Specific heat of a material is defined as the amount of heat
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS
Physical Properties of Different Materials
WHAT IS PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS?
The materials of which can be observed without any change of
identity of materials. In particular, these properties encompass
texture density, mass, melting and boiling points, and electrical
and thermal conductivity
Physical Properties of Materials
1. Density
2. Specific Gravity
3. Coefficients of Thermal Expansion
4. Specific Heat
5. State Change Temperatures
6. Latent Heat
7. Fluidity
8. Weld ability Plasticity
9. Porosity
10.Elasticity
11.Thermal conductivity
12.Electrical Conductivity
Density
It is defined as “the mass per unit volume”. It is represented as
the ratio of mass with volume of a material Its unit in the SI
system is Kg/m3
Specific Gravity
Density of a material relative to density of water and is a ratio
with no units. Sometimes it is called relative density.
State Change Temperatures
Is the temperature at which the substance changes from one
state to another state. State change temperature are of following
types:
 Melting point
 Boiling point
 Freezing point
Coefficients of Thermal Expansion.
When a material is heated, it expands, due to which its
dimensions change. Coefficient of thermal expansion, represents
the expansion in material with increase in temperature.
3 types of Thermal Expansion Coefficients
 Coeffiencients of Linear Thermal Expansion
Where, ‘l’ is the initial length of an object, ‘Δl’ is the change in
length, ‘Δt’ is the change in the temperature. Unit of αL is per oC.
 Coefficients of Area Thermal Expansion
Where, ‘A’ is the initial area of an object, ‘ΔA’ is the change in
area, ‘Δt’ is the change in the temperature. Unit of αA is per oC.
 Coefficients of Volume Thermal Expansion
Where, ‘l’ is the initial volume of an object, ‘ΔV’ is the change in
volume, ‘Δt’ is the change in the temperature. Unit of αV is per
oC.
Specific heat
required to increase the temperature of unit mass of material by
1oC. It is denoted by ‘S’.
Where, m is the mass of material in Kg. Q is the amount of heat
given to material in Joule. Δt is a rise in temperature. Unit of
specific heat in the SI system is Joule/Kg oC
Latent Heat
Latent Heat of a material is defined as the amount of heat
required/released by change in unit mass of material from one
state to another state (Phase change). It is denoted by ‘L’. Latent
heat is given by, L= Q/m
Where, ‘Q’ is the amount of heat required/released by material
(in joule), ‘m’ is the mass of material (in Kg). Unit of Latent heat in
the SI system is Joule/Kg.
Fluidity
It is a property of material which represents how easily a material
can flow in a liquid state. It is the reciprocal to viscosity of liquid
material.
Weld Ability
It is the property of a material which presents how easily the two
pieces of material can be welded together by applying pressure or
heat or both.
Elasticity
It is the property of a material by which it regains its original
dimensions on removal of load or force.
Plasticity
When we keep on increasing the load beyond the limit of
elasticity, the material retains its molded state. This property of
materials is called plasticity.
Porosity
When a material is in melting condition, it contains some
dissolved gasses within the material. When the material is
solidified, these gasses get evaporated and leave behind voids.
The Porosity of material represents the quantity of voids in solid
materials.
Thermal Conductivity
It is the property of a material which represents how easily the
heat can be conducted by a material.
Can be defined as “the amount of heat transmitted by unit
thickness of material normal to the unit area surface in unit time
when the temperature gradient across the material piece is unity
in steady state condition”.
SI unit is watts per meter per K.
Electrical Conductivity
It is the property of materials which represents how easily the
electricity can be conducted by the material. It is denoted by ‘σ’. It
is the reciprocal of resistivity of material. Its unit is mho/meter.
Mechanical Properties of Different Materials
WHAT IS MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS?
Mechanical properties of the materials are found by applying
external forces on them. These are important properties that
determine how a material performs in its intended function.
Mechanical Properties of Materials
1. Strength
2. Hardness
3. Plasticity
4. Brittleness
5. Elasticity
6. Fatigue
7. Impact Strength
8. Abrasion Resistance
9. Creep
Strength
A material's ability to withstand failure due to loads acting on it. It
is determined by dividing the ultimate load taken by the material
with its cross sectional area. The load may be:
 compressive
 tensile
 bending
Hardness
defined as material’s ability to withstand localized permanent
deformation. Hardness may also be used to describe a material’s
resistance to deformation due to other actions, such as cutting,
abrasion, penetration, and scratching.
The MOHS scale is used to determine a material's hardness. The
hardest factor in deciding whether or not to use a given aggregate
is its hardness. It also has an effect on the workability.
Elasticity
ability of a deformed material body to return to its original shape
and size when the forces causing the deformation are removed.
In an ideal world, elastic materials satisfy Hooke's rule, which
states that stress is exactly proportional to strain. The modulus of
elasticity is defined as the ratio of unit tension to unit
deformation. The lesser the deformations, the greater the
modulus of elasticity.
Plasticity
When a material is compressed, its plasticity refers to its ability to
undergo long-term deformation. It is the property or state of
being plastic, particularly the ability to be molded or transformed.
The ductility and malleability of a material are directly
proportional to its plasticity.
Brittleness
This describes the mechanical property of a material that
fractures when subjected to stress yet has a little tendency to
deform before breaking. Brittle materials have a limited
deformation capacity, a low capacity to resist impact and
vibration, a high compressive strength, and a low tensile strength.
Fatigue
Material fatigue is a phenomenon where structures fail when
subjected to a cyclic load. This form of structural damage can
occur even when the applied stress is much below the material's
static strength.
3 Stages of Fatigue Failure
 Crack initiation
Fatigue cracks almost always initiate at a free surface and near a
stress riser.
 Crack propagation
Once a crack is initiated, continued cyclical stresses repeat the
process, slowly growing the micro-crack, which becomes a threat
to structural integrity.
 Failure
The final failure event (i.e. catastrophic fracture) can be ductile or
brittle, depending on the material, thickness, temperature and
the applied stress.
Impact Strength
A material's impact strength is defined as its capacity to withstand
a rapidly applied load or force. It's usually stated as the amount of
mechanical energy absorbed in the deformation process under
the applied impact loading.When a material is subjected to abrupt
applied stresses, impact strength is utilized to evaluate whether it
will act brittle or ductile. It designates the toughness of material.
Abrasion Resistance
The ability of materials and structures to resist abrasion is
referred to as abrasion resistance. It is a friction-based process of
wearing away or rubbing away. This property helps in the
preservation of the material's original structure and appearance.
The abrasion resistance for a material makes it durable and
provided long life.
Creep
Creep is a type of metal deformation that happens when a metal
is subjected to stress below its yield strength, usually at high
temperatures. The yield strength of a metal is one of its most
important characteristics since it defines the stress at which the
metal begins to deform plastically.
Thermal Properties Of Different Materials
What is the Thermal Properties of Different Materials
Thermal properties are those properties of a material which is
related to its conductivity of heat, We are here concerned with
the thermal behaviour of solids, the response of solid material to
thermal change, increase or decrease of heat or temperature.
Thermal Properties
 Heat capacity/Specific Heat
 Thermal Expansion
 Thermal Conductivity
 Melting Point
Heat Capacity / Specific Heat
The heat capacity is an extensive property that describes how
much heat energy it takes to raise the temperature of a given
system. The heat capacity of a material can be defined as the
amount of heat required to change the temperature of the
material by one degree Celsius
The relationship between heat and temperature change is usually
expressed in: Q=mcT
Where Q is the added heat = to c which is the Specific heat, m for
mass, and delta T for the change in temperature.
Thermal Expansion
When heat is passed through a material, its shape changes.
Generally, a material expands when heated. This property of a
material is called thermal expansion.
The general increase in the volume of a material as its
temperature is increased. It is usually expressed as a fractional
change in length or volume per unit temperature change.
When the substance is heated it increases its kinetic energy.
Thermal expansion is of three types:
 Linear expansion
 Area expansion
 Volume expansion
Thermal Conductivity
It is the property of a material to conduct heat through itself.
Materials with high thermal conductivity will conduct more heat
than the ones with low conductivity.
Every substance has its own capacity to conduct heat. The
thermal conductivity of a material is described by the following
formula: K = (QL)/(AΔT)
Measurement
 Steady-State Techniques
These methods involve measurements where the temperature of
the material in question does not change over a period of time.
 Transient Techniques
In these methods, the measurements are taken during the
heating-up process.
Melting Point
The melting point of a substance is the temperature at which it
changes its state from solid to liquid. A substance’s melting point
depends on the pressure and is usually specified at the standard
pressure in reference materials.
Melting Point of most Common Materials
Melting point of steel 1425-1540 °C / 2600-2800 °F
Melting point of gold 1064 °C / 1947.5 °F
Melting point of copper 1084 °C / 1983 °F
Melting point of iron 1538 °C / 2800 °F
Melting point of lead 327.5 °C / 621 °F
Melting point of silver 961 °C / 1761 °F
Chemical Properties of Different Materials
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
It indicates the elements which are combined together to form
that material. Chemical composition of a material affects the
properties of engineering materials very much. The strength,
hardness, ductility, brittleness, corrosion resistance, weldability
etc. depends on chemical composition of materials.
ATOMIC BONDING
It represents how atoms are bonded to each other to form the
material. Many properties, such as melting point, boiling point,
thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity of materials are
governed by atomic bonding of materials.
Engineering materials possess interatomic attraction which leads
to atomic bonding. If there were no such attraction each atom
would behave independently, and the material would have no
resistance to external forces.
Bonds can be classified two groups:
Primary bonds: These are metallic, ionic and covalent bonds and
all are relatively strong bonds.
 Ionic bond – forms by exchanging of valence electrons
between atoms.
 Covalent bonds – forms by sharing of electrons between
atoms.
 Metallic bonds – found in metals.
Secondary bonds: These are van der waals hydrogen bonds. Both
are relatively weak.
ACIDITY OR ALKALINITY
Acidity or Alkalinity is an important chemical property of
engineering materials. A material is acidic or alkaline, it is decided
by the ph value of the material. Acidity or Alkalinity of material
indicates that how they react with other materials.
TOXICITY
The quality, state, or degree to which a substance is poisonous
and/or may chemically produce an injurious or deadly effect upon
introduction into a living organism ·
Some engineering materials to avoid are asbestos, lead, cadmium,
crystalline silica and halogenated flame retardants. These
materials are toxic and weak.
Asbestos was a popular engineering material owing to its heat
resistance and strength. Most of its applications were in the 19th
century. While companies knew the dangers of this material since
the 1930s, it was not until the truth came out in 1970 that this
material was banned.
Asbestos was mostly found in the building industry, where it was
used for the construction of shingles, cement products and floor
tiles.
CHEMICAL RESISTANCE
It is the strength of a material to protect against chemical attack
or solvent reaction. A material with high chemical resistance,
therefore, has less chance of corrosion. Materials with high
chemical resistance are generally regarded as corrosion-resistant
materials due to their inertness to chemical attack. A material
with low chemical resistance generally results in swelling or
softening of the material, hence the material loses serviceability.
REACTIVITY
It is a measure of how readily a substance undergoes a chemical
reaction.
COMBUSTIBILITY Examples of certain alloys and their relative machinability
It is the quality of being capable of igniting and burning.  Excellent Machinability
Combustible materials are those that readily ignite and burn. Magnesium alloys, aluminum alloys, zinc alloys
 Good Machinability
CORROSION RESISTANCE Brass sheets and red brass, gun metal, malleable cast iron, grey
It is the ability of material to resist the oxidation in atmospheric cast iron, free cutting steels, copper aluminum alloys
condition. Generally pure metals such as iron, copper, aluminum  Poor Machinability
etc. gets corroded in slowly in atmosphere. To avoid the corrosion Low carbon steel, annealed nickel, low alloy steel
of these metal in pure form, we use these metals in the form of  Fair Machinability
alloys such as stainless steel, brass, bronze, German silver, Ingot iron and wrought iron, high speed steel, monel metal,
Gunmetal etc. sintered carbide
 Not Machinable
OXIDATION 18:8 stainless steel, stellite, white cast iron
It is a chemical reaction of the metal surface with the oxygen
present in the air that causes some of the metal to corrode (or Weldability
oxidize) and form the respective metal oxide on the surface. Defined as the capacity of a metal to be welded under the
fabrication conditions imposed in a specific suitably designed
SOLUBILITY structure and to perform satisfactorily in the intended service.
It is the ability of a solid, liquid, or gaseous chemical substance
(referred to as the solute) to dissolve in solvent (usually a liquid) To determine the suitability of iron and steel bar, the following
and form a solution. The solubility of a substance fundamentally welding tests are carried out:
depends on the solvent used, as well as temperature and  Bending test
pressure.  Bar welded into a link should stand being closed up
without failure
PERMEABILITY
It is the state or quality of a material or membrane that causes it Examples of materials that have good weldability
to allow liquids or gases to pass through it.  Low alloy steel
 Cast iron
Technological Properties of Different Materials
 Stainless steel
Technological Properties
 Iron
These are those qualities which give information regarding the
 Carbon steel
suitability of metals for various technological operations or
processes. Such properties of materials are highly desirable in:
Castability
 Shaping
The ease with which a metal can be cast into form. It is based on
 Forming
factors like: solidification rate, gas porosity, segregation,
 Fabrication shrinkage etc.

