Seneca on Death 223

Seneca on Death

RUSSELL NOYES, Jr.

L u c i u s A n n a e u s Seneca, the foremost e x p o n e n t of R o m a n Stoic p h i l o s o -

phy, dwelt extensively u p o n the subject of death in his writings. T h e key
to the ethics he espoused lay in c o n q u e r i n g the fear of death; he u r g e d
p r e m e d i t a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t life in p r e p a r a t i o n for its final a n d climactic
hour. Indeed, Seneca saw l e a r n i n g to die as p r e p a r a t i o n for life; hence he
made it a goal of his practical p h i l o s o p h y . H e raised the h u m a n w i l l to
lofty heights by his call for m e n to seize p o w e r over tyrannical f o r t u n e
and, if necessary, to end their lives to m a i n t a i n supremacy. In contrast to
the Christians of the f o l l o w i n g era, he was u n c e r t a i n of existence after
death a n d did n o t regard this life as a p r e p a r a t i o n for the next one. C o n -
sequently, he did n o t consider the m a n n e r of d y i n g to be an i m p o r t a n t
d e t e r m i n a n t of an afterlife as d i d the Christians. Like them, however, he
recognized the i m p o r t a n c e of this last stage of life a n d v i e w e d it as a
long-awaited m o m e n t w h e n a m a n ' s beliefs were p u t to their severest
t e s t . If he died well, a m a n died bravely a n d gladly. Since d y i n g h e l d con-
tinuity with the life of the Stoic, early c o n t e m p l a t i o n of the event influ-
enced his m o r a l development. Seneca's teachings stand in s h a r p c o n t r a s t
I am indebted to Roger A. Hornsby, Ph.D., Professor and Chairman of the Department
of Classics, University of Iowa, for his review and criticism of this manuscript.
RUSSELL NOYES, JR., M.D., is an Associate Professor of Psychiatry at the University of
Iowa College of Medicine, Iowa City, Iowa.
224 Journal of Religion and Health

to our own and deserve re-examination during a time when attitudes to-
ward death are undergoing change.

Life and works

Seneca was born in Corduba, Spain, in 4 B.C. of wealthy and cultured

parents. 1 H e was of delicate constitution and suffered serious illness dur-
ing his childhood. In Rome, he studied rhetoric and philosophy and, in
early adult life, rose to wealth and prominence as a pleader of causes. H e
became a senator under Caligula, but the latter, envious of his talents,
marked him for destruction. T h e emperor was restrained from killing
him only because he believed that Seneca's ill health w o u l d soon result
in death. Under Claudius, Seneca rapidly rose to eminence. Accused,
probably falsely, of adultery by Claudius' wife, Messalina, he was ban-
ished to Corsica, where he remained for eight years. A succeeding wife,
Agrippina, brought about his return and entrusted him with the educa-
tion of her son, Nero. When, in 54 A.D., Nero became emperor, Seneca
served as his prime minister. T h e restraint that his counsel imposed up-
on the emperor, however, led to strained relations between them, and in
59 A.D. the philosopher retired to his estates. Becoming implicated in an
abortive conspiracy in 65 A.D., he was bidden to take his o w n life. He
did so in the company of his wife, w h o had insisted u p o n sharing his
death.
Seneca's death was a truly noble one, becoming to a Stoic if not to Sen-
eca himself. According to Tacitus, when Nero's message reached him,
"undismayed he asked for tablets u p o n which to make his will. When
this was refused by the centurion, he turned to his friends and said that
since he was prevented from rewarding their service, he w o u l d leave to
them one thing, and yet the best thing, that he had to leave--the pattern
of life . . . . At the same time he reminded his weeping friends of their
duty to be strong, n o w by his conversation, n o w by sterner rebuke, ask-
ing them w h a t had become of the precepts of wisdom and of the philoso-
p h y which through so many years they had studied in the face of im-
pending evils . . . . T h e n he embraced his wife and, with a tenderness
Seneca on Death 225

somewhat in contrast to his fortitude, entreated her to moderate her grief

and not nurse it forever, but in the contemplation of a well-spent life to
find honorable consolation for the loss of her husband. ''2
A popular writer in his own day, Seneca was both poet and philoso-
pher. He left, in addition to his philosophical works, nine tragedies that
had an important influence u p o n Elizabethan drama. His seven books of
natural history reveal his humanistic approach to the study of a subject
he regarded as important to followers of Stoic philosophy. Seneca's mor-
al treatises were his supreme achievement. In them he put forth practical
principles for insuring the wise conduct of life. T h e y contain little ab-
stract speculation, being based u p o n a thorough knowledge of h u m a n
nature. Few writers, ancient or modern, have equaled his understanding
of the pathology of the mind. Within his writings may be found an in-
cisiveness of style, a vividness of illustration, a richness of experience,
and at times a tolerant understanding of h u m a n weakness. Seneca wrote
in "pointed" silver Latin, an elaborate and rhetorical style that served to
highlight R o m a n vigor and pride. It is of interest that his religious and
moral maxims approximated those of Christianity so closely that the ear-
ly fathers of the church incorrectly believed that he had adopted their
faith. Basically a Stoic, he regarded himself as an eclectic philosopher
and seeker after the truth, both h u m a n and divine.

