristics.
Characteristics of hard water

 difficult to create a lather with normal soap

 scum and tide marks in baths and basins
 chalk staining or streaking on washed glassware.

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  It produces lime scale in pipework, heating equipment and sanitary appliances.

Types of water hardness

 Water hardness is the amount of dissolved calcium and magnesium in the water
 Water hardness can be categorized into two ie permanent hardness and temporary
hardness.
Permanent hardness

 Occurs when water which is free from carbon-dioxide passes through a stratum
containing calcium sulphates ,calcium chloride or magnesium chloride. This process
can not be removed by boiling, hence the term Permanent.
 This type of hardness causes corrosion on most metals.
 The hardness can be removed by adding common washing soda.
Temporary hardness

 If water passes through a stratum containing calcium sulphates, calcium chloride or

magnesium chloride during the presents of carbon –dioxide temporary hard water is
formed.
 It is responsible for the hard scale which can accumulate on the inside of boilers,
circulating pipes and hot water storage vessels, restricting the flow of water, reducing
the efficiency of appliances and components and ultimately causing damage and
eventual system failure.( scaling and furrying)
 Temporary hardness of water can be removed by boiling hence the term temporary.
 When such water is heated to approximately 65-70oC, the gases it contains including
the carbon-dioxide are given off. The water is then nolonger able to retain the calcium
in solution and it is precipitated in the form of scales or fur.
 In areas where there is temporary hard water an indirect system should be used for
hot water supply.

Treatment of water hardness

Although it would be too expensive to remove the hardness content of water completely,
most water authorities in the hard-water districts do their best to reduce it to manageable
proportions. Various methods are used for softening the water depending on the nature of the
water concerned

The treatment of the water by water companies for removing hardness is not sufficient for all
purposes and in some cases water is softened to a greater degree by private individuals using
water softeners.

1. Boiling
 It removes temporary hardness of water by drives off carbon-dioxide
contained in water allowing the carbonate of calcium or magnesium to
precipitate.

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  Whilst small quantities of water may be softened by this method, it is however
impractical large treatment.
2. The base exchange process
 This method removes both temporary and permanent hardness of water, very
efficiently by passing the water zeolites contained in a steel cylinder.
 . It employs the use of zeolites and sodium chloride (common salt) in the
water.
 Zeolites have the properties of exchanging their sodium base for the
magnesium or calcium base , hence the term base exchange.

Hard water enters at the top, passes through the zeolite bed and emerges through the outlet
with the hardening salts completely removed.

After a period of time, depending on the capacity of the softener, the zeolite becomes
exhausted or so saturated with calcium that it is no longer capable of softening the water.

The softener must then be regenerated, first by back washing, i.e. reversal of the flow of
water through the softener prior to the addition of salt. This is accomplished by a control
system of automatic valves which permit the flow of water through the softener to be

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reversed, washing out the hardness salts and simultaneously drawing a measured quantity of
brine from the brine reservoir. This in effect regenerates the zeolites enabling another
softening cycle to be commenced.

The process can be expressed as an equation as follows:

Sodium zeolite + Calcium sulphate or carbonate
(in softerner) (in water)

=
Calcium zeolite + sodium sulphate or carbonate
(Held in softerner) (in solution with water but harmless)
----

The regeneration equation

Calcium zeolites + sodium chloride
(Exhausted sodium) (Common salt)

=
Sodium zeolites + calcium chloride
(Regenerated) (Flushed to drain)

3. Lime soda process

 This process removes both temporary and permanent hardness in water.
 Mostly used for industrial purposes.
 Water is softened by the addition of lime and soda in the correct proportion.
 The precipitated salts settle out in the sedimentation tank.

4. Clark’s process
 It is a process whereby temporary hardness is removed by adding small
quantities of lime water or cream of lime to the supply and this takes up the
carbon-dioxide from the bicarbonate present, resulting in the precipitation of
the insoluble carbonate and the removal of most of the temporary hardness.
 The precipitated carbonates is either allowed to settle out in a sedimentation
tank or is arrested in fine screens.
5. Scale reducers
 These are not water softeners in the true sense of the word, and although the
technology relating to their working principles is not new, it is only recently
they have been produced for domestic use. It was discovered that passing
water containing calcium crystals (hardening salts) through a magnetic field
causes a change in the shape of the crystals, an increase in their size and a
decrease in their ability to dissolve in water. An increase in the size of the
crystals has two beneficial effects.

