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LECTURE-93
SEMICONDUCTORS & ELECTRONIC DEVICES

P-N Junction Diode : If a P-type semiconductor is suitably joined to a N-type semiconductor, the
junction is called P-N junction and device so formed is called P-N junction diode (see figure).

PN
When no external source of voltage is connected to diode, it is called unbiased. As the concentration
of electrons (number of electrons per unit volume) is more compared to holes in N-type semiconductor
and in P-type semiconductor, the concentration of holes is more than concentration of electrons, so
as P-N junction is formed, due to concentration difference across p-side and n-side, electrons diffuse
from n-side to p-side and holes diffuse from p-side to n-side. This motion of charge across junction
corresponds to a current which is known as diffusion current. The direction of this diffusion current
is from p-side to n-side and diffusion current across the junction is due to majority charge carriers.

When an electron diffuses from n  p, it leaves behind an ionised donor on n-side. This ionised
donor (positive charge) is immobile as it is bonded to the surrounding atoms. As the electrons continue
to diffuse from n  p, a layer of positive charge on a n-side of junction is developed. Similarly when
a hole diffuses from n  p due to concentration difference, it leaves behind an ionised acceptor
(negative charge) which is immobile. As the holes continue to diffuse, a layer of negative charge on
the p-side of junction is developed.

–+
–+
–+
P –+
–+
–+
–+
N
This space charge region on the either side of junction together is known as depletion region as the
electrons and holes taking part in the initial movement across junction depleted the region of its
free charges.

Due to charge distribution in the depletion region, an electric field directed from positive charge
towards negative charge develops. This electric field has a tendency to push electron towards n-side.
So as electron hole pair is formed in this region due to thermal excitation, free electron is pushed
towards N-side and hole towards P-side. This movement of charge across junction under the influence
of this electric field corresponds to a current known as drift current. Direction of drift current is
from N-side to P-side and drift current across junction is due to minority charge carries. This drift
current is opposite in direction to the diffusion current. The electric field in the depletion region
opposes diffusion current and supports drift current.
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Initially diffusion current is large and drift current is small. As the diffusion process continues the
space charge regions on either side of junction extend and the strength of electric field goes on
increasing and as a result diffusion current goes on decreasing and drift current goes on increasing.
This process continues until the diffusion current equals the drift current. Thus in the P-N junction
under equilibrium there is no net current and due to electric field in depletion region, the positive
end of depletion layer is at high potential and the negative end at low potential. The potential
difference developed in equilibrium is known as potential barrier.
Electron diffusion
Electron drift
+ +
+ +

P +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
N
Deplition Region

Hole diffision
Hole drift

+ +
+ +

P +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
N
Diffusion Current
Drift Current

 Junction diode is said to be biased when some external potential difference is applied across it. Biasing
can be in two ways :

(i) Forward Biasing : When external potential difference applied is such that P side is at higher
potential and N-side is at lower potential, the biasing is said to be forward. The case is as shown

+ +
+ +

P +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
N
E2 is the field in deplition region when bising was not there. E1 is the field developed due to
external potential difference. The applied forward potential is opposite to potential barrier of
deplition region, therefore potential barrier is decreased. The applied field is opposite to field of
potential barrier hence resultant field is weekened. A small forward voltage is sufficient to
overcome the potential barrier. Once it is eliminated, junction resistance is reduced to zero
and a low resistance path is generated in the circuit. An ideal P-N junction is assumed to have
zero ohmic potential drop across it.

The voltage at which the current starts to increase rapidly is called the knee voltage of diode.
At knee voltage deplition layer vanishes and potential barrier become zero. If the diode voltage
is more than knee voltage, it conducts easily, otherwise it conducts poorly. for Germanium diode,
Vknee = 0.3volt and for silicon diode, Vknee = 0.7 volt.
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V-I graph in forward biasing is as shown

V
Knee voltage

In forward biasing, negative terminal of battery supplies electrons to the N region which move
towards the junction. In N region, electrons move as free electrons and as they cross junction,
they combine with holes and become valence electrons and in the P region, these valence
electrons move from hole to hole and as a result holes move in opposite direction. These valence
electrons moving in the p region, after reaching at the end of crystal, flow into the positive
terminal of battery. In internal circuit current in N region is due to movement of electrons and
in the P-region due to movement of holes. But in external circuit, the current is due to movement
of free electrons.