Stoic p h i l o s o p h y

Stoicism met the magnified needs of the R o m a n individual in the first

century. 3 T h e political revolution begun by Alexander had stripped the
average man of the security of the city-state and had exposed him to an
increasingly cosmopolitan R o m a n Empire. Within the expanding em-
pire, large government and paid armies further reduced the c o m m o n
man's sense of importance. Widened horizons brought narrowed con-
sciousness, and without the former spirit of nationalism, c o m m u n a l in-
terest, and participation in government, a need for a new m e a n i n g for
life arose. This need led to a growth of individualism.
Even prior to the time of Socrates, who was accused of inculcating dis-
226 Journal of Religion and Health

belief in the Athenian gods, an increasing religious skepticism had de-

veloped. Philosophy had been offered as a substitute for religion, and
early philosophers had attempted rational explanations of the universe
to replace superstitution. However, a need for a basis on which to de-
termine their conduct to replace the guiding needs and laws of the city-
state arose a m o n g citizens. A philosophy of behavior consequently be-
came important and began to replace metaphysics. Ethics was the
philosophy of greatest importance in Rome and, in the first century,
Stoicism was the orthodox R o m a n morality.
Stoic ethics were based u p o n Stoic physics, according to which the
universe was governed by an organizing principle that operated on the
basis of strict causality. 4 This principle or force, which Seneca called for-
tune, was identified with the divine and was inherent in nature. As a re-
sult of its operation, every event had its cause and occurred of necessity
in the u n e n d i n g chain of events. Man, since he belonged to nature, was
governed by this principle along with the rest of natural creation. His
reason, however, set h i m apart from the natural world and provided h i m
with a means of understanding the causal connections to be found every-
where about and within him. T h o u g h regarded as incapable of perfect
knowledge, a man's reason was seen as his divine potential that, through
philosophical search for truth, should be developed toward perfection.
T h e Stoics saw reason guiding men toward the ultimate goal of virtue
or moral perfection. Because they regarded events as having no super-
natural significance, they viewed virtue as an end in itself and the su-
preme good. Only through the exercise of free choice toward the attain-
ment of virtue did the Stoic achieve an existence or identity apart from
nature. For him, this was life itself. In order that his will remain free, the
Stoic called for harsh mastery of his egocentric and unruly passions. He
did not deny their existence, but regarded them as determined by fortune.
T h e R o m a n Stoic strove to become a sage or one w h o achieved perfec-
tion of reason and virtue. This ideal, while unattainable, was, neverthe-
less, worthy of life-long pursuit.
T h e humanistic ethical principles developed by the Stoics were based
Seneca on Death 227

u p o n their u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the world. T h e basic u n i t y of the universe

led them to a recognition of the essential b r o t h e r h o o d of m a n k i n d ,
which called for the practice of love a n d justice in all h u m a n relation-
ships. T h e highest ideal of the Stoic w a y of life became the fulfillment of
social obligations. T a k i n g precedence over i n d i v i d u a l duties, these prin-
ciples forced a m a n to u n d e r t a k e an altruistic conversion of his basic na-
ture. As a p a r t of his social obligations, each m a n was assigned a neces-
sary role and, whether e m p e r o r or slave, all were e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t .
T h e Stoics exhorted each m a n to p l a y his role to the best of his ability,
while r e m a i n i n g obedient to the state a n d to the divine with w h i c h he
identified himself. T h r o u g h his reason, m a n was a d m i t t e d to c o m m u -
nion w i t h the gods from w h o m he believed that he differed only by b e i n g
mortal. H e also believed in the c o m m u n i o n of all men's souls. U n i t y
applied to the divine as well as to the material world.

Fear o f death

T h e fear of death was a central concern for Seneca. T h i s f u n d a m e n t a l

and p o w e r f u l passion m i g h t d o m i n a t e the h u m a n will a n d rob it of its
freedom. H e noted that it sprang from m a n ' s u n i q u e r e c o g n i t i o n o f the
fact that he is mortal. H e saw it as a natural fear a n d an a g o n i z i n g ac-
c o m p a n i m e n t of m a n ' s divine gift of reason. O b s e r v i n g that n e i t h e r chil-
dren n o r m a d m e n fear death, he felt that it w o u l d , indeed, be p a r a d o x i c a l
if reason were u n a b l e to furnish the same security that i n n o c e n c e m a d e
available. It was, for Seneca, the u l t i m a t e fear a n d the o n e that rendered
all t h o u g h t s of the future uneasy. Its strength m a y have s t e m m e d in p a r t
from the uncertainty of life in Seneca's day. H e expressed this idea in
typically dramatic fashion w h e n he said, " . . . n o t h i n g is so deceptive as
h u m a n life, n o t h i n g is so treacherous. H e a v e n knows! n o t o n e of us
w o u l d have accepted it as a gift were it n o t given to us w i t h o u t o u r
knowledge." (Ad Marc, XXII. 3) 5 T h e source of it lay in the love of self,
the desire for u n e n d i n g existence, a dread of the process of dying, a n d
ignorance of the future. A p p r e h e n s i o n of an afterlife m a d e its c o n t r i b u -
228 Journal of Religion and Health

tion to this multifaceted fear or, d e p e n d i n g u p o n a m a n ' s beliefs, was

