Fundamentals of Water: Welcome

LEARNING
THE WAY WATER
IS MANAGED Business Growth in an
Era of Water Scarcity

Impurities in Water &

Water Problems
Learning Objectives

By the end of this module, you will be able to:

Describe the water cycle

Identify different types of impurities that contaminate pure water

Name the two natural sources of water for industrial plant use

State the factors and effects of scale formation

Briefly describe different methods to minimize scale

Explain how corrosion occurs

Describe the types of corrosion

Identify the factors affecting the corrosion rate

Briefly describe different methods to minimize corrosion

Define fouling and describe the factors affecting fouling

Briefly describe four methods to prevent fouling

Describe the three kinds of microorganisms that contaminate cold

water systems

Explain how to prevent microbiological growth in cooling systems

Impurities in Water

Anything in water that is not H2O is an impurity!

Water chemistry:

• Defines impurities
• Sets specifications for acceptable levels of
each impurity
• Devises economical treatment methods to
reach the quality limits

The terms impurity, contamination, and pollution are subjective qualities of water. Normally a
contaminant is considered a pollutant when its presence and concentration are harmful either to aquatic
life or to public health.
The Water Cycle

The water cycle describes the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the
surface of the earth.
Universal Solvent

Rain is water in its purest natural form which becomes

contaminated by three types of impurities.

Minerals Air Earth

Dissolved Solids Dissolved Gases Suspended Solids

Dissolved Solids

When a mineral dissolves in water, its ions dissociate in the solution.

Examples of Dissolved Ions

Ions Effects on water
Bicarbonate Provides buffer capacity or alkalinity,
potential for scale
Calcium Potential for scale

Magnesium Potential for scale

Silica Potential for scale

Chloride Potential for corrosion

Sulfate Potential for scale and corrosion

Sodium Highly soluble in water

Dissolved Gases

Each gas has its own solubility limit in water. Some gases react with water producing more acidic or more basic conditions.

The solubility of gases decreases with increase in temperature.

Relative composition of atmosphere

21% Oxygen

1% Others
(e.g. Carbon
Dioxide)

78% Nitrogen

Oxygen is highly corrosive when present in hot water. Even small concentrations can cause serious problems.

The low pH resulting from the reaction of water and Carbon dioxide enhances the corrosive effect of oxygen
Suspended Solids

Matter that is not truly soluble can also be suspended in water.

Colloids are extremely small particles, slightly

larger than ions and molecules suspended in
the liquid.

Example: Milk is an emulsified colloid of liquid

butterfat globules dispersed within a water-based
solution.

Electric charges on the surface of almost all matter

(glass, steel, plastic, etc.) can lead to the
development of high surface voltage.

The high surface charge of colloidal particles

causes them to repel one another maintaining
stability of the dispersion.
Organic Compounds

Organic molecules contain carbon, usually hydrogen, and often other atoms
such as oxygen.

Organics can be:

• Extremely soluble in water (alcohol and sugar)

• Insoluble in water (oils and fats)

Certain organics may:

• Foul water systems

• Act as food for bacteria
• Have harmful effects on aquatic life
Biological Organisms

Water, which is essential for life, is the home of many organisms.

The Legionella bacteria must be mentioned in particular at this point.

Legionella is a potentially pathogenic bacteria:

• Common in many natural waterways

• Sometimes found in cooling/ domestic

cold water systems, where they survive
and grow

• Cause Legionellosis (Legionnaires’ disease

and Pontiac fever)
Water Sources

Two natural sources of water for industrial plant use:

Surface Water Well Water

Present in rivers and Present in wells:
lakes: • High dissolved solids
• Low dissolved solids
• Low suspended solids
• High suspended solids
• Relatively constant
• Changes in water quality/temperature
quality due to seasons
and weather
What is Scale?

Scale formation occurs when minerals

come out of solution and form hard,
dense crystals.
A scale deposit can consist of a single
mineral, two or more minerals or it can be
a combination of minerals and other
contaminants such as silt or
microorganisms.
What Causes Scale?

Factors affecting the formation of scale:

1 Mineral Concentration
Suspended Solids 4
Supersaturation (more
Suspended solids can
minerals in water than the
“seed” the formation of
water can hold in solution)
new scale.
leads to scale formation.

Water Flow
5
Velocity
2 Water Temperature
Low water flow
velocities increase the An increase in
tendency to form scale. temperature causes
precipitation of common
scale forming substances.

