Descriptive statistics are a set of techniques used to summarize, organize, and present data in a

meaningful and interpretable way. These techniques help researchers and analysts understand the
key characteristics of a dataset, including measures of central tendency, variability, and the
distribution of data. Here are some common descriptive statistical techniques:

Measures of Central Tendency:

Mean (Average): The sum of all values in a dataset divided by the number of values. It provides a
measure of the center of the data.

Median: The middle value when data is ordered. It is less affected by outliers compared to the mean.

Mode: The value that occurs most frequently in the dataset.

Measures of Variability:

Range: The difference between the maximum and minimum values in a dataset.

Variance: The average of the squared differences between each data point and the mean.

Standard Deviation: The square root of the variance. It measures the average distance of data points from
the mean.

Bar Charts, Pie Charts, and Line Charts: Used to describe the phenomena.

2. Inferential statistics

Inferential statistics are a set of techniques used to draw conclusions or make inferences about a
population based on a sample of data. These techniques allow researchers and analysts to generalize
findings from a subset of data to a larger population. Some common inferential statistical techniques
include:

Hypothesis Testing:

T-Tests: Used to compare means between two groups to determine if there is a statistically significant
difference.

ANOVA (Analysis of Variance): Extends t-tests to compare means among more than two groups.

Chi-Square Tests: Assess the independence or association between categorical variables.

Confidence Intervals:
Confidence intervals provide a range of values within which a population parameter is likely to fall. For
example, a 95% confidence interval for the mean.
Regression Analysis:
Linear Regression: Used to establish the relationship between one dependent variable and one or more
independent variables.
Logistic Regression: Applicable when the dependent variable is binary or categorical and estimates the
probability of an event occurring.
Correlation Analysis:
Measures the strength and direction of the relationship between two or more variables. Commonly used
measures include Pearson correlation and Spearman rank correlation.
Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA):
Combines analysis of variance (ANOVA) and regression to assess the impact of one or more independent
variables on a dependent variable while controlling for other variables.
Non-parametric Tests:
Mann-Whitney U Test: A non-parametric alternative to the independent samples t-test.
Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test: Compares paired samples in a non-parametric manner.
Bayesian Inference:
Uses Bayesian probability to update beliefs about population parameters based on prior information and
observed data.
Survival Analysis:
Used to analyze time-to-event data, such as time until failure in reliability engineering or survival rates in
medical studies. The Kaplan-Meier estimator and Cox proportional hazards model are common tools in
survival analysis.
Multivariate Analysis:
Techniques like principal component analysis (PCA), factor analysis, and discriminant analysis are used
to analyze relationships among multiple variables.
Bootstrapping:
A resampling technique that generates multiple random samples from a dataset to estimate the sampling
distribution and construct confidence intervals for population parameters.
Monte Carlo Simulation:
A computational technique that uses random sampling to model complex systems and make inferences
about their behavior.
Meta-Analysis:
Combines results from multiple independent studies to obtain a more precise estimate of the effect size
and test the overall significance of an effect.
Inferential statistics play a crucial role in hypothesis testing, decision-making, and generalizing findings
from samples to populations. The choice of technique depends on the nature of the data, the research
question, and the assumptions underlying the analysis. It's important to select the appropriate technique
and interpret the results with care to ensure the validity of the inferences made.