equaled by a fear of annihilation. Despite fear of the afterlife, Seneca em-
phasized that it was the m a n n e r of dying, rather than death itself, that
aroused m e n ' s fears.
For Seneca, the fear of death seemed inescapable. H e felt that the fre-
q u e n t and u n t i m e l y deaths occurring wherever o n e looked served to re-
m i n d his fellow-men that death m i g h t surprise t h e m at any m o m e n t .
A n d surprise them it might, because, as he observed, using a m e t a p h o r of
the sea, " T h e n u m b e r of m e n that will p l a n a voyage w i t h o u t t h i n k i n g
of storms is very great." (De T r a n q . An., XI.7) T h e p h i l o s o p h e r himself
suffered from asthma, w h i c h served to keep the t h o u g h t of death before
him. H e described attacks as a sort of c o n t i n u e d "last gasp," c o m m e n t -
ing that physicians of his day referred to the affliction as " p r a c t i c i n g h o w
to die."
Seneca regarded the fear of death, t h o u g h u b i q u i t o u s , as displaced in
certain instances. O n e of them was the a p p r e h e n s i o n associated w i t h dis-
ease. T h r e e elements were responsible for the distress of disease, namely:
fear of death, pain, and i n t e r r u p t i o n of pleasures. But, in his essay, " O n
the healing p o w e r of the m i n d , " he claimed that the fear of death did n o t
belong a m o n g them. In one penetrating passage he stated:

" . . . this fear is not a fear of disease, but a fear of nature. Disease has often
postponed death, and a vision of dying has been many a man's salvation. You
will die, not because you are ill, but because you are alive; even when you have
been cured, the same end awaits you; when you have recovered, it will not be
death, but ill-health, that you have escaped." (LXXVII.6) 6

So p o w e r f u l was this fear that it c o u l d rob a m a n of the very life he

feared to lose. "He w h o fears death will never do a n y t h i n g w o r t h y of a
m a n w h o is alive." (De T r a n q . An., XI.6) It c o u l d force an i n d i v i d u a l to
surrender his will to the dictates of fortune a n d accept slavery; the m a n
w h o surrendered n o t o n l y displayed despicable lack of courage b u t sac-
rificed a life of tranquility he m i g h t otherwise have attained. Therefore,
it was supremely i m p o r t a n t for a m a n to rid himself of this fear a n d es-
sential if he were to attain the goal r e c o m m e n d e d by this Stoic philoso-
Seneca on Death 229

pher. In a startling b u t m e a n i n g f u l a p h o r i s m he stated, " W e m u s t m a k e

ready for death before we m a k e ready for life." (LXI.4)

Preparation

Preparation for death was, for Seneca, p r e p a r a t i o n for life. T h e two were
inseparable. First he called for premeditation. Men were advised to lose
no o p p o r t u n i t y to premeditate u p o n death in order to render the t h o u g h t
familiar and death itself a matter of indifference. "If an evil has been
pondered beforehand, the b l o w is gentle w h e n it comes. (LXXXVI.34)
Rehearse the t h o u g h t of death every day, that y o u m a y be able to d e p a r t
from life contentedly; for m a n y m e n clutch a n d cling to life, even as
those w h o are carried d o w n a r u s h i n g stream clutch a n d cling to briars
and sharp rocks." (IV.5) By means of c o u r a g e a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l detach-
ment, an individual m i g h t s u r r o u n d himself w i t h a protective a r m o r and
make himself impervious to death. T o endure the awareness, of ap-
p r o a c h i n g death required l o n g practice. Seneca praised this a c c o m p l i s h -
m e n t and expressed the view that brave e n d u r a n c e of death was a m o n g
the greatest achievements of the h u m a n mind.
Essential to o v e r c o m i n g the fear of death, Seneca felt, was s u b m i s s i o n
to nature. Servitude was avoided w h e n a man, instead of rebelling
against the laws of the universe, m a d e their dictates his will. It was of
some consolation that the gods a n d m a n alike were subject to nature's
law; there were n o exceptions. T h e m a n w h o attained virtue " . . . never
cursed his luck, and never received the results of chance w i t h dejection;
he believed that he was a citizen a n d soldier of the universe, a c c e p t i n g his
tasks as if they were his orders." (CXX.12) C o n t e m p l a t i o n of death was
an aid to moral and spiritual growth. For example, as it led m e n to dis-
cover their oneness with nature, it p r o v i d e d a g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e for life.
T o the extent to w h i c h they identified themselves w i t h this principle,
men realized an o p p o r t u n i t y to b e c o m e the ideal that they placed before
themselves.
If n o t o v e r w h e l m i n g , of course, the fear of death p r o v i d e d an o p p o r -
tunity for a m a n to test a n d strengthen his character and, kept in the
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forefront of his thoughts, it r e m a i n e d a c o n t i n u o u s spur to moderate and

