The nervous system

The nervous system uses electrical impulses to collect, process and respond to information about the
environment.

Nervous system cells

The unique structure of neurons makes them specialized for receiving and transmitting electrical
impulses throughout the body. Neurons are supported by glial cells, which surround, protect, and
insulate them.

Diagram of a neuron

Image credit: Wikimedia, CC BY-SA 3.0

All neurons have several features in common, including a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. These
structures are important for transmitting neural impulses, electrical signals that allow neurons to
communicate with one another.

Neurons are specialized, depending on their required functions:

 Sensory neurons carry impulses from sense organs, such as the eyes or ears.

 Motor neurons carry impulses to muscles and glands.

 Interneurons transfer signals between sensory and motor neurons, as well as in between other
interneurons.

In a resting neuron, there is a separation of ions in the cell regulated by sodium-potassium pumps. If a
neuron receives a large enough signal, the resting potential changes, producing an electrical impulse
called an action potential. Once an impulse begins, it moves down the axon until it reaches the axon
terminal.

Parts of the nervous system

The nervous system is made up of two parts: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral
nervous system (PNS).

Diagram of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Image modified from Wikimedia, CC BY-SA 4.0

The CNS is made of the brain and spinal cord. Commands to the body originate in the brain and the
spinal cord connects the brain with the rest of the nerves in the body.
The PNS can be broken down into two parts:

 The somatic nervous system (SNS) regulates voluntary activities such as muscular movement. It

also controls reflexes, such as pulling your hand away from the hot surface of a stove.

 The autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates activities that are not under conscious control
and has two divisions that are opposite of one another: the sympathetic and parasympathetic
nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for “fight-or-flight”
responses, while the parasympathetic nervous system is active during restful periods.

The endocrine system

Like the nervous system, the endocrine system is a regulatory system. However, instead of using
electrical impulses for signaling, it produces and uses chemical signals called hormones, which travel
through the bloodstream and control the actions of cells and organs.

Diagram of the major endocrine glands (includes both male and female glands)

Image modified from Wikimedia, CC BY 3.0

Common hormones and glands

Hormone Gland produced in Role

Thyroid hormone Thyroid Regulates metabolism

Adrenaline
(epinephrine) Adrenal gland Involved in "fight or flight" response

Involved in "fight or flight" response, regulates

Cortisol Adrenal gland metabolism and immune responses

Sexual and reproductive development, mainly

Estrogen Ovaries in women

Testes, sometimes adrenal Sexual and reproductive development, mainly

Testosterone glands or ovaries in men

Insulin Pancreas Blood sugar regulation, fat storage

Glucagon Pancreas Blood sugar regulation

Regulation of the endocrine system

The endocrine system is regulated by negative feedback mechanisms that work to maintain
homeostasis. The concentration of hormones, and how they effect other body systems, are controlled in
this manner.

For example, blood glucose regulation is controlled by insulin and glucagon, hormones produced by

the pancreas.

When blood glucose increases, the pancreas releases insulin, which stimulates the uptake of glucose
from the blood. This prevents blood glucose from getting too high.

When blood glucose concentration drops, the pancreas releases glucagon, which stimulates the
breakdown of glycogen and releases glucose into the blood. This raises blood glucose back to normal
levels.
Negative feedback loop of blood glucose. As blood glucose increases, insulin is released, causing the
blood glucose to drop.

When the blood glucose drops, glucagon is released, resulting in an increase in blood glucose.

Blood glucose is regulated by a negative feedback loop between insulin and glucagon, two opposing
hormones made by the endocrine system.

Common mistakes and misconceptions

 While neurons are often the most recognized nervous system cell, they are not the only
ones! In fact, glial cells outnumber neurons by almost 10 times. Glial cells (also known as
neuroglia) support the neurons, guiding and protecting them, and provide myelin sheaths
around their axons.
Image from Wikimedia, CC BY 3.0

 Hormones are not just part of the reproductive system. Although there are reproductive
hormones, such as testosterone and estrogen, most hormones are not involved in or regulated
by the reproductive system. Many hormones control regular body functions, such as hunger or
sleepiness.

 Although both the endocrine system and the nervous system are both regulatory, there are a
few fundamental differences. For one, the endocrine system uses chemical signaling
(hormones, produced by glands) while the nervous system uses electrical signaling (neural
impulses). The signal transmission of the nervous system is fast because neurons are
interconnected, but the functions are more short-lived. Signal transmission in the endocrine
system is slow, since hormones must travel through the bloodstream, but the responses tend to
last longer.