(ii) Reverse Biasing : When external potential difference is such that N side is at higher potential
and P side is at lower potential as shown :

+ +
+ +

P +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
N
In reverse biasing, the applied reverse voltage establishes an electric field which acts in the
same direction as the electric field in the potential barrier. Therefore the height of potential
barrier is increased. The increased potential barrier prevents the flow of majority charge carrier
across the junction. Hence the junction offers a very high resistance to current flow. In ideal P-
N junction, it is assumed that no current flows in reverse biasing. But in actual practice a very
small current does flow because increased electric field in deplition region opposes diffusion
current but supports drift current. So a very small current = drift current – diffusion current
flows. But as drift current is due to minority charge carriers so it almost remain constant with
increase of voltage and this small current is termed as reverse saturation current.

In reverse biasing at some value of applied voltage, breakdown of diode takes place, and the
corresponding voltage is called breakdown voltage. Beyond the breakdown voltage, a small
increase in voltage brings a large increase in current as due to breakdown, there is huge increase
in the number of charge carriers. The breakdown mechanism can takes place in two ways.

(i) As a small current (reverse satuation current) due to minority carriers is flowing in reverse
biasing, so with increase in voltage drift velocity of minority carries goes on increasing. the
collision of these minority carriers with atomic structure result in an ionization process. The
valence electrons absorb sufficient energy in these collisions and leave the parent atom. These
additional carriers help the ionisation process and a very high current is established. This way
of breakdown is known as Avalanche breakdown
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(ii) In reverse biasing there is a strong electric field in the region of junction that can break the
bonds with in the atom and generate charge carriers. This mechanism of breakdown is known
as Zener Breakdown.

V – I graph in reverse biasing is as shown:

breakdown voltage I
V
reverse saturation
current

Note: that due to forward biasing, width of deplition layer decreases while in reverse biasing, it
increases.

 Diode as Half wave Rectifier : Following figure shows the rectification circuit.

Vin ~ RL Vout

Vin

Vout

The a.c. input voltage, diode and load resistance RL are connected in series. During positive half
cycle of input, end P is positive and end Q is negative, so diode is forward biased and it conducts
current without any appreciable resistance. So same voltage appears across load RL. During negative
half cycle of input a.c. voltage the diode becomes reverse biased. A reverse biased diode does not
allow current to pass through it and therefore negative half cycle does not appear on lead RL. The
behaviour of diode is like a switch. When the diode is forward biased, the switch is 'ON ' and the
current can pass, where as for reverse biased diode the switch is 'OFF'
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Diode as Full wave rectifier:

There are two commonly used circuits for full wave rectification as :

(i) Centre tap full wave rectifier : Two diodes are used in this circuit as shown :
D1
A

Vout
Vout
AC D1 D2 D1 D2
supply t
O
RL

B
D2

Input a.c. supply is fed to primary of transformer. The secondary coil is tapped at its centre O,
so that across OA and OB, same a.c. is available. The diodes are connected in such a way that
voltage appearing across upper half OA is utilized by diode D1 and voltage appearing across lower
half OB is utilised by diode D2. During the positive half cycle, and A is positive and end B is
negative, so diode D1 is forward biased and D2 is reverse biased. Therefore diode D1 conducts
and D2 offers infinite resistance to current during first half cycle. during negative half cycle
end A is negative and end B is positive. Consquently diode D2 is forward biased and conducts
current, whereas diode D1 is reverse biased and it does not conduct.

The current through load RL is in the same direction irrespective of which diode conducts. There
fore a rectified full wave is obtained across load RL.

 In a centre tap full wave rectifier, it is difficult to locate the centre tap on the secondary winding,
which can be overcome in bridge rectifier.

(ii) Full wave bridge rectifier : The circuit is as shown in figure. Four diodes D1, D2, D3 and D4 are
used in the circuit.
A
D1 D2

P Q
RL

D4 D3

B
~
During positive half cycle the end P is positive and end Q is negative, the diodes D1 and D3 are forward
biased, they can conduct current whereas D2 and D4 are reverse biased, offering infinite resistance
and the current flows from P  A  B  Q.

During negative half cycle end P becomes negative and end Q is positive. The diodes D2 and D4 are
forward biased and D1, D3 are reverse biased and current flows from Q  A  B  P.

Current in the load flows from A to B in both half cycles and in this way full wave rectified supply
will be observed across load RL.

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