G1

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

· The characteristics of the building materials that

can be observed and measured without
changing its chemical properties.
· Properties of materials that are checked and 5. Density index
tested based on the quality and condition of the · Ratio of bulk density of material to its density is
materials without external force. termed as density index. Hence it gives the volume of
solid matter in the material.
1. Bulk density · In nature, fully dense material is not available, so
2. Porosity the density index is always less than 1 for any building
3. Durability material.
4. Density 6. Specific gravity
5. Density index 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
6. Specific gravity 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
7. Fire resistance · Specific gravity of some materials is listed below.
8. Frost resistance
9. Weathering resistance
10. Spalling resistance
11. Water absorption
12. Water permeability
13. Hygroscopicity
14. Coefficient softening 7. Fire resistance
15. Refractoriness · The ability to withstand fire without changing its
shape and other properties.
1. Bulk Density · It is the ability of a material to resist the action of
· Bulk density is the ratio of mass to the volume of fire without significant deformation and strength loss.
the material in its natural state that includes voids and 8. Frost resistance
pores. · The ability of a material to resist freezing or
· It is expressed in kg/m3. thawing is called frost resistance.
· The bulk density of a material governs its properties · It depends upon the density and bulk density of
such as strength, heat conductivity, permeability, etc. material.
· Bulk density values of some of the engineering 9. Weathering resistance
materials are given below. · The property of a material to withstand all
atmospheric actions without losing its strength and
shape.
10. Spalling resistance
· The ability of a material to undergo a certain
number of cycles of sharp temperature variations
without failing is known as spalling resistance.
· It is dependent on the coefficient of linear
expansion.
11. Water absorption
2. Porosity · The capacity of a material to absorb and retain
· Porosity gives the volume of the material water in it is known as water absorption.
occupied by pores. · It depends on the size, shape and number of
· It is the ratio of volume of pores to the volume of pores of material.
material. · It is mathematically defined as the ratio of weight
· Porosity influences many properties like thermal of water absorbed by the material to its total volume,
conductivity, strength, bulk density, durability etc. including volume of pores, expressed as a
3. Durability percentage.
· The property of a material to withstand the 12. Water permeability
combined action of atmospheric and other factors is · The ability of a material to permit water through
known as durability of material. it is called water permeability.
· Durable materials retain their original form, quality · Dense materials like glass metals etc. are called
and serviceability when exposed to the environment. impervious materials which cannot allow water
4. Density through it.
· Density is the ratio of mass of the material to its 13. Hygroscopicity
volume in a homogeneous state. · Hygroscopicity is the property of a material to
· Almost all the physical properties of materials are absorb water vapor from the air.
influenced by its density values. · The hygroscopicity of a material depends on
· Density values of some building materials are factors such as its porosity, size of pores, surrounding
given below.
 conditions including relative humidity, air
temperature, etc. Elastic limit Proportional limit
14. Coefficient of softening
· Coefficient of softening of a material is the ratio
of compressive strength of a saturated material to its It is defined as the It is defined as the point
compressive strength in dry state. point up to which up to which the stress
· It affects the strength of water absorbent materials the material and the strain are directly
like soil. remains elastic proportional
15. Refractoriness
· This refers to the property of a material which
cannot melt or lose its shape at prolonged high
temperatures (1580 degree Celsius or more).

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

● HARDNESS
The mechanical properties of materials define the Property of a material to resist penetration by
behavior of materials under the action of external forces another material is known as hardness. It
called loads. embraces many different properties such as
resistance to wear, scratching, deformation etc.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Hardness measurement methods

● STRENGTH 1. Moh‘s scale

● ELASTICITY
● TOUGHNESS 2. Vicker‘s hardness
● PLASTICITY
● DUCTILITY 3. Rockwell hardness
● HARDNESS
● BRITTLENESS 4. Knoop test
● CREEP
● MALLEABILITY 5. Brinell hardness
● FATIGUE
● IMPACT STRENGTH
● ABRASION RESISTANCE

● STRENGTH
Strength of the materials refers to the ability of a
material to resist the externally applied forces
(tensile, compressive and shear forces) without
breaking or yielding.

● TOUGHNESS

● ELASTICITY It is the ability of a material to withstand bending without

It is the property of materials to regain its original
shape after deformation when the external
forces are removed.
2 SUB PROPERTY
fracture due to high impact loads.
It is also measured by the amount of energy that a unit
volume of the material has absorbed after being stressed
up to failure point and is the area under stress strain curve.
 ● CREEP
When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high
temperature for a long period of time, it will undergo a slow
and permanent deformation is called creep.
It is the ability of a surface to resist being worn away by
rubbing or friction.
FACTORS including materials and surface finishing,
aggregate hardness, mix proportions, aggregate/paste
bond, and placing and compaction.

● PLASTICITY THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

It is the ability of material to undergo some degree of Thermal properties are those of a substance that are
permanent deformation without rupture or failure. related to its heat conductivity. In other words, these are
the qualities that a material exhibits when heat is applied
● DUCTILITY to it.

It is the property of a material which enables it to draw out HEAT CAPACITY

into thin wire with the application of a tensile force.
● BRITTLENESS
Breaking of a material with little permanent distortion
simply states the property of brittleness.
It is also a tendency of a material to fracture when
subjected to shock loading or a blow.
The heat capacity is an extensive property that describes
how much heat energy it takes to raise the temperature of
a given system.
The amount of heat required necessary to increase the
temperature by 1 degree, (1K or 1°C).
Two ways to measure heat capacity:
● Cp : Heat capacity at constant pressure.
● Cv : Heat capacity at constant volume.

● MALLEABILITY

It is the ability of materials to be rolled, flattened or

hammered into thin sheets without cracking by hot or cold
working.

● Forging
● Rolling processes

Examples of Malleable Materials: Aluminum, Copper, Tin,

Lead

● FATIGUE

It is a failure of materials under cyclic loads.

THERMAL EXPANSION

3 stages of fatigue processes

● Most solids expand when heated.
● Thermal expansion is a direct result of an;
i) Initial fatigue damage 1. increase in the separation distance of adjacent
atoms.
ii) Progressive cyclic growth of a crack 2. greater thermal vibrations of atoms

iii) Final stage

● IMPACT STRENGTH

It is the ability of a metal to resist suddenly applied loads.

● ABRASION RESISTANCE
 - Thermal conductivity of ceramics and polymers can be
reduced by the presence of porosity.

Thermal expansion is of three types:

● Linear expansion

● Area expansion

● Volume expansion

MELTING POINT

The melting point of a substance is the temperature at

which it changes its state from solid to liquid. A substance’s
melting point depends on the pressure and is usually
specified at the standard pressure in reference materials.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
A chemical property is any of a material's
properties that becomes evident during a chemical
reaction which is any quality that can be established only
by changing a substance's chemical identity.

Chemical Properties:
1. Chemical Composition
2. Atomic Bonding
3. Acidity or Alkalinity
4. Toxicity
5. Chemical Resistance
THERMAL 6. Reactivity
7. Combustibility
8. Corrosion Resistance
9. Oxidation
10. Solubility
11. Permeability

1. Chemical Composition
- The chemical composition of engineering
CONDUCTIVITY material indicates the elements which are
combined together to form that material.
Basic Mechanism of Heat Transfer by Conduction: Chemical composition of a material affects the
properties of engineering materials very much.
● Heat is conducted by the transfer of the energy of The strength, hardness, ductility, brittleness,
motion between adjacent molecules. corrosion resistance, weldability etc. depends on
chemical composition of materials.
Two mechanism:
Example of Chemical Composition
1. Conduction of free electron
2. Atomic vibrations (phonons)
Material Chemical
Composition
- Metal alloys have lower thermal conductivities than pure
metals.
Steel Fe, Cr, Ni
2. Atomic Bonding
- Atomic bonding represents how atoms are
bonded to each other to form the material. Many
properties, such as melting point, boiling point,
thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity
of materials are governed by atomic bonding of
materials.
3. Acidity or Alkalinity
- Acidity or Alkalinity is an important chemical
property of engineering materials. A material is
acetic or Alkane, it is decided by the ph value of
the material.
4. Toxicity
- A toxic material is defined as a material that
releases a chemical in sufficient quantities to kill
cells either directly or indirectly through inhibition
of key metabolic pathways. The number of cells
that are affected is an indication of the dose and
potency of the chemical.
Asbestos
- Asbestos was a popular engineering material
owing to its heat resistance and strength. Most of
its applications were in the 19th century. While
companies knew the dangers of this material
since the 1930s, it was not until the truth came out
in 1970 that this material was banned.
- It is a chemical reaction of the metal surface with
the oxygen present in the air that causes some of
the metal to corrode (or oxidize) and form the
respective metal oxide on the surface.
10. Solubility
- It is the ability of a solid, liquid, or gaseous
chemical substance (referred to as the solute) to
dissolve in solvent (usually a liquid) and form a
solution. The solubility of a substance
fundamentally depends on the solvent used, as
well as temperature and pressure.
2 Parts of Solution
● Solvent
- The part of solution that is being dissolved
(usually the lesser amount)
● Solute
- The part of the solution that dissolves the
solute (usually the greater amount)

- Asbestos was mostly found in the building industry,

where it was used for the construction of shingles,
cement products and floor tiles.

5. Chemical Resistance
- Chemical resistance means that materials can
fulfill their function, even in harsh working
environments. Chemical-resistant materials don't
require surface treatment; they are able to
withstand exposure to chemicals such as bases,
solvents, and acids.

6. Reactivity
- Reactivity of a substance is a chemical property
as opposed to a physical property. The reason it
qualifies as a chemical property is because it relies *Solutes dissolve into solvents to form a solution.
on its electron configuration to determine how it
will behave around other substances. Factors affecting Solubility

7. Combustibility
- Combustibility is a measure of how easily a
substance bursts into flame, through fire or
combustion. This is an important property to
consider when a substance is used for
construction or is being stored.
8. Corrosion Resistance
- Formation of rust (iron oxide) in metals, when they
are subjected to the atmosphere is called
corrosion. So, the metals should be corrosive
resistant. To increase the corrosion resistance
proper measures should be considered. Otherwise
it will damage the whole structure.
● Temperature
● Forces and bonds
● Pressure
11. Permeability
- Permeability is a measure of the ease of passage
of liquids or gasses or specific chemicals through
the material. Permeability is determined by
applying a head and determining the depth of
penetration or the amount of liquid or gas passing
through the sample.
TECHNOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL

9. Oxidation
 The technological properties of a material refer to
its characteristics that affect its behavior and performance
in different technological applications.
These properties are very advantageous when it
comes to molding, shaping, and producing materials.
1. Machinability
- refers to how easily a material can be cut to
remove material with an acceptable finish, at
a lower cost. It describes how well a material
can achieve a good finish, and can also be
referred to as "finishability".
2. Weldability
- Welding is a fabrication process whereby two
or more parts are fused together by means of
heat, pressure or both forming a join as the
parts cool.
- To assess the weldability of a metal, one can
observe how it behaves during the process of
fusion and cooling, as well as evaluate its
sensitivity to cracks and notches.
- Another approach is to compare the heating
and cooling effects of the metal at the joint
with that of a metal with known weldability.
3. Castability
- refers to the ability of a material to be easily
cast or molded into a desired shape and
form.
- It is based on factors such as solidification
rate, gas porosity, segregation, and
shrinkage.
4. Formability
- the ability of a material to be easily shaped,
bent, stretched or formed into a desired
shape without cracking, wrinkling or other
defects.
- Materials with good formability can be easily
deformed and shaped without undergoing
significant changes in their microstructure or
properties, while those with poor formability
may require preheating, annealing, or
lubrication to achieve the desired shape or
may not be suitable for certain forming
processes.
5. Malleability
- refers to its ability to be easily deformed under
compression without cracking or breaking. It is
a measure of a material's ability to be rolled or
hammered into thin sheets or other shapes
without rupturing.
CEMENT
Cement, in general, refers to all types of
adhesives, but in a more specific sense, it refers to the
tying agents used in building and civil engineering
construction. These are made of powders that are finely
powdered and when combined with water, form a solid
mass.
Hydration, a chemical reaction between the
cement compounds and water that produces
submicroscopic crystals or a substance with a high
surface area, is what causes setting and hardening.
Constructional cements are frequently referred
to as hydraulic cements because of their hydrating
qualities. These cements will even set and solidify under
water. Portland cement is the most significant of these.
CLASSIFICATION OF CEMENT
Cement can be generally classified as
1. Natural Cement
2. Artificial Cement
a. Portland Cement
b. Special Cement
1. NATURAL CEMENT
- This type of cement can be obtained by burning
limestone containing 20-40% clay and crushing
it to powder.
- Manufactured from stones
- Stones are first burnt and crushed
- Brown in color, and sets quickly when mixed
with water
2. ARTIFICIAL CEMENT
- Artificial cement is obtained by burning, at a
very high temperature, a mixture of calcareous
(containing lime) and argillaceous (containing
clay) materials.
- Obtained by burning at a high temperature
- Manufactured in the factories
- Prepared in different varieties
- It is made from Lime, Silica, Alumina, Iron Oxide
and Magnesia.
- The mixture is heated to approximately 1400-
degree C.
- PORTLAND CEMENT
- cement that is manufactured
from limestone and clay and
that hardens underwater.
- Ordinary Portland Cement
- Modified Portland Cement
- Rapid Hardening POrtland
Cement
- Low Heat Portland Cement
- Sulphate Resisting Portland
Cement
- Water-repellent Portland
Cement
- Water-proof Portland Cement
- SPECIAL CEMENT
- cement that serves some
specific function such as
 altering the setting or
hardening behavior of concrete,
producing different colors for
architectural effects, imparting
superior workability, imparting
water retention and plasticity to
mortars, resisting the
penetration of water in walls or
containment vessels, or simply
reducing the cost of the
cementing agent.
- High Alumina Cement
- Blast Furnace Cement
- Quick Setting Cement
- Calcium Chloride Cement
- White Cement
- Colored Cement
- Expanding Cement
- Super Sulphate Cement
- Masonry Cement
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE METHOD OF
HARDENING AND SETTING
- Non- Hydraulic Cement
- Water is not required
- Requires dry conditions
- Basic materials are lime, gypsum, plaster, and
oxychloride
- Rarely used as mortars for brick or stone
masonry.
LOW HEAT PORTLAND CEMENT
- Low percent of tricalcium silicate
- High percentage of dicalcium silicate
- Less time than ordinary Portland Cement
- Low compressive strength
- Initial setting time is 1hr
- Final setting time is 10 hrs
SULPHATE RESISTING PORTLAND CEMENT
- Below 5% of tricalcium aluminate
- Heat formed is not much bigger than low heat
Portland Cement
- Cannot be easily and cheaply made
WATER-REPELLENT PORTLAND CEMENT
- Small percentage of water proofing materials
- Mixed with a cement and manufactured by A
quacrete
- Formed with ordinary or rapid hardening
Portland Cement and white cement
WATER-PROOF PORTLAND CEMENT
- Mixing with ordinary or rapid hardening
Cement, a small percentage of some metal at
the time of grinding
- Resistant to penetration of water and some oils
than ordinary cement
- Resistant to the corrosive actions of acids or
other harmful salts
OTHER CLASSIFICATION OF CEMENT