Technological Properties Factors favorable to castability of metal Fluidity of metal

1. Machinability
 Low rate of shrinkage
2. Weldability
 Low or negligible segregation
3. Castability
 Low gas porosity
4. Formability
5. Malleability
Formability
Formability is the ability of metals of forming into different
Machinability
shapes.
Defined as the ease with which a given material can be cut
permitting the removal of material with a satisfactory finish at
Various factors which govern to a large extent, the flow ability or
lower cost. It is used to signify how well a material takes a good
ductility of the material
finish. It may also be called finish ability.
 Metal structure
 Grain size
Good machinability is associated with the following:
 Hot and cold working
 High cutting speed
 Alloying elements Softening heat treatments
 Low power consumption
 Good surface finish
Malleability
 Removal of material with moderate force
It is the ease with which the material undergoes too much change
 Medium degree of tool abrasion
in shape under compressive stress without rupture.
 Formation of small chips
Examples of Materials with Good Malleability
 Wrought iron
 Copper
 Soft steel Aluminum
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
are those characteristics that different materials distinguish from
one another and appearas special characteristics of the material
BUILDING/ CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
materials used in construction works (e.g., buildings, roads,
bridges, dams, airports, etc.)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
These are the properties required to estimate the quality and
condition of the material without any external force.
BULK DENSITY
 ratio of mass to the volume of the material in its natural
state that includes voids and pores expressed in kg/m3
 influences the mechanical properties of materials like
strength, heat and conductivity etc.
POROSITY
ratio of volume of pores volume of material to thes trength,
influences properties like bulk density, durability, etc.
DURABILITY
property of a material to withstand the combined action of
atmospheric (e. g. we a t h e r) and other factors (e. g., salt s in
water, freezing, etc.)
DENSITY
Density is the ratio of mass of the material to its volume in a
homogeneous state. Almost all the physical properties of
materials are influenced by its density values.
DENSITY INDEX
Ratio of bulk density of material to its density is termed as density
index. Hence it gives the volume of solid matter in the material. In
nature, fully dense material is not available, so the density index is
always less than 1 for any building material.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Specific gravity is the ratio of mass of a given substance to the
mass of water at 4 ℃ for the equal volumes.
FIRE RESISTANCE
The ability to withstand against firewithout changing its shape
and other properties. It is tested by the combined actions of
water and fire.
FROST RESISTANCE
The ability of a material to resist freezing or thawing. It is
depending upon the density and bulk density of material.
EXAMPLE OF BUILDING MATERIAL:
Brick - solid and durable building material that is also affordable in
colder climates, bricks can absorb heat during the day and stay
warm at night.
WEATHERING RESISTANCE
The property of a material to withstand
Against all atmospheric actions without losing its strength and
shape. It is the ability of a material to prevent corrosion, loss of
material or any sort of deterioration.
CONCRETE SPALLING RESISTANCE
The ability of a material to undergo a certain number of cycles of
sharp temperature variations without failing. It is dependent on
the coefficient of linear expansion.
WATER ABSORPTION
It is defined as the amount of water retained and absorbed by a
material and is calculated as the ratio of the weight of water
absorbed to the weight of the dry material.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES WATER PERMEABILITY
It is a measure of the amount of water that can enter the
concrete matrix. Concrete contains pores that can allow these
substances to enter or depart.
HYGROSCOPICITY
Hygroscopicity is the property of a material to absorb water vapor
from the air. It depends on the relative humidity, porosity, air
temperature etc. Materials with good hygroscopic capacity can
help stabilise indoor air humidity,reduce surface condensation
and absorb moisture.
COEFFICIENT OF SOFTENING
Coefficient of softening of a material is the ration of compressive
strength of a saturated material to its compressive strength in dry
state. It affects the strength of water absorbent materials like soil.
Materials that have a coefficient of softening more than 0.8 are
said to be water-resistant material.
REFRACTORINESS
The property of a material which cannot melts or lose its shape at
prolonged high temperatures (1580oCormore). Example:fire clay
is high refractory material.
Refractory materials are those that can withstand high
temperatures without the heat damaging their structure,
resistance, or thermal conductivity. In the case of bricks, the
chemical composition of refractories is different from that of
regular bricks, which also influences their color and thermal
conductivity.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Mechanical properties of the materials are found by applying
external forces on them. These are important properties that
determine how a material performs in its intended function.
STRENGTH
A material's ability to withstand failure due to loads acting on it. It
is determined by dividing the ultimate load taken by the material
with its cross sectional area. The load maybe: ●compressive●
tensileor ●bending
ELASTICITY
It is the ability of a deformed material body to return to its
original shape and size when the forces causing the deformation
are removed.
HARDNESS
Defined As material’s ability to withstand localized permanent
deformation. Hardness may also be used to describe a material’s
resistance to deformation due to other actions, such as cutting,
abrasion, penetration, and scratching.
PLASTICITY
mechanical property of materials that shows the ability to deform
under stress without breaking while retaining the deformed shape
after the load is lifted.
BRITLLENESS
describes the property of a material that fractures when
subjected to stress but has a little tendency to deform before
rupture.
FATIGUE
weakening of the material caused by cyclic loading that results in
progressive and localized structural damage and the growth of
cracks.
Impact of strength
Capability to resist a sudden applied load or force. It designates
the toughness of the material.
Toughness
The ability of a material to absorb the mechanical energy and gets
plastically deformed without fracturing.
Can be expressed as the amount of energy per unit volume/
thickness (j/ m^3)
Charpy test method
The charpy test method determines the toughness or impact
strength of the material in the presence of a flaw or notch and
fast loading conditions. This destructive test involves fracturing
notched impact test specimens at a series of temperatures with a
swinging pendulum.
Abrasion resistance
Abrasion - the loss of material due to rubbing of particles while
working.
The ability of an adhesive to resist wearing due to contact with
another surface
Wearing occurs when a hard rough surface slides across a softer
surface causing the undesired removal of material from the
surface.
Los angeles abrasion test
The los angeles (l.a.) abrasion test is widely used as an indicator of
the relative quality of aggregates. It measures the degradation of
standard gradings of aggregates when subjected to abrasion and
impact in a rotating steel drum with an abrasive charge of steel
balls.
Creep
It indicates the tendency of a material to move slowly and deform
permanently under the influence of external mechanical stress
within limit of yielding.
Deformation caused by constant loads for long periods.
 Time dependent
 Almost negligible to normal conditions
 Rapidly occur at high temperature
Chemical properties
Characteristic of a particular substance that can, be observed in a
chemical reaction
Chemical resistance
The ability of construction materials to resist the effects, by
chemicals like acids, salts and alkalis
Corrosion resistance
Formation of rust (iron oxide) in metals, when they are subjected
to the atmosphere is called corrosion. So, the metals should be
corrosive resistant. To increase the corrosion resistance proper
measures should be considered. Otherwise it will damage the
whole structure.
Corrosion resistance of a material is the ability of material to
resist the oxidation in atmospheric condition. Generally pure
metals such as iron, copper, aluminum etc. Gets corrodedinslowly
in atmosphere. To avoid the corrosion of these metal in pure
form, we use these metals in the formof alloys such as stainless
steel, brass, bronze, german silver, gunmetal etc.
SOLUBILITY
Solubility is the amount of how much a solute will dissolve in a
solvent. The solubility of one substance in another is determined
by the balance of intermolecular forces between the solvent and
solute.
PROPERTIES OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
Construction materials refer to any substance, product, or
element used in the process of constructing or erecting buildings,
infrastructure, or other structures. These materials can be natural,
synthetic, or a combination of both, and they serve various
purposes in construction, such as providing structural support,
insulation, protection from environmental elements, and
aesthetic appeal.
Building materials have an important role to play in this modern
age of technology, no field of engineering is conceivable without
their use. Construction materials are integral to the planning,
design, and construction of buildings and infrastructure,
influencing aspects such as structural integrity, functionality,
aesthetics, sustainability, cost, and regulatory compliance.
• Physical Properties
• Mechanical Properties
• Chemical Properties
 • Electrical Properties Hygroscopicity is the property of a material to absorb water
• Magnetic Properties vapour from air. It is influenced by air- temperature and relative
• Thermal Properties humidity; pores - their types, number and size, and by the nature
of substance involved.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
The physical properties of a material are those which can be WATER ABSOPRTION
observed without change of the identity of material. Some of Water Absorption denotes the ability of the material to absorb
these typical properties of a material are listed below: and retain water. It is expressed as percentage in weight of the
• Density of Materials volume of dry material;
• Bulk Density
• Specific Weight WEATHERING RESISTANCE
• Specific Gravity Weathering Resistance is the ability of a material to endure
• Porosity alternate wet and dry conditions for a long period without
• Void Ratio considerable deformation and loss of mechanical strength.
• Hygroscopicity
• Water Absorption WATER PERMEABILITY
• Weathering Resistance Water Permeability is the capacity of a material to allow water to
• Water Permeability penetrate under pressure.
MATERIALS Materials like glass, steel and bitumen are impervious.
Bulk Density (ρ )
BULK DENSITY OF is the mass of a unit volume in its natural state MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
(with pores and voids) Mechanical properties of the materials are found by applying
external forces on them. These are important properties that
SPECIFIC WEIGHT determine how a material performs in its intended function.
Specific Weight (γ) also known as the unit weight per unit volume • Strength
of material, • Toughness
Specific weight can be used in civil engineering to determine the • Hardness
weight of a structure designed to carry certain loads while • Elasticity
remaining intact and remaining whitin limits regarding • Plasticity
deformation. It is also used as a property of the fluid) • Brittleness
• Malleability
SPECIFIC GRAVITY • Ductility
Specific Gravity (G ) of solid particles of a material is the ratio of • Creep and Slip
weight/mass of a given volume of solids to the weight/mass of an • Resilience
equal volume of water at 4°C • Fatigue