t h o u g h t f u l living. T h e m a n w h o passed t h r o u g h life w i t h o u t experienc-
ing adversity could never have k n o w n his potentiality or have gained
self-knowledge. Seneca pitied the m a n w h o m i g h t have been so unfortu-
nate. P o i n t i n g to the early arrival of death, he exhorted m e n to temper
their anger a n d practice h u m a n i t y toward one another. " N o t h i n g , " he
said, "will give y o u so m u c h help t o w a r d m o d e r a t i o n as the f r e q u e n t
t h o u g h t that life is short a n d uncertain here below; whatever y o u are
doing, have regard for death." (De Ira~XII)
As a result of Seneca's c o n t e m p l a t i o n of the fear of death, he c a u t i o n e d
against excessive reliance u p o n the future a n d urged zestful living in the
present. N o t i n g the link between h o p e a n d fear, he observed that " . . .
passions that look forward a n d are very solicitous for the future arouse
fear. Fear and craving for the future eat a w a y at the mind. T h e r e is n o t h -
ing m o r e wretched then w o r r y over the o u t c o m e of future events." (CI.8)
Seneca saw the m a n w h o was a n x i o u s a b o u t the future as o n e for w h o m
the present was unprofitable. L i v i n g for h o p e o n l y p r o d u c e d fear of
death and was to be avoided. H e urged m e n instead to live fully in the
present. " L e t us p o s t p o n e nothing. Let us balance life's a c c o u n t every
day . . . . O n e w h o daily p u t s the finishing touches to his life is never in
w a n t of time." (CI.8)
In his essay "On the Shortness of Life," Seneca n o t e d the enslaving
potentiality of a p r e o c c u p a t i o n with the future. Born of insecurity, this
a p p r o a c h to life c o u l d only render its a u t h o r increasingly fearful by plac-
ing h i m in the hands of fortune. Seneca wrote a vivid description of this
type of person a n d his plight. H e said:
They keep themselves busily engaged in order that they may be able to live bet-
ter; they spend life in making ready to live! They form their purposes with a
view to the distant future; yet postponement is the greatest waste of life; it de-
prives them of each day as it comes, it snatches from them the present by prom-
ising something hereafter. The greatest hindrance to living is expectancy, which
depends upon the morrow and wastes today. (De Brev. Vit., IX. 1)
In addition to this one, a variety of other w o r l d l y p r e o c c u p a t i o n s , such
Seneca on Death 231

as the crowd, desire for wealth, a n d a m b i t i o n , distracted m e n from the

r e c o m m e n d e d p h i l o s o p h e r ' s life. All tended to remove death from view
a n d focus attention u p o n remote hopes.
Aging, w h i c h b r o u g h t life's end ever closer, altered Seneca's perspec-
tive on death and led h i m to realize that this n a t u r a l process aided m e n
to prepare for death. H e emphasized that, rather than s i m p l y arriving at
the end of life, death was a c o n d i t i o n that h a d s h a p e d the w h o l e of it. In
h a r m o n y w i t h nature's law, of birth a n d decline a n d life a n d death, a life
progressed toward its end from its very beginning. H e observed that:

9 every day a little of our life is taken from us; even when we are growing, our
life is on the wane. We lose our childhood, then our boyhood, and then our
youth9 Counting even yesterday, all past time is lost time; the very day which we
are now spending is shared between ourselves and death9 (XXIV.20)

H e p o i n t e d o u t that the final h o u r does n o t b r i n g death, b u t merely com-

pletes a process long underway: " . . . it is the last b u t not the o n l y
death!" (XXIV.22) Since a man,s life was granted w i t h the reservation
that one day he m u s t die a n d since he h a d always lived a c c o r d i n g to this
agreement, he s h o u l d have n o c o m p l a i n t . H e c o n c l u d e d s i m p l y that the
man "... w h o does not wish to die c a n n o t have wished to live."
(XXX.10)
O l d age was regarded by Seneca as a m i x e d blessing. It was a c c o m p a -
nied by weariness, b u t it was also a time well suited for the a t t a i n m e n t of
wisdom 9 C o m p l e t e and victorious virtue c o m b i n e d w i t h u n w a v e r i n g
j u d g m e n t of the supreme g o o d c o u l d o n l y be the fruits of a l o n g life
steadfastly devoted to their a c c o m p l i s h m e n t . H e said that n o " . . . time
of life is m o r e fitted to the a t t a i n m e n t of a s o u n d m i n d than that w h i c h
has gained the victory over itself by m a n y trials a n d by l o n g a n d oft-re-
peated regret for past mistakes, and, its passions assuaged, has reached
a state of health." (LXVIII.14) T h u s , relieved in large measure of the
b u r d e n of his desires, the a g i n g Seneca described in himself a peaceful
spirit and an increasing acceptance of death. H e felt that this acceptance
232 Journal of Religion and Health

usually developed just at that m o m e n t w h e n a m a n achieved his highest

potential. Here, then, was a n o t h e r resource in the p r e p a r a t i o n for death.
In his essay "On the P r o p e r T i m e to Slip the Cable," Seneca dwelt fur-
ther u p o n old age a n d its relation to death. H e emphasized the impor-
tance of the q u a l i t y as o p p o s e d to the length of life a n d advised m e n to
end their lives, if necessary, to escape the enslavement of p a i n or senility.
His view was extreme: " . . . the foulest death is preferable to the cleanest
slavery." (LXX.21) A b o u t the death that arrived in o l d age, he expressed
varied feelings. "No ending," he said, " . . . is m o r e painless; b u t there is
n o n e moreflingering." (XXX.4) Yet w i t h the b o o n bestowed by philoso-
phy, m e n m i g h t be j o y f u l at the sight of it for:
9 if it falls to the lot of any man to be set gently adrift by old age, not suddenly
tom from life, but withdrawn bit by bit, oh, verily he should thank the gods,
one and all, because after he has had his fill he is removed to a rest which is
ordained for mankind, a rest that is welcome to the weary. (XXX.12)
Seneca himself, in a letter to his friend Lucilius, claimed that he awaited
death cheerfully. H e said simply, "I have lived . .. l o n g e n o u g h . I have
had m y fill; I await death." (LXI.4)