- Hydraulic Cement HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT

- Hardens by hydration in the presence of water
- Made by burning the main raw material of non-
hydraulic cement at a very high temperature
- Forms a water-resistant product
- There are 16 types
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON COMPOSITION AND
CHARACTERISTICS
ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT
- Most common type
- Develops strength and generate heat at faster
rate
- Sufficient resistance to dry shrinkage and
cracking
- Less resistance to chemical attack
MODIFIED PORTLAND CEMENT
- Less heat of hydration than Ordinary Portland
Cement
- Can be employed in hot climates
RAPID HARDENING PORTLAND CEMENT
- High early strength cement
- Burnt carefully at higher temperature than
ordinary Portland Cement
- Strength developed at 3 days with the same
water-cement ratio
- Lighter than Ordinary Portland Cement
EXTRA RAPID HARDENING PORTLAND CEMENT
- Intergrinding calcium chloride with rapid
hardening Portland Cement
- Calcium chloride should not exceed 3%
- - 25% higher than Rapid hardening at 1 to 2 days
- - 10% to 20% higher at 7 days
- Quick-setting cement
- Chocolate color
- From bauxite and limestone
- Resist the action of acid and high temperature
- 4-5 hrs initial setting time, about 30 mins after
initial for final setting
- Resistant to fire and not affected by frost
QUICK SETTING CEMENT
- Lower gypsum content, and ground much finer
than ordinary Portland cement
- Quite costly compared to ordinary Portland
- 5 minutes to start hardening, 30 mins to finish
BLAST FURNACE SLAG CEMENT
- intergrinding Portland cement clinker and
granulated blast-furnace slag
- decreased rate of heat evaporation
- resistant to weathering agency attacts
- less expensive than ordinary portland cement
- initial setting time is not less than 30 mins
- final setting is not more the 10hrs
WHITE CEMENT
- Quite similar to OPC except for color
- Contains small amount of iron oxide and
magnesium oxide
- More expensive than OPC
- Not set earlier than 30mins
- Stored in close container
COLORED CEMENT
- Also known as Colourcrete
- Prepared by adding 5- 15% color pigment before
cement is finally ground
- Iron oxide for red and yellow, Chromium oxide
for green, and Cobalt for blue color
- Much costlier than OPC
ACID RESISTANCE CEMENT
- Contains acid-resistance aggregates such as
quartz, quartzites, etc.
- Additive such a sodium fluosilicate and aqueous
solutionor soluble gas
EXPANDING CEMENT
- Formed by adding an expanding medium and a
stabilizing agent to the OPC
- This cement expands
HYDROPHOBIC CEMENT
- Contains admixture
- Initial strength is lower
- After 28 days, strength is similar to OPC
PORTLAND POZZOLANA CEMENT
- Interground blended mixture of cement and
pozzolana
- Natural or artificial material
- Commonly met with volcanic ash, burnt clay,
ash, and etc.
- Higher tensile strength
- Evolves less heat during setting
- Less compressive strength in early days
- Less resistance to erosion and weathering
action
SUPERSULPHATED CEMENT
- Resistant to seawater
- Can resist highest concentration of sulphates
- Heat of hydration is low
MASONRY CEMENT
- Intergrinding a mixture of Portland cement
clinkers with inert materials
- Initial and final setting times are 90min and
24hours respectively
- Superior to lime mortar, lime-cement mortar,
and cement mortar.
AIR ENTRAINING CEMENT
- Made up of OPC clinkers, gypsum, limestone,
and air-entraining agents.
HISTORY OF CEMENT
INVENTION OF POZZOLANA
-Almost 2000 years ago, the Greeks and Romans ground
lime and “pozzolin” – a volcanic ash that is these days
known as “pozzolana”
-The Romans mixed ground volcanic ash with lime to
produce cement, and after observing that cement can
be set underwater, cement started to be used in the
construction of ports. This mixture would later be named
“Pozzolanic Cement” after the village of Pozzuoli in
Vesuvius, near Rome.
-Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, a Roman architect and
engineer who lived in 1 AD, detailed structures and
related technologies from the past in his book “Ten
Books of Architecture”, and recommended concrete for
its ability to give “polish to the floor and to create a
strong foundation”. The book also mentioned the use of
mixed lime and crushed rock, pozzolan, for the
reinforcement of buildings, which is also said to preserve
its hardness underwater.
HYDRAULIC CEMENT
-In 1756, John Smeaton studied the chemical features of
lime, and reached significant conclusions on its binding
qualities.
-Joseph Parker produced a binder known as “Roman
Cement”, for which raw material was obtained from the
limestone around London
-The Renaissance ushered in a new era in which people
were encouraged to think in different ways, and the
doors of the industrial revolution were thrown wide-
opened.
- In 1822, Vicat used his hydraulic binder in one of the
abutments of the Souillac Bridge..He produced a
synthetic binder by mixing silica, aluminum and lime at
certain amounts.
BIRTH OF PORTLAND CEMENT
-In 1824, Joseph Aspdin, a mason from Leeds, heated
ground clay and limestone until the limestone calcified,
and then ground the mixture once again, observing that
the mixture set some time later after adding water.
Aspdin named his creation “Portland Cement”. The
“Wakefield Arms” building, which is still standing next to
Kirkgate Station in England, is known to have been
constructed using the binder produced by Joseph
Aspdin.
-In 1845, Isaac Johnson baked a mixture of lime and clay
mixture at a temperature of 1400°–1500°C – as is still
done today – to produce the first modern Portland
cement.
-The use of reinforced concrete first appeared in France
in the 1840s. Many other nations adopted the first
cement standard for Portland cement that was
established in Germany in 1878, outlining the initial test
procedures and minimum qualities.
Global cement output and use both increased at the
turn of the century. Three important developments in
the manufacturing process lead to modern Portland
cement:
 · Development of rotary kilns
· Addition of gypsum to control setting
· Use of ball mills to grind clinker and raw
materials
Significant developments have been witnessed in
production processes of cement over time. As a
result, the following systems have been adopted by
the cement sector:
• Lepol system by Polysius in 1928,
• Vertical roll furnace in 1930,
• Pre-furnace pre-heating cyclones in 1932,
• Fuller grill cooler in 1937
• Mechanical classifiers in 1950,
• The first furnace side-passing system in 1960,
• The pre-calcification system in 1966,
• High-productive classifiers in 1970
The Future of Concrete and Cement
In order to increase the durability, strength, and
applicability of cement and concrete, new technologies
and innovations are continually being developed. Some
cutting-edge products, like roof tiles and countertops,
combine fibers and unique materials, while offshore
manufacturing is also becoming more popular with the
rise of digitalization and AI, which might minimize waste
and enhance productivity and working conditions on-
site.
PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
(A) PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
1. Fineness of cement
Fineness of cement is a measure of the
size of particles of cement. Fineness is
measured by doing sieve analysis or air
permeability method or by
sedimentation method. In sieve
analysis, the sizes of cement particles
are measured and in air permeability
test, fineness of cement is mostly
measured by specific surface area.
2. Soundness of Cement
Soundness is the ability of cement to
retain its volume while hardening.
Cement is tested for its soundness by Le
Chatelier Test and Autoclave Test.
3. Consistency of Cement
- Consistency of cement is the
ability of cement paste (cement
+ water) to flow under normal
condition. Dry Mortar (mix of
cement and sand) or Dry
concrete (mix of cement, sand
and aggregates) needs
optimum water to comes into
workable condition. Thus,
optimum water-cement ratio
should be maintained to get the
workable cement paste. The
ability of cement paste to flow is
consistency.
- It is measured by Vicat Test.
4. Strength of Cement
Factors affecting the strength of
cement are:
a. Water-cement ratio of a mix.
b. Cement-fine aggregate ratio
c. Curing conditions
d. Size and shape of a specimen
e. The manner of moulding and mixing
f. Loading conditions
g. Age of cement
Three types of strength of cement are
measured compressive, tensile and
flexural.
- Compressive Strength: It is the
most common strength test. A
test specimen (50mm) is taken
and subjected to a compressive
load until failure. The loading
sequence must be within 20
seconds and 80 seconds.
- Tensile strength: Though this
test used to be common during
the early years of cement
production, now it does not
offer any useful information
about the properties of cement.
- Flexural strength: This is
actually a measure of tensile
strength in bending. The test is
performed in a 40 x40 x 160 mm
cement mortar beam, which is
loaded at its center point until
failure.
5. Setting Time of Cement
Cement sets and hardens when water is
added. This setting time can vary
depending on multiple factors, such as
fineness of cement, cement-water ratio,
chemical content, and admixtures.
Cement used in construction should
have an initial setting time that is not
too low and a final setting time not too
high. Hence, two setting times are
measured:
Initial set: When the paste begins to
stiffen noticeably (typically occurs
within 30-45 minutes)
 Final set: When the cement hardens, hydration of cement reduces the
strength of cement and influences the
setting time of cement. Carbonation of
Name of Chemical Usual Percent cement causes a change in strength,
Compound Compositio Abbreviat age (%) porosity, pore size distribution, and
n ion chemistry in cement
paste/concrete/mortar.

Tricalcium 3CaO.SiO2 C 3S 51
silicate
(B) CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