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  First, they lose their ability to ‘coagulate’ or join together as easily as those of
a smaller size thus preventing the build-up of rock-like scale in the plumbing
installation.
 Secondly, the presence of these larger crystals disrupts the equilibrium
between the water, and tends, in very simple terms, to dissolve any existing
scale. Unlike the base exchange process of water softening, the calcium
remains in the water, but instead of forming scale or fur it is drawn off via the
taps or deposited in the form of sludge in the base of boilers or hot storage
vessels where it can easily be washed out.

Chemical methods of scale prevention

As with scale reducers this method of treating water to protect plumbing installations against
the build up of scale is not new, and similar equipment to that shown in Fig. 3.50 may be
found on the inlet of gas water heaters fitted in areas of water supply known to have a high
hardness content. Because of their relatively low cost, these scale inhibitors, as they are
called, are sometimes used as an alternative to water softeners and are ideal for use in
individual appliances such as drink-vending equipment, washing machines and electric
instantaneous water heaters. It must be emphasised that like scale reduction chemical
treatment of water is not ‘softening’ in the true sense. Water to be treated passes through a
non-ferrous metal dispenser containing the chemical crystals which have the effect of
‘inhibiting’ or suspending in the water the hardness salts responsible for scale formation. This
prevents the hard scale building up in pipes and fittings. The working life of the chemicals
varies with the volume of water used. In a domestic system it can be anything from 9 to 15
months

WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES

The treatment of water is dependent on where it is sourced from and what impurities it
contains. Water that is sourced from springs and wells is naturally purified, and should need

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little disinfection. The quality of water that is sourced from reservoirs or rivers (raw water)
will determine the level of treatment. Usually this will involve several stages of treatment
including settling, filtering and final ‘polishing’ with activated carbon grains to remove
minute traces of impurities and improve water taste

Water impurities

Any undesirable physical, chemical, or microbiological substance in a water supply can be

considered a contaminant. All water supplies contain some contaminants in various
concentrations, and no two supplies are identical in the kinds and concentrations of
contaminants they contain.
If a contaminant is considered dangerous to human health, it may be called a pollutant.*
Many contaminants, natural and artificial, fall into this category. The requirement to remove
or reduce contaminants in water supplies is dictated by the intended use of the water. The
specific treatment technology is determined by the kind of contaminant present, the total
volume to be treated, and the degree of removal or reduction that is required.
Contaminants found in water supplies can be classified as:

Suspended solids, i.e., particulate materials which (for any of several reasons) are in an
insoluble form. This may occur because the contaminant will not dissolve in water, or
because its concentration is higher than its solubility limits, so that it has precipitated out of
solution. The term suspended solids includes both inorganic and organic solids as well as
immiscible liquids, such as oil and grease.

Dissolved solids (also known as solutes), i.e., solid materials that are an intimate part of a
liquid system, having a mean diameter of less than 0.000001 mm. Dissolved solids can be
subdivided into (a) dissolved salts and (b) dissolved organic material.

Dissolved salts, i.e., solids that form ionic components when in solution. Typically, they are
inorganic and form charged ions, known as cations (positively charged) and anions
(negatively charged). These are also commonly called mineral.

Dissolved organic materials, materials that generally do not dissociate into ions but form
covalent bonds with water molecules and become nonionic solute.

Microorganisms, i.e., living water contaminants that are capable of reproduction and
propagation throughout the water system. These include bacteria, viruses, and such plantlike
organisms as algae.

Dissolved gases, i.e., gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulphide. All these
gases dissolve in water and are released on heating or on reduction of pressure in the water
supply.
A water supply may contain any one or all of the above contaminants in various
concentrations.

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The treatment of water
Sedimentation
Is a physical water treatment process used to settle out suspended solids in water under the
influence of gravity.
When water is stored and allowed to remain undisturbed in a lake or reservoir, solid
impurities suspended in it such as grit, mud and decaying vegetable matter sink to the bottom,
this being known as primary sedimentation. Storage also has the effect of reducing the
bacteriological content of the water, as lack of suitable food, competition with harmless
organisms and low temperatures all have the effect of preventing the multiplication of
harmful or pathogenic bacteria. Water companies, therefore, take advantage of this fact and
storage is often used as a form of primary purification. When it is required, water is pumped
from the storage reservoir, through a coarse metal strainer and allowed to flow into
sedimentation tanks, where further controlled sedimentation takes place before the water is
filtered.