POROSITY
Porosity (n) is the degree to which volume of the material is
interspersed with pores. It is expressed as a ratio of the volume of
pores to that of the specimen
Porosity is indicative of other major properties of material, such
as bulk density, heat conductivity, etc. Dense materials, which
have low porosity, are used for constructions requiring high
mechanical Strength on the other hand, walls of buildings are
commonly built of materials, featuring considerable porosity.
STRENGTH
Strength is the ability of the material to resist failure under the
action of stresses caused by loads, the most common being
compression, tension, bending and impact. The importance of
studying the various strengths will be highlighted from the fact
that materials such as stones and concrete have high compressive
strength but a low tensile, bending and impact strengths.
Compressive Strength is found from tests on standard cylinders,
prisms and cube smaller for homogeneous materials and larger
for less homogeneous ones.

VOID RATIO
Void Ratio (e) is the ratio of volume of Voids (V ) to the volume of
solids (V )
If an aggregate is poured into a container of any sort it will be
observed that not all of the space within container if filled. to the
vacant spaces between the particles of aggregate the name voids
is applied. Generally voids determinations are made on material
measured loose
HYGROSCOPICITY
Bending Strength tests are performed on small bars (beams)
supported at their ends and subjected to one or two concentrated
loads which are gradually increased until failure takes place.
TOUGHNESS
• It is the ability of material to absorb the energy and gets
plastically deformed without fracturing. Its numerical value
is determined by the amount of energy per unit volume. It
unit is Joule/ m3. Value of toughness of a material can be
determines by stress-strain characteristics of material.
 • For good toughness material should have good strength as
well as ductility. For example: brittle materials, having good
strength but limited ductility are not tough enough.
Conversely, materials having good ductility but low
strength are also not tough enough. Therefore, to be tough,
material should be capable to withstand with both high
stress and strain.
HARDNESS
It is the ability of material to resist to permanent shape change
due to external stress. There are various measure of hardness –
Scratch Hardness, Indentation Hardness and Rebound Hardness.
• Scratch Hardness is the ability of material to oppose the
scratch to outer surface layer due to external force.
• Indentation Hardness is ability of material to oppose the
dent due to punch of external had and sharp object.
• Rebound Hardness is also called as dynamic hardness. It is
determined by the height of “bounce” of a diamond tipped
hammer dropped from a fixed height on the material
ELASTICITY OF MATERIALS
It is the property of a material by which it regains its original
dimensions on removal of load or force.
PLASTICITY OF MATERIALS
When we keep on increasing the load beyond limit of elasticity
material retains it molded state. This property of material is called
plasticity.
BRITTLENESS
 Brittleness of a material indicates that how easily it
gets fractured when it is subjected to a force or load.
 When a brittle material is subjected to a stress is
observes very less energy and gets fractures without
significant strain. Brittleness is converse to ductility of
material.
 Brittleness of material is temperature depended. Some
metals which are ductile at normal temperature
become brittle at low temperature.
MALLEABILITY
• Malleability is property of solid material which indicates
that how easily a material gets deformed under
compressive stress.
• Malleability is often categorized by the ability of material to
be formed in the form of a thin sheet by hammering or
rolling.
• This mechanical property is an aspect of plasticity of
material. Malleability of material is temperature
dependent. With rise of temperature, the malleability of
material
DUCTILITY
• Ductility is a property of a solid material which indicates
that how easily a materials gets deformed under tensile
stress.
• Ductility is often categorized by the ability of material to
get stretched into a wire by pulling or drawing. This
mechanical property is also an aspect of plasticity of
material and temperature dependent. With rise of
temperature, the ductility of material increases.
CREEP
• Creep is the property of material which indicates the
tendency of material to move slowly and deform
permanently under the influence of external mechanical
stress.
• It results due to long time exposure to large external
mechanical stress with in limit of yielding. Creep is more
severe in material that are subjected to heat for long time.
RESILIENCE
• Resilience is the ability of material to absorb the energy
when it is deformed elastically by applying stress and
release the energy when stress is removed.
• Proof resilience is defined as the maximum energy that can
be absorbed without permanent deformation. The modulus
of resilience is defined as the maximum energy that can be
absorbed per unit volume without permanent deformation.
It can be determined by integrating the stress-strain cure
from zero to elastic limit. Its unit is joule/m3.
FATIGUE
• Fatigue is the weakening of material caused by the
repeated loading of material. When a material is subjected
to cyclic loading, and loading greater than certain threshold
value but much below the strength of material (ultimate
tensile strength limit or yield stress limit), microscopic
cracks begin to form at grain boundaries and interfaces.
Eventually the crack reached to a critical size.
• This crack propagates suddenly and the structure gets
fractured. The shape of structure effects the fatigue very
much. Square holes and sharp corners lead to elevated
stresses where the fatigue crack initiates.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
• Characteristic of a particular substance that can be
observed in a chemical reaction.
The properties of materials against chemical actions or chemical
combinations are termed chemical properties. And they are
• Chemical resistance
• Corrosion resistance
CHEMICAL RESISTANCE
The ability of construction materials to resist the effects by
chemicals like acids, salts and alkalis is known as chemical
resistance. Underground installations, constructions near sea etc.
should be built with great chemical resistance.
CORROSION RESISTANCE
Formation of rust (iron oxide) in metals, when they are subjected
to atmosphere is called as corrosion. So, the metals should be
corrosive resistant. To increase the corrosion resistance proper
measures should be considered. Otherwise it will damage the • Thermal capacity
whole structure. • Thermal conductivity
• Thermal resistivity
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS • Specific heat
The properties of a material to conduct or to resist electricity
through them are electrical properties of material. THERMAL CAPACITY
For example, wood has great electric resistance and stainless steel Thermal capacity is the property of a material to absorb heat and
is a good conductor of electricity. it is required to design proper ventilation. It influences the
thermal stability of walls. It is expressed in Joule/Newton
CONDUCTIVITY
It is the property of material which represents that how easily the
electricity can be conducted by the material. It is denoted by 'o'. It THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
is the reciprocal of the resistivity of the material. Its unit is The amount of heat transferred through unit area of specimen
mho/meter. with unit thickness in unit time is termed as thermal conductivity.
It is measured in kelvins. It depends on material structure,
EXAMPLES OF CONDUCTIVITY porosity, density and moisture content. High porous materials,
• Metals: Metals such as copper, aluminum, and iron are moist materials have more thermal conductivity.
excellent conductors of electricity due to the abundance of
free electrons in their atomic structure. THERMAL RESISTIVITY
• Saltwater: Saltwater is a good conductor of electricity It is the ability to resist heat conduction. And it is the reciprocal of
because it contains dissolved ions (sodium and chloride thermal conductivity. When it is multiplied by thickness of
ions) that can carry electric charge. material it gives thermal resistance. Thermal resistivity of soil
• Graphite: Graphite, a form of carbon, is a good conductor varies from 30 to 500 C-cm/W.It is the ability to resist heat
of electricity because its structure allows delocalized conduction. And it is the reciprocal of thermal conductivity. When
electrons to move freely between layers of carbon atoms. it is multiplied by the thickness of material it gives thermal
• Pure water: Pure water is a poor conductor of electricity resistance.
because it contains very few ions. However, if impurities
are added to water, such as dissolved salts, its conductivity SPECIFIC HEAT
increases significantly. Specific heat is the quantity of heat required to heat 1 N of
material by 10 C. Specific heat is useful when we use the material
RESISTIVITY in high-temperature areas. Specific heat values of some
Resistivity is a fundamental property of a material that measures engineering materials are given below.
how strongly it opposes the flow of electric current. It is an
intrinsic property, meaning it depends on the material itself and AGGREGATES
not on the size or shape of the object. Materials with low Aggregate –is a combination of sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag,
resistivity are good conductors of electricity, while materials with or other material of mineral composition, used in combination
high resistivity are poor conductors or insulators. with a binding medium to form such materials as bituminous and
Portland cement concrete, mortar, and plaster, or alone, as in
EXAMPLE RESISTIVITY railroad ballast, filter beds, and various manufacturing processes.
• Copper: Copper is a metal with low resistivity making it an
excellent conductor of electricity. It is commonly used in AGGREGATE CLASSIFICATION
electrical wiring and circuitry. A. Natural Aggregates
• Rubber: Rubber is an insulator with high resistivity, making it These are taken from natural deposits without change in their
suitable for insulating electrical wires and cables to prevent nature during production, with the exception of crushing, sizing,
current leakage. grading, or washing.
• Silicon: Silicon is a semiconductor with a resistivity that can Examples:
be modified by doping it with impurities. It is a crucial  crushed stone
material in the electronics industry, used in the production of  pumice
transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits.  gravel shells
 sand iron
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS  ore limerock
• The magnetic properties of materials like permeability,
hysteresis etc. are required in the case of generators etc. iron B. Manufactured Aggregates
is magnetic material and aluminum is non-magnetic material. These are man-made aggregates.
Examples:
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS  blast furnace slag
Thermal means relating to or caused by heat or by changes in  clay
temperature.  shale
Thermal Properties are:  lightweight aggregate