Dicalcium 2CaO.SiO2 C2S 23 Main Chemical Compounds of Portland Cement

Silicate
Tricalcium 3CaO.Al2O3 C 3A 8
aluminate
Tetracalcium 4CaO.Al2O3.F C4AF 9
aluminoferrite e2O3
being able to sustain some load (occurs
below 10 hours)
6. Heat of Hydration
When water is added to cement, the
reaction that takes place is called
hydration. Hydration generates heat,
which can affect the quality of the
cement and also be beneficial in
maintaining curing temperature during
cold weather.
The heat of hydration of Portland
cement is calculated by determining
the difference between the dry and the
partially hydrated cement (obtained by
comparing these at 7th and 28th days).
7. Bulk density
It is the volume taken up by the cement
plus any air trapped between the
particles. Generally, cement has 1000 to
1300 Kg/Cum of bulk density.
8. Specific Gravity (Relative Density)
Normally specific gravity is defined as
the ratio between the weight of a given
volume of material (cement) and weight
of an equal volume of water. Generally,
Portland cement have a specific gravity
of value around 3.15. The value of specific
gravity is change with change in type of
cement.
9. Loss of Ignition (LOI)
Cement losses its weight when it is
being heated at 900 to 1000 0C. This loss
of weight upon heating is calculated as
loss of ignition. Loss on ignition shows
the pre-hydration or carbonation of
cement due to prolonged or improper
storage (exposure to atmosphere). Pre-
Portland Cement mainly comprises four basic chemical
compounds.
01. Tricalcium silicate:
● Oxide composition: 3CaO.SiO2
● Abbreviation: C3S
● This compound helps cement to harden rapidly
and is also responsible for initial set and early
strength.
02. Dicalcium Silicate:
● Oxide composition: 2CaO.SiO2
● Abbreviation: C2S
● This compound helps cement to harden slowly
and it is also responsible for increase in strength
after one-week of age.
03. Tricalcium aluminate:
● Oxide composition: 3CaO.Al2O3
● Abbreviation: C3A
● This compound helps to develop strength in the
first few days. It is responsible for hydration of
cement and also responsible to generate high
heat of hydration.
04. Tetracalcium aluminoferrite:
● Oxide composition: 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3
● Abbreviation: C4AF
● This compound contributes in hydration
process and slightly influences the strength of
cement.
Secondary Chemical Compounds in Portland Cement
● Lime (CaO)
● Free lime (CaO) leads to expansion after
hydration which results into the disintegration
of hardened concrete.
● Magnesia (MgO): The excess amount of MgO
leads to the expansion due to the hydration of
MgO in hardened concrete.
● Na2O & K2O (Alkali Oxides)
● The excess amount of alkalis like Na2O & K2O
leads to the alkali-aggregate reaction, which
results in disruptive expansion.
Composition of Cement
1. Lime (60%-65%)
● Calcium oxide or calcium trioxide
2. Silica (17%-25%)
● Silicon dioxide (SiO2)
 3. Alumina (3.5%-9%) include adding additional
● Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) materials such as pozzolans or
4. Iron oxide (0.5%-6%) slag to increase strength,
● Fe2O3 durability, or other desired
5. Magnesium oxide (0.5%-4%) characteristics.
● MgO 3. Rapid Hardening Portland Cement
6. Sulphur Trioxide (1%-2%) - This is a type of cement that is
● SO3 designed to provide greater
7. Alkalis (0.5%-1.3%) strength and faster setting
● Sodium and potassium can be added to times than standard Portland
cement in small amounts as alkali metal cement.
oxides, such as sodium oxide (Na2O) and 4. Low Heat Portland Cement
potassium oxide (K2O). - this type of cement produces
8. Gypsum (0%-0.2%) less heat during the hydration
● Calcium Sulfate Dihydrate (CaSO4 · process compared to OPC. This
2H2O) makes it suitable for large
concrete structures such as
USES OF CEMENTS dams, where excessive heat can
cause cracking.
Cement is used widely for the construction of 5. Sulphate Portland Resisting Cement
various structures. Some of them are listed below: - This type of cement is used in
areas where the soil has a high
1. It is used in mortar for plastering, masonry work, concentration of sulphate ions,
pointing, etc. which can react with the
2. It is used for making joints for drains and pipes. cement and cause it to
deteriorate.
3. It is used for the water-tightness of the structure.
6. Water Repellent Portland Cement
4. It is used in concrete for laying floors, and roofs - This is a type of cement that
and constructing lintels, beams, stairs, pillars, contains water-repelling agents
etc. to reduce the absorption of
5. It is used where a hard surface is required for the water by the hardened cement
protection of exposed surfaces of structures paste. This can help to prevent
against the destructive agents of the weather damage to concrete structures
and certain organic or inorganic chemicals. caused by water infiltration,
6. It is used for precast pipes manufacturing, piles, such as freeze-thaw damage or
fencing posts, etc. corrosion of embedded
7. It is used in the construction of important reinforcement.
engineering structures such as bridges, culverts, 7. Water-Proof Portland Cement
dams, tunnels, lighthouses, etc. - This is a type of cement that is
formulated to create a concrete
8. It is used in the preparation of foundations,
that is impermeable to water. It
watertight floors, footpaths, etc.
is often used in applications
9. It is employed for the construction of wells, where a high degree of water
water tanks, tennis courts, lamp posts, resistance is required, such as in
telephone cabins, roads, etc. basements, swimming pools,
and water storage tanks.