Metallurgy 6
Mild steel surfaces are
rough and easier to scale.
Copper surfaces are smooth
and scale less quickly.
3 Water pH
An increase in pH
increases the tendency
for scale formation.
How Does Scale Affect My Plant?

Buildup of scale deposit can result in:

• Decreased ability of the water to take away heat from the process
• Under deposit corrosion leading to metal failure
• Eventually shutdown of the plant

Effects of scale formation:

• Decreased plant efficiency

• Reduced productivity
• Delayed production schedule
• Increased downtime for
maintenance
• Increased cost of equipment repair
or replacement
 Water Problems
7 of 16

What Can I Do To Prevent Scale?

There are four basic ways to prevent scale.

1. Limit the concentration of the scale 3 Make mechanical changes to the system
forming minerals . design
Changes to avoid mineral scale are:
Two methods:
• Increase water velocity
• Pre-treating the makeup water
• Avoid too high surface temperatures
• Increasing the blowdown from the system to limit
the concentration of the troublesome minerals

2. Feed acid to reduce pH and alkalinity 4. Apply chemical scale inhibitors

Antiscalants are chemicals that prevent the build-up of
mineral scale .
This will reduce the tendency for scale formation.

This will increase the potential for corrosion.

What is Corrosion?

Corrosion is the mechanism by which processed metals revert

back to their natural oxidized state.
How Does Corrosion Work?

Corrosion is an electro-chemical reaction with an anode, a cathode, and an electrical circuit

between them.
Types of Corrosion

More
Water Water noble
Water
metal

Metal Metal Metal

General Pitting Galvanic

A large amount of metal Specifically targets one
gets corroded evenly area of the metal
throughout the system. structure.
Loss of metal from a small
area results in a deep hole
or pit.
Results in rapid failure of
the metal.
Occurs when two different
metals are located together
in a corrosive electrolyte.
The anode corrodes faster
than it would alone.
The cathode deteriorates
more slowly than it would
otherwise.
Galvanic Series

The Galvanic Series ranks the

most common industrial metals
according to their tendency for
corrosion.
What Causes Corrosion?

Factors affecting the corrosion rate:

1 Water pH
System Deposits 4
Corrosion rate increases as
Deposits of scale, dirt, the pH of water drops
corrosion products,
microbiological matter, and
other foulants provide a
perfect location for corrosion

2 Water Temperature
Water Velocity 5
The chemical reaction
• Decrease causes
rate doubles for every
deposit formation
• Increase causes erosion 18ºF (10ºC) increase in
type corrosion water temperature

Microbiological 6
3 Dissolved Solids
Growth
Microbial activity increases The higher the dissolved
corrosion by: solids, the higher the rate
• Allowing under deposit corrosion of conductivity and
• Producing highly corrosive corrosion
by-products
How Does Corrosion Affect My Plant?

Corrosion should be controlled to maximize the life expectancy of the system.

Effects of corrosion:

• Destroys the system metal

• Produces deposits which reduce heat transfer
efficiency
• Leads to leaks in the equipment
• Causes process side and water side
contamination
• Leads to increase in water usage
• Increases maintenance and cleaning frequency
• Results in repairs/replacement of the
equipment
• Results in unscheduled shutdown of plant
• Leads to reduced production
• Affects product quality due to heat transfer loss
What Can I Do To Prevent Corrosion?

Controlling or minimizing corrosion

1. Use corrosion resistant 3. Apply protective films

alloys
Corrosion resistant alloys become
an expensive alternative once the
cooling system is built.
a. Physical coatings (paints)
b. Pre-treating system metallurgy through chemical
passivation programs after mechanical or chemical
cleaning.

2. Adjust the system pH 4. Apply corrosion inhibitors

a. Anodic corrosion inhibitors work to stop the corrosion cell by blocking
Increase in pH will: the anodic site. They include:

• Nitrite • Orthophosphate • Silicate • Molybdate

Reduce the corrosion rate

b. Cathodic corrosion inhibitors work to stop the corrosion cell by

blocking the electrochemical reaction at the cathode. They include:
Increase the scaling potential
• Bicarbonates • Polysilicates • PSO
• Polyphosphates • Zinc • Other phosphonates

c. General inhibitors work to protect metal by filming all surfaces whether

they are anodic or cathodic. They include:

• Soluble oils • Tolyltriazole • Benzotriazole

What is Fouling?

Fouling is the accumulation of solids material, other than scale, that hampers the operation of
equipment or contributes to its deterioration.

Sources of Fouling Materials

Source Foulant
Makeup water Silt, sand, mud, and iron

Air Dust, dirt, crops, leaves, etc.