Air-cooled blast-furnace slag – material resulting from
solidification of molten blast-furnace slag under atmospheric
conditions.
AIR-COOLED BLASTFURNACE SLAG
Blast Furnace Slag is formed when iron ore or iron pellets, coke
and a flux (either limestone or dolomite) are melted together in a
blast furnace. When the metallurgical smelting process is
complete, the lime in the flux has been chemically combined with
the aluminates and silicates of the ore and coke ash to form a
non-metallic product called blast furnace slag. During the period
of cooling and hardening from its molten state, BF slag can be
cooled in several ways to form any of several types of BF slag
products
LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATES
Lightweight aggregates – cinders, clay, shale, shells, or slag. These
type of aggregates are used to produce lightweight concrete in a
structure where dead weight is important.
C. Further Classification
For Concrete Aggregates
1. Coarse Aggregates – defined as aggregate predominantly
retained on the No.4 (4.75-mm) sieve or that portion of an
aggregate retained on the No.4 (4.75-mm) sieve.
2. Fine Aggregates – defined as aggregate passing a 3/8-in.
(9.5-mm) sieve and almost entirely passing a No. 4 (4.75-
mm) sieve and predominantly retained on the No. 200 (75-
m) sieve or that portion of an aggregate passing the No.4
(4.75-mm) sieve and retained on the No. 200 (75-m)
sieve.
For Bituminous Concrete Mixtures
The dividing line between fine and coarse aggregate is the No. 8
(9.5-mm) or the No. 10 (11.8-mm) sieve.
AGGREGATES PROCESSING
Objective: Obtain aggregates of the highest quality at the least
cost. The processes include:
 Excavation
 Transportation
 Crushing
 Washing
 Sizing
AGGREGATES PARTICLES (ROUNDED OR ANGULAR)
 Gravel consists of naturally rounded particles resulting
from disintegration and abrasion of rock or processing
of weakly bounded conglomerate.
 Crushed stone is a product of artificial crushing of
rocks, boulders, or large cobblestones.
 Stone sand is a finely crushed rock corresponding to
sand in size.
FIVE TYPES OF GRADATION:
 Dense - well or continuously graded aggregate
(gradation curve does not have any abrupt slope
change)
 Gap graded - aggregate gradation with particles
ranging from coarse to fine with some intermediate
sizes missing or present in small amounts.
 Uniformly-graded- consists predominantly of particles
of similar size, resulting in a narrow range of particle
sizes.
 Poorly-graded - a poorly graded aggregate contains a
limited range of particle sizes, typically with an excess
of either very fine or very coarse particles
 Open-graded - relatively uniform-sized aggregate
typified by an absence of intermediate-sized particles
(gradation curve has a nearly vertical drop in
intermediate size range)
AGGREGATES FOR PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE
Aggregate Gradation becomes a key factor as it controls the
workability of the plastic concrete. Blend afine and coarse
aggregate to achieve an economical mix.
Fineness modulus
 denotes the relative fineness of the sand
 one-hundredth of the sum of the cumulative
percentages held on the standard sieves in a sieve test
of sand.
 six sieves are used Nos. 4, 8, 16, 30, 50, and 100. the
smaller the value of the fineness modulus, the finer
the sand.
 the fineness modulus for a good sand ranges between
2.25 and 3.25.
 Surface Texture
requires less water, results in a lower water-cement ratio,
increasing the strength
 Rough Surface
requires more water, increasing water-cement ratio, resulting in a
weaker concrete.
 Aggregate shape and surface texture
influence the properties of freshly mixed concrete more than the
properties of hardened concrete.
 Rough-textured, angular, and elongated particles
require more water to produce workable concrete than smooth,
rounded compact aggregate.
 Particle shape
influences the workability of the concrete mix, but the
interlocking characteristic needed for base-course material is not
important.
 Angular aggregates
requires more mortar to fill voids and separate aggregate particles
for workability.
AGGREGATES FOR BITUMINOUS MIXTURES
The influence of aggregates on the properties and performance of
bituminous mixes is great. The ideal aggregate for a bituminous
mix would have:
 Proper gradation and size
 Strong and tough
 Angular in particle shape
 Low porosity
  Surfaces that are free of dirt
 Rough texture
 Hydrophobic nature
Strength, Toughness, Shape, and Porosity
The aggregate in a bituminous mix, unlike that in Portland cement
concrete, supplies most of the stability and thus should have a
certain amount of strength and toughness; otherwise, loss of
stability will result.
Particle shape is more important than other properties when it
comes to bituminous mixes. When rounded aggregates are used
in an open-mix gradation, very little stability is achieved.
Porosity of the aggregate strongly affects the economics of the
mix. The higher the porosity, the more asphalt will be absorbed
Ito the aggregate, thus requiring a higher percent of asphalt in the
mix design. Selective absorption could lead to stripping of the
aggregate from the asphalt cement.
BENEFICIATING OF AGGREGATES
1. Washing
2. Heavy-media Separation
3. Elastic fractionation
4. Jigging
1. WASHING
Undesirable aggregates are washed to remove the particle
coatings or to change the gradation. Stoke's law can also be used
to remove certain fractions of the fine aggregate by differential
settlement.
2. HEAVY-MEDIA SEPARATION
This utilizes the principle that the specific gravity of much
deterious material is lighter than the specific gravity of sound
aggregate.
3. ELASTIC FRACTIONATION
A procedure whereby heavy but soft particles can be removed.
Aggregates fall on an inclined plate, and their quality is measured
by the distance they bounce from the surface. Poor soft, particles
bounce only a short distance, whereas the harder, sound
aggregate particles bounce much farther.
4. JIGGING
This is a specific-gravity method of removing light particles such as
coal, lignite, or sticks.
AGGREGATE PROPERTIES
Soundness and Durability
The ability of aggregate to withstand weathering is defined as
soundness or durability. Aggregates used in various civil
engineering applications must be sound and durable, particularly
if the structure is subjected to severe climatic conditions.
Toughness, Hardness, and Abrasion Resistance
The ability of aggregates to resist the damaging effect of loads is
related to the hardness of the aggregate particles and is described
as the toughness or abrasion resistance. The aggregate must
resist crushing, degradation, and disintegration when stockpiled,
mixed as either portland cement or asphalt concrete, placed and
compacted, and exposed to loads.
Absorption
Although aggregates are inert, they can capture water and asphalt
binder in surface voids. The amount of water the aggregates
absorb is important in the design of portland cement concrete,
since moisture captured in the aggregate voids is not available to
react with the cement or to improve the workability of the plastic
concrete.
Four moisture condition states:
 Bone dry - contains no moisture; this requires drying
the aggregate in an oven to a constant mass.
 Air dry - may have some moisture but the saturation
state is not quantified.
 Saturated surface–dry (SSD) - voids are filled with
moisture but the main surface area of the aggregate
particles is dry. Absorption is defined as the moisture
content in the SSD condition.
 Moist - have moisture content in excess of the SSD
condition
Absorption
Free moisture is the difference between the actual moisture
content of the aggregate and the moisture content in the SSD
condition.
Specific Gravity
The weight–volume characteristics of aggregates are not an
important indicator of aggregate quality, but they are important
for concrete mix design. Density, the mass per unit volume, could
be used for these calculations. However, specific gravity (Sp. Gr.),
the mass of a material divided by the mass of an equal volume of
distilled water, is more commonly used.
Four types of specific gravity:
 Bulk Dry SG
 Bulk SSD SG
 Apparent SG
 Effective SG
Bulk Unit Weight and Voids in Aggregate
The bulk unit weight of aggregate is needed for the proportioning
of portland cement concrete mixtures.
Gradation
Gradation describes the particle size distribution of the aggregate.
Sieve Analysis. Gradation is evaluated by passing the aggregates
through a series of sieves.
Gradation results are described by the cumulative percentage of
aggregates that either pass through or are retained by a specific
sieve size
Fineness Modulus
The fineness modulus is a measure of the fine aggregates’
gradation, and is used primarily for portland cement concrete mix
design. It can also be used as a daily quality control check in the
production of concrete.