Types of Cement OTHER VARIETIES OF CEMENT

PORTLAND CEMENTS
1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
- This is the most common type
of cement used for general
construction purposes. It is
made from a mixture of
limestone, clay, and other
materials that are heated to
high temperatures in a kiln.
2. Modified Portland Cement
- it has been altered from its
original composition to
enhance its properties for
specific applications. This can
1. High Alumina Cement
- A type of hydraulic binder that is made
from bauxite and limestone. It contains
a high percentage of alumina (up to
50%) and is known for its high early
strength, rapid hardening, and good
resistance to high temperatures and
chemical attack.
2. Quick Setting Cement
- This is a type of cement that sets and
hardens rapidly, typically within 5 to 30
minutes of mixing with water. It is often
used in situations where fast setting
times are critical, such as in emergency
repairs or when construction schedules
are compressed.
3. White Cement
- It is made from raw materials with a low
iron content and is used for aesthetic
purposes, such as in decorative
concrete, terrazzo flooring, and
architectural precast concrete.
4. Colored Cement
- Colored cement is similar to white
cement, but it includes pigments that
give it a specific color. It is used for
decorative purposes, such as in masonry
work, flooring, and plastering.
5. Blended Cement
- This type of cement is made by blending
two or more types of cementitious
materials, such as OPC, fly ash, slag, or
silica fume. Blended cement can
improve the strength, durability, and
workability of concrete while reducing
the environmental impact of cement
production.
6. Blast Furnace Slag Cement
- It is a type of hydraulic cement that is
made by grinding a mixture of
granulated blast furnace slag (a
byproduct of steel production) with
Portland cement clinker. The resulting
cement has lower heat of hydration,
lower permeability, and higher
resistance to sulfate attack than
Portland cement.
7. Acid Resistance Cement
- Acid-resistant cement, also known as
acid-proof cement, is a type of hydraulic
cement that is formulated to resist the
corrosive effects of acids and other
chemicals. It is typically composed of a
blend of Portland cement, fine silica,
and acid-resistant aggregates such as
quartz, flint, or granite.
8. Expanding Cement
- Expanding cement is a type of hydraulic
cement that expands during the
hardening process. It is often used in
applications where controlled
expansion is desired, such as in the
repair of concrete structures or in pre-
stressed concrete applications.
9. Hydrophobic Cement
- A type of cement that is designed to
repel water and resist the penetration of
water into the concrete. It contains
water-repelling agents such as stearic
acid or oleic acid, which create a barrier
to water penetration within the
concrete.
10. Portland Pozzolana Cement
- Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC) is a
type of hydraulic cement that is made
by blending Portland cement clinker
with pozzolanic materials such as fly
ash, volcanic ash, or calcined clay. The
pozzolanic materials react with calcium
hydroxide released during the hydration
process to form additional cementitious
compounds, resulting in a cement with
enhanced strength and durability
properties.
11. Supersulphated Cement
- This is a type of cement that contains
higher amounts of calcium sulphate
than ordinary Portland cement. It is
created by adding a mixture of calcium
sulphate, calcium sulfate hemihydrate,
and calcium aluminate to clinker during
the grinding stage of cement
production.
12. Masonry Cement
- Masonry cement is a type of blended
hydraulic cement designed to bond
masonry units like bricks, blocks, and
stones together.
TESTS FOR CEMENTS
FIELD TESTS FOR CEMENT:
Date of Manufacturing: As the strength of cement
reduces with age, the date of manufacturing of cement
bags should be checked.
Cement Color: The color of cement should be uniform.
It should be typical cement color i.e. gray color with a
light greenish shade.
Whether Hard Lumps are Formed: Cement should be
free from hard lumps. Such lumps are formed by the
absorption of moisture from the atmosphere.
Temperature Inside Cement Bag: If the hand is
plunged into a bag of cement, it should be cool inside
the cement bag. If a hydration reaction takes place
inside the bag, it will become warm.
Smoothness Test: When cement is touched or rubbed
in between fingers, it should give a smooth feeling. If it
felt rough, it indicates adulteration with sand.
Water Sinking Test: If a small quantity of cement is
thrown into the water, it should float some time before
finally sinking.
The smell of Cement Paste: A thin paste of cement with
water should feel sticky between the fingers. If the
cement contains too much-pounded clay and silt as an
adulterant, the paste will give an earthy smell.
Glass Plate Test: A thick paste of cement with water is
made on a piece of a glass plate and it is kept under
water for 24 hours. It should set and not crack.
Block Test: A 25mm × 25mm × 200mm (1”×1”×8”) block
of cement with water is made. The block is then
immersed in water for three days. After removal, it is
supported 150mm apart and a weight of 15kg uniformly
placed over it. If it shows no sign of failure the cement is
good.
1. FINENESS TEST OF CEMENT:
• This test of cement is performed to check the
fineness of cement according to standard
specifications.
• The fineness of cement can be measured either
by the grain size of cement or by the surface
area of cement.
• The sieve Test (IS 4031- part-I) – 90 µ size sieve.
• The fineness of cement has a significant effect
on the hydration and in increasing the rate of
gain strength. The strength of cement is directly
proportional to its fineness.
2. STANDARD CONSISTENCY TEST OF CEMENT :
• It is used to find out the percentage of water
required to produce cement paste of standard
consistency.
• It is also sometimes called as Normal
Consistency (CPNC).
• The Standard consistency of a cement paste is
defined as that consistency which will permit a
Vicat’s apparatus plunger having 10mm dia. and
50mm length to penetrate to a depth of 33-35
mm from the top of the mould.
3. INITIAL SETTING AND FINAL SETTING TESTS
OF CEMENT:
Initial Setting time-
• When the paste will start losing its plasticity,
the needle will penetrate only to some depth.
• The period elapsing between the time when
water is added to the cement and to the time at
which the needle penetrates the test block to a
depth equal to 33-35mm from the top is taken
as initial time.
• For OPC it is generally taken as 30min.
Final Setting time-
• The cement is considered fully set when the
center needle makes an impression while the
annular attachment fails to do so.
• The cement is said to be hard if it does not
pierce more than 0.5mm.
• It is generally taken as 10 hrs.
4. SOUNDNESS TEST :
The Cement is said to be unsound if it has
• excess of lime.
• Due to high proportions of magnesium
content or Calcium sulphate content.
• Because of inadequate burning of cement.
• Due to insufficiency in fineness of grinding or
thorough mixing of raw materials.
• It cause appreciable change in the volume of
cement after the cement has set causing
disruption of the set and hardened mass.
• Le-Chatlier’s Apparatus is used for the test.
• In case the expansion is more than 10mm than
the cement is said to be unsound.
5. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST OF CEMENT :
• It is Laboratory method to determine the
strength of cement.
• The size of cube mould is 70.6mm.
• Cement and standard sand mortar is used to
make the cube.
• Three cubes are tested for the strength.
• The average value is taken for the compressive
strength of the three cubes for each period
respectively.
CONCRETE
Concrete is as much a part of the urban landscape as
trees are to a forest. It’s so ubiquitous that we rarely
even give it any regard at all. But underneath that drab
grey exterior is a hidden world of complexity.
Concrete is one of the most versatile and widely-used
construction materials on earth. It has four primary
ingredients: Water, sand (also called fine aggregate),
gravel (also known as coarse aggregate), and cement.
A recipe that is not quite a paragon of sophistication.
One ingredient falls from the sky, and the rest comes
essentially straight out of the ground. But, from these
humble beginnings are born essentially the basis of the
entire world’s infrastructure.
Did you know…
● Concrete is the second most used material on
earth after water.
● Concrete production contributes 5% of annual
anthropogenic global CO2 production.
● Concrete in the middle of the Hoover Dam,
which opened in 1936, is still drying out!
 ● The largest ever, unreinforced concrete dome
construction is the Pantheon in Rome, which is
over 2000 years old.
● 99% of all ‘cracked’ concrete is associated with
other construction factors and not the material
as delivered.
● Concrete sets and hardens underwater.
● Concrete actually has elastic properties.
Classification
CLASSIFICATIONS OF CONCRETE
The most commonly used classification of concrete is
according to:
1. The terms of the mixing of concrete
2. Bulk density of the concrete
3. The type of binder
4. The consistency of the fresh concrete
5. Concrete class
6. The purposes of concrete and other.
Classification according to the terms of mixing of
concrete
Depending on the conditions under which fresh concrete
prepares, there are two different categories of concrete:
● The first category of concrete (B.I), which
can be mixed without the previous tests, but the
amount of cement determined by Article 26 of
the Rulebook on technical norms for concrete
and reinforced concrete must be used. The first
category of concrete (B.I) includes the following
concrete classes: MB 10, 15, 20, and 25 and
they can be placed only at the construction site
where they were mixed and,
● The second category of concrete (B.II) with
concrete class MB 30 or more, as well as
concrete with special properties and transported
concrete of all concrete classes. Concretes over
60 MB are special concrete, which can be used
only for specific purposes. The composition of
concrete of category B.II is determined on the
basis of preliminary tests of fresh and hardened
concrete, made of the determined constituents
for the intended construction conditions and
purpose of the structure.
Specification for concretes of the first and second
categories is determined by Articles 26 - 62 of the
above-mentioned Rulebook.
Classification according to the bulk density of
concrete
Concrete can be classified according to bulk density, as
follows:
● Lightweight concrete, whose bulk density
does not exceed 1900 kg/m3. This type of
concrete is prepared with light porous filling,
with total or partial use of quartz sand as fine
filling, with a hydraulic binder and water and
admixtures in particular circumstances. The
increase of bulk density up to 2,100 kg/m3 is
acceptable only when it comes to the
improvement of mechanical characteristics.
Technical norms that must be fulfilled during the
designing, construction, and maintenance of blocks and
structures of concrete and reinforced concrete, prepared
with light aggregate filling, are determined by the
Rulebook on technical norms for concrete and reinforced
concrete prepared with natural and artificial lightweight
aggregate filler.
● Classic (ordinary) concrete with bulk density
from 1900 kg/m3 to 2500 kg/m3 and,
● Heavy-weight concrete with a bulk density of
higher than 2500 kg/m3. High bulk density of
concrete is achieved by using heavy-weight
aggregates, such as barite, iron ore (magnetite,
hematite, and limonite), splinters or specially
made balls of iron and steel. In order to improve
the protective characteristics of heavy-weight
concrete, compounds of Boron or Lithium are
added to concrete. The compressive strengths
of heavy-weight concrete are not high and they
don't exceed 40 MPa, and the tensile strength
ranges from 1 to 3 MPa.
The provisions of the Rulebook on technical norms for
concrete and reinforced concrete ("Official Gazette
SFRY", No. 11/87) also apply to special types of
concrete and structures, for hydro-technical structures,
concrete pavement structure, and similar, unless it is
indicated otherwise.
Classification of concrete according to the type of
binder
Depending on the type of binder used for preparing
concrete there are:
● Cement-concretes,
● Asphalt-concretes and
● Polymer concretes
Unlike conventional cement-concrete, where different
types and classes of Portland cement can be used as a
binder, the asphalt-concrete bitumen, which is
obtained by processing oil, is used as a binder. Instead
of aggregate that has rounded edges (gravel), for the
production of asphalt, it is used aggregate with sharp
edges also called gravel (crushed stone). Asphalt -
concrete is used for flexible (elastic) structures, mostly
for asphalting streets and roads. Their purposes are
completely different, although there are areas where
they can overlap.
Polymer-concretes are a type of concrete for whose
preparation instead of cement polymers are used as a
binder. Concrete in which polymer is used as an
admixture - concrete is called Polymer Cement Concrete
- PCC or Polymer Modified Concrete - PMC.
Classification according to the consistency of
concrete
According to the Rulebook on technical norms for
concrete and reinforced concrete ("Official Gazette
SFRY", No. 11/87), there are four types of concrete
consistency: solid, low-plastic, plastic, and liquid.
The consistency of fresh concrete is the set of all fresh
concrete properties that affect its workability and
process ability. Concrete consistency can also be
defined as the degree of stiffness or mobility of fresh
concrete. Concrete consistency can be also defined as
the degree of stiffness, i.e., the agility of fresh concrete.
Classification according to the concrete class
The concrete class (MB) is the normed compressive
strength in MPa, based on the characteristic strength of
concrete at the age of 28 days. The characteristic
compressive strength is a value below which can be
expected at most 10% of all compressive strengths of
tested concrete (a 10 % fractile).
For the construction of concrete blocks, the following
concrete classes (MB) are used: 10, 15, 20, 25, 30,
35, 40, 45, 50, 55, and 60.
It is not allowed to use concrete class lower than MB 15
for reinforced concrete.
Classification of concrete according to purpose
Depending on the intended use there are:
● Hydro-technical concretes
● Concretes for pavement structure
● Prestressed concretes
● Precast concretes
● Decorative (visible) concretes
● Concretes for radiation protection (heavy-
weight concrete)
● The thermal insulating concrete
(lightweight concretes)
● The waterproofing concretes
● The soundproofing concretes (lightweight
concretes)
● Concretes for fire protection,
● Concrete and mortar for reparation, etc.
HISTORY
Early Use of Concrete (6500 BC)
The first concrete-like structures were built by the
Nabataea traders or Bedouins who occupied and
controlled a series of oases and developed a small
empire in the regions of southern Syria and northern
Jordan in around 6500 BC. They later discovered the
advantages of hydraulic lime -- that is, cement that
hardens underwater -- and by 700 BC, they were
building kilns to supply mortar for the construction of
rubble-wall houses, concrete floors, and underground
waterproof cisterns. The cisterns were kept secret and
were one of the reasons the Nabataea were able to
thrive in the desert.
In making concrete, the Nabataea understood the need
to keep the mix as dry or low-slump as possible, as
excess water introduces voids and weaknesses into the
concrete. Their building practices included tamping the
freshly placed concrete with special tools. The tamping
process produced more gel, which is the bonding
material produced by the chemical reactions that take
place during hydration which bond the particulates and
aggregate together.
Egypt (3000 BC)
Around 3000 BC, the ancient Egyptians used mud mixed
with straw to form bricks. Mud with straw is more similar
to adobe than concrete. However, they also used
gypsum and lime mortars in building the pyramids,
although most of us think of mortar and concrete as two
different materials. The Great Pyramid at Giza required
about 500,000 tons of mortar, which was used as a
bedding material for the casing stones that formed the
visible surface of the finished pyramid. This allowed
stone masons to carve and set casing stones with joints
open no wider than 1/50-inch.
China (3000 BC)
About this same time, the northern Chinese used a form
of cement in boat-building and in building the Great
Wall. Spectrometer testing has confirmed that a key
ingredient in the mortar used in the Great Wall and
other ancient Chinese structures was glutenous, sticky
rice. Some of these structures have withstood the test
of time and have resisted even modern efforts at
demolition.
700 B.C.
Around 700 B.C., the Bedouins discovered cement that
hardens underwater and created kilns for producing
mortar. They used that mortar to help construct floors,
houses and other structures. During this time, they also
began tamping the concrete material and had an
understanding that the substance wouldn’t work as well
if it were too saturated.
Rome (600 BC)
By 600 BC, the Greeks had discovered a natural
pozzolan material that developed hydraulic properties
when mixed with lime, but the Greeks were nowhere
near as prolific in building with concrete as the Romans.
By 200 BC, the Romans were building very successfully
using concrete, but it wasn’t like the concrete we use
today. It was not a plastic, flowing material poured into
forms, but more like cemented rubble. The Romans built
most of their structures by stacking stones of different
sizes and hand-filling the spaces between the stones
with mortar. Above ground, walls were clad both inside
and out with clay bricks that also served as forms for
the concrete. The brick had little or no structural value
and their use was mainly cosmetic. Before this time, and
in most places at that time (including 95% of Rome),
the mortars commonly used were a simple limestone
cement that hardened slowly from reacting with
airborne carbon dioxide. True chemical hydration did not
take place. These mortars were weak.
200 B.C.
By this time, the Romans had perfected building with
concrete, though in a different way than we use it today.
The Romans would create most of a structure with loose
rocks and materials and cement them together by hand
with mortar. They even used cosmetic bricks in
combination with their version of cement. Using non-
structural blocks established concrete as a purposeful
and aesthetic product.
For their more artistic endeavors — or those that needed
enhanced durability — the Romans created cement from
volcanic sand that reacted with lime and water.
1414
The collapse of the Roman Empire made the interest in
concrete dormant until manuscripts explaining the
substance resurfaced during this year. Then came a new
appreciation for the building material. This year serves
as one of the many turning points in the history of
concrete. It started the chain reaction for the discovery
of new ways to make and use concrete for centuries to
come.
1793
John Smeaton created a more efficient method of
producing hydraulic lime in 1793. He used limestone
that contained clay and fired it until the substance
turned into a clinker. The clinker could then get ground
into powder. The product was used to help cement set,
and the modernized production made it easier to make
concrete and have it set quickly.
1824
This year was very vital in the history of concrete
because it’s when bricklayer Joseph Aspdin created
Portland cement. Named as such because it was similar
to building stones in Portland, England, Portland cement
is very strong. To make the cement, Aspdin burned
chalk and clay in a kiln until there was no more carbon
dioxide. He later refined the portions of limestone and
clay that created the clinker. Aspdin helped spur the use
of cement and concrete in modern constructions. In his
goal to create a better alternative to the Romans’
building material, he inspired competition to create even
better versions of his Portland cement.
Concrete change over the years
In the late 1800s, individuals in Germany, France and
the United States were simultaneously developing steel-
reinforced concrete. At the time, it was used for
industrial builds, but it would go on to play a role in
residential buildings and other structures.
The Portland cement Joseph Aspdin created wasn’t
exactly the same as what we produce today. While
Aspdin didn’t include specific ratios or temperatures for
making his Portland cement, we know that he couldn’t
have achieved the high temperatures we do today to
heat substances.
Today, we have a standard formula for Portland cement.
It was created back in 1917 by the American Society for
Testing and Materials, along with the National Bureau of
Standards. The standard formula created a consistent
quality no matter when or where someone made the
substance.
Even before we developed a formula for Portland
cement, builders were using concrete in projects all over
the world once again. In the early 1900s, concrete
regained public acceptance as a building material, with
these types of structures going up:
● A Paris apartment building in 1902
● The first concrete high-rise in Ohio in 1904
● A 328-foot bridge in Rome in 1911
After these and other buildings, ready-mix concrete was
developed. In 1913, the material was delivered in
Baltimore, Maryland. It helped make job sites more
efficient since workers no longer had to mix concrete
on-site. Instead, it arrived premixed from a plant in
early versions of what we now consider cement trucks.
Some decades later, we discovered that producing small
air bubbles, known as air entrainment, improved
concrete. After the introduction of air-entrainment
substances to concrete in 1930, the building material
was easier to work with and less prone to freezing. Now
architects in colder climates could choose the material
without worrying about cracks or breakage.
Around the same time, builders developed thin-shell
concrete. Roofs, domes, arches and other similar
structures were made of a thin shell of concrete.
Because of the strong, rounded shapes of these
structures, they did not require thick layers of the
material. The lighter weight of thin-shell concrete makes
the rest of the building safer from collapse since it
doesn’t need to support a heavy material.
As we worked with concrete, we made it a stronger and
more resistant building material. We discovered easier
ways to make it, transport it and use it. Along with those
discoveries, builders and architects constructed
buildings in different styles. Brutalist, modern and other
concrete structures include feats and artistic creations
such as:
● Yale University’s Paul Rudolph Hall
● The Science Hills museum in Japan
● Jubilee Church outside of Rome
● The Salk Institute research center in California
● The Villa Saitan housing complex in Japan
● The National Museum of Brazil
● The Geisel Library at UC San Diego
These buildings show off concrete’s versatility as a
building material. As technology advanced, builders and
architects were able to create curves, cut-outs and other
eye-catching design elements out of concrete. The
substance’s style flexibility allowed it to build churches,
museums, housing and more, along with some historical
concrete structures.
TYPES
There are many different types of concrete, some of
which can be used for the same purpose. It depends on
the goal you wish to achieve. You can choose the
appropriate form of concrete to accomplish the task.
1. Normal Strength Concrete
Normal strength concrete is made up of a combination
of several fundamental ingredients — aggregate,
concrete and sand — in a 1:2:4 ratio. This mixture
produces normal strength concrete that can be used for
many applications. It takes about 30 to 90 minutes to
set, but this is dependent on the weather conditions at
the concrete site and the cement’s properties.
It’s normally used for pavements or buildings that don’t
need high tensile strength. It is not very good for many
other structures since it doesn’t withstand the stresses
created by wind loading or vibrations very well.
2. Reinforced Concrete
This form of concrete is widely used in industry and
modern construction. Reinforced concrete gets its
strength through the help of wires, steel rods or cables
that are placed in the concrete before it sets. A more
familiar name for these items is rebar. Lately, people
have used fibers to reinforce this concrete.
These reinforcements resist tensile forces to avoid
cracking or breaking. Meanwhile, the concrete itself
resists compressive forces to withstand heavy weight.
Together, the two materials create a strong bond
against many applied forces, such as vehicles. In
essence, they become a single structural element.
Invented in the 19th century, it dramatically changed
the construction industry. Roadways, buildings and
bridges require reinforced concrete. Next time you visit
a construction site, you’ll likely see reinforced concrete
with rebar.
3. Plain or Ordinary Concrete
This is another concrete that uses the common mix
design of 1:2:4 with its components of cement, sand
and aggregates. You can employ it to make pavement
or buildings where there is not a high demand for tensile
strength. It faces the same challenges as normal
strength concrete — it doesn’t stand up very well to
vibrations or wind loading. Plain or ordinary concrete is
also used in dam construction. The durability rating of
this kind of concrete is very satisfactory.
4. Prestressed Concrete
Prestressed concrete units are used for many large
concrete projects. To create prestressed concrete, you
must use a special technique. Like reinforced concrete,
it includes bars or tendons. But these bars or tendons
are stressed before the actual application of the
concrete.
When the concrete is mixed and placed, these bars are
placed at each end of the structural unit where they are
used. When the concrete sets, this unit is put into
compression.
This compression enhances the strength of the lower
section of the unit and improves its resistance against
tensile forces. However, this process requires skilled
labor and heavy equipment. Normally, prestressed units
are created and assembled on-site. Prestressed
concrete is used to build bridges, heavy-loaded
structures or roofs that have long spans.
5. Precast Concrete
As with most classes of concrete, precast concrete must
be made and cast according to specific measurements.
These concrete units are eventually transported to the
application site and assembled for use.
You frequently see these units transported to worksites
as you drive on highways. Precast concrete is used for:
● Concrete blocks
● Precast walls
● Staircase units
● Poles
The advantage of using precast concrete is its speedy
assembly. Since the units are manufactured in a factory,
they are of very high quality.
6. Lightweight Concrete
Lightweight concrete is any kind of concrete that has a
density of less than 1920kg/m3. Lightweight concrete is
created by using lightweight aggregates. Aggregates
are ingredients that add to the density of the style of
concrete. These lightweight aggregates are made up of
various natural, artificial and processed materials, which
include:
● Clays
● Expanded shales
● Scoria
● Pumice
● Perlite
● Vermiculite
The most important property of lightweight concrete is
that it has very low thermal conductivity. Common uses
for lightweight concrete include creating long-spanning
bridge decks and building blocks. It can also be used to
protect steel structures.
7. High-Density Concrete
High-density concrete has a very specific purpose. It is
frequently used in the construction of atomic power
plants. The heavyweight aggregates used in the
creation of high-density concrete help the structure
resist radiation.
Crushed rocks are normally used. Barytes, a colorless
or white material that consists of barium sulfate and is
the principal ingredient in barium, is the crushed rock
most often employed.
8. Stamped Concrete
Also known as imprinted or textured concrete, stamped
concrete is designed to realistically replicate the look
and pattern of natural stones, tiles, brick and granites.
Stamped concrete is often used to construct patios, pool
decks, interior floors and driveways.
This style is achieved by using professional stamping
pads to create an impression on the surface of the
concrete. To get a natural finish, you can also use
various texture work and coloring stains.
Some of the advantages of stamped concrete include:
● Affordability compared to natural pavers and
stone
● Easy maintenance once sealed
● Becomes slip-resistant with a non-skid additive
● Enhances outdoor space and adds value
● Durable and long-lasting
● Extensive pattern and color choices
9. Air-Entrained Concrete
Some types of concrete hold billions of microscopic air
cells in every cubic foot. These tiny air pockets relieve
the internal pressure on the concrete. They provide tiny
chambers where water can expand when it freezes.
The air is entrained in the concrete by adding several
foaming agents during the mixing process, including:
● Fatty acids
● Resins
● Alcohols
Because this concrete is mixed at the site of application,
the mixing and entraining process requires careful
engineering supervision. The entrained air adds up to
about 3% to 6% of the volume of the concrete. Almost
all concrete used in a freezing environment or where
there are freeze-thaw cycles is air-entrained.
10. Ready-Mix Concrete
Concrete prepared and bathed in a centrally located
plant is known as ready-mix concrete. This concrete is
mixed as it is transported to the site in the familiar
cement trucks seen often on roads and highways. Once
the trucks reach the worksite, the cement can be used
