1.

define antigen: antigens are foreign molecules(usually protein) that can

generate immune response when detected by the body
2. describe phagocytosis:
a. recognse antigen
b. engulf pathogen
c. enclose in vacuole(phagosome
d. fuses with lysosome
e. lysosome contain enzyme (hydrolytic enzyme) -> hydrolyse pathogen
f. antigen (from virus) are displayed on the cell membrane
3. define antibody:a protein which binds to specific antigens to form
antigen-antibody complex made from b-cells
4. monoclonal antibody : identical to b-cells
5. define pathogen: any microorganism which can cause disease
6. explain why antibodies are only effective against a specific pathogen
a. antibody is protein which have a unique tertiary structure
b. that is complementary to 1 type of antigen only(antigens also have a
specific shape
7. Describe how HIV is replicated.(4 marks)
a. attachment protein bind to t helper cell receptor protein
b. Rna goes inside to the host cell
c. reverse transcriptase makes double strand dna from rna
d. insert human dna
e. viral protein assemble and released
8. When a vaccine is given to a person, it leads to the production of antibodies
against a disease-causing organism. Describe how.(5)
vaccine contain antigen
macrophage have the antigen on its surface
binds to a T helper cell with complementary receptor protein
T helper cell activates the B-cell clones itself
complementary to antigen
b-cell release lots of antibody
and the clone of b-cell(plasma cell) also produce the same antibody
b-cell to memory cell and release ab faster when inflected
8.Describe the difference between active and passive immunity
active involve memory cell but passive does not
active takes longer time to have protection than passive
active have the process of produce antibody from memory cell
passive introduced into the body from vaccines or breast milk…
active have a long term protection because antibody is produced
passive short term because antibody given broken down
9.Suggest and explain two further investigations that should be done before this
ADC is tested on human breast cancer patients
test on other mammals for safety
investigate different conc to find the suitable dose
 test on healthy human repeat the epxperiment
10.Suggest and explain how the viruses became able to infect other species of frog.
mutation in genetic materials
alter the shape of attachment protein
can bind with receptor of other species
11.
Antibody has specific tertiary structure
Complementary (shape / fit) to receptor protein
Prevents GF binding
1.Describe and explain one feature of the alveolar epithelium that makes the
epithelium well adapted as a surface for gas exchange. Do not refer to surface area
or moisture in your answer
Single layer of cells; Reduces diffusion distance/Permeable; 4. Allows diffusion of
oxygen/carbon dioxide
2.Explain two ways in which the structure of fish gills is adapted for efficient gas
exchange.
● large surface area provided by lamellae and gill filament
● thin layer of cell (capillaries in lamellae) = short diffusion pathway
3.Explain how the counter current mechanism in fish gills ensures the maximum
amount of the oxygen passes into the blood flowing through the gills.
● water and blood flow in opposite direction
● to make sure the O2 conc in water > blood
● to maintain a steep conc gradient along the whole length
4.Explain three ways in which an insect’s tracheal system is adapted for efficient gas
exchange.
● tracheole have thin ways so short diffusion pathway
● large number of tracheole gives high SA
● highly branched tracheole short diffusion pathway to the cell
● tracheal provide full tube of air so fast diffusion
● rhythmic abdominal to maintain concentration gradient for oxygen
5.The damselfly larva is a carnivore that actively hunts prey. It has gills to obtain
oxygen from water. Explain how the presence of gills adapts the damselfly to its way
of life.
● high metabolic rate = more respiration= more oxygen required
7.Describe and explain the mechanism that causes lungs to fill with air.
● Diaphragm (muscle) contracts and external intercostal muscles contract;
Ignore ribs move up and out
● (Causes volume increase and) pressure decrease;
● Air moves down a pressure gradient
● – trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli
8.Explain why death of alveolar epithelium cells reduces gas exchange in human
lungs.
● Reduced surface area;
● Increased distance for diffusion;
● Reduced rate of gas exchange;
9,Use your knowledge of gas exchange in leaves to explain why plants grown in soil
with very little water grow only slowly.
● Stomata close;
● Less carbon dioxide (uptake) for less photosynthesis/glucose production
10.Describe the pathway taken by an oxygen molecule from an alveolus to the
blood.
● (Across) alveolar epithelium;
● Endothelium / epithelium of capillary;

1.Using the information provided, explain how two features of the body of the tubifex
worm allow efficient gas exchange
● Thin/small so short diffusion pathway
● Flat/long/small/thin so large surface area to volume ratio
2.Explain the advantage for larger animals of having a specialised system that
facilitates oxygen uptake.
● Large(r) organisms have a small(er) surface area:volume
● Overcomes long diffusion pathway
3.Use your knowledge of surface area to volume ratio to explain the higher metabolic
rate of a mouse compared to a h-*-orse
● larger surface area to volume ratio
● More/faster heat loss
● respiration/metabolism releases heat
4.explain why cant draw conclusion
no statistic information
information lack
cant compare the stages
5.