Cleanness and Deleterious Materials
Since aggregates are a natural product, there is the potential they
can be contaminated by clay, shale, organic matter and other
deleterious materials, such as coal.
A deleterious substance is any material that adversely affects the
quality of portland cement or asphalt concrete made with the
aggregate.
Aggregates must be handled and stockpiled in such a way as to
minimize segregation, degradation, and contamination.
Stockpiles should be separated by dividers or placed in bins to
avoid mixing and contamination.
Sampling Aggregates
The sample of material being tested must represent the whole
population of materials that is being quantified with the test.
AGGREGATES
Aggregates, encompassing materials like sand and gravel, are
foundational to construction, shaping the strength and durability
of structures. As essential components in concrete and asphalt
mixtures, they actively influence workability and overall
performance. Extracted from quarries or recycled sources,
aggregates play a pivotal role in sustainable construction
practices. Their impact extends beyond physical characteristics,
touching on the very essence of resilient and eco-friendly building
solutions.
CONSTITUENT OF CONCRETE
Aggregates serve as a fundamental ingredient in concrete,
constituting a substantial portion of the overall mix. Their
integration with cement and water forms the backbone of this
construction material, providing the necessary volume and mass
to enhance the concrete's structural stability and versatility. The
interaction between aggregates and the cement paste is critical,
determining the overall performance and characteristics of the
concrete.
STRENGTH AND DURABILITY
The properties of aggregates play a pivotal role in influencing the
strength and durability of concrete structures. Well-graded
aggregates, characterized by a balanced distribution of particle
sizes, contribute to the overall structural integrity. Properly sized
aggregates provide increased interlocking, reducing voids within
the concrete. This results in enhanced strength, resilience, and
longevity, ensuring that the constructed elements can withstand
various external forces and environmental conditions over time.
WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE
The size, shape, and texture of aggregates are crucial factors
influencing the workability of concrete. A wellbalanced mix of
aggregates ensures that the concrete is easy to handle, place, and
finish during construction. The right combination of these
properties promotes optimal cohesion within the concrete mix,
facilitating the molding and shaping of structures without
compromising their overall integrity. Achieving the desired
workability is essential for efficient construction processes and
high-quality finished products.
ASPHALT MIXTURES
In road construction, aggregates play a vital role as essential
components of asphalt mixtures. These aggregates contribute to
the stability, durability, and wear resistance of asphalt
pavements. The interlocking nature of aggregates within the
asphalt matrix enhances the pavement's strength, providing a
robust surface capable of withstanding traffic loads,
environmental factors, and the stresses associated with vehicular
movement.
DRAINAGE AND FILTRATION SYSTEMS
Aggregates find application in drainage systems, where their use
facilitates effective water movement and filtration. The inherent
permeability of certain aggregate types allows water to pass
through, preventing the accumulation of water and minimizing
the risk of water-related damage to structures. This application is
particularly crucial in preventing issues such as erosion,
waterlogging, and the deterioration of construction materials.
SUSTAINABLE PRACTICES
The incorporation of recycled materials, such as crushed concrete,
into the aggregate mix represents a significant contribution to
sustainable construction practices. Recycling these materials
reduces the demand for virgin resources, minimizing
environmental impact and promoting a more ecofriendly
approach to construction. Utilizing recycled aggregates aligns with
the principles of sustainability, offering a viable solution to
manage waste while maintaining the essential properties required
for construction materials.
Types of Aggregates
 Natural Aggregates
 Crushed Stone
 Crushed Gravel
 Blast Furnace Slag Aggregate
 Lightweight Aggregates
 Grano Dust
Roles of Aggregates
Volume and Proportioning:
Aggregates constitute the majority of the volume in concrete
mixtures. The proper proportioning of aggregates in relation to
cement and water is essential for achieving the desired
workability, strength, and durability of the concrete
Strength and Durability:
The strength of concrete is influenced by the type, size, and
grading of aggregates. Well-graded aggregates with a proper mix
of different particle sizes contribute to the overall strength of the
concrete. Aggregates also impact the durability of concrete by
influencing resistance to factors such as freeze thaw cycles and
chemical attacks.
Workability:
The size, shape, and surface texture of aggregates affect the
workability of concrete. Properly graded aggregates ensure a well-
balanced mix, allowing for easy placement and compaction.
Smooth and rounded aggregates improve workability, while
angular and rough aggregates may require more water to
maintain workability.
Economy and Cost:
The cost of aggregates significantly influences the overall cost of
concrete. Proper selection of aggregates can lead to more
economical concrete mix designs. For example, using locally
available and well-graded aggregates can reduce transportation
costs and contribute to a cost-effective mix.
Water Demand:
Aggregates influence the water demand of the concrete mix. The
surface texture and absorption characteristics of aggregates can
affect how much water is needed for a given mix. Controlling
water cement ratio is crucial for achieving the desired strength
and durability without excessive water content.
Artificial Aggregates
They are obtained either as a by-product or by a special
manufacturing process such as heating. (blast furnace slag,
expanded perlite).
Classification of Aggregates
According to Petrological Characteristics:
 Igneous rocks: are formed by solidification of molten
lava. (granite)
 Metamorphic rocks: are formed under high heat &
pressure alteration of either igneous & sedimentary
rocks (marble).
 Sedimentary rocks: are obtained by deposition of
weathered & transported pre-existing rocks or
solutions. (limestone)
According to size:
Fine aggregates
Particles of fine aggregates pass through 4.75mm(No.4) sieve.
Most commonly used fine aggregates are sand, crushed stone,
ash or cinder and surkhi.

Segregation and Bleeding: Coarse aggregates

Aggregates play a role in preventing segregation and bleeding Coarse aggregates are retained on 4.75mm sieve.
during the mixing, transporting, and placing of concrete. Properly Aggregates the size of whose particle is bigger than 4.75 mm but
graded aggregates contribute to a cohesive mix, reducing the risk smaller than 37.5 mm are known as coarse aggregates.
of particle separation and excessive water movement. It specially includes gravel and crushed stones.

AGGREGATES According to Unit Weight:

Role of Aggregates in Concrete:  Heavy weight aggregate: Hematite, Magnetite Specific
Concrete is basically a mixture of two components: Gravity, Gs > 2.8
 Paste (Portland cement, water, and air)  Normal weight aggregate: Gravel, sand, crushed stone
 Aggregate (sand, gravel, crushed stone) 2.8 < Gs < 2.4
 Light weight aggregate: Expanded perlite, burned clay
The aggregate occupies 70-75% of the volume of concrete, so its Gs < 2.4
quality is of great importance.

Aggregates may affect the following properties of concrete:

 Strength
 Durability
 Structural Performance
 Economy

Aggregates are inert materials mixed with a binding material like

cement or lime in the preparation of mortar or concrete.
Granular material of mineral composition such as sand, gravel,
shale, slag or crushed stone.
Classification of Aggregates:
Natural Aggregates
 All natural aggregates particles originally formed a part
of a larger parent mass.
 Many properties of the aggregates depend entirely on
the properties of the parent rock. E.g. chemical and Ultra-Weight Aggregates
mineral composition, petrological character, specific  Vermulite
gravity etc.  Perlite
 Some properties are possessed by the aggregates but  Pumice
absent in the parent rock: particle shape and size,  Scoria
surface texture, and absorption.  Diatomite
Light-Weight Aggregates particles increase water demand & therefore reduce workability.
 Expanded Clay As a result, for the same cement content & same workability
 Expanded Shale rounded agg. Give higher strength.
 Crushed Brick

Normal Weight Aggregates

 River Gravel
 Crushed Limestone
 Crushed Concrete

Heavy-weight Aggregates
 Magnetite
 Magnetite-sand

Constituents in naturally occurring Aggregates:

Naturally occurring concrete aggregates are a mixture of rocks
and minerals

Ranges of particle sizes found in aggregates for use in concrete

Grading of Aggregates:
 The particle size distribution in an aggregate sample is
known as “gradation”.
 Strength development of concrete depends on degree
of compaction & workability together with many other
factors. So, a satisfactory concrete should be
compacted to max density with a reasonable work.
 On the other hand, in good concrete all aggregate
particles must be covered by cement paste.
 The grading of aggregate must be so that the
workability, density & volume stability of concrete may
not be adversely affected by it.

A reasonable combination of fine & coarse aggregate must be

used. This can be expressed by maximum density or minimum
voids concept.

Particle Shape & Surface Texture

 Flat Physical
 Elongated
 Angular Bulk Density
 Round
 The bulk density or unit weight of an aggregate gives
Rounded aggregates are suitable to use in concrete because flaky valuable information regarding the shape and grading
& elongated particles reduce workability, increase water demand of the aggregate.
& reduce strength.  It is measured by filling a container of known volume in
a standard manner and weighing it.
In the case of angular particles, the bond between agg. Particles is  It shows how densely the aggregate is packed when
higher due to interlocking but due to higher surface area, angular filled in a standard manner.
  It is depend on size and shape of aggregates.  Nominal maximum size of an aggregate: the smallest
 Higher the bulk density lower is the void content to be sieve size through which the major portion of the
filled by sand and cement. aggregate must pass (90%-100%).

Absorption & Moisture Condition of Aggregates Strength

 Some of the aggregates are porous and absorptive & it
will affect water – cement ratio and hence workability
of concrete & durability of concrete
 The water absorption of aggregate is determined by
measuring the increase in weight of an oven dry
sample when immersed in water for 24 hrs. The ratio
of the increase in wt to the wt of the dry sample
expressed as % is known as absorption of agg.
 Agg. absorbs water in concrete & thus affects the
workability & final volume of concrete.
 Generally, strength of aggregate does not influence the
strength of conventional concrete as much as the
strength of the paste and the paste-aggregate
strength. However, aggregate strength becomes
important in high strength concrete.
 Aggregate tensile strengths range between 2 to 15
MPa, and compressive strengths range between 65 to
270 MPa.

Measurement of Moisture Content of Aggregates:

 Determination of this is of vital importance in the

control of the quality of concrete with respect to
workability and strength. Particle Shape and Surface Texture
 The water content can be expressed in terms of the wt
 The shape and surface texture affect the properties of
of the agg. when absolutely dry, surface dry or when
fresh concrete more than the properties of hardened
wet.
concrete.
 Water content means the free water that held on the
 Rough-texture, and angular particles require more
surface of the agg.
water to produce workable concrete than do smooth,
 It can be measured by: Drying Method, Displacement
rounded and compact particles. For both crushed or
Method, Automatic Measurement, & by Electrical
non-crushed aggregate, proper gradation gives the
method.
same strength for the same cement factor.
Tests on Aggregates
Bulk Density
Grading
 Defined as the weight of the aggregate particles that
would fill a unit volume. The term bulk is used since
 Proper selection of various sizes will be very effective
the volume is occupied by both the aggregates and
in reducing the total volume of voids between
voids. The typical bulk density used in making normal
aggregates. The cement paste requirement is related
concrete ranges from 1200 to 1750 kg/m3.
the void content of the combined aggregates.
 The void contents range between 30% to 45% for
 Production of satisfactory; economical concrete
coarse aggregate and 40% to 50% for fine aggregate.
requires aggregates of low void content, but not the
Void content increases with angularity and decreases
lowest.
with well graded aggregate
 Grading is the distribution of particles among various
sizes. Grading is usually expressed in terms of
cumulative percentage passing each sieve.
Relative Density (Specific Gravity)