immediately because it does not need further
treatment. Ready-mix concrete is a specialty concrete
that is mixed based on specifications developed with
great precision.
Creating ready-mix concrete requires a centralized
location where the concrete can be prepared. These
locations need to be placed at an adjustable distance
from the worksite. If the concrete takes too long to
reach the worksite, it will be of no use. In most cases,
the worksite is too far from the preparation plant.
Retarding agents are sometimes used to delay how long
the concrete takes to set.
Ready-mix concrete is preferred to concrete mixed on-
site because the mixture has higher precision and
having the concrete ready to pour reduces confusion on
the worksite. Ready-mix concrete can be used for
buildings, roadways, walls and more.
11. Self-Consolidated Concrete
Self-consolidating concrete will compact on its own due
to its weight when put in place. This non-segregating,
highly flowable concrete will fill the formwork and
spread easily into place to encapsulate the
reinforcement without the need for vibration or
mechanical consolidation. This highly workable concrete
is best used for applications and areas where there is
thick reinforcement.
Some benefits of self-consolidated concrete include the
following:
● Self-leveling
● Enhanced hardened properties
● Improved consolidation in congested areas
● Safer work environment
● Reduced equipment and labor
● Increased detailing flexibility
● Smoother surfaces
● Reduced noise
12. Polymer Concrete
Polymer concrete aggregates, compared to those in
other concrete types, are bound together in a matrix
with polymer instead of cement. This type of concrete is
made of limestone gravels, silica, quartz, granite
pebbles and other high-compressive strength materials.
If these materials are not dry, clean and dust-free, it
can have a negative impact on the concrete’s binding
ability.
The polymer resin serves as the binder and the
aggregate is the compressive stress material. Polymer
concrete composites contain a distinct combination of
properties in their formulation. Some of these properties
include:
● Rapid curing ambient temperatures
● Good adhesion to surfaces
● Long-term durability
● High flexural, tensile and compressive strengths
● Low permeability to water and some solution
● Lightweight formula
● Strong chemical resistance
Polymer concrete also has a few distinct categories,
including:
● Polymer impregnated concrete
● Polymer cement concrete
● Partially impregnated
13. Rapid-Set Concrete
In a hurry? Then you need rapid-set concrete. It’s ideal
when you’re short on time to complete a project. It has
faster set times and is very resistant to low
temperatures, so it can be used any time of the year.
It’s especially useful in winters when the cold weather
does not allow you to use many other kinds of concrete.
14. Pervious Concrete
This is one of the most common kinds of concrete used
to build roads and pavements. It is designed to deal with
the problems of stormwater runoff and pools of water
and puddles on roadways or airport runways.
Other concrete absorbs water. Roadways that use
previous concrete have fewer problems with
hydroplaning, tire spray and snow buildup. It also
reduces the need for curbing and storm sewers.
It is composed of a mixture of cement, water and coarse
aggregates. It contains no sand, which creates an open-
scale, porous structure. This allows water to pass
through the layers more easily. Some kinds of previous
concrete will pass several gallons of water through its
surface per minute.
15. Vacuum Concrete
In certain applications, such as deck slabs, parking lots
and industrial floors, concrete will have a higher water
content than necessary when poured into the formwork.
In these cases, the excess water must be removed with
a vacuum pump before the concrete begins to set.
Compared to a normal construction method, the
vacuum technique can help make the concrete platform
or structure ready to use sooner.
16. Pumped Concrete
If you’ve ever wondered what types of cement mixtures
used in the flooring of a very tall building are, the
answer is probably pumped concrete. The secret to
pumped concrete is that it is very workable, so it can be
conveyed easily via a pipe to an upper floor. This pipe
will be a flexible or rigid hose that discharges the
concrete to the required area.
Pumped concrete can also be used:
● To create superflat floors on lower structures
● In construction projects like roadways and
bridges
● For more personal items, like swimming pools
It is a reliable, efficient and economical way to apply
concrete and is often the only way that concrete can be
placed in certain locations. Very fine aggregates are
used in pumped concrete. The finer the aggregate used
in the mix, the freer the concrete flows from the pipe.
17. Limecrete
This concrete uses lime instead of cement, along with
lightweight aggregates like glass fiber or sharp sand. It’s
mainly used for the construction of floors, vaults and
domes. Limecrete has many environmental benefits
because it is so easily cleaned and is renewable. It can
also be used with radiant floor heating.
18. Roll Compacted Concrete
It’s a familiar sight on many American highways — a
heavy roller compacting a layer of concrete. Roll-
compacted concrete is a strong, dense concrete used on
heavily trafficked highways with vehicles that carry
large loads. This concrete emits fewer emissions during
the production process, which benefits the environment.
Roll compacted concrete can be found in roadworks,
airport runways, car parks, pavements and industrial
servicing.
19. Glass Concrete
Another, more modern form of concrete, glass concrete
features the use of recycled glass. This form of concrete
is used when aesthetic appeal is an important element
in the design of the concrete.
Commonly used in the large-format slabs found in
flooring or on decorative façades, this concrete can have
shining or colored glass embedded during the mixing
process to give it a distinctive splash of color or sparkle.
20. Asphalt Concrete
More commonly known as “asphalt” or “blacktop,” this
is a form of concrete often used for constructing
sidewalks, roads, parking lots, airport runways and
highways— almost anywhere pavement is needed.
Asphalt is a dark mineral composed of bitumens, which
are a form of hydrocarbons.
The desire for asphalt grew along with the automobile
industry. Known for its durability, workability, skid
resistance, stability, fatigue resistance, flexibility and
permeability, it still requires a properly designed
mixture. It is a composite mixture of aggregates and
asphalt. The different mixtures of asphalt are used for
different purposes.
21. Shotcrete Concrete
Shotcrete differs from other forms of concrete primarily
in the way it is applied. Shotcrete is shot through a
nozzle onto a frame or formwork. Since this application
requires higher air pressure, the compaction process
takes place at the same time as the placing.
Shotcrete can be used to repair damaged wood,
concrete or steel structures. It is also commonly used
when access to a work area is difficult or when formwork
is impractical or cost-prohibitive.
22. High-Strength Concrete
High-strength concrete is any concrete mix that is
greater than 40 megapascal (40MPa), which is the
tensile strength of concrete. High-strength concrete that
meets this determinant can handle much more stress
and pressure compared to concrete at 20MPa or 30MPa.
This type of concrete can withstand strenuous
conditions before it shears, cracks or breaks. The
increased strength in this concrete is accomplished by
reducing the water-cement ratio to a low rate.
High-strength concrete above 40MPa is often used for
civil and commercial construction, which includes
buildings and infrastructure projects, structural beams,
columns, load bearing walls and any other application
where increased capacity and durability are required.
23. High-Performance Concrete
Though all high-strength concrete can be labeled as
high-performance, not all high-performance concrete
(HPC) will be in the high-strength category. HPC meets
particular efficiency standards, such as:
● Easy placement
● Heat of hydration
● Environmental standards
● Longevity and durability
● Life-term mechanical properties
 ● Strength gain in early age
● Toughness
● Permeability and density factors
However, HPC may be limited in strength in some cases,
depending on the application you plan to use it in.
COMPOSITION
Major ingredients of concrete are:
1. Binding material (like cement, lime, polymer)
2. Fine aggregate (sand)
3. Coarse aggregates (crushed stone, jelly)
4. Water.
A small quantity of admixtures like air entraining
agents, water proofing agents, workability agents etc.
may also be added to impart special properties to the
plain concrete mixture.
In the proportioning of concrete it is kept in mind that
voids in coarse aggregates are filled with sand and the
voids in sand are filled with cement paste.
Cement is the binding material. After addition of water
it hydrates and binds aggregates and the surrounding
surfaces like stone and bricks. Generally richer mix
(with more cement) gives more strength. Setting time
starts after 30 minutes and ends after 6 hours. Hence
concrete should be laid in its mould before 30 minutes
of mixing of water and should not be subjected to any
external forces till final setting takes place.
Coarse aggregate consists of crushed stones. It
should be well graded and the stones should be of
igneous origin. They should be clean, sharp, angular and
hard. They give mass to the concrete and prevent
shrinkage of cement. Fine aggregate consists of river
sand. It prevents shrinkage of cement. When
surrounded by cement it gains mobility, enters the voids
in coarse aggregates and binding of ingredients takes
place. It adds density to concrete, since it fills the voids.
Denser the concrete higher is its strength.
Water used for making concrete should be clean. It
activates the hydration of cement and forms plastic
mass. As it sets completely, concrete becomes hard
mass. Water gives workability to concrete which means
water makes it possible to mix the concrete with ease
and place it in the final position. More the water the
better the workability. However excess water reduces
the strength of concrete. Figure 3.1 shows the variation
of strength of concrete with water cement ratio. To
achieve required workability and at the same time good
strength a water cement ratio of 0.4 to 0.45 is used, in
case of machine mixing and water cement ratio of 0.5
to 0.6 is used for hand mixing.
WATER
● AGGREGATE
● BINDING MATERIAL
● CEMENT
● ADMIXTURE
● WATER
● AGGREGATE
● AIR
● CEMENT
● WATER
● AGGREGATE
● AIR
● BINDING MATERIAL
Composition of Basic Concrete Mix
If we evaluate the concrete composition to see what
concrete is made of, we can see there are four basic
ingredients within the concrete material mix:
● Binding materials like cement or lime
● Aggregates or Inert Materials
○ Fine aggregate (sand)
○ Coarse aggregate (stone chips, brick
chips)
● Water
● Admixture (e.g. Pozzolana)
A brief description of the concrete ingredients is given
below.
Binding Materials
Binding material is the main element of a concrete
material mix. Cement is the most commonly used
binding material. Lime could also be used. When water
is mixed with the cement, a paste is created that coats
the aggregates within the mix. The paste hardens, binds
the aggregates, and forms a stone-like substance.
Aggregates
Sand is a fine mixture. Gravel or crushed stone is the
coarse mixture in most mixes.
Water
Water is required to react with the cement (hydration)
and to supply workability with the concrete. The number
of water combined in pounds compared with the number
of cement is named the water/cement quantitative
relation. The lower the w/c quantitative relation, the
stronger the concrete. (Higher strength, less
permeability).
Concrete is a mixture of cement, water, fine aggregate
(sand) and coarse aggregate (gravel or crushed rocks)
in which the cement and water have hardened by a
chemical reaction – hydration – to bind the nearly (non-
reacting) aggregate.
• Other materials in addition to the above are often
incorporated, such as fine powders that can substitute
some of the cement, known as additions, and small
quantities of chemicals, known as admixtures, which
can alter and improve some
properties.
• The use of additions, most of which are fine powders
like the cement and which participate in the hydration
reactions, requires the definition of the binder as the
mixture of cement and addition(s).
Major ingredients of concrete are:
1. Binding material (like cement, lime, polymer)
2. Fine aggregate (sand)
3. Coarse aggregates (crushed stone, jelly)
4. Water.
A small quantity of admixtures like air entraining
agents, water proofing agents, workability agents etc.
may also be added to impart special properties to the
plain concrete mixture.
Cement is the binding material. After addition of water
it hydrates and binds aggregates and the surrounding
surfaces like stone and bricks. Generally richer mix
(with more cement) gives more strength.
Aggregates are essential components of concrete. They
act as inert material in concrete. Fine aggregate and
coarse aggregate are two main types of aggregate for
concrete. As the name indicates, they are basically
classified depending on the sizes of aggregate particles.
Coarse aggregate consists of crushed stones. It should
be well graded and the stones should be of igneous
origin. They should be clean, sharp, angular and hard.
They give mass to the concrete and prevent shrinkage
of cement. Fine aggregate consists of river sand. It
prevents shrinkage of cement.
When surrounded by cement it gains mobility, enters
the voids in coarse aggregates and binding of
ingredients takes place. It adds density to concrete,
since it fills the voids. Denser the concrete higher is its
strength.
Water used for making concrete should be clean. It
activates the hydration of cement and forms plastic
mass. As it sets completely, concrete becomes hard
mass. Water gives workability to concrete which means
water makes it possible to mix the concrete with ease
and place it in the final position. More the water the
better the workability. However excess water reduces
the strength of concrete.
PROCESS
Concrete Manufacturing Processes Overview
1. Batching
The first step involves gathering the
ingredients necessary to produce the particular
type of concrete. The type of batching, volume
or weighted, is contingent on the amount of
concrete being produced. Volume batching,
typically involved in producing smaller batches,
requires a tedious amount of manual gauge box
measuring and lifting. Due to the strenuous
environment, this stage of the manufacturing
process requires critical care in selecting the
right safety gear to safeguard against cuts,
blisters and other environmental hazards.
2. Mixing
Depending on the type and quantity
needed for a particular job, concrete can be
mixed by hand, by stationary mixer, or during
transport. Regardless of how it is mixed, the
critical point is to ensure the concrete is uniform
in color and consistency for optimal setting.
Hand mixing cement, using shovels, and other
mixing tools takes its toll on workers’ hands,
again requiring a strong durable glove for
enhanced protection.
3. Transporting and Placing
Methods of transporting concrete vary
widely from wheelbarrow and manual hauling to
conveyor belt operations, to more advanced
projects involving cranes and pumps. All of
these methods require some level of manual
operating demanding advanced safety wear.
From physically hauling wheelbarrows to
operating and securing larger machines and
equipment hauling the concrete, companies
have an obligation to ensure their gloves meet
safety requirements.
4. Compacting and Placing
During mixing and transport air is often
entrapped, greatly reducing the quality and
strength. One of the final stages of production
involves compacting the product to eliminate
the air pockets and ensure durability. This can
be done by involving machinery that
temporarily liquefies the concrete, instantly
expelling trapped air, or by hand tooling.
5. Curing and Finishing
This process takes place immediately
after concrete is compressed and involves close
attention to detail regarding moisture levels and
contracting as it dries. This process is crucial in
preventing cracking and durability issues. Many
types of curation involve potent chemicals to
seal the slab that can be incredibly hazardous to
workers if exposed.
Properties
● GRADE
● COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
● CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH
● TENSILE STRENGTH
● CREEP
● SHRINKAGE
● MODULAR RATIO
● POISSON’S RATIO
● DURABILITY
● UNIT WEIGHT
● DURABILITY
● GOOD WORKABILITY
● IMPERMEABILITY
● COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
● POROSITY
● DRYING SHRINKAGE AND CREEP
● MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
● STRENGTH
 ● WORKABILITY
● ELASTIC PROPERTIES
● IMPERMEABILITY
● SURABILITY
● SEGREGATION
● BLEEDING
● FATIGUE
Concrete has completely different properties when it is
the plastic stage and when hardened. Concrete in the
plastic stage is also known as green concrete. Concrete
is a mixture of several materials. At the hardened state,
this heterogeneous material becomes a stone-like mass.
The extensive use of concrete in the construction field
has made it a material of huge concern for engineers.
To participate in the vast uses of concrete an engineer
must know its properties. Here in this article, we have
provided a glimpse of the properties of concrete.
Strength
Strength of concrete are of the following types:
a. Compressive strength
b. Tensile strength
c. Flexural strength
d. Shear strength
Compressive Strength
Two types of test specimens are used in Bangladesh -
(1) Cube and (2) Cylinder.
The cube specimens of concrete of the desired
proportion are cast in steel or cast iron molds, normally
6-inch cube. The standard cylinder specimen of concrete
is 6 inch in diameter and 12 inches in height and cast in
a mold generally made of cast iron;
Standard cubes and cylinders are tested at prescribed
ages, generally, 28 days, with additional tests often
made at 1, 3, and 7 days. The specimens are tested for
crushing strength under a testing machine. The cube
tests give much greater values of crushing strength,
usually 20 to 30 % more than those given by cylinders.
According to British standards, the strength of a cylinder
specimen is equal to three-quarters of the strength of
the cube specimen.
Effect of age on concrete strength:
Concrete attains strength with time. Ordinary cement
concrete gains above 70 to 75% of its final strength
within 28 days and about 90 to 95 % in the course of
one year. It is often desirable to check the suitability of
a concrete long before the results of the 28-day test are
available. When no specific data on the materials used
in making concrete are available, the 28-day strength
may be assumed to be 1.5 times of the 7 days’ strength.
Tests have shown that for concrete made with ordinary
Portland cement the ratio of the 28 days to 7 days’
strength generally lies between 1.3 to 1.7, and the
majority of the results fall above 1.5. The extrapolation
of 28 days’ strength from the 7 days’ strength is,
therefore quite reliable;
Tensile strength
Concrete is very weak in tension. The tensile strength
of ordinary concrete ranges from about 7 to 10 percent
of the compressive strength.
Flexural strength
The flexural strength of plain concrete is almost wholly
dependent upon the tensile strength. However,
experiments show that the modulus of rupture is
considerably greater than the strength in tension.
Shear strength
It is the real determining factor in the compressive
strength of short columns. The average strength of
concrete in direct shear varies from about half of the
compressive strength for rich mixtures to about 0.8 of
the compressive strength for lean mixtures.
Workability
The strength of concrete of a given mix proportion is
very seriously affected by the degree of its compaction.
It is therefore vital that the consistency of the mix be
such that the concrete can be transported, placed and
finished sufficiently easily and without segregation. A
concrete satisfying these conditions is said to be
workable.
Factors affecting the workability of concrete are:
■ Water Content
■ Mix Proportions
■ Size of Aggregates
■ Shape of Aggregates
■ Grading of Aggregates
■ Surface Texture of Aggregates
■ Use of Admixtures
■ Use of Supplementary Cementitious Materials
■ Time
■ Temperature
Usually, a Slump test is done to indirectly determine the
workability of a concrete mix.
Elastic Properties
Concrete is not perfectly elastic for any range of loading,
an appreciable permanent setting taking place for even
low loads. The deformation is not proportional to the
stress at any stage of loading. The elastic properties of
concrete vary with the richness of the mixture and with
the intensity of the stress. They also vary with the age
of concrete.
Durability
Durability is the property of concrete to withstand the
condition for which it has been designed, without
deterioration over a period of years. Lack of durability
can be caused by external agents arising from the
environment or by internal agents within the concrete.
Causes can be categorized as physical, mechanical and
chemical.
Physical cause arises from the action of frost and from
differences between the thermal properties of aggregate
and of the cement paste, while mechanical causes are
associated mainly with abortion.
Impermeability
Penetration of concrete by materials in solution may
adversely affect its durability, for instance, when
Ca(OH)2 is being leached out or an attack by aggressive
liquids (acids) takes place. Permeability has an
important bearing on the vulnerability of concrete to
water and frost. In the case of reinforced cement
concrete, the penetration of moisture and air will result
in the corrosion of steel. This leads to an increase in the
volume of the steel, resulting in cracking and spalling of
the concrete. Permeability of concrete is also of
importance for liquid retaining and hydraulic structures;
Segregation
The tendency of separation of coarse aggregate grains
from the concrete mass is called segregation. It
increases when the concrete mixture is lean and too
wet. It also increases when a rather large and rough-
textured aggregate is used. The phenomenon of
segregation can be avoided as follows.
i. Addition of little air-entraining agents in the
mix.
ii. Restricting the amount of water to the smallest
possible amount.
iii. All the operations like handling, placing and
consolidation must be carefully conducted.
iv. Concrete should not be allowed to fall from large
heights.
Bleeding
The tendency of water to rise to the surface of freshly
laid concrete is known as bleeding. The water rising to
the surface carries with it, particles of sand and cement,
which on hardening form a scum layer is popularly
known as laitance. Concrete bleeding can be checked by
adopting the following measures.
i. By adding more cement
ii. By using more finely ground cement
iii. By properly designing the mix and using the
minimum quantity of water
iv. By using little air entraining agent
v. By increasing the finer part of fine aggregate
Fatigue
Plain concrete when subjected to flexure, exhibits
fatigue. The flexure resisting ability of concrete of a
given quality is indicated by an endurance limit whose
value depends upon the number of repetitions of stress.
In concrete pavement design, the allowable flexural
working stress is limited to 55% of the modulus of
rupture.
Desirable Properties of Concrete
Durability: Ability of hardened concrete to resist
deterioration caused by weathering, chemicals, and
abrasion
Workability: Ease of placing, handling, and finishing
Weather Resistance: Resistance to deterioration caused
by freezing and thawing, wetting and drying, and
heating and cooling
Erosion Resistance: Resistance to deterioration caused
by water flow, traffic, and wind blasting
Chemical Resistance: Resistance to deterioration caused
by de-icing salts, salt water, sulfate salts
Water Tightness: Resistance to water infiltration
Strength
Economy
Uses of Concrete
The major uses of concrete are:
1. Concrete Dams
Concrete's qualities, namely its strong
strength and low density, make it a better
choice as a building material for dams. Water
and power are both stored and generated by
dams. Concrete is a good choice for dam
building because of the heavy weights that
water pressure places on the structure.
2. Residential Buildings
Concrete is used to construct the
skeleton of modest structures, villas, and even
high-rise buildings. This includes the
foundation, slabs, and, of course, columns and
beams. Formwork can be classic or modern.
3. Commercial Buildings
Commercial buildings are safer to use
than most other types of construction materials
since they are made of concrete. Compared to
steel buildings, it is often more affordable and
requires less upkeep. Heat flow from inside to
outside and vice versa may be easily managed,
which lowers the amount of energy used.
4. Roads or Driveways
Concrete streets, pavements, and
driveways are more durable and stronger than
asphalt roadways. The long-lasting service time
and the less maintenance required for concrete
roads make it the first choice of material for the
construction of roads and driveways.
5. Marine Construction
Concrete has had extensive use as a
construction material for seawalls, jetties,
groins, breakwaters, bulkheads, and other
structures exposed to seawater. The
performance record has generally been good.
 6. Culverts and Sewers
Sewers and underground construction
works need strong and durable building
materials and concrete is the ideal one.
Culverts, piers, foundation, abutments are
constructed using a special concrete mix.
7. Foundations
Reinforced cement concrete is typically
used to create the foundation of both high-rise
and low-rise structures because it is strong and
has a large load bearing capability.
8. Fences
The precast concrete industry's growth
has benefited the concrete fencing sector.
Precast construction speeds up the production
and installation of fence components compared
to conventional concrete fence building.
Additionally, it is gorgeous and more charming.
9. Concrete Bridges
Reinforced concrete strength,
durability, ductility, weather resistance, fire
resistance, and long-lasting life cycle makes the
concrete the finest alternative for constructing
the bridges. Several forms of concrete,
including self-compacted, post-stressed, and
prestressed concrete, may be used in the
building of bridges.
CONCRETE TESTING
7 Methods for Testing Concrete Strength
There are many different practices aside from
cylinder break tests that can be used. Here are seven
different approaches to consider when choosing a
method of strength testing.
Methods for Testing Compressive Strength of
Concrete
1. Rebound Hammer or Schmidt Hammer
(ASTM C805)
Method: A spring release mechanism is used to
activate a hammer which impacts a plunger to
drive into the surface of the concrete. The
rebound distance from the hammer to the
surface of the concrete is given a value from 10
to 100. This measurement is then correlated to
the concretes’ strength.
Pros: Relatively easy to use and can be done
directly onsite.
Cons: Pre-calibration using cored samples is
required for accurate measurements. Test
results can be skewed by surface conditions and
the presence of large aggregates or rebar below
the testing location.
2. Penetration Resistance Test (ASTM C803)
Method: To complete a penetration resistance
test, a device drives a small pin or probe into
the surface of the concrete. The force used to
penetrate the surface, and the depth of the
hole, is correlated to the strength of the in-place
concrete.
Pros: Relatively easy to use and can be done
directly onsite.
Cons: Data is significantly affected by surface
conditions as well as the type of form and
aggregates used. Requires pre-calibration using
multiple concrete samples for accurate strength
measurements.
3. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (ASTM C597)
Method: This technique determines the velocity
of a pulse of vibrational energy through a slab.
The ease at which this energy makes its way
through the slab provides measurements
regarding the concrete’s elasticity, resistance to
deformation or stress, and density. This data is
then correlated to the slab’s strength.
Pros: This is a non-destructive testing
technique which can also be used to detect flaws
within the concrete, such as cracks and
honeycombing.
Cons: This technique is highly influenced by the
presence of reinforcements, aggregates, and
moisture in the concrete element. It also
requires calibration with multiple samples for
accurate testing.
4. Pullout Test (ASTM C900)
Method: The main principle behind this test is
to pull the concrete using a metal rod that is
cast-in-place or post-installed in the concrete.
The pulled conical shape, in combination with
the force required to pull the concrete, is
correlated to compressive strength.
Pros: Easy to use and can be performed on both
new and old constructions.
Cons: This test involves crushing or damaging
the concrete. A large number of test samples
are needed at different locations of the slab for
accurate results.
5. Drilled Core (ASTM C42)
Method: A core drill is used to extract hardened
concrete from the slab. These samples are then
compressed in a machine to monitor the
strength of the in-situ concrete.
Pros: These samples are considered more
accurate than field-cured specimens because
the concrete that is tested for strength has been
 subjected to the actual thermal history and its advantages over other materials. However, there are
curing conditions of the in-place slab. also disadvantages.