Filtration
It is a process of cleansing water by passing it through layers of sand and gravel. The process
removes suspended particles and some bacteria and color.
There are 3 types of filters in use
1. Slow sand filter
 It is an old established method of water purification
 It consist of a rectangular tanks constructed of brick work or concrete with porous
slab or perforated tiles over collecting channel at its base.
 The filter bed consist of a layer of – fine sand about 1m in depth, the top of which
is kept flooded with water to a depth of 1.2m.
 When the filter is first put into operation it only remove suspended matters by
straining.
 Clean fine sand will not keep back bacteria but the surface of the sand soon
become covered with a thin layer of colloidal matter deposited from the water.
 This gelatinous film constitutes the actual filter and it is a barrier to the passage of
bacteria.
 The production of this film is sometimes done artificially by the use of a chemical
coagulant such as Aluminium sulphate
 The rate of filtration 0.2 to 1.15m3 per m2 per hour.
 Filter beds can occupy large areas and the top layer of sand will require removal
and cleaning at periodic intervals

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2. Pressure filter
 They are now much used as compared to the slow sand filter, because they
take less space for their installations.
 The diameter of the cylinder is usually 2.4m
 The principle of operation is the same as slow sand filter but filtration is much
quicker.
 The rate of filtration is 4 to 12m3 per hour
 Purification of water takes place in a closed steel cylinder working under
pressure.
 The efficient of the filter is increased by adding a small dose of Aluminium
sulphate to the inlet water which will form a gelatinous film on the top of the
sand as described on the slow sand filter. This film is known as the Vital layer.

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3. Small domestic filter
This involves the use of unglazed porcelain cylinder that will arrest very fine particles
of dirt and even micro-organisms. The cylinder can be removed and sterilised in
boiling water for 10 minutes.

Sterilisation of water
 This is a process of treating water to kill bacteria’s.
 The final treatment of water to ensure its purity before it enters the main is its dosing
with chlorine or a mixture of chlorine and ammonia. These are both sterilising agents
which rapidly kill off any harmful bacteria which may have escaped filtration.
 Sterilisation by chlorine injection - water used for drinking must be sterilised to make
it completely free of living micro-organisms.
 Chlorine is generally used for this purpose. a minute quantity of gaseous chlorine
(Cl) or sodium hypochlorite (naClo) in solution, commonly known as bleach (0.1 to
0.3ppm), is added after filtration in absorption towers or small covered reservoirs
known as contact tanks. the process takes about two hours before the treated water is
released into the water mains or pumped to service reservoirs.

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Storage and distribution of water
Water suppliers store water either in its raw state in impounding reservoirs or lakes ,
or as treated wholesome water in service reservoirs. After being treated water is
distributed from the water supplier to individual buildings and domestic premises
through a network of pipes known as mains. The Mains belongs to the local
authority or water suppliers and it’s their duty to maintain them.

Methods of water distribution through mains

1. Gravitational distribution---the water from upland gathering grounds is
impounded in a reservoir. From this point the water is filtered and chlorinated
before serving an inhabited area at lower level. there are no pumping costs.

2. Pumped distribution----- water extracted from a river is pumped into a

settlement tank, subsequently filtered and chlorinated. Pump maintenance and
running costs make this process more expensive than gravity systems.

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Ring main distribution----water mains supplying a town or village may be in the form of a
grid. this is preferable to radial distribution as sections can be isolated with minimal
disruption to the remaining system and there is no more opportunity for water to maintain a
flow.

Connection to water main

Water mains are usually made from ductile cast iron pipe or upvc pipes. The maximum
tapping diameter if an 80mm pipe is used should be 20mm and if it is a 100mm diameter pipe
it should be 32mm.
When new supply of water is required an application must be made to the local authority who
will provide the necessary forms to be completed by the building owner.
The connection between the main and the consumer’s stop tap is made using a ferrule. The
ferrule is basically a valve that is tapped into the main, with a connection to the supply pipe.
The ferrule can be turned off in order to isolate the supply pipe. Once the ferrule connection
is completed, the connection between the supply pipe and the consumer’s stop valve can take
place.
The main is drilled and tapped live with special equipment, which leaves a plug valve ready
for connection to the communication pipe. a goose neck or sweeping bend is formed at the
connection to relieve stresses on the pipe and valve. at or close to the property boundary, a
stop valve is located with an access compartment and cover at ground level. a meter may also
be located at this point. the communication and supply pipe should be snaked to allow for

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settlement in the ground. during warm weather, plastic pipes in particular should be snaked to
accommodate contraction after backfilling

From the mains to the premises

It is useful that you understand what is required to get water from its original source to the
consumer. What we have covered so far falls within the responsibility of the Water Supplier,
but once you get past the external stop tap, also known as the consumer’s stop tap, the real
work of the plumber begins.