Fineness Modulus
 The relative density of an aggregate (ASTM C 127 and
C 128) is defined as the ratio of its mass to the mass of
 The FM is an index of the fineness of the aggregate.
an equal volume of water. It is used in certain
The higher the FM, the coarser the aggregate. FM of
computations for mixture proportioning and control.
fine aggregate is useful in estimating proportions of
Most natural aggregates have relative densities
fine and coarse aggregate in concrete mixtures.
between 2.4 and 2.9 (2400 and 2900 kg/ m3).
 The fineness modulus (FM) for both fine and coarse
 The density of aggregate used in mixture proportioning
aggregates is obtained by adding the cumulative
computations (not including the voids between
percentages by mass retained on each of a specified
particles) is determined by multiplying the relative
series of sieves and dividing the sum by 100.
density of the aggregate times the density of water
 Maximum size of aggregate: the smallest sieve that all
(1000 kg/m3)
of a particular aggregate must pass through.
Absorption and Surface Moisture
 The absorption and surface moisture of aggregates
should be determined using ASTM C 70, C 127, C 128,
and C 566 so that the total water content of the
concrete can be controlled and the batch weights
determined.
The moisture conditions of aggregates are:
 Oven dry
 Air dry
 Saturated surface dry (SSD)
 Damp or wet
Fire Resistance and Thermal Properties
 The fire resistance and thermal properties of concrete
depend on the mineral constituents of the aggregates.
Lightweight aggregates are more fire resistance than
normal weight aggregates due to their insulation
properties.
 Concrete containing calcareous coarse aggregates
performs better under fire exposure than siliceous
aggregate (granite or quartz).
CEMENT
WHAT IS CEMENT?
 It is a binding agent that sets and hardens to hold
together building blocks.
 It is generally refers to a very fine powdery substance.
 It is an integral part of the urban infrastructure.
 Cement is corrosive to metals.
History of Cement
 Earliest archaeological discovery of consolidated
whitewashed floor made from burned limestone and
clay found in modern-day Turkey.
 The precursor to modern-day cement was created in
1824 by Joseph Aspdin, who experimented with
heating limestone and clay until the mixture calcined,
grinding it and then mixing it with water.
In the 19th century,
● Frenchman Louis Vicat established Portland cement's chemical
composition while Russian Egor Cheliev documented cement's
uses, advantages, and methods.
● William Aspdin, Joseph's son, invented "modern" Portland
cement, which was in high demand.
● Isaac Charles Johnson published the meso-Portland cement kiln
technique, making him the father of Portland cement.
Cement VS Concrete
 Cement is any kind of binder that tightly holds other
materials together.
 Concrete is a mixture of materials like sand, gravel,
and small rocks combined with any type of cement and
water.
How do you make cement?
Dry Process and Wet Process
Bogue Compounds
Compounds of Cement
When water is blended with cement, the hydration process starts.
The ingredients in concrete react with each other with the use of
water and form more complex compounds. These compounds are
called bogue compounds.
Robert Herman Bogue
● A physical chemist
● Director of the PCA Fellowship at the National Bureau of
Standards
● A major figure in the history of cement research
● Calculation of Compounds in Portland Cement
There are mainly four types of compounds:
 Tri-Calcium Silicate
 Di-Calcium Silicate
 Tri-Calcium Aluminate
 Tetra Calcium Alumino Ferrate
1. Tri-Calcium Silicate (C3S)
 Also called as Alite
 Has the best cementitious property among all the
other Bogue's Compounds.
 Hardens rapidly
 Helps in the development of strength in the early
stages of concrete
 Good for cold weather concreting.
2. Di-Calcium Silicate (C2S)
 also called as Belite
 Responsible for the progressive strength of concrete
 Results in slow hardening, less heat of hydration, and
great resistance to chemical attack.
 strengthens the concrete from 7 days to 1 year.
 Important for hydraulic structures and bridges
3. Tri-Calcium Aluminate (C3A)
 Celite is the quickest one to react when water is added
 Has a small contribution to the strength of first 24
hours
 Have a high heat of hydration.
 Most reactive component
 Has an important impact on the workability and early
strength of concrete.
4. Tetra-Calcium Alumino Ferrite (C4AF)
 also called Felite
 Assist in the manufacture of Portland Cement by
allowing lower clinkering temperature.
 Act as a filler contributes very little strength of
concrete even though it hydrates very rapidly.
 Responsible for grey colour
Types of Cement and its Uses  Canal linings, culverts, retaining wall, siphons etc.
1. Ordinary Portland Cement
 Silica-alumina, iron oxide, magnesia, sulphur 8. Blast Furnace Slag Cement
trioxide, soda and potash  Cheaper than OPC
 It has low alkali content  Develops low heat of hydration and has less early
 Commonly use in construction works and concrete strength
jobs  Canal lining
 In areas which are susceptible to chloride attack
2. Portland Pozzolana Cement
 Grinding together a mixture of 20-40 % pozzolana 9. High Alumina Cement
material (which may be a naturally active material  Bauxite (40% alumina content), limes ( 40%), iron
like fly ash, volcanic tuff, clay and rice husk ash) and oxide (15%) with a little % of ferric oxide, silica,
60-80% of portland cement. magnesia, etc
 Has higher resistance to chemical disintegration and  Ground finely at a very high temperature
sulphate  Calcium Aluminate
 Reduces permeability so, it is suitable for hydraulic  Construction of precast members
structure  In works where concrete is subjected to high
 PPC is often used for projects like bridges, piers, temperature, frost and acidic action.
dams, marine structures, sewage works.

3. Rapid Hardening Cement 10. White Cement

 Higher fineness of grinding  Has same properties with OPC but low in iron
 Normally the strength achieved by conventional oxide
cements in 7 days is same as the strength achieved in 3  More expensive than OPC
days  Joining tiles and other interior works, base coat
 Construction of underwater work, road pavement before painting
work and precast concrete casting ( beam, column,  Cover the hairline cracks on the concrete surface
etc.) to give a smooth finish

4. Extra-rapid Hardening Cement 11. Colored Cement

 higher percentage of Tricalcium Silicate(C3S)  OPC with 5-10 % of suitable color pigment
 25% higher strength than RPC at a period of 1-2  Known as Colcrete
days and 10-20 % higher at 7 days  Artificial marble
 Very sensitive  Flooring finishes
 Cold weather conditions  Joining tiles