Cons: This is a destructive technique that Advantages of Concrete

requires damaging the structural integrity of the
slab. The locations of the cores need to be
repaired afterwards. A lab must be used to
obtain strength data.
6. Cast-in-place Cylinders (ASTM C873)
Method: Cylinder molds are placed in the
location of the pour. Fresh concrete is poured
into these molds which remain in the slab. Once
hardened, these specimens are removed and
compressed for strength.
Pros: Is considered more accurate than field-
cured specimens because the concrete is
subjected to the same curing conditions of the
in-place slab, unlike field-cured specimens.
Cons: This is a destructive technique that
requires damaging the structural integrity of the
slab. The locations of the holes need to be
repaired afterwards. A lab must be used to
obtain strength data.
7. Wireless Maturity Sensors (ASTM C1074)
Method: This technique is based on the
principle that concrete strength is directly
related to its hydration temperature history.
Wireless sensors are placed within the concrete
formwork, secured on the rebar, before pouring.
Temperature data is collected by the sensor and
uploaded to any smart device within an app
using a wireless connection. This information is
used to calculate the compressive strength of
the in-situ concrete element based on the
maturity equation that is set up in the app.
● Ingredients of concrete are readily available in
most places.
● Unlike natural stones, concrete is free from
defects and flaws.
● Concrete can be manufactured to the desired
strength with an economy.
● The durability of concrete is very high.
● It can be cast to any desired shape.
● The casting of concrete can be done on the
working site which makes it economical.
● The maintenance cost of concrete is almost
negligible.
● The deterioration of concrete is not appreciable
with age.
● Concrete makes a building fire-safe due to its
non-combustible nature.
● Concrete can withstand high temperatures.
● Concrete is resistant to wind and water.
Therefore, it is very useful in storm shelters.
● As a soundproofing material cinder concrete
could be used.
Disadvantages of Concrete
● Compared to other binding materials, the
tensile strength of concrete is relatively low.
● Concrete is less ductile.
● The weight of concrete is high compared to its
strength.
● Concrete may contain soluble salts. Soluble
salts cause efflorescence.