All mains and service pipes should be at least 750mm beneath the surface of the ground to
avoid damage by frost or load. The maximum depth cover should not exceed 1350mm to be
readily accessible. Metal pipes on acidic soils should be adequately protected against
corrosion. The minimum permitted size for a cold water service into a building is 15 mm

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diameter. Where a cold water supply pipe enters a building via a duct, the pipe duct must be
sealed at both the ends; this is to prevent any gases or vermin from entering the building

water meters
are installed at the discretion of the local water authority. They can be installed externally in a
purpose-made chamber, or fitted internally on the supply pipe, at the point where it enters the
building which is the most preferred practical method. The meter measures in cubic metres (1
cubic metre

1000 litres or 220 gallons) the actual quantity of water used by the consumer, and on billing
the consumer is charged for the metered amount used. Meters are either installed in the
communication pipe, or by direct annular connection to the stop valve. If underground
location is impractical, the water authority may agree internal attachment to the rising main.

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 Cold water supply system
Is a system of pipework used to supply cold water to the various appliances and components
within the building from the internal storage valve. The two systems used for the supply of
cold water in a building are known as direct and indirect systems.

Direct system of cold water supply

With a direct system, the cold water is supplied directly from the mains supply to all the
draw-off points within the building, i.e. kitchen sink, bath, washbasin, WC,etc.
Only the hot water cylinder will be supplied from the cold water feed cistern. The minimum
capacity required for the storage cistern is 114 litres. For efficient operation, a high-pressure
water supply is essential particularly at periods of peak demand.
The installation of a direct water system offers a supply of water at mains (high) pressure to
all draw-off points within the building. These installations are permitted by Water Suppliers
in regions where the mains supply can provide adequate quantities of water at sufficient
pressure.

Advantages
(a) The cold water storage cistern is required solely to feed the hot water
apparatus, and for this reason need only be equal to the capacity of the

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hot water storage tank or cylinder. For small houses this will be 114
to 136.383 litre. The cistern is small enough to be accommodated in the
top of the airing cupboard, and does not therefore require lagging, nor are
there any pipes in the roof space.

(b) There is a substantial saving in pipework especially in multi-story buildings. This is due
to the rising main supplying all the fittings, and a cold distribution pipe from the cistern being
omitted.

(c) Drinking water may be obtained from all draw off points.
(d) no stagnation of drinking water.

Disadvantages
(a) There is a danger of foul water from the sanitary fittings being Siphoned
back into the company's main. Back siphonage could occur in the following manner: Assume
that a bath or basin is full of foul water and that the outlet of the cold tap is submerged in the
water (this is possible if globe taps are used or if a shower is attached to the taps). If there is
now sufficient water drawn off in premises below the bath or basin a 'negative' pressure could
be created in the highest part of the pipe supplying the bath, sufficient to produce siphonage
of the water in the bath back to the main. To prevent this occurrence it is essential that the
outlet of all the taps should be well above the flood level of the sanitary fittings. Low level
shower attachments should also be prohibited.

(b) There is a tendency to have more trouble with water hammer due to more
points being connected directly to the main.

(c) During peak periods there is a tendency for the lowering of supply and with buildings on
higher ground a possible temporary loss of supply. If there is a mains burst the smaller
storage cistern does not provide for an adequate emergency supply.
(d) it causes more damage to the house hold fittings due to high pressure.

Indirect system of cold water supply

With an indirect system, only one draw-off point, usually the kitchen sink tap is supplied
directly, and this is used for drinking water purposes. The supply then goes on to feed the
cold water storage cistern (CWSC); which is usually found in the roof space of the building
or dwelling. The CWSC is used to supply water to the remaining draw-off points indirectly.
The installation of an indirect water system offers a supply of low-pressure water from the
storage cistern to the designated draw-off points within the dwelling or building. Provision
should be made for one outlet to be directly fed from the mains, supplying wholesome water
for drinking, cooking food, and washing purpose.
the cold water storage cistern has a minimum capacity of 230 liters, for location in the roof
space. In addition to its normal supply function, it provides adequate emergency storage in
the event of a water main failure. the system requires more pipework than the direct system

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and is therefore more expensive to install, but uniform pressure occurs at all cistern-supplied
outlets.
Advantages of indirect system
a) There is no water hammer as it offers low pressure from the CWSC.
b) Pollution of water mains by back siphonage is not common.
c) Large capacity storage cistern provides a reserve of water during interruption of
supply.
d) Reduced pressure minimises noise and wear on taps and valves.
e) There is low demand on water mains at peak hours.