Dying

T h e h o u r of death u p o n w h i c h the Stoic h a d l o n g meditated placed be-

fore h i m the s u p r e m e test of his soul. For this reason, dying well became
a matter of extreme importance. D y i n g represented neither g o o d n o r evil,
according to Seneca, b u t m i g h t b e c o m e either, d e p e n d i n g u p o n the at-
titude a m a n took t o w a r d it. Like m o s t things regarded as ill, it c o u l d be
converted to g o o d if a m a n succeeded in rising above it. First of all, Sen-
eca said that d y i n g well m e a n t d y i n g gladly. T h e freedom of the h u m a n
will d e p e n d e d u p o n its s u b m i s s i o n to necessity. If a m a n died by his o w n
c h o o s i n g instead of rebelling against this universal necessity, he achieved
a final victory over fortune. " H e w h o has learned to die has u n l e a r n e d
slavery; he is above any external power, or, at a n y rate, he is b e y o n d it."
(XXVI.10) F o r t u n e u n l e a s h e d a p o w e r f u l assault u p o n the soul at the
Seneca on Death 233

m o m e n t of death, threatening it with loss of bodily pleasures, earthly

c o m p a n i o n s , a n d worldly g o o d s a n d p l a c i n g before it an uncertain fu-
ture. W i t h " . . . what terror do they die," said Seneca, p i c t u r i n g the
p l i g h t of those defeated at the h a n d s of fortune, "feeling that they are
being dragged o u t of life, and n o t merely leaving it." (De Brev. Vit. XI. 1)
Secondly, d y i n g called for bravery. " . . . an end that is near at hand,
a n d is b o u n d to come, calls for tenacious c o u r a g e of soul; this is a rarer
thing, a n d n o n e b u t the wise m a n can manifest it." (XXX.8) D y i n g
posed the ultimate challenge to virtue a n d presented the soul w i t h an
o p p o r t u n i t y to achieve an otherwise u n a t t a i n a b l e h e i g h t of courage. T h e
greater the danger a n d resultant fear, the greater the courage required to
overcome it. C o n s e q u e n t l y , dying, because it was an extreme threat, pro-
vided an o p p o r t u n i t y to display u n u s u a l strength of character. It was an
occasion to prove one's resolution a n d test one's k n o w l e d g e of himself.
Seneca wrote, " I f I a m tortured b u t bear it bravely, all is well; if I die, b u t
die bravely, it is also well." (LXVII.15) T o behave in an effeminate fash-
ion in the course of an act so austere d e m o n s t r a t e d lack of virtue a n d
c o r r u p t i o n of soul. T h e m a n w h o died bravely might, by so doing, teach
others to endure similar hardships. T h e g o o d m a n was, after all, b o r n to
serve as a m o d e l for other men.
D y i n g n o t o n l y represented a trial of a m a n ' s soul b u t also a final j u d g -
ment of its strength. A variety of deceits or masks m i g h t well have b o r n e
false witness before, b u t death s t r i p p e d them a w a y a n d p r o v i d e d an op-
p o r t u n i t y for the soul to look into its very depths:
The showing which we have made up to the present time, in word or deed,
counts for nothing. All this is but a trifling and deceitful pledge of our spirit,
and is wrapped in much charlatanism. I shall leave it to Death to determine
what progress I have made. Therefore with no faint heart I am making ready for
the day when, putting aside all stage artifice and actor's rouge, I am to pass
j udgmen t upon m y s e l f . . . (XXXVI.6)
T h u s Seneca saw death p l a c i n g a last j u d g m e n t before a d y i n g m a n sim-
ply by r e m o v i n g e n c u m b r a n c e s to a truthful view of himself a n d his n o w
c o m p l e t e d life. H e w o u l d discover w h e t h e r the brave sentiments he h a d
234 Journal of Religion and Health

expressed in the course of his life held true once p h i l o s o p h i c a l studies,

learned discussions, a n d w o r l d l y o p i n i o n were set aside. At this point,
bereft of a certain future, a m a n w o u l d be t h r o w n back u p o n a n d review
his past. T h i s process held danger for o n e w h o s e life h a d been misspent.
Perceptively, Seneca observed that:
No one willingly turns his thought back to the past, unless all his acts have
been submitted to the censorship of his conscience, which is never deceived; he
who has ambitiously coveted, proudly scorned, recklessly conquered, treach-
erously betrayed, greedily seized, or lavishly squandered, must needs fear his
own memory. (De Brev. Vit. X.4)
T h i s represented a waste of an otherwise precious possession; for the past
was always readily at hand, u n c h a n g e a b l e , a n d o u t of reach of disease,
vexation, or any force f o r t u n e c o u l d u n l e a s h u p o n it.
N o t only was a m a n free to choose the attitude he w o u l d a d o p t toward
death, b u t he was free to choose the time of it as well. It mattered little
w h e t h e r he were to cause his death or merely to accept it; a n d it mattered
j u s t a little w h e t h e r he died early or late. T h e i m p o r t a n t t h i n g was that a
certain q u a l i t y of life be preserved. A c c o r d i n g to Seneca, a m a n s h o u l d
n o t cling to life regardless of the circumstances, " F o r mere living is n o t a
good, b u t living well. Accordingly, the wise m a n will live as l o n g as he
o u g h t , n o t as l o n g as he can." (LXX.5) D y i n g well he saw as an escape
from the danger of living ill. C o n s e q u e n t l y , in the face of the wretched-
ness of incurable disease or the cruelty of men, an i n d i v i d u a l m i g h t seek
deliverance. Such deliverance was readily at hand. Seneca felt that if a
m a n were p r e p a r e d to o p e n his veins, he carried with h i m at all times the
m e a n s by w h i c h he m i g h t escape slavery. T h e responsibility for the value
of life was placed squarely u p o n the i n d i v i d u a l and, according to the
p h i l o s o p h e r , left little r o o m f o r c o m p l a i n t . H e said, " H u m a n i t y is well
situated, because no m a n is u n h a p p y except by his o w n fault. Live, if
y o u desire; if not, y o u m a y return to the place w h e n c e y o u came."
(LXX.!6)
T h e h u m a n will received its most exalted expression in the suicide
p r o p o s e d by Seneca. It r e m a i n e d u n c o n q u e r a b l e as l o n g as its faithful
Seneca on Dea t h 235