Pros: Compressive strength data is given in

real-time and updated every 15 minutes. As a
result, the data is considered more accurate and
reliable as the sensors are embedded directly in
the formwork, meaning they are subject to the
same curing conditions as the in-situ concrete
element. This also means no time is wasted
onsite waiting for results from a third-party lab.

Cons: Requires a one-time calibration for each

concrete mix to establish a maturity curve using
cylinder break tests.

Other relevant information

Concrete is a mix of several different materials:

water, fine aggregates (or sand), coarse aggregates (or
gravel), chemical additives, and, most importantly,
cement. Cement is what binds all of these ingredients
together to give concrete its durability and distinctive,
grey appearance. It’s widely used especially in the field
of engineering and construction. The reason for this is
 Additional Lecture for Concrete
CE 406 – Construction Materials and Testing

• Definition of Concrete
Concrete is a construction material composed of cement, fine aggregates (sand)
and coarse aggregates mixed with water which hardens with time. Portland cement is
the commonly used type of cement for production of concrete. Concrete technology
deals with study of properties of concrete and its practical applications.

• Grade of Concrete
Grade of concrete is defined as the minimum strength the concrete must possess
after 28 days of construction with proper quality control. Grade of concrete is denoted
by prefixing M to the desired strength in MPa. For example, for a grade of concrete
with 20 MPa strength, it will be denoted by M20, where M stands for Mix. This grade
of concrete is converted into various mix proportions.
o Two Types of Concrete Mixes
▪ Nominal Mix – These are those which are generally used for small scale
construction and small residential buildings where concrete consumption is
not high. Nominal mixes for grades of concrete such as M15, M20, and M25
are generally used for small scale construction.
▪ Design Mix – These concrete are those for which mix proportions are
obtained from various lab tests. Large structures have high strength
requirements, thus they go for higher grades of concrete such as M30 and
above. The mix proportions of these concretes are based on mix design.

This is the quantity we need for every 1 cubic meter of concrete.

 o Uses of Different Concrete Mixes

• Making and Curing of Concrete Test Specimen

This practice covers procedure for making and curing concrete test specimen of
concrete in the laboratory under accurate control of materials and test conditions
using concrete that can be consolidated by rodding or vibration.
This practice provides standardized requirements for preparation of materials,
mixing concrete, and making and curing concrete test specimens under laboratory
conditions. If the specimen preparation is controlled, the specimen may be used to
develop information for following purposes:
1. Mixture proportioning for concrete project
2. Evaluation of different mixtures and materials
3. Correlation with nondestructive tests
4. Providing specimens for research purposes

The number of specimen and the number of test batches are dependent on the
established practice and the nature of the test program. Usually three or more
specimens should be prepared for each test age and test conditions unless otherwise
specified.
 • What happens if concrete is not cured properly?
When concrete is not cured properly, its durability, strength and abrasive resistance
are affected. Due to inadequate curing, concrete develops plastic shrinkage cracks,
thermal cracks, along with a considerable loss in the strength of the surface layer. When
the surface of the concrete is not kept moist within the first 24 hours after the casting, the
evaporation from the exposed horizontal surface results in plastic shrinkage cracks and
a weak and dusty surface.

• Slump Test of a Concrete

Concrete slump test or slump cone test is to determine the workability or
consistency of concrete mix prepared at the laboratory or the construction site during
the progress of the work. It has been widely used for workability tests since 1922. The
slump is carried out as per procedures mentioned in ASTM C143 in the United States,
IS: 1199 – 1959 in India and EN 12350-2 in Europe. Generally, concrete slump value
is used to find the workability, which indicates water-cement ratio, but there are various
factors including properties of materials, mixing methods, dosage, admixtures etc. also
affect the concrete slump value.
• Factors which influence the concrete slump test
1. Material properties like chemistry, fineness, particle size distribution, moisture
content and temperature of cementitious materials. Size, texture, combined
grading, cleanliness and moisture content of the aggregates,
2. Chemical admixtures dosage, type, combination, interaction, sequence of
addition and its effectiveness,
3. Air content of concrete,
4. Concrete batching, mixing and transporting methods and equipment,
5. Temperature of the concrete,
 6. Sampling of concrete, slump-testing technique and the condition of test
equipment,
7. The amount of free water in the concrete, and
8. Time since mixing of concrete at the time of testing.

• Types of Concrete Slump Test Results

o True Slump – True slump is the only slump that can be measured in the
test. The measurement is taken between the top of the cone and the top of
the concrete after the cone has been removed as shown in the figure.
o Zero Slump – Zero slump is the indication of very low water-cement ratio,
which results in dry mixes. This type of concrete is generally used for road
construction.
o Collapsed Slump – This is an indication that the water-cement ratio is too
high, i.e. concrete mix is too wet or it is a high workability mix, for which a
slump test is not appropriate.
o Shear Slump – The shear slump indicates that the result is incomplete, and
concrete to be retested.
Additional reference videos for clearer understanding of the topic:
• Slump Test of a Concrete: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7kgir9mMsqY
• Concrete Sample Preparation: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ShIPt36TEQo
• Calculations for Quantity of Cement, Sand, and Aggregates:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GLekIyLJX4Q

REFERENCES:
• https://theconstructor.org/concrete/
• https://theconstructor.org/concrete/inadequate-concrete-curing/30895/
• https://theconstructor.org/concrete/concrete-slump-test/1558/
• CPC Laboratory Manual
 Familiarization with the
Apparatus and Equipment Used in Testing of Materials
CE 406: Construction Materials and Testing
CEMENT/MORTAR
Cement Testing | Various
Tests for Cement |
Equipment Used in Cement
Testing
 Cement Cement Tests are performed to know the strength, characteristics and
properties of cement. Various Test on cement is done nowadays to check
Testing the quality of cement.

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Various Tests for Cement/Mortar
Here are some of the various tests conducted in cement.
1 Initial and Final Setting
Fineness Test
The fineness of cement is a measure of
cement particle size and is denoted as
terms of the specific surface area of
cement. The Test is done by sieving
cement samples through a standard IS
sieve.
4
2
Test
3
Initial Setting Time of Cement: It is the
time elapsed between the moment that Standard Consistency Test
the water is added to the cement, to the The standard consistency of cement
time that the paste starts losing its paste is defined as the percentage of
plasticity. water added In 300gm weight of cement
which will permit a Vicat plunger having
Final Setting Time of Cement: It is the 50 mm length and 10 mm diameter to
time elapsed between the moment the penetrate in cement paste to a depth of
water is added to the cement and the 33-35 mm from the top of the mold.
time when cement paste loses its
plasticity completely and has attained
sufficient firmness to resist certain
definite pressure.
 Various Tests for Cement
Here are the other tests for cement.

4 Soundness Test
▪ The soundness of cement indicates the stability of any cement
during the volume change in the process of setting and
5 Specific Gravity Test
▪ The specific gravity of cement is defined as the mass of cement
of specified volume to the mass of water of the same volume of
hardening. In case the volume change in cement is unstable cement. It can also be defined as the density of cement to the
after setting and hardening, the concrete element will crack, density of water for the same volume.
which can affect the quality of the structure or even cause
serious accidents, known as poor dimensional stability.

5
Equipment Used in Cement Testing
Here are some of the apparatus and equipment used in cement.

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Vicat Needle Apparatus
Vicat apparatus is a penetration device used in
testing of hydraulic cements and similar
materials to determine their normal or standard
consistency. It is also used to determine the
initial setting time and final setting time of
hydraulic cements and similar materials.

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 Flow Cone Apparatus
It is used for viscosity and fluidity determination
of mortars, muds, grouts, fluid materials and etc.

8
 Flame Photometer
▪ It is used to determine the alkali content of
cement.

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Automatic Mortar
Mixer
It is expressively designed for the efficient mixing
of cement pastes and mortar, with two
automatic sequences of mixing cycle.

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Bulk Density of Cement
Set
This apparatus is used for the measurement of
the apparent density (bulk density) of powder
and non-cohesive materials. It consists of sieve
funnel with tripod, unit weight measure 1 liter
capacity with hopper, spatula, straight edge,
large spoon.

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 Le Chatelier Mold
Used for determining the expansion of cement.
The mould consists of a spring tensioned split
cylinder 30 mm internal diameter, 30 mm high
with two indicator stems which measure 165
mm from the points of the centre line of the
cylinder and O ring. Two or three moulds are
required for each test. To perform the test, a
water bath is also required.

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 Le Chatelier Flask
Used to determine the specific gravity of
hydraulic cement and lime. Glass flask 250 ml
capacity, with graduated neck from 0 to 1 ml and
from 18 to 24 ml in 0.1 ml graduation with
accuracy of 0.05 ml.
Weight approx.: 500 g

13
Le Chatelier Water Bath
Le Chatelier Water Bath, used for the
determination of setting time and expansion of
cement samples.
Constructed with stainless steel inside chamber
and exterior case in painted steel sheet, it can
hold up to 12 Le Chatelier moulds (to be ordered
separately) in the removable rack, supplied with
the bath. The bath reaches the boiling point in
approx. 30 minutes.

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 Cement Mortar
Permeability Apparatus
Permeability apparatus is used to determine
permeability to water of cement mortar specimens
with or without water proofing compound.
It comprises three brass/ gun metal cells mounted
on a stand and a pressure chamber with a pressure
regulator. The cell can accommodate 100mm dia x
50mm high specimen. Each cell assembly consists
of one base plate. The base plate has one outlet for
water and is recessed to hold the specimen in place
with a ring washer in between. The top plate has
an inlet for water and a suitable connector for the
application of pressurized water in the cell. The
mould and collar are clamped between the base
plate and the top plate with the help of four
tension rods and nuts. The cells are mounted on a
stand.
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CONCRETE
Concrete Testing | Various
Tests for Concrete |
Equipment Used in Concrete
Testing
Concrete A concrete test is performed to learn more about the properties of a
specific sample of concrete. A number of different tests can be performed
Testing on concrete both, on a job site and in a laboratory.

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Various Tests for Concrete
Here are some of the various tests conducted in concrete.

1 Concrete Slump Test
Air Content Test
Air Content Test measures the total air
content in a sample of fresh concrete,
but does not indicate what the final
in-place air content will be, because a
certain amount of air is lost in
transportation, consolidating, placement
and finishing.
18
2
3
The test measures consistency of
Compressive Strength Test
concrete in that specific batch. It is
performed to check consistency of Out of many tests applied to the
freshly made concrete. Consistency concrete, this is of an utmost importance
refers to the ease with which concrete which gives an idea about all the
flows. It is used to indicate degree of characteristics of concrete. By this single
wetness. Consistency affects workability test one judge that whether concreting
of concrete. That is, wetter mixes are has been done properly or not.
more workable than drier mixes, but
concrete of the same consistency may
vary in workability. The test is also used
to determine consistency between
individual batches.
 Various Tests for Concrete
Here are the other tests for concrete.

4 Curing Test
▪ Curing plays an important role on strength development and
durability of concrete. Curing takes place immediately after
5 Flow Table Test
▪ The flow table test or flow test is a method to determine
consistency of fresh concrete. Flow table test is also used to
concrete placing and finishing, and involves maintenance of identify transportable moisture limit of solid bulk cargoes.
desired moisture and temperature conditions, both at depth
and near the surface, for extended periods of time. Properly ▪ If consistency is not at the desired level, concrete will not have
cured concrete has an adequate amount of moisture for the required strength and other qualities once it has set. If
continued hydration and development of strength, volume concrete is too pasty, cavities may form within it. Rebar may
stability, resistance to freezing and thawing, and abrasion and
scaling resistance. become corroded, and concrete will crack. Cavities also reduce
the concrete strength.

19
Equipment Used in Concrete Testing
Here are some of the apparatus and equipment used in concrete.

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Compression Testing
Machine
This Compression Testing Machine is a hydraulic,
electrically operated unit, designed for
conducting compression tests on concrete
specimens up to 20 cm. Diameter (or width and
depth) and 30 cm, in height and also rocks and
various other materials.