The disadvantages of the system are:

(a) Larger and longer pipes are required which makes it more expensive.
(b) A large cistern is required, difficult to accommodate unless fixed in the roof space, which
is generally undesirable.
(c) Drinking water is not usually available at all draw off points.

Constant water supply

This is the situation whereby water service pipes are always charges with water
Advantages
 Water is always available at draw-off points
 Pipes usualy last longer
 There is no pollution of water mains due to back siphonage.
Intermittent water supply
Is a situation whereby water is closed and opened at stipulated hours. It is common where
there is water scarcity and is a common measure to cut water consumption.
Disadvantages of intermittent water supply
 Unreliable supply of water
 Pipes do not last longer due to the admission of oxygen that will lead to corrosion
 Can result in water pipes to burst due to sudden increase in pressure.
 It is very expensive in the way that a cold water storage cistern is required.
 Chances of back siphonage are high.
 Airlocks are common due to low pressure.
 There is stagnation of water in cold water storage cisterns.

Pumping of cold water to high rise buildings

Many high-rise buildings are unable to be supplied with water direct from the main. The fact
that main pressure varies (i.e. depending on whether the building is at the top or bottom of a
hill) also has some influence on the pressure available. Daytime pressures are also lower than
those at night due to the larger volume of water consumed. If for example a pressure of 350
kPa is available at the main (this is the equivalent of 35 m head) it will in theory serve a
building 35 m higher than the main. After making an allowance for pressure loss, due to the
resistance of the pipe and fittings, the effective pressure may only be approximately 32–33 m.

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For this reason water boosting is employed to supply cold water to upper drinking water
draw-offs, storage cisterns and if necessary for fire-fighting in high-rise buildings. With the
exception of installations where an interruption of the supply would not be serious, dual
pumps are essential to allow for the possibility of mechanical failure or periodic maintenance.
However to reduce the size and capacity of the pumps, it is more efficient to supply the lower
floors directly from the mains and pump the water to the upper floors only.
Therefore before designing the water system it is necessary to ascertain the pressure on the
water main during the peak demand period. For example if the water mains pressure during
peak demand period is 350kpa as given above , this pressure will supply water inside the
building up to a head of 35m. In order to give a good supply of water a residual head is
required above the highest fitting and it is therefore usually to deduct 6m from the mains
pressure head . Therefore in this example the water main pressure would supply water up to
29m without pumping.
It is usually necessary to have some storage at the top of the building because gravity supply
can continue during a power failure.
There are four systems of boosting water to high rise buildings

1) Direct boosting from the main supply

Water is pumped directly from the main. The size and capacity of the pump is greatly
reduced due to the collaboration with the mains pressure. This system save the cost of
a break cistern and space in the building.
The disadvantage of this system is that –if the building is large the amount water
pumped from the main may cause a serious drop in pressure in the other buildings
supplied from the same main. The storage cistern supplied from with this system of
boosting water should be fitted with a float switch to control the pump.
Direct boosting is rarely permitted due to:
(a) The volume of water drawn from the main leading to the loss of supply, or at least
lowering of pressure to other consumers.
(b) The possibility of backflow or cross-connection being much greater.

Under no circumstances is it permissible to connect a pump directly to a pipe

connected to a service pipe without the written consent of the supplier, except if it
draws less than 12 litres/minute.

2) Indirect boosting with a header

 A header pipe is a large pipe diameter 100mm to 150mm and about 3 to 6m
long connected into the pumped riser.
 To avoid stagnation break tanks are normally sized to provide 1 hour’s supply,
but conversely they should hold sufficient water to enable the pumps to
function for 15 minutes before the low-level cut-out operates.