ally, death, was at hand. "Slavery loses its bitterness w h e n by a step I

can pass to liberty. Amidst the miseries of life, I have the refuge of
death." (De Consol. Marc.) W h i l e the w a y o u t of life lay open, fortune,
w h i c h otherwise held e n o r m o u s p o w e r over individuals, b e c a m e an ob-
ject of scorn. A n d h a v i n g readied himself to choose death, the Stoic de-
veloped s u p r e m e mastery over dying. Said Seneca, " J u s t as I shall select
m y ship w h e n I a m a b o u t to go on a voyage, or m y h o u s e w h e n I pro-
p o s e to take a residence, so I shall choose m y death w h e n I a m a b o u t to
depart from life." (LXX.12) In his decision to die by his o w n hand, Sen-
eca proved true to his teachings. H i s w i l l i n g death was a m o d e l of for-
titude and a testimonial to the n o b l e achievements of Stoic p h i l o s o p h y .
For Seneca, death chosen for oneself was n o t a panacea, however. H e
regarded suicide p r o m p t e d by a fear of death as cowardly, a n d one
p r o m p t e d by b o r e d o m with life he considered a testimonial to the futility
of a m a n ' s beliefs. H e noted that the g o o d m a n s h o u l d n o t s i m p l y live as
long as it pleased him, b u t as l o n g as it was his duty. H e recalled that,
w h e n vexed by illness himself, he h a d desired to end his life b u t h a d been
restrained by the realization that his death w o u l d cause his father great
suffering. O b l i g a t i o n to loved ones that called for restraint m i g h t some-
times call for an even m o r e extraordinary display of strength on the part
of the h u m a n will. Seneca said, " . . . sometimes, even in spite of w e i g h t y
reasons, the breath of life m u s t be called back a n d kept at o u r very lips
even at the price of great suffering, for the sake of those w h o m we h o l d
dear." (CIV.3) Again a n d again, as in this example, he called for his fol-
lowers to d e m o n s t r a t e in their daily lives the kind of fortitude u s u a l l y
confined to the battlefield. H i s words go b e y o n d e x h o r t a t i o n to reflect a
belief in a godlike capacity of the h u m a n will a n d reason.
Seneca cited the death of C a n u s as an e x a m p l e of o n e befitting a true
a n d n o b l e p h i l o s o p h e r . C o n d e m n e d to death by Caligula, C a n u s was
p l a y i n g chess w h e n the c e n t u r i o n s u m m o n e d h i m to join a c o l u m n of
d o o m e d men.
Having been called, he counted the pawns and said to his parmer: "See that
after my death you do not claim falsely that you won;" then nodding to the cen-
236 Journal of Religion and Health

turion, he said: "You will bear witness that I am one pawn ahead." . . . His
friends were sad at the thought of losing such a man; but "Why," said he, "are
you sorrowful? You are wondering whether our souls are immortal; but I shall
soon know . . ." His own teacher of philosophy was accompanying him, and
when they were not far from the low hill on which daily sacrifice to Caesar, our
god, was made, said: "What are you thinking of now, Canus, or what state of
mind are you in?" And Canus said, "I have determined to watch whether the
spirit will be conscious that it is leaving the body when that fleetest of moments
comes," and he promised that if he discovered anything, he would make the
round of his friends, and reveal to them what the state of the soul really is. (De
Tranq. An. XIV.8-9)
Seneca c o m m e n t e d that this great m a n n o t o n l y displayed a di sdai n for
death, b u t carried the p h i l o s o p h e r ' s search for t rut h to the very last. By
such a death he achi eved a f o r m of i m m o r t a l i t y .

