Chemistry
Water
Property
High Specific Heat
Capacity (Heat required
to raise the temperature
of 1 g of water by 1 0C)
High Heat of Vaporization
(The heat required to
change the a substance
from liquid to gas)
Relatively high melting
and boiling points
Water is a very good
solvent
Cohesion and high
surface tension: the
surface tension of water
is greater than that of all
liquids except mercury
(Their weight is
supported by the surface
tension)
Density, below 40C, the
density of water
decreases instead of
increasing
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Explanation
Water absorbs plenty of heat
and yet its temperature will rise
only slowly. When water cools,
it releases a lot of heat
A lot of heat is required for
water to change to a gas due to
the presence of hydrogen bonds
Water has higher melting and
boiling points than other similar
substances. It remains as a
liquid over the important
temperature range 00C – 1000C
The polarity of water allows it to
dissolve ionic as well as polar
covalent substances
Surface tension is the property
of water that makes it behave as
if its surface is enclosed in an
elastic skin. Hydrogen bonds
hold water molecules together.
Cohesion refers to the force of
attraction between like
molecules and it reflects the
tendency of a substance to hold
together
Above 40C water behaves like
other substances that is, as
temperature increases, it
expands and its density
decreases. Below 4oC, however,
the density of water decreases
Impacts on Living Systems and the Environment
Gradual temperature changes mean a more stable
environment for many aquatic species
Many of the chemical reactions in living things require a
liquid environment and water remains a liquid even after
absorbing a lot of heat
The temperature of large bodies of water remains
relatively constant
As water evaporates, it takes heat from the warmer
regions of the earth and transfers it to cooler regions –
when it condenses, it releases the stored heat. In this
way, the Earth’s heat is spread out keeping the
temperature more moderate
Liquid water has solvent properties which is essential for
chemical reactions of living organisms. Much of the
earth’s surface is covered in water
Many reactions in living things take place in solution.
Water provides a suitable medium for these reactions.
Plants get their nutrients from solutions in the soil. The
solvent properties of water also causes problems such as
:
- Leaching of nutrients from the soil
- Washing out of fertilizers into water bodies
causing eutrophication
- Run off of pesticides into rivers and streams
- Acid Rain
Water molecules stick together, thus, water can move as
a column up the stems of plants and move through small
blood vessels in animals. Water surface can support
some animals. Some insects for example can walk across
the water surface
When the surface temperature of lakes, for example,
falls below 0oC, ice forms on the surface, the ice
insulates the water below so it does not lose heat and
freeze. Living things can thus survive
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as the temperature decreases.

This means that ice is less dense
than liquid water and therefore
floats on the water

Consequences of the Solvent Properties of Water

Hardness of Water

Hardness in water is caused principally by the presence of dissolved calcium and magnesium salts. Water becomes hard in two
ways:

1. Rain water running over gypsum and anhydrite rocks slowly dissolves some of the calcium and magnesium sulphate
out of these rocks. Calcium and magnesium sulphate are major sources of permanent hardness in water. Permanent hardness
cannot be removed by boiling.
2. Rain water contains carbon dioxide and other acidic gases and so rain water has a pH of less than 7. Rain water
falling on chalk, limestone or marble reacts with some of these materials producing a dilute solution of calcium
hydrogencarbonate :
CaCO3 (s) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)  Ca(HCO3)2 (aq)

Dissolved calcium hydrogencarbonate is a source of temporary hardness in water. Temporary hardness can be removed by
boiling.

Leaching

Leaching is the removal of soluble substances as water percolates through the soil. Many of the nutrients in the soil can be
leached out, making them less available to the plants. Soluble fertilizers can also be removed by leaching. This can lead to
eutrophication.

Treatment of Water for Domestic Purposes

Water from natural sources is usually contaminated. Water quality varies widely with environmental conditions and level of
human activity. Contaminated water must be treated to make it both potable (safe for drinking) and palatable (pleasant to
taste)

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Green Chemistry

Green chemistry, also called sustainable chemistry is the utilization of a set of principles that reduces or eliminates the use of
generations of hazardous substances in the design, manufacture and application of chemical products.

Principles of Green Chemistry

1. Waste Prevention- Prioritize the prevention of waste rather than cleaning up and treating waster after it has been
created. Plan ahead to minimize waste at every step.
2. Atom Economy- Reduce waste at a molecular level by maximizing the number of atoms from all reagents that are
incorporated into the final product. Use atom economy to evaluate the reaction efficiency.
3. Less Hazardous Chemical Synthesis- Design chemical reactions and synthetic routes to be as safe as possible.
Consider the hazards of all substances handled during the reaction, including waste.
4. Designing safer chemicals- minimize toxicity directly by molecular design. Predict and evaluate aspects such as
physical properties, toxicity and environmental fate throughout the design process.
5. Safer Solvents and Auxiliaries- Choose the safest solvent available for any given step. Minimize the total amount of
solvent and auxiliary substances used, as these make up a large percentage of the total waste created.