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 In all cases of pumped supplies, the system must be designed to reduce the
number of pump stop/starts to pump small quantities of water; failure to do
this will shorten its working life.
 All pumping systems are therefore controlled in such a way that when the
pump starts it will continue pumping for a pre-set period of time.
 To supply drinking water points above the reach of the main pressure using
this system, a header is employed which is sized to provide 5–10 litres per day
per dwelling served.
 When the pump is not running and drinking water is drawn off, the header
begins to empty until the pipeline switch, activates the pump, and by means of
a timing switch causes it to operate for a set period of time.
 If the water is replaced in the header before the pump timing cycle is
incomplete, the excess water will be pumped into the storage cistern through
the float-operated valve.

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 Details of a pipeline switch

3) Indirect boosted from break cistern at low-level

 Low level cistern create a break between the pumps and the water supply
main.
 The break cistern will serve as a pumping reservoir and prevent lowering the
pressure on the main.
 The cistern is fitted with a low level float switch to protect the pump if the
water level drops tool low, and at low water level switch cuts out the pump.

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4) Indirect hydro-pneumatic systems
 Also called auto-pneumatic system.
 This is the most common type of installation now in use, its main advantage being
that all the equipment and component parts are usually supplied as a complete
package unit for both large and small installations.
 It is also more convenient in situations where a number of storage vessels at
different levels are to be served, which would be impracticable using several
water-level-operated switches.
 The indirect hydro-pneumatic system operates on the principle of pumping water
into a pressure vessel, causing the air it contains to be compressed. When a tap on
the riser is opened, water is forced upward due to the pressure exerted by the air.
 Continued draw-off will lower the pressure in the vessel until it falls to a
predetermined level, when the pump will restart on a signal from the pressure
switch.
 Modern pumping units use a pressure vessel having a flexible membrane similar
to those used with unvented hot water and sealed heating systems, its capacity
depending on the size of the installation.
 When the system is serviced, the only maintenance requirement with this type of
vessel is to check the pressure of the gas, which may be air or nitrogen
 A high level cistern supplied with water from a hydro-pneumatic cylinder should
be operated using a delayed action ball valve in order to minimise the number of
pump operations.

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Delayed action float-operated valves
 These are designed to ensure the valve is either fully open or closed, and while they
may be used with advantage in many other situations, they are essential with hydro-
pneumatic pumped systems, as the float does not fall until a large volume of water is
required to replenish the contents of the cistern. This ensures the number of
pump/stop starts are reduced to a minimum.
 The ball valve in the storage cistern served from a pneumatic cylinder should be
preferably be the delayed action type to conserve the air pressure in the cylinder and
to minimise the number of pump operations.
 This type of ball valve arrangement does not allow the valve to open until the cylinder
is approximately 2/3 empty, and it will also allow the ball valve to stay fully open
until the cylinder is almost full. Whereas a normal ball valve closes gradually and
takes longer to fill the cistern.
 If normal float valves are used to regulate cistern water supply from an auto-
pneumatic cylinder ,then cylinder and pump activity will be frequent and uneconomic.
therefore to regulate activity and deliveries to the cistern, a delayed action float valve
mechanism is fitted to the storage cistern.

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Operation of a delayed action ball valve

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Noises /problems that are found in cold water systems
no Noise/problem cause remedy
1 Chattering—is the Loose pipe clips Pipes should be securely
vibration of cold water tightened
pipes when water is in
motion.
2 Water hammering---is Taps or valves closed too Replace fault taps or valves
the sound produced by suddenly Also fit new packing’s and
pipes when water in adjusting nut correctly.
motion suddenly forced
to stop.
3 Humming—is a Defective valves Replace worn out washers
whistling sound Put a fixed jumper or tighten
produced when a valve the packing nut
or tap with defects is
closed.
4 Airlock –sound Bad workmanship pipes Check the pipe level and
produces with on a tap rises instead of falling/ vise correct them
or valve of a trapped air versa. Use long radius bends if
comes out. Use of series of beds. possible.

Pollution or contamination of water supply pipes

Back siphonage
This is the back flow of water into the drinking water supply main.
It occurs when a partial vaccum is created in the pipe connected to a valve or tap, with the
outlet submerged in water which is contaminated.
This is possible when the demand on the water main is sufficient to draw back the water, this
leaving behind a partial vaccum.
Back siphonage prevention
1) Ball valves in cistern should be fitted above the overflow pipe and if a silencer pipe is
fitted its outlet must be above the valve
2) The outlets of taps connected to sink, bath and basin should be well above the
flooding level of the fitting.
3) Fittings having low level water inlets eg bidets should be supplied with cold water
from storage cistern and not direct from the water main.

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