5. Quick Setting Cement 12. Air- entraining Cement

 OPC with reduced gypsum content at the time of  OPC with 0.025 - 0.1 % of air-entraining agent
clinker grinding making it sets very early  Made up of wood resins, calcium agents,
 Underwater construction and some typical vegetable oil and animal fats with a certain
grouting operations wetting agent like aluminum powder, hydrogen
peroxide, etc.
6. Low Heat Cement  To fill up the gap in concrete
 Produces low amount of heat
 Less compressive strength than PC 13. Expansive Cement
 Not suitable for thin concrete structure  unique type of cement that, when combined with
 Mass constructions water to create a paste, tends to expand in volume
 Hydraulic engineering concrete substantially more than Portland cement paste
 The content of Tricalcium aluminate is relatively once it has dried.
low, at no more than 6%. The free calcium oxide is  shrinkage-compensating and self-stressing
less than 1.0%.  Used for construction of water retaining structures
 Used in grouting of anchor bolts
7. Sulfate Resisting Cement
 High percentage of silicate 14. Hydrographic Cement
 Foundation basement where soil is infected with  OPC with oleic acid, stearic acid, naphthenic acid
sulphate or any other hydrophobic agents
 Sewage and water treatment plants, marine  Different from waterproofing cement
structure  Construction of water structures
 15. Portland-limestone Cement
 blended cement with a higher limestone content,
which results in a product that works the same,
measures the same, and performs the same, but
with a reduction in carbon footprint of 10% on
average.
 Increase sustainability
PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1. Fineness
The size of the particles of the cement is its fineness.
The required fineness of good cement is achieved
through grinding the clinker in the last step of cement
production process.
2. Soundness
It refers to the ability of cement to not shrink upon
hardening. Good quality cement retains its volume
after setting without delayed expansion, which is
caused by excessive free lime and magnesia.
WAYS TO TEST THE SOUNDNESS OF CEMENT
1. Le Chatelier Test
- done by using Le Chatelier Apparatus, tests the expansion of
cement due to lime, named after Henry Louis Le Chatelier.
2. Autoclave Test
- Cement paste is placed in an autoclave (high-pressure steam
vessel) and slowly brought to 2.03 MPa and kept for 3 hours. The
change in length of the specimen is measured and expressed in
percentage
3. Consistency
The ability of cement paste to flow is consistency.
Measured through the Vicat Test, The plunger of the
apparatus is brought down to touch the top surface of
the cement. The plunger will penetrate the cement up
to a certain depth depending on the consistency.
4. Strength
Various factors affect the strength, such as water-
cement ratio, cement-fine aggregate ratio, curing
conditions, size and shape of a specimen, the manner
of molding and mixing, loading conditions and age
Types of Strength
1. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
It is the most common strength test. A test specimen (50mm) is
taken and subjected to a compressive load until failure. The
loading sequence must be within 20 seconds and 80 seconds.
STANDARD TESTS:
i. AASHTO T 106 and ASTM C 109: Compressive Strength
of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using 50-mm or 2-in.
Cube Specimens)
ii. ASTM C 349: Compressive Strength of Hydraulic
Cement Mortars (Using Portions of Prisms Broken in
Flexure)
2. TENSILE STRENGTH
Though this test used to be common during the early years of
cement production, now it does not offer any useful information
about the properties of cement
3. FLEXURAL STRENGTH
This setting time can vary depending on multiple factors, such as
fineness of cement, cement-water ratio, chemical content, and
admixtures. Two setting times are measured: initial and final set.
STANDARD TESTS:
i. AASHTO T 131 and ASTM C 191: Time of Setting of
Hydraulic Cement by Vicat Needle
ii. AASHTO T 154: Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement
by Gillmore Needles
iii. ASTM C 266: Time of Setting of Hydraulic-Cement
Paste by Gillmore Needles
5. Heat of Hydration
Hydration generates heat, which can affect the
quality of the cement and also be beneficial in
maintaining curing temperature during cold
weather. On the other hand, when heat
generation is high, especially in large structures,
it may cause undesired stress. The heat of
hydration is affected most by C3 S and C3A
present in cement, and also by water-cement
ratio, fineness and curing temperature.
6. Loss of Ignition
Heating a cement sample at 900 - 1000°C (that is,
until a constant weight is obtained) causes
weight loss. This loss of weight upon heating is
calculated as loss of ignition. Improper and
prolonged storage or adulteration during
transport or transfer may lead to pre-hydration
and carbonation, both of which might be
indicated by increased loss of ignition. The
standard test for this property is AASHTO T 105
and ASTM C 114: Chemical Analysis of Hydraulic
Cement.
7. Bulk Density
When cement is mixed with water, the water
replaces areas where there would normally be
air. Because of that, the bulk density of cement is
not very important. Cement has a varying range
of density depending on the cement composition
percentage. The density of cement may be
anywhere from 62 to 78 pounds per cubic foot.
8. Specific Gravity (Relative Density)
Specific gravity is generally used in mixture
proportioning calculations. Portland cement has
a specific gravity of 3.15, but other types of
cement (for example, portland-blast-furnace-slag
and portland-pozzolan cement) may have specific
gravities of about 2.90. The standard test is
 AASHTO T 133 and ASTM C 188: Density of 9. Free lime – CaO
Hydraulic Cement. - Free lime, which is sometimes present in cement,
may cause expansion.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. Tricalcium Aluminate - C3A
- Low content of C3A makes the cement sulfate- 10. Silica Fumes
resistant - to improve a variety of properties, especially
- C3A does not provide any more than a little amount of compressive strength, abrasion resistance and bond
strength. strength.
- Type I cement: 3.5% SO3 (in cement having more than - Though setting time is prolonged by the addition of
8% C3A) silica fume, it can grant exceptionally high strength.
- Type II cement: 3% SO3 (in cement having less than 8% - Hence, Portland cement containing 5-20% silica fume
C3A) is usually produced for Portland cement projects that
require high strength.
2. Dicalcium Silicate - C2S
- As opposed to tricalcium silicate, which helps early 11. Alumina
strength gain, dicalcium silicate in cement helps the - Cement containing high alumina has the ability to
strength gain after one week. withstand frigid temperatures since alumina is
chemical-resistant.
3. Tricalcium Silicate - C3S - It also quickens the setting but weakens the cement.
- causes rapid hydration as well as hardening - is
responsible for the cement’s early strength gain an Signs of Bad Concrete
initial setting 1. Segregation of Concrete
2. Bleeding
4. Ferrite - C4AF 3. Cracking
- a fluxing agent 4. Spalling
- excellent sulfate resistance 5. Scaling
- higher abrasion resistance 6. Honeycombing
7. Delamination
5. Magnesia – MgO
- high fire resistance
- low thermal conductivity CEMENT AND WATER
- imparts hardness CEMENT - Used as a binding material in concrete due to best
- the color of the cement adhesive and cohesive property
- All cement is limited to a content of 6% MgO. WATER - Most important ingredient of concrete
- to prevent unsound of cement and reduction of
cement’s strength Water-Cement Ratio
- Normally water cement ratio falls under 0.4 to 0.6
6. Sulphur Trioxide – SO3 - Required amount of water = Cement Volume x w/c ratio
- Sulfur trioxide in excess amount can make cement
unsound] - HIGHER THE WATER CEMENT RATIO MEANS THE
HIGHER QUANTITY OF WATER WHICH RESULTS TO
7. Iron Oxide - Fe2O3 POOR CONCRETE MIX
- Aside from adding strength and hardness, iron oxide - LOWER THE WATER CEMENT RATIO, THE GREATER THE
or ferric oxide is mainly responsible for the color of STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
the cement.
Types of Test on Cement
8. Alkalis a. Fineness Test
- The amounts of potassium oxide (K2O) and sodium b. Consistency Test
oxide (Na2O) determine the alkali content of the c. Setting Time of Cement
cement. d. Strength Test of Cement
- can cause some difficulty in regulating the setting e. Soundness Test of Cement
time of cement. f. Heat of Hydration Test
- Low alkali cement, when used with calcium chloride g. Tensile Strength of Cement
in concrete, can cause discoloration. h. Composition Test
- develop high strength at early ages
Fineness Test
The fineness test of cement is responsible for the rate of
hydration, rate of evolution of heat and the rate of gain of
strength. Finer the grains more is the surface area and faster the
development of strength.
- Sieve Test
Air-set lumps are broken, and the cement is sieved continuously
in a circular and vertical motion for a period of 15 minutes. The
residue left on the sieve is weighed, and it should not exceed 10%
for ordinary cement.
- Air Permeability Test
Blaine’s Air permeability Test is used to find the specific surface,
which is expressed as the total surface area in sq.cm/g of cement.
Air Permeability Test Apparatus
- -Blaine’s Air Permeability
- -Timer/Stopwatch
- -Weighing balance
- -Pycnometer or other convenient
- -Manometer Liquid
- –Light Oil -Mercury
- –Circular discs of filter paper
- -Light grease
- -Cement Sample
Consistency Test
This test is conducted to find the setting times of cement using a
standard consistency test apparatus, Vicat's apparatus.
- –10 mm diameter and 50 mm length of Vicat plunger
- –33-35mm depth
- –3-5 minutes of mixing
- –varies 24-27% of cement weight
- –Temperature - 25 or 29 deg. Celsius
- –Humidity - 20%
Setting Time of Cement
Vicat's apparatus is used to find the setting times of cement i.e.,
initial setting time and final setting time
- Initial Setting Time
For this test, a needle of 1 mm square size is used. The needle is
allowed to penetrate into the paste (a mixture of water and
cement as per the consistency test).
- Final Setting Time
After the paste has attained hardness, the needle does not
penetrate the paste more than 0.5 mm.
Strength Test
The strength of cement cannot be defined directly on the cement.
Instead the strength of cement is indirectly defined on cement-
mortar of 1:3.
Soundness Test
This test is conducted in Le Chatelier's apparatus to detect the
presence of uncombined lime and magnesia in cement.
Heat of Hydration
During the hydration of cement, heat is produced due to chemical
reactions. This heat may raise the temperature of concrete to a
high temperature of 50°C. To avoid these, in large scale
constructions low-heat cement has to be used.
Tensile Strength
This test is carried out using a cement-mortar briquette in a
tensile testing machine. A 1:3 cement-sand mortar with the water
content of 8% is mixed and moulded into a briquette in the
mould.
Chemical Composition Test of Cement Procedure
There are 8 chemical tests on cement:
1. Loss on ignition test
2. Silica test
3. Combined ferric oxide and alumina test
4. Ferric oxide test
5. Calcium oxide test
6. Magnesia test
7. Sulfuric anhydride test
8. Insoluble residue test
Different tests are conducted to determine the amount of various
constituents of cement. The requirements are based on IS: 269-
1998, is as follows:
 The ratio of the percentage of alumina to that of iron
oxide should not be less than 0.66.
 Lime Saturation Factor (LSF), i.e., the ratio of the
percentage to that of alumina, iron oxide and silica
should not be less than 0.66 and not be greater than
1.02.
 Total loss on ignition should not be greater than 4%.
 Total sulphur content should not be greater than
2.75%.
 Weight of insoluble residue should not be greater than
1.50%.
 Weight of magnesia should not be greater than 5%
CEMENT
Cements of this kind are finely ground powders that, when mixed
with water, set to a hard mass. Setting and hardening result from
hydration, which is a chemical combination of the cement
compounds with water that yields submicroscopic crystals or a
gellike material with a high surface area.
Cement, one of the most important building materials, is a
binding agent that sets and hardens to adhere to building units
such as stones, bricks, tiles, etc. Cement generally refers to a very
fine powdery substance chiefly made up of limestone (calcium),
sand or clay (silicon), bauxite (aluminum) and iron ore, and may
include shells, chalk, marl, shale, clay, blast furnace slag, slate.
HISTORY
The origin of hydraulic cements goes back to ancient Greece and
Rome. The materials used were lime and a volcanic ash that
slowly reacted with it in the presence of water to form a hard
mass.
Volcanic ash mined near what is now the city of Pozzuoli, Italy,
was particularly rich in essential aluminosilicate minerals, giving
rise to the classic pozzolana cement of the Roman era.
THE TERM CEMENT, MEANWHILE, DERIVES FROM THE LATIN
WORD CAEMENTUM, WHICH MEANT STONE CHIPPINGS SUCH AS
WERE USED IN ROMAN MORTAR.
1756
Developed by John Smeaton when he was called in to erect the
Eddystone Lighthouse off coast of Plymouth, Devon, England.
1800
In England and France, a material obtained by burning nodules of
clayey limestone
1824
The invention of portland cement is attributed to Joseph Aspdin
of Leeds, Yorkshire, England. Took out a patent for a material that
was produced from a synthetic mixture of limestone and clay
1850
Real prototype was produced by Isaac Charles Johnson in
Southeastern England
20TH CENTURY
cement manufacture spread worldwide. By 2019 China and India
had become the world leaders in cement production, followed by
Vietnam, the United States, and Egypt.
MANUFACTURE OF CEMENT
 CRUSHING & GRINDING
All except soft materials are first crushed, often in two stages, and
then ground, usually in a rotating, cylindrical ball, or tube mills
containing a charge of steel grinding balls. This grinding is done
wet or dry, depending on the process in use, but for dry grinding
the raw materials first may need to be dried in cylindrical, rotary
dryers. Soft materials are broken down by vigorous stirring with
water in wash mills, producing a fine slurry, which is passed
through screens to remove oversize particles.
 BLENDING
A first approximation of the chemical composition required for a
particular cement is obtained by selective quarrying and control
of the raw material fed to the crushing and grinding plant. Finer
control is obtained by drawing material from two or more batches
containing raw mixes of slightly different composition. In the dry
process these mixes are stored in silos; slurry tanks are used in
the wet process. Thorough mixing of the dry materials in the silos
is ensured by agitation and vigorous circulation induced by
compressed air.
 BURNING
The earliest kilns in which cement was burned in batches were
bottle kilns, followed by chamber kilns and then by continuous
shaft kilns. The shaft kiln in a modernized form is still used in
some countries, but the dominant means of burning is the rotary
kiln. These kilns —up to 200 metres (660 feet) long and six metres
in diameter in wet process plants but shorter for the dry
process—consist of a steel, cylindrical shell lined with refractory
materials.
The fuel for firing may be pulverized coal, oil, or natural gas
injected through a pipe. The temperature at the firing end ranges
from about 1,350 to 1,550 °C (2,460 to 2,820 °F), depending on
the raw materials being burned.
 GRINDING
The clinker and the required amount of gypsum are ground to a
fine powder in horizontal mills similar to those used for grinding
the raw materials. The material may pass straight through the mill
(open-circuit grinding), or coarser material may be separated
from the ground product and returned to the mill for further
grinding (closed-circuit grinding).
PORTLAND CEMENT
DRY
In the dry method, dry raw materials are proportioned before
being ground into a fine powder, blended, then fed dry into a kiln.
WET
In the wet method, a slurry is created by adding water to properly
proportioned raw materials prior to them being ground, blended
and fed into the upper end of a tilted and rotating cylindrical kiln,
where their rate of passage is controlled by the kiln's slope and
rotational speed.
The top three cement producers of the world as recorded in 2010
are the USA, China, and India. Among these countries, China
alone manufactures about 45% of the total worldwide production
of cement.
COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES
RAW MATERIALS COMPOSITION
 portland cement consists essentially of compounds of
lime (calcium oxide, cao) mixed with silica (silicon
dioxide, sio2) and alumina (aluminum oxide, al2o3).
 the lime is obtained from a calcareous (lime-
containing) raw material, and the other oxides are
derived from an argillaceous (clayey) material.
PROPERTIES
 The commonest calcareous raw materials are
limestone and chalk, but others, such as coral or shell
deposits, also are used.
 Clays, shales, slates, and estuarine muds are the
common argillaceous raw materials. Marl, a compact
calcareous clay, and cement rock contain both the
calcareous and argillaceous components in proportions
that sometimes approximate cement compositions.
 Kaolin, a white clay that contains little iron oxide, is
used as the argillaceous component for white portland
cement.
EXTRACTION & PROCESSING
 raw materials employed in the manufacture of cement
are extracted by quarrying in the case of hard rocks
such as limestones, slates, and some shales, with the
aid of blasting when necessary.
  the excavated materials are transported to the
crushing plant by trucks, railway freight cars, conveyor
belts, or ropeways.
THE MAJOR CEMENTS: COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES
 SLAG CEMENT
The granulated slag made by the rapid chilling of suitable molten
slags from blast furnaces forms the basis of another group of
constructional cements. A mixture of portland cement and
granulated slag, containing up to 65 percent slag, is known in the
English-speaking countries as portland blast-furnace (slag)
cement.
 HIGH-ALUMINA CEMENT
High-alumina cement is a rapidhardening cement made by fusing
at 1,500 to 1,600 °C (2,730 to 2,910 °F) a mixture of bauxite and
limestone in a reverberatory or electric furnace or in a rotary kiln.
High-alumina cement gains a high proportion of its ultimate
strength within 24 hours and has a high resistance to chemical
attack. It also can be used in refractory linings for furnaces. A
white form of the cement, containing minimal proportions of iron
oxide and silica, has outstanding refractory properties.
 EXPANDING AND NON-SHRINKING CEMENT
Expanding and nonshrinking cements expand slightly on
hydration, thus offsetting the small contraction that occurs when
fresh concrete dries for the first time. Expanding cements were
first produced in France about 1945. The American type is a
mixture of portland cement and an expansive agent made by
clinkering a mix of chalk, bauxite, and gypsum.
 GYPSUM PLASTERS
Gypsum plasters are used for plastering, the manufacture of
plaster boards and slabs, and in one form of floor-surfacing
material. These gypsum cements are mainly produced by heating
natural gypsum
APPLICATION
 cements may be used alone but the normal use is in
mortar and concrete in which the cement is mixed
with inert material known as aggregate.
 mortar is cement mixed with sand or crushed stone
that must be less than approximately 5 mm (0.2 inch)
in size. concrete is a mixture of cement, sand or other
fine aggregate, and a coarse aggregate that for most
purposes is up to 19 to 25 mm (0.75 to 1 inch) in size.
 mortars are used for binding bricks, blocks, and stone
in walls or as surface renderings.
CEMENT TESTING
 fineness.
 consistency.
 setting time.
 compressive strength.
 soundness.
 heat of hydration
 tensile strength
 chemical composition
FINENESS
The fineness of cement is responsible for the rate of hydration
and rate of evolution of heat and hence on the rate of gain of
strength.
The fineness of cement can be determined by the following tests:
1. Sieve Test or
2. Air Permeability Test
CONSISTENCY
the consistency of cement is the minimum water requirement to
start the chemical reaction between water and cement. this test
helps to identify the minimum water required to make the
cement paste.
the test is commonly conducted using the vicat apparatus, and
it's often referred to as the vicat consistency test.
SETTING TIME
It evaluates the time required for cement to lose its plasticity and
gain strength.
1. Initial Testing
2. Final Testing
According to standard guidelines, the initial setting time for
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) should be less than 30 minutes,
while the final setting time should not exceed 600 minutes.
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
The most common strength test, compressive strength, is carried
out on a 50 mm (2-inch) cement mortar test specimen. The test
specimen is subjected to a compressive load (usually from a
hydraulic machine) until failure. This loading sequence must take
no less than 20 seconds and no more than 80 seconds.
SOUNDNESS
The Soundness Test is performed to detect the presence of
uncombined lime and magnesia in cement. This test is conducted
in Le Chatelier’s apparatus
Soundness of cement can be defined as its ability to retain its
volume after it gets hardened. This means that a properly sound
cement will undergo minimum volume change after it converts
into the hardened state.
HEAT OF HYDRATION
The heat of hydration test of cement is used to determine the
amount of heat liberated by the cement during its hydration
reaction with water. Heat of hydration of cement test helps in
some of the concreting applications like mass concreting and cold
weather concreting.
TENSILE STRENGTH
Tensile tests on briquettes, shaped like a figure eight thickened at
the centre, were formerly used but have been replaced or
supplemented by compressive tests on cubical specimens or
transverse tests on prisms.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Chemical composition test of cement determines the proportion
of various constituents present in the cement specimen. The
proportion of these constituents should fall under the standard
range of cement constituents.
 English bricklayer, businessman, inventor, and stonemason who
1. Loss on ignition test obtained the patent for Portland cement on 21 October 1824.
2. Silica test
3. Combined ferric oxide and alumina test  IMPROVEMENTS AND INNOVATION
4. Ferric oxide test In 1845, Isaac Johnson fired chalk and clay at much higher
5. Calcium oxide test temperatures than the Aspdins, at around 1400-1500oC, which
6. Magnesia test led to the mixture clinkering, and produced what is essentially
7. Sulfuric anhydride test modern-day cement. The Industrial Revolution in Europe in the
8. Insoluble residue test late 18th century saw a flurry of new developments in cement
and concrete, with important contributions made by John
THE 3 MAJOR CEMENT SPECIFICATIONS AND THEIR CEMENT Smeaton, James Parker, Louis Vicat, and Egor Cheliev.
TYPES
 Standardization and Modernization
The first cement standard for Portland cement was approved in
Germany in 1878, defining the first test methods and minimum
properties, with many other countries following suit. By the end
of the 19th century, hollow concrete blocks for housing
construction became mainstream. The advent of reinforced
concretes began in the 1840s in France, starting a period of
innovation, using reinforced columns, girders, and so on to allow
the construction of larger bridges, taller and larger buildings, etc.,
and significantly decreased the dominance of steel construction.
CEMENT
Cement is a dry powdery substance made by calcining lime and TYPES OF CEMENT
clay, mixed with water to form mortar or mixed with sand, gravel  Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
and water to make concrete. It is a binder material. Once This is the most widely used type of cement, suitable for general
hardened, cement delivers sufficient strength to erect large concrete construction. It is used in marine structures,
industrial structures. foundations, and most concrete construction projects