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6. Design for Energy Efficiency- Choose the least energy-intensive chemical route. Avoid heating and cooling, as well
as pressurized and vacuum conditions (i.e. ambient temperature and pressure are optimal)
7. Use of Renewable Feedstocks- Use chemicals which are made from renewable sources, rather than other,
equivalent chemicals originating from petrochemical sources.
8. Reduce Derivatives- Minimize the use of temporary derivatives such as protecting groups. Avoid derivatives to
reduce reaction steps, resources required and waster created.
9. Catalysis- Use catalytic instead of stoichiometric reagents in reactions. Choose catalysts selectively, minimize
waster and reduce reaction times and energy demands.
10. Design for Degradation- Design chemicals that degrade and can be discarded easily. Ensure that both chemicals and
their degradation products are not toxic, bioaccumulative, or environmentally persistent.
11. Real-Time Pollution Prevention- Monitor chemical reactions in real-time as they occur to prevent the formation and
release of any potentially hazardous and polluting substances.
12. Safer Chemistry for Accident Prevention- Choose and develop chemical procedures that are safer and inherently
minimize the risk of accidents. Know the possible risks and access them beforehand.

Qualitative Analysis

Qualitative Analysis is the branch of chemistry that deals with the identification of elements or grouping
of elements present in a sample.

Identifying Cations

Pb2+, Al3+, Ca2+, Zn2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Cu2+, NH4+

1. Metallic Ion in Aqueous Solution

Dilute Sodium Hydroxide

a) Prepare a solution of the solid

b) Add dilute sodium hydroxide solution Dropwise. Look for a precipitate
c) Add excess sodium hydroxide solution, look for a precipitate redissolving
d) If no precipitate forms in step b, warm gently and test for ammonia

Metallic Effect of dilute sodium hydroxide

Cation Dropwise Excess
2+
Ca White Precipitate Insoluble Precipitate
Al3+ White Precipitate Soluble Precipitate- dissolve forming colourless solution
Pb2+ White Precipitate Soluble Precipitate - dissolve forming colourless solution
Zn2+ White Precipitate Soluble Precipitate - dissolve forming colourless solution
Cu2+ Blue Precipitate, turns black on heating Insoluble Precipitate

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Fe2+ Dirty Green Precipitate, turns brown on exposure Insoluble Precipitate

to air
Fe3+ Red-brown (rusty brown) precipitate Insoluble Precipitate

Explanation

The metal cations all form insoluble hydroxides with sodium hydroxide solution:

Mn+ + nOH- (aq)  M(OH)n (s)

Cu2+ + 2OH- (aq)  Cu(OH)2 (s)

Cu(OH)2, Ca(OH)2, Fe(OH)2 , Fe(OH)3 are basic and therefore do not react with excess sodium hydroxide- precipitates remain.

Al(OH)3 Pb(OH)2 Zn(OH)2 are amphoteric and therefore react with excess sodium hydroxide forming soluble salts- precipitates
disappear.

Dilute Ammonia Solution

a) Prepare a solution of the solid

b) Add dilute ammonia solution Dropwise. Look for a precipitate
c) Add excess ammonia solution, look for a precipitate redissolving

Metallic Effect of dilute ammonia solution (ammonium hydroxide)

Cation Dropwise Excess
2+
Ca No precipitate -
Al3+ White Precipitate Insoluble Precipitate
Pb2+ White Precipitate Insoluble Precipitate
Zn2+ White Precipitate Soluble Precipitate - dissolve forming colourless solution
Cu2+ Blue Precipitate Soluble precipitate- dissolves forming deep blue solution
Fe2+ Dirty Green Precipitate, turns brown on exposure to Insoluble Precipitate
air
Fe3+ Red-brown (rusty brown) precipitate Insoluble Precipitate

The amphoteric hydroxides, Al(OH)3 and Pb(OH)2 and the basic hydroxides, Fe(OH)2 and Fe(OH)3, do not react with excess
ammonia solution- precipitate remains.

However, Zn(OH)2 and Cu(OH)2, do react with excess ammonia solution forming complex soluble hydroxides so the precipitate
disappears.

2. Ammonium Ion

Effect of dilute sodium hydroxide solution

Dropwise Excess

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NH4+ No precipitate- NH3 (g) evolved on warming -

The ammonium cation does not form an insoluble hydroxide but, on heating, reacts with the hydroxide ion forming ammonia
and water.
NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)  H2O (l) + NH3 (g)

Further Confirmatory Tests

Combining tests the two above mentioned tests, the only cations which cannot be distinguished are Al 3+ and Pb2+. Use the tests
below to distinguish Al3+ and Pb2+ and to confirm other ions. Carry out all these tests on solutions of the compound.

