Prepared by Mr.

Jonathan Singh

Non Metals Crash Course #2

Green chemistry : Green chemistry is also known as sustainable chemistry. Green chemistry is
the utilization of a set of principles that reduces or eliminates the use or generation of hazardous
substances in the design, manufacture and application of chemical products and processes. Using
the technologies of green chemistry provides a number of benefits including: ● reduced wastage
● reduced pollution ● safer products ● reduced use of energy and natural resources ● improved
competitiveness of chemical manufacturers.
The twelve principles of green chemistry: There are twelve principles of green chemistry, which
provide a road map for chemists to follow when designing new materials, products, processes
and systems.
 Prepared by Mr. Jonathan Singh

Water : Pure water, i.e. water that does not contain any
impurities, is a colorless, tasteless and odorless liquid that boils
at 100 °C and freezes at 0 °C at standard pressure. Water
molecules are polar, meaning that each molecule has a side that
has a partial positive charge and a side that has a partial
negative charge. The two hydrogen atoms in each molecule
have partial positive charges and the oxygen atom has a partial
negative charge. The partial positive hydrogen atoms and partial
negative oxygen atoms of the water molecules are attracted to
each other. This attraction forms what is known as the hydrogen
bond. Hydrogen bonds are usually stronger than other
intermolecular forces which exist between molecules and this
gives water several unique properties as given below:

1, The maximum density of water occurs at 4 °C : Density is a measure of how compact a

substance is. It is defined as the mass of a substance divided by its volume. When most liquids
are cooled and become solids they contract. The volume of the solid is less than the volume of
the liquid from which it forms. The solid is, therefore, denser than the liquid and if it is placed in
more of the liquid it sinks. Something slightly different happens in the case of water. When water
is cooled down to 4 °C it contracts and becomes denser, just like other liquids. However, if it is
cooled below 4 °C it starts to expand and continues to expand until it freezes at 0 °C. This means
that the volume of ice is greater than the volume of the water from which it forms. Solid ice is,
therefore, less dense than the liquid water from which it formed and it floats on the liquid as it
forms. This is why ice cubes float in a cold drink.
Prepared by Mr. Jonathan Singh

2, Water has a high specific heat capacity: The specific heat capacity of a substance is the
amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a unit mass of the substance, e.g. 1 g, by 1 °C.
Because water has a high specific heat capacity, it requires a lot of heat energy to increase its
temperature by 1 °C. This means that water can absorb a lot of heat energy without its
temperature changing very much or, in other words, when the temperature of the surroundings
changes, the temperature of water does not change very much. This is of significance to living
organisms for two main reasons: ● The bodies of living organisms contain between 60% and
70% water. Because of this, living organisms can absorb a lot of heat energy without their body
temperature changing very much. This means they can survive in extremes of temperature. ● As
environmental temperatures change, e.g. from winter to summer, the temperature of large bodies
of water such as lakes and seas does not change very much. This means that organisms living in
aquatic environments do not experience extreme fluctuations in temperature.
3, Water has a high heat of vaporization: The heat of vaporization is the amount of heat energy
required to change a liquid to a gas. A lot of heat energy is required to change liquid water to a
gas due to the hydrogen bonds between the water molecules. This means that water is not very
volatile. Because water has a high heat of vaporization, when water evaporates from the surface
of a living organism it removes a large amount of heat energy from the organism. This makes
sweating and transpiration very effective methods of cooling organisms.
4, Water has a relatively high melting point and boiling point: The melting point of ice and the
boiling point of water are much higher than other molecules of a similar size due to the hydrogen
bonds between the molecules. Water exists as a liquid between 0 °C and 100 °C, which means
that at the temperatures experienced on Earth, most water is in the liquid state. Because of this,
lakes, rivers and seas exist and provide an environment in which aquatic organisms can live.
5, Water dissolves a large number of substances : Water is sometimes referred to as a ‘universal
solvent’ because it dissolves a large number of substances. Because water molecules are polar,
water can dissolve both ionic and polar covalent substances. The fact that water can dissolve so
many substances is of great significance to living organisms. ● Water dissolves chemicals in
cells so that chemical reactions can take place, e.g. respiration. ● Water dissolves many useful
substances so that they can be absorbed and transported around the bodies of organisms, e.g.
food and mineral salts. ● Water dissolves waste products so that they can be excreted, e.g. urea.
However, the solvent properties of water can also cause problems ● Water can become hard. ●
Water can become polluted. ● Mineral salts can be leached out of the soil.
Water hardness
Hard water is water that does not lather easily with soap, whereas soft water lathers easily when
soap is added. Water hardness is caused by dissolved calcium and magnesium salts. When soap
is put into hard water containing Ca2+ or Mg2+ ions, it forms unpleasant scum.