A normal type of cement that is used in the construction industry  Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
is also known as hydraulic cement because this powdery This type of cement is prepared by grinding pozzolanic clinker
substance is generally mixed with water before use. with Portland cement. It has high resistance to various chemical
attacks on concrete and is used in marine structures, sewage
Cement is corrosive to metals and therefore any metals in contact works, and laying concrete underwater
with cement should be corrosion resistant.
 Rapid Hardening Cement
HISTORY This cement is used in projects where quick setting and hardening
 Ancient Civilizations are required, such as road and bridge construction.
The earliest known use of cement-like materials dates back to
7000 B.C., with the discovery of a consolidated whitewashed floor  Low Heat Cement
made from burned limestone and clay in Jordan. The Egyptians, It is used in massive concrete construction like dams, retaining
around 2600 B.C., used a cementlike material containing gypsum walls, and large foundations where the heat generated by
to construct the Great Pyramid. The Romans, in the first century hydration needs to be minimized
A.D., developed new masonry techniques and used a form of
cement called pozzolana, which was made from volcanic ash and  Colored Cement
lime. The Colosseum, Pantheon, and Hagia Sophia are famous Produced by mixing mineral pigments with ordinary cement, it is
historical buildings made from concrete, still standing today. widely used for decorative works on floors and other architectural
elements
 The Birth of Portland Cement
The precursor to modern-day cement was created in 1824 by RAW MATERIALS USED IN CEMENT PRODUCTION
Joseph Aspdin, a British bricklayer and builder. Aspdin  limestone
experimented with heating limestone and clay until the mixture  clay
calcined, grinding it, and then mixing it with water. He named this  shells
Portland Cement, after the famously strong building stone from  chalk
the Isle of Portland in Dorset, UK. His son, William Aspdin, made
 shale
the first cement containing alite (an impure form of tricalcium
 slate
silicate).
 gypsum
 silica sand
 iron ore
CEMENT PRODUCTION
Hard rocks like limestone, clay, and shale are quarried and
crushed into smaller pieces. Soft materials like chalk are broken
down using stirring with water in wash mills. The crushed
materials are then ground into a fine powder
The raw materials are mixed in specific proportions to achieve the
desired chemical composition of the final product

The blended raw materials are heated to a sintering temperature

(around 1450°C) in a rotary kiln. This process, called clinker
formation, involves the breaking down of chemical bonds and the
recombination of elements into new compounds.

The clinker, which is a nodular material, is ground to a fine

powder in a cement mill. A small amount of gypsum (around 5%)
is added to control the setting time of the cement.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

 FINENESS
 CONSISTENCY
 SOUNDNESS
 STRENGTH
 SETTING TIME
 HEAT OF HYDRATION
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY
 BULK DENSITY

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
 tricalcium silicate (3CaO · SiO2)
 dicalcium silicate (2CaO · SiO2)
 tricalcium aluminate (3CaO · Al2O3)
 tetra-calcium aluminoferrite (4CaO · Al2O3Fe2O3)

ADVANTAGES
 VERSATILITY
 AVAILABILITY
 COST-EFFECTIVENESS
DISADVANTAGES
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
 HIGH ENERGY CONSUMPTION