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Flow Table
This equipment is used to determine the flow of
concrete. The apparatus consists of a flow table,
stainless steel flow mould, tamping bar.
The steel cone, part of the apparatus, has a top
dia. of 130 mm a base dia. of 200 mm and is 200
mm high. All metal parts are protected against
corrosion.

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Flexural Testing Machine
Flexural Testing Machines has a range of
100 kN and 200 kN capacity flexure testing
machines have been designed to meet the need
for reliable and consistent testing of flexural test
on standard concrete beams, transverse test on
kerbs and flagstones, indirect tensile tests on
concrete and interlocking pavers.

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 Mortar Mixer
It is used for mixing cement pastes, mortars and
pozzolona.

24
Gauging Trowel
It is a round-nosed trowel used for mixing
mortar and applying small amounts in confined
areas; it is also used to replace crumbled mortar
and to patch concrete.

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VeeBee Consistometer
It is used for workability as well as consistency
for fresh concrete. A slump cone and a
graduated rod supplied with the instrument
helps the operator to find out slump values and
Vibration Table with container and acrylic disc is
used to find out workability of concrete
expressed in Vee Bee degrees.
Vee Bee Degrees is defined as the time in
seconds to complete required vibrating at which
the fresh concrete flows out sufficiently to come
in contract of the entire face of acrylic disc.

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 Slump Test Apparatus
It is used for the determination of the consistency
of freshly mixed concrete, where the maximum size
of the aggregate does not exceed 38mm.
It consists of one slump cone with handles and foot
pieces. The slump cone has internal dimensions
20cm. dia at base 10cm. top dia. and 30cm height.
Foot pieces can be fixed to the clamps on the base
plate. The base plate has lifting handle for easy
transportation. One graduated steel rod 16mm dia
x 600mm long, rounded at one end and graduated
in mms.

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Compaction Factor
Apparatus
Designed to undertake a more precise and
sensitive test procedure than the simple slump
test. The apparatus consists of two conical
hoppers mounted on a cylinder. Each hopper has
a hinged flange with quick release mechanism
and everything is mounted on a rigid steel stand.
The compacting factor is the ratio between the
weight of the partially compacted concrete and
the weight of the fully compacted concrete.
Dimensions: 500x400x1510 mm
Weight: 55 kg

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 Kelley Ball Penetration
Apparatus
A test for the consistency of concrete using the
penetration of a half sphere; a 1-inch
(2.5-centimeter) penetration by the Kelly ball
corresponds to about 2 inches (5 centimeters) of
slump. Determines depth of penetration of metal
weight into plastic concrete. Apparatus consists of
30 lb. (14kg) cylinder with hemispherically shaped
bottom and handle. The stirrup (frame) guides the
handle and acts as a reference for measuring depth
of penetration. Handle is graduated in 1/4"
(6.4mm) increments on one side and
half-centimeter increments on the other side.
Concrete may be tested as placed in the forms
prior to any manipulation or in a suitable container.
20lb version can be used with lightweight
29 concrete.
Cube Mold
The standard size of cube is 150 mm. Cubes of
100 mm size are not suitable for concrete having
a nominal maximum aggregate size exceeding 20
mm. Cubes of 150 mm size are not suitable for
concrete having a nominal maximum aggregate
size exceeding 40 mm.
It allows accurate determination of compression
and flexural strength of concrete and it provides
superior alignment accuracy.

30
 Cylindrical Mold
Hard plastic and steel cylinder moulds are
manufactured in accordance with dimensions and
tolerances stated in the related standards. Two part
and clamp attached base plate cast iron, plastic and
steel moulds are designed to be durable, corrosion
resistant and easy to clean.

31
Beam Mold
For casting concrete specimens for flexure tests.
Specification: Made of cast iron. The moulds are
made of 4 plates assembled together. Each
mould is supplied complete with base plate.
Faces are machined flat to +/-0.2mm and
finished in size to 0.2mm

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 Curing Tank
Specimens must be cured at a stable
temperature under water to ensure consistent
test results.

33
Vibrating Table
Vibrating tables have been used for the following
applications:
▪ powder compaction in boxes
▪ removing air from concrete molds
▪ settle and compact products in bulk bags and bulk boxes
▪ to settle and compact 30 to 55 gallon drums of powdered
chemicals
▪ vibrating ash shakeout system
▪ to settle and compact metal powders in molds
▪ light duty applications for labs and factories
▪ to settle and density activated carbon inside filter cartridges
and canisters
▪ remove bubbles in sealed containers filled with water

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 Air Entrainment Meter
An air entrainment meter is used to measure the
amount of air that is trapped within the mix. The
water column type consists essentially of a
stainless steel flanged cylindrical vessel with
cover assembly, incorporating the measuring
cylinder, pressure gauge and valves. Supplied
complete with hand pump and calibration
cylinder apparatus which is essential for
adjustment to site barometric pressure.
The cylindrical vessel of all models can also be
used as unit weight measure for fresh concrete
for density determination.

35
 Three-Meter Straight
Edge
It is a metal device normally 3.0 meters long and
of straight section. It measures surface
irregularity of completed concrete and asphalt
pavements. These are widely used for checking
straightness and marking purposes.

36
AGGREGATES
Aggregate Testing | Various
Tests for Aggregates |
Equipment Used in
Aggregate Testing
Aggregate Aggregate Testing is used to determine the material characteristics and
properties of aggregate materials for use in pavement construction. Test
Testing results are an important part of mix design and can help predict pavement
quality.

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 Various Tests for Aggregates
Here are the other tests for aggregates.

1 Silt Content Test for Sand

▪ The permissible silt content in sand (fine aggregate) must not
exceed the values as specified in the standards. However, this
2 Bulking of Sand
▪ When sand is damp, the water coating on the surface of each
sand particle causes separation of particles from one another
method can only be used for natural sand, it should not be used due to surface tension. This causes sand to bulk. Bulked sand
for crushed rock sand. occupies more volume and hence if volumetric measuring is
▪ If silt content by weight exceeds 3% then washing of sand is done while proportioning it, bulking correction is necessary.
necessary. After conducting few tests, a co-relation can be
developed for silt layer thicknesses at various intervals of time.
The silt content at 10 minutes can be fixed as inspection
criteria.

39
 Various Tests for Aggregates
Here are the other tests for aggregates.

3 Sieve Analysis
Sieve analysis is done to check the gradation of aggregate. The
test is done as follow.
4 Fineness Modulus
▪ Fineness modulus is generally used to get an idea of how coarse
or fine the aggregate is. More fineness modulus value indicates
▪ Take required amount of aggregate sample that the aggregate is coarser and small value of fineness
modulus indicates that the aggregate is finer.
▪ Arrange the required no of sieves as per the contract or job
requirement in an descending manner. Shake vigorously the ▪ Sieve the aggregate using the appropriate sieves (80 mm, 40
sieve set for at least 2 minute. mm, 20 mm, 10 mm, 4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 600 micron,
300 micron & 150 micron)
▪ Then measure the weight of aggregate on each sieve and
express it as the percentage of passing.

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Equipment Used in Aggregate Testing
Here are some of the apparatus and equipment used in aggregates.

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 Laboratory Oven
It is designed for drying, baking, conditioning
and moisture determination.

42
Muffle Furnace
Aside from the laboratory oven, this one is
designed for higher temperature heating.

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Flakiness Gauge
For determining flakiness index. Particle is flaky
when its thickness (smallest dimension) is less
than 0.6 of the mid-size of the sieve fraction.
Gauge has seven labeled slots for rapid hand
trying of particles from each of the seven sieve
cuts. The mass of all flaky particles (passing
appropriate slots) as percent of the sample is the
flakiness index.

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Void Content Apparatus
(Fine Aggregates)
Used to determine the uncompacted void
content of a fine aggregate sample. Indicates the
angularity, sphericality, and workability of fine
aggregate in a mixture. Includes 100 ml brass
cylindrical measure, funnel assembly, funnel
stand, and glass plate for calibration.

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 Void Content Apparatus
(Coarse Aggregates)
Used to determine the void content of
uncompacted coarse aggregates. In operation,
the aggregate is allowed to free-fall 115mm from
the funnel bottom into a 154mm diameter by
160mm high cylindrical measure. The excess
heaped aggregate is struck of using the included
bar, the mass is measured, and the void content
is computed. The apparatus consists of a
stainless steel hopper, stand, measure and
strike-off bar and a 170mm square glass plate for
calibration of the measure.

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Sieves
A sieve, or sifter, is a device for separating
wanted elements from unwanted material or for
characterizing the particle size distribution of a
sample, typically using a woven screen such as a
mesh or net or metal.

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 Sieve Shaker
Sieve Shakers save time and effort and improve
accuracy for particle sizing operations. Shakers
agitate a stacked series of test sieves to
efficiently separate materials of all different
types.
▪ Range: 20 µm to 125 mm
▪ Drive / sieving motion: electromagnetic 3D
▪ Amplitude: 0 - 3 mm
digital setting in 0.1 mm steps
"Closed Loop" amplitude control
▪ Sieve diameter: 100 / 200 mm
8''

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Riffle Sample Divider
It allows dividing samples into two
representative subsamples with a good accuracy.
It is precisely designed to reduce the bulk of
material to a convenient representative size for
laboratory analysis. When used properly, it
provides an accuracy that is recognized through
out the industry

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 Proportional Caliper
Device
Use to determine the percentage of flat
particles, elongated particles, or both flat &
elongated particles in coarse aggregates. Steel
construction for strength & durability, plated for
corrosion resistance. 6" x 16" (152.4 x 406.4mm)
base plate with four rubber feet for stability, and
for convenience in tabletop testing. Ratio desired
is obtained by selecting one of four adjustable
positions: 2 = l:2; 3 = 1:3; 4 = 1:4; or 5 = 1:5.

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Aggregate Impact Value
Test Apparatus
It is used for determining the aggregate impact
value. The Sturdy Construction consists of a base
and support columns to form a rigid framework
around the quick release trigger mechanism to
ensure an effective free fall of the hammer
during test. The free fall can be adjusted through
380±5mm. The hammer is provided with a
locking arrangement. Aggregate impact value
test apparatus is supplied complete with a
cylindrical measure of 75mm dia x 50mm depth,
an automatic blow counter and a tamping rod.

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 Aggregate Crushing
Value Test Apparatus
Aggregate crushing value test apparatus is used
for measuring resistance of an aggregate to
crushing. This is made of Mild Steel comprising
of:
▪ Cylindrical Cell, 150mm internal dia x 130 to 140mm height.
▪ Plunger, 148mm dia x 100 to 115mm height.
▪ Base Plate, 200 to 230mm square x 6mm thickness.
▪ Tamping Rod, 16mm dia x 450 to 600mm length.
▪ Metal Measure, 110mm internal dia x 180mm height.

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WOOD

Wood Testing | Equipment

Used in Wood Testing
 Moisture Meter
This is used to measure the percentage of water
in a given substance. The information can be
used to determine if the material is ready for
use, unexpectedly wet or dry, or otherwise in
need of further inspection. Wood and paper
products are very sensitive to their moisture
content.

54
Universal Wood Tester
It is a screw type motor driven and its suitable
for determination of shear strength, hardness
(Janka Ball Test), Clavage, Static bend Plywood
GripsNail/Screw withdrawal test, compression
(parallel-to-grain) and many other tests on wood
plywood

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OTHERS
Other Equipment Used in
Construction Materials and
Testing
 Beaker
A beaker is a simple container for stirring, mixing
and heating liquids commonly used in many
laboratories. Beakers are generally cylindrical in
shape, with a flat bottom. Most also have a small
spout (or "beak") to aid pouring as shown in the
picture. Beakers are available in a wide range of
sizes, from one millilitre up to several litres.

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Graduated Cylinder
It is a measuring instrument for measuring fluid
volume; a glass container whose sides are
marked or divided into amounts.

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 Thermometer
The design essentially consists of a lens to focus
the infrared thermal radiation on to a detector,
which converts the radiant power to an
electrical signal that can be displayed in units of
temperature after being compensated for
ambient temperature. This permits temperature
measurement from a distance without contact
with the object to be measured. A non-contact
infrared thermometer is useful for measuring
temperature under circumstances
where thermocouples or other probe-type
sensors cannot be used or do not produce
accurate data for a variety of reasons.

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Mechanical Balance
It is a measuring instrument used where the
most accurate weighing are required.

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 Hydrometer
An instrument used to measure the specific
gravity (or relative density) of liquids. It is usually
made of glass and consists of a cylindrical stem
and a bulb weighted with mercury or lead.

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Concrete Mixer
A device that homogenously combines cement, aggregate such as sand or
gravel, and water to form concrete.

Stationary Concrete Mixer - cannot be

Mobile Concrete Mixer – it is ideal if you need to use
moved because they are fixed in only
concrete in more than one place in the same area.
one place.
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 Bucket
It delivers concrete by means of a tower crane. It
has a bottom opening to allow concrete to flow
out when in-place.

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Scoop
A deep bowl for taking something from a
container.

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 Hammer
A deep bowl for taking something from a
container.

Mallet
A tool used to pound on something.

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 Trowel
Used to spread building materials such as plaster
or cement.

Wheelbarrow
A kind of vehicle that is build to be pushed around
with a load inside out.

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Equipment and Apparatus Used in the University
Here are some of the
photos of the apparatus
and equipment used in our
Soil Laboratory.

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68 Graduated Cylinder Decanters
 Mortar & Pestle |
Vicat Needle Apparatus
69 Evaporating Dish
 Trowel Set of Sieves
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71 Oven Universal Testing Machine
 Thank you!

victoria@fabrikam.com 404-555-0115 www.fabrikam.com