There are two types of water hardness, temporary hardness and permanent hardness.
Prepared by Mr. Jonathan Singh

1, Temporary water hardness : Temporary hardness of water is hardness that can be removed by
boiling. Temporary hardness is caused by dissolved calcium hydrogen carbonate (Ca(HCO3)2)
and dissolved magnesium hydrogen carbonate (Mg(HCO3)2). It is found in areas rich in
limestone, i.e. calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Rainwater contains dissolved carbon dioxide. When
this rainwater passes through rocks containing calcium carbonate the dissolved carbon dioxide
reacts with the calcium carbonate forming soluble calcium hydrogencarbonate. This is shown in
the following equation: CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)  Ca(HCO3)2(aq) The soluble calcium
hydrogen carbonate then dissolves in the water making it hard. This process is responsible for
forming caves in limestone regions.
2, Permanent water hardness : Permanent hardness of water is hardness that cannot be removed
by boiling. Permanent hardness is caused by dissolved calcium sulfate (CaSO4) and dissolved
magnesium sulfate (MgSO4). Calcium sulfate and magnesium sulfate are only slightly soluble
and they dissolve in rainwater passing through rocks containing them.
Leaching : Leaching is the loss of water soluble substances from the soil as water passes through
it. When rainwater or irrigation water washes through the soil, it dissolves water soluble mineral
salts and takes the salts with it into deeper layers of the soil. This often takes the salts out of the
reach of plant roots, making the soil less fertile.
Water pollution: When water dissolves harmful substances in the environment it becomes
polluted. The main water pollutants are: ● Heavy metal ions, mainly from industry. ● Sulfur
dioxide and oxides of nitrogen which are produced during combustion dissolve in water to form
acid rain. ● Nitrate and phosphate ions present in fertilizers and detergents. ● Pesticides used in
agriculture and the control of vectors of disease. ● Organic waste from untreated sewage and
farmyards
Prepared by Mr. Jonathan Singh

Softening hard water: Water softening removes dissolved calcium and magnesium ions. It
therefore converts hard water to soft water. There are five methods of softening hard water.
1, Boiling: Boiling water only removes temporary hardness. Boiling water causes the dissolved
calcium hydrogen carbonate and magnesium hydrogen carbonate to decompose into insoluble
calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate, water and carbon dioxide. The insoluble
carbonates precipitate out of the water thus removing the calcium and magnesium ions.

2, Addition of sodium carbonate: Sodium carbonate is also known as washing soda. When added
to hard water it precipitates out the dissolved calcium and magnesium ions as insoluble calcium
carbonate and magnesium carbonate. Adding sodium carbonate removes both temporary and
permanent hardness, as shown in the following equations.
Removal of temporary hardness: e.g. Ca(HCO3)2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) CaCO3(s) + 2NaHCO3(aq)
Removal of permanent hardness: e.g. CaSO4(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) CaCO3(s) + Na2SO4(aq).These
reactions can be represented by the common ionic equation: Ca+(aq)+ CO32-(aq) CaCO3(s)
3, Ion-exchange. In an ion-exchange water softening device, water is slowly passed through an
ion-exchange column containing an ion-exchange resin known as zeolite. Zeolite is a complex
compound containing sodium ions. It can be represented by the formula Na2Z. As the water
passes through the zeolite, the calcium and magnesium ions displace the sodium ions and are
absorbed into the zeolite. The calcium and magnesium ions are, therefore, removed from the
water and the sodium ions enter the water in their place. Sodium ions do not cause water to be
hard. The calcium and magnesium ions are periodically removed from the zeolite bypassing a
highly concentrated solution of sodium chloride through it, a process known as regeneration.

4, Distillation: During distillation, water is boiled and the steam produced is condensed to form
pure distilled water. This leaves any dissolved salts and microorganisms behind. This method
can be used to desalinate sea water in areas where water is in short supply. However, it is not an
economical method since it uses a lot of energy to heat the water and a residue of solid builds up
in the heating vessel. It can be used on a small scale in areas with a lot of sunshine where solar
energy is used to heat the water in a solar still
5, Reverse osmosis: During reverse osmosis, water is forced through a semi-permeable
membrane under pressure. Only water molecules are forced through the membrane and all
Prepared by Mr. Jonathan Singh

dissolved substances remain behind on the pressurized side. This has the advantage over other
methods of softening water since it removes the ions which cause water hardness and it also
removes other ions and any dissolved organic matter. Most desalination plants make use of
reverse osmosis to desalinate sea water or brackish water to produce fresh water. Brackish water
contains more dissolved salts than fresh water, but less than sea water.