Internal containments Process containments, oils, corrosion

products, microbiological growth

Fouling materials form a deposit on metal surfaces that

interferes with the flow of water and heat transfer.
What Causes Fouling?
Factors affecting fouling:
Corrosion
Corrosion products
can cause fouling
Microbiological 5
Growth
Biofilms act as a
collection site for silt
and dirt deposits
Process
Contamination
Leakage of process
materials from heat
exchangers produces
fouling problems
1 Water Characteristics
4
Potential for contamination
from various sources
2 Water Temperature
Tendency for fouling
increases with increase
in temperature
6
3 Water Flow Velocity
Low flow rates cause
fouling due to natural
settling of suspended solids
How Does Fouling Affect My Plant?

Foulants tend to form deposits in hot areas and in low flow areas of the system providing an ideal
area for under deposit corrosion.

Effects of fouling:

• Decreased plant efficiency

• Reduced productivity
• Delayed production schedule
• Increased downtime for maintenance
• Increased cost of equipment repair or
replacement
• Reduced effectiveness of chemical inhibitors
(deposits on surface prevent corrosion film
from forming)
What Can I Do To Prevent Fouling?
There are four basic ways to prevent fouling.
1. Prevention
Steps to prevent foulants from entering the system are:
• Controlling the clarification of the makeup water
• Controlling corrosion, scale, and microbiology
• Changing water sources
• Fixing leaks of process contaminants
2. Reduction
Control the level of foulants present in the water by:
• Increasing the system blowdown
• Installing a side stream filter:
 Filters about 5% of the recirculating water flow
 Removes dirt and other suspended solids from
the water
 Is cleaned by backwashing
3. Ongoing control
• Back flushing: Removal of accumulated material from “dead
spots” by reversing the water flow through heat exchangers
• Baffling: Baffles carefully placed in shell side heat
exchangers help to maintain turbulent flow, reducing the
change from foulants to deposit.
• Air rumbling: Removal of accumulated material by injecting
pressurized air into the water flow of an exchanger
• Cooling tower basin vacuuming: The tower basin is a quiet
zone where it is desirable for foulants to settle out of the
water. Periodic vacuuming the basin prevents foulants from
building up and returning back to the system.
4. Chemical treatment
Chemical agents that
will help to remove
foulants from the metal
surface can be
compared to
detergents used in dish
washers.
What is Microbiological Growth?

Cold water systems are the ideal environment for microorganisms to live and breed.

Three kinds of microorganisms that can be troublesome to cold water systems are:

Bacteria Algae Fungi

Bacteria

Bacteria are the most dangerous microorganisms that thrive in Slime Forming Bacteria:
cooling water.
• Grow in cooling tower basins and heat
They live in different parts of the system because of their exchangers
differing needs.
• Secrete a jelly-like substance to protect their
colony that:
 Makes them difficult to destroy
 Traps other materials

• Cause serious fouling problems very quickly

Bacteria (Continued)

Anaerobic Corrosive Bacteria: Iron Depositing Bacteria:

• Can exist without oxygen • Feed on dissolved iron found in well water

• Grow under the other deposits • Turn it into a heavy reddish-brown deposit which:

• Convert nutrients into corrosive acids which cause

 Causes fouling problems
corrosion of the system metal  Acts as a shelter for anaerobic corrosive
bacteria

Nitrifying Bacteria: Denitrifying Bacteria:

• Convert ammonia into nitric acid that: • Reduce nitrite and nitrate to nitrogen and ammonia
 Lowers the pH of the cooling water • Cause excessive losses of nitrite corrosion inhibitor
 Causes corrosion
Algae

Algae:

• Live in open areas of cooling towers

exposed to sunlight

• Grow from a microscopic cell into a large

algae mat

• Plug water flow on top of the cooling tower

and foul the equipment.

• Provide shelter for anaerobic corrosive

bacteria even after death
Fungi

Fungi:

• Are microorganisms that use the carbon in

wood cellulose for their food

• Cause surface or internal rotting of the

wooden structure of the cooling tower

• Can cause the collapse of an entire cooling

tower due to deep wood rot
What Causes Microbiological Growth?

A cooling system provides the ideal environment for microbiological growth.

Sources include air being pulled through the cooling tower and the makeup water.

Their growth in the cooling tower is affected by:

Nutrients: Ammonia, oil,

organic contaminants

Acceptable temperature:
70-140ºF ( 21-60ºC)

pH (6.0 - 9.0 is the ideal condition)

Location (Light/No Light)

Atmosphere
(Aerobic/Anaerobic)
How Does Microbiological Growth Affect My
Plant?
Bacteria, algae, and fungi cause different problems as each grows in a different area of the water system.