Seneca's message

T h e r e a w a k e n e d interest in the subject of death d u r i n g the past decade

a p p e a r s to be o n e m a n i f e s t a t i o n of a reassertion of h u m a n i s t i c values in
r eactio n to the stifling d o m i n a t i o n of science. In m edi ci ne, this force for
c h a n g e has s h o w n itself in a r e n e w e d interest in the d y i n g m a n a n d his
h u m a n ex p er i e nc e a p a r t f r om his t e r m i n a l disease. It is m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e
t h a t a r e - e x a m i n a t i o n of values focus u p o n m a n ' s awareness of death; it
is death that u l t i m a t e l y p r o v o k e s his search for life's m e a n i n g . Seneca's
message today is b o t h timely a n d provocat i ve. Stoicism filled a need
a m o n g the citizens of the R o m a n E m p i r e si m i l ar to o n e we n o w find un-
met. T h e Stoic s o u g h t a sense of b e l o n g i n g a n d significance for the in-
d i v i d u a l m a n a m i d s t the di s t a nt a n d i m m u t a b l e forces of his time. T o d a y
we seek to establish the w o r t h of the i n d i v i d u a l w i t h i n an increasingly
i m p e r s o n a l t e c h n o l o g i c a l society, d e c l i n i n g n a t i o n a l i s m , a n d a threat of
e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e s t r u c t i o n r e s u l t i n g f r o m scientific advances. We a p p e a r
to have entered u p o n a second R e n a i s s a n c e in w h i c h science has replaced
the c h u r c h . L i k e the h u m a n i s t s of that earlier period, we m a y l earn f r o m
s tudy of the a n c i e n t p h i l o s o p h e r s .
Seneca on Death 237

Consistent w i t h an illusion of mastery over death achieved by the ad-

vance of medical science, we have set death aside. W e have, t h r o u g h at-
taching a stigma, u r g e d m e n n o t to think of it; a n d we have, to a certain
extent, robbed it of its i m p a c t by c o a x i n g it into o l d age. We have n o t
dealt with it, b u t have simply r e m o v e d it from view. Seneca u r g e d q u i t e
the opposite, because he recognized the enslaving character of the fear of
death. H e r e c o m m e n d e d that m e n brace themselves a g a i n s t the on-
slaughts of this u b i q u i t o u s a n d natural fear. W h a t the c o m m o n m a n of
today considers m o r b i d o p e n e d the w a y for the Stoic to develop his
u n i q u e potential a n d achieve for himself the u l t i m a t e goals of w i s d o m
a n d virtue. As he daily c o n t e m p l a t e d his m o r t a l nature, Seneca contin-
u o u s l y confronted himself w i t h the m e a n i n g of his existence. M e a n i n g
was made to l o o m large, a n d in the process m e n rose above suffering a n d
death. In the process they g a i n e d a sense of their u n i q u e n e s s a n d place in
the universe. Such c o n t e m p l a t i o n was a p o t e n t p r o d to the r e c o g n i t i o n
and a d o p t i o n of transcendent h u m a n i s t i c values. H a v i n g deprived our-
selves of this p r o d to e m o t i o n a l a n d spiritual d e v e l o p m e n t , we have, ac-
cording to Frankl, 7 experienced a sense of meaninglessness that h e has
called existential escapism, the neurosis of o u r time.
Seneca's works provide a refreshing r e m i n d e r in o u r tim(' of m a n ' s
u n i q u e l y h u m a n characteristics; namely, his free will a n d his reason. H e
seems to p o i n t u p a failure on the p a r t of so m a n y to appreciate the con-
trol they have over their destiny. A recurrent theme presented by emo-
tionally disturbed individuals, a n d o n e that p s y c h o t h e r a p y attempts to
correct, is the attitude or feeling that forces outside of the person are in
control of his life a n d are responsible for w h a t becomes of him. Seneca
allows us to see that as a m a n chooses a c a u s e - - w h i c h for h i m was virtue.
or moral p e r f e c t i o n - - h e becomes that cause. In c h o o s i n g the g o o d over
evil, he becomes the good, a n d in the process transcends his being. Sen-
eca p o i n t e d clearly to the value of e x a m i n i n g h u m a n suffering in order
n o t only to rise above it a n d find t r a n q u i l i t y but, m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , to
find there the m e a n i n g for an individual's existence. T h i s o p p o r t u n i t y
s h o u l d be seized by psychotherapists even if it goes n o further than an
238 Journal of Religion and Health

e x p l o r a t i o n of the m e a n i n g of the illness for w h i c h a p a t i e n t has s o u g h t

assistance. T h i s aspect of p s y c h o t h e r a p y is a neglected one. T o o often
such treatment fails to deal w i t h the w h o l e man. It fails to emphasize ~the
significance of a patient's system of beliefs a n d leads h i m to see himself
as controlled by forces outside his awareness rather than as o n e capable
of free choice a n d mastery over those forces clearly visible to him.
Seneca m a d e note of the i n t i m a t e relation between the experience of
time and the fear of death. T h e m o r e a m a n lived for the future, a n d con-
sequently the less for the present, the greater his fear of death. Such liv-
ing, r e q u i r i n g constant p l a n n i n g , striving, a n d delay of gratification,
prevents or limits the u n i q u e l y h u m a n a n d e n r i c h i n g inner experiences
of the m o m e n t . We observe this m o d e of f u n c t i o n i n g in extreme form in
the c o m p u l s i v e personality. It is n o t e w o r t h y that fear of death is a fre-
q u e n t c o m p l a i n t a m o n g these patients. If differing attitudes toward the
future lead to differences in this fear, Seneca tells us that the converse is
also true. R e c o g n i t i o n of death influences p e r s o n a l i t y development. Sen-
eca, in his r e c o m m e n d a t i o n for the a b a n d o n m e n t of h o p e as a source of
the fear of death, seems to overestimate h u m a n capabilities. In his call
for a balanced a p p r o a c h to living, one not w h o l l y oriented toward the
future, he seems m o s t prudent.
T o d a y old age is largely looked u p o n as a p e r i o d of decline in health
a n d prestige. W h i l e retirement m a y provide long-deserved leisure, it ap-
pears barren a n d wasteful to m a n y w h o a p p r o a c h it. Seneca emphasized
the value of o l d age. H e saw it as a time for the a t t a i n m e n t of wisdom.
Erikson, 8 in his " E i g h t Stages of M a n , " describes a final o n e bearing a
resemblance to the w i s d o m of Seneca. H e p o i n t s to several constituents
of a state of m i n d he calls "ego integrity." It is assurance of order and
meaning; it is a love of self that conveys a w o r l d order a n d a spiritual
sense; it is an acceptance of one's u n i q u e n e s s a n d a c o m r a d e s h i p with
h u m a n i t y and with past ages. Lack or loss of ego integrity leads, accord-
ing to Erikson, to despair that is signified by fear of death. T h e valuable
p o t e n t i a l of o l d age s h o u l d be given e m p h a s i s a n d the w a n i n g years of
Seneca on Death 239