Test Observation Cation

2+
Add potassium Iodide solution Bright Yellow Precipitate (PbI2) Pb
No precipitate Al3+
Add dilute Hydrochloric acid White precipitate, dissolves on heating, re- Pb2+
precipitates on cooling (PbCl2)
No precipitate Al3+
Add potassium hexacyanoferrate (III) Dark Blue precipitate Fe2+
solution
Add potassium hexacyanoferrate (II) Dark blue precipitate Fe3+
solution Red-Brown Precipitate Cu2+
White Precipitate Zn2+
Add potassium or ammonium thiocyanate Deep Red Solution Fe3+
solution

Identifying Anions

CO32-, SO32-, SO42-, NO3- , Cl-, Br-, I-

a) Evolution and Identification of Gases

Heated Strongly

Heat a sample of the solid in a dry test tube.

Anion Observation Explanation

CO32- CO2 (g) evolved- except (Na, K) CO32- (s)  (heat) O2- (s)+ CO2 (g)
SO32- SO2 (g) evolved SO32- (s)  (heat) O2- (s)+ SO2 (g)
SO42- SO2 (g) and SO3 (g) evolved for some SO42- (s)  (heat) 2O2- (s)+ SO2 (g)
SO42- (s)  (heat) O2- (s)+ SO3 (g)
NO3- NO2 (g) and O2 (g) evolved, only O2 (g) if 4NO3- (s)  (heat) 2O2- (s) + 4NO2 (g)+ O2 (g)
NaNO3 or KNO3 2NO3- (s)  (heat) 2NO2- (s) + O2 (g)

Treated With Dilute Acid

Add dilute hydrochloric or nitric acid to a sample of the solid. Warm if no reaction occurs when cold

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Anion Observation Explanation

CO32- CO2 (g) evolved CO32- (s) + 2H+ (aq)  H2O (l)+ CO2 (g)
SO32- SO2 (g) evolved SO32- (s) + 2H+ (aq)  H2O (l)+ SO2 (g)

Treated with Concentrated Acid

Add concentrated sulphuric acid to a sample of the solid. Warm if no reaction occurs when cold

Anion Observation Explanation

CO32- CO2 (g) evolved Carbonic acid is formed when then decomposes releasing CO 2
H2CO3  H2O (l) + CO2
SO32- SO2 (g) evolved Sulphurous acid is formed when then decomposes releasing
SO2
H2CO3  H2O (l) + CO2
Cl- HCl (g) evolved and also some Cl2 (g) if an 2Cl- (s) + H2SO4 (l)  SO42- + 2HCl (g)
oxidizing agent is present
Br- Hydrogen bromide (colourless) and brown 2Br- (s) + H2SO4 (l)  SO42- + 2HBr (g)
bromine vapour evolved HBr is then oxidized by conc. H2SO4 to Br2
I- Black iodine present and purple iodine 2I- (s) + H2SO4 (l)  SO42- + 2HI (g)
vapour evolved HI is immediately oxidized by conc. H2SO4 to I2

b) Colour and Solubility of the silver halide in aqueous ammonia

Make a solution of the solid in dilute nitric acid. Add a few drops of silver nitrate solution and observe the precipitate. Add
aqueous ammonia solution and observe the solubility of the precipitate

Anion Effect of Silver Nitrate Effect of Aqueous Ammonia

Cl- White Precipitate- turns purple in sunlight Precipitate soluble
Ag+ (aq) + Cl-  AgCl (s) white
Br- Cream Precipitate- turns yellow-green in sunlight Precipitate slightly soluble
Ag+ (aq) + Br-  AgBr (s) cream
I- Pale yellow precipitate Precipitate insoluble
Ag+ (aq) + I-  AgI (s) pale yellow

c) Colour of Precipitate formed when anion reacts with a solution containing barium ions

d) Solubility of the Precipitate formed in (c) in dilute acid

Make a solution of the solid. Add barium nitrate or chloride solution and observe the precipitate. Add dilute hydrochloric or
nitric acid, warm if necessary and observe the solubility of the precipitate

Anion Effect of Ba(NO3)2 (aq) or BaCl2 (aq) Effect of HCl (aq) or HNO3 (aq)
CO32- White Precipitate Precipitate soluble- CO2 (g) evolved
Ba2+ (aq) + CO32- (aq)  BaCO3 (s) white BaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq)  BaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2

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SO32- White Precipitate Precipitate soluble- SO2 evolved on warming

Ba2+ (aq) + SO32- (aq)  BaSO3 (s) white BaSO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq)  BaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + SO2
SO42- White Precipitate Precipitate Insoluble
Ba2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)  BaSO4 (s) white BaSO4 does not react with dilute acids

Further Tests for Nitrate Ions

Test Observations
Add concentrated sulphuric acid and copper turnings to solid. Blue solution forms and nitrogen dioxide is evolved
Warm gently
Brown Ring Test: make a solution of the solid. Add saturated iron Sulphuric acid sinks. Brown ring forms between the two
(II) sulphate solution and mix. Add concentrated sulphuric acid liquid layers
down side of test tube

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