Common problems associated with microorganisms

MICROORGANISM LOCATION COMMON PROBLEMS

BACTERIA Tower basin, heat Form sticky slime masses that foul
(Slime forming) exchangers and cause reduced heat transfer

BACTERIA Under other deposits/dead Produce acidic waste that lowers pH

(Anaerobic pipes and causes corrosion
corrosive)
BACTERIA Cooling systems fed with Produce large volumes of iron
(Iron depositing) well water as makeup deposits
that foul
BACTERIA Ammonia contaminated Produce acids from ammonia that
(Nitrifying) systems increase corrosion and lower pH

BACTERIA Closed loops Consume corrosion inhibitor

(Denitrifying)

ALGAE Cooling tower decks and • Plug distribution holes on tower

surface areas deck
• Act as food for other organisms
• Cause fouling
FUNGI Cooling tower lumber Cause deep and surface rot of wood
and loss of structural integrity of
tower
What Can I Do To Prevent Microbiological
Growth?
Controlling microbiological growth is the key to a successful cooling water treatment program. The environment in the cooling water should
be made hostile for microorganisms to ensure that they do not survive.

1. Water quality
If there is no food
The survival of the microorganisms depends on the availability of a proper food source. there will be no
microorganisms!
Steps should be taken to minimize the nutrient source present in the organic contaminants.

2. System design considerations 3. Chemical treatment

A. Oxidizing Biocides
Considerations in the system design that
determine the growth of microorganisms are: a. “Burn up” microorganisms they come in contact with
b. Include chlorine, bromine, chlorine dioxide, ozone, and
• Using plastic fill and mist eliminators to sodium hypochlorite
reduce problems with fungi
c. Dosage needs to be adjusted to obtain a free oxidant residual
• Covering tower decks to inhibit growth of
B. Non-Oxidizing Biocides
algae
a. Are toxic to microorganisms when applied at moderate to
• Avoid using materials that harbor bacteria high dosages
and other organisms, or provide nutrients b. Require a minimum amount of contact time to kill
for microbial growth
C. Bio-dispersants
a. Help oxidizing/non-oxidizing biocides work more effectively
Aspects of Non-oxidizing Biocides

Aspects of non-oxidizing biocides:

• It is vital for a successful non-oxidizing biocide program that the microorganisms are exposed to the
correct type of biocide for a correct time at the required lethal dose.
Biodispersants

Biodispersants prevent microbial buildup by:

• Breaking up the existing deposits of microorganisms and exposing more of the biomass to the biocide

• Making it more difficult for microorganisms to attach themselves to metal surfaces

Monitoring and Control

Proper monitoring and controlling is important for effective application of a biocide program.

Microbial culture counts of cooling water can be used to measure the effectiveness of a particular
biocide dosage and the biocide dosage can be adjusted if the count is too high.
Summary

Anything in water that is not H2O is a contaminant or impurity.

The water cycle describes the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the earth.

Different types of impurities that contaminate pure water are:

• Dissolved minerals
• Dissolved gases
• Suspended solids
• Organic Compounds
• Biological Organisms

There are two natural sources of water for industrial plant: Surface and well water.

Scale formation occurs when minerals come out of solution and form hard, dense crystals.

Failure to control mineral scale formation can result in shutdown of the plant.

Four basic ways to prevent scale include:

• Limiting the concentration of the scale forming minerals

• Feeding acid to reduce pH and alkalinity
• Making mechanical changes to the system design
• Applying chemical scale inhibitors
Summary (Continued)

Corrosion is the mechanism by which processed metals revert back to their natural oxidized state.

There are three major types of corrosion: General, Pitting, and Galvanic.

The factors that affect the corrosion rate include water pH, water temperature, dissolved solids, system deposits, water velocity, and
microbiological growth.

Corrosion can be minimized by using corrosion resistant alloys, adjusting the system pH, applying protective films, and applying
corrosion inhibitors.

Fouling is the accumulation of solids material, other than scale, that hampers the operation of equipment or contributes to its
deterioration.

The factors that affect fouling include water characteristics, water temperature, water flow velocity, corrosion, microbiological growth,
and process contamination.

Fouling can be addressed by prevention, reduction, ongoing control, and chemical treatment.

The three kinds of microorganisms that are troublesome to cold water systems are bacteria, algae, and fungi.

Controlling microbiological growth is the key to a successful cooling water

treatment program.