life recognized as harboring potential. We should see the value of psy-

chotherapy for aging and dying persons m i n d f u l of the goals of those
stages of life. We should shift our orientation from its emphasis on
youth.
Continuity between dying and the life preceding that final stage,
which seems to be missing in our time, is abundantly evident in Seneca's
writings. We tend to view dying persons as u n a w a r e or incapable of ap-
preciating their circumstances. T h e situation is consequently a meaning-
less one for them and a desperate one for their families, w h o appreciate
what is h a p p e n i n g but can see no way of dealing with it. T h e Stoic's
unconquerable will saw its most exalted expression in its dying hour;
consequently the m o m e n t was a climactic one. If a m a n died gladly it
was proof that his will had been free and in accord with the order of the
universe. Beyond this, Seneca pointed to the u n i q u e vantage point u p o n
life and, consequently, the u n i q u e value--also the d a n g e r - - o f the dying
stage. An individual was exposed to a truthful view of himself and a re-
view of his past. T h u s he m i g h t look u p o n his life from a new and per-
haps distant perspective and m i g h t also, just as he achieved the height of
wisdom, view his life with fresh h u m i l i t y and understanding. T h e final
stage of life, because it harbors great potential, should be more thor-
oughly studied and understood so that dying persons m i g h t be aided by
their physicians and ministers to realize that potential. 9
Suicide opened the door to freedom for Seneca, and it was ultimately
the exit he chose for himself. This course of action, because of societies'
condemnation of it, is not open to m e n of today, x~ Even the sometimes
mistaken interpretation of suicide as a manifestation of mental illness
leads to avoidance of the act. Most societies have c o n d e m n e d suicide be-
cause they view this supremely independent act as destructive of its uni-
fying forces. Even Seneca was restrained from killing himself by a sense
of obligation to his family and his fellow-men. For the average man,
even under unusual circumstances, suicide represents an extreme and un-
justified action. Most men will, nevertheless, recognize its possibility
240 Journal of Religion and Health

and, on occasion, give t h o u g h t to it as a s o l u t i o n to problems in living.

From their reflection they may conclude, as Seneca did, that m e n live and
die by their o w n choice.
Seneca brings us a s h o c k i n g reminder of the extent to w h i c h we have
attempted to escape the inescapable. H e forces us to see that we have set
aside an important s t i m u l u s to zestful living and a potent prod to the
discovery of the m e a n i n g of our lives. Further, he reminds us of our
u n i q u e l y h u m a n reason and will, the strength of w h i c h has been under-
m i n e d by the forces of o u r time. His message reflects the pride and nobil-
ity of the R o m a n Stoic. If at times it seems extreme, we s h o u l d not ig-
nore it, but rather h o p e that the almost divine strength of will that
Seneca demanded will n o t be required of m e n by future circumstances.
Let us also h o p e that m e n may discover, as Seneca did, the brotherhood
of m a n k i n d and learn thereby to live in harmony.

R eferen ces
1. Ox[ord Classical Dictionary, 2nd ed,, H a m m o n d , N. G. L., and Scullard, H. H., eds.
Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1970.
2. The Complete Works of Tacitus, trans, by Moses Hadas. New York, Modern Li-
brary, 1942.
3. Mendell, C. W., Our Seneca. New Haven, Yale University Press, 1941.
4. Edelstein, L., The Meaning o[ Stoicism. Martin Classical Lectures, vol. 21. Cam-
bridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1966.
5. Seneca Moral Essays, trans, by J. W. Basore. The Loeb Classical Library, 3 vols.
Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1928. Passages from Seneca's moral
essays, identified by abbreviated title, are taken from this translation.
6. Seneca Ad Lucilum Epistulae Morales, trans, by R. M. Cummere, the Loeb Classical
Library, 3 vols., New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1917. Passages from Seneca's
epistles, identified by roman numerals, are taken from this translation.
7. Frankl, V. E., Psychotherapy and Existentialism: Selected Papers on Logotherapy.
New York, Washington Square Press, 1967.
8. Erikson, E. H., Childhood and Society. New York, W. W. Norton, 1950.
9. Noyes, R., "Care and Management of Dying," Arch. Int. Med., 1971, 128, 2"99-303.
10. - - , "The Taboo of Suicide," Psychiatry, 1968, 31, 173-183.