Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 184 (2023) 109693

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Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ymssp

Three-point bending properties of 3D_C/C_TiC_Cu composites

based on acoustic emission technology
Xianghong Wang, Hong Xie, Yonggang Tong *, Bin Wang, Hongwei Hu
Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Intelligent Manufacturing Technology for High-Performance Mechanical Equipment, Changsha University of
Science & Technology, Changsha 410114, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Ceramic matrix composites with three-dimensional (3D) braided structures have been become
3D_C/C_TiC_Cu composites one of the research hotspots owing to their excellent properties such as high strength and high-
Acoustic emission technology temperature resistance. In this study, acoustic emission (AE) as a non-destructive technique
Sentry function
was utilised to monitor the three-point bending process of 3D_C/C_TiC_Cu composites and
Acoustic feature parameters
Time-frequency analysis
investigate the damage change of the materials under different bending stress. Firstly, the sentry
function is used to divide the damage stages. Then the acoustic feature parameters are used to
evaluate the damage condition. Finally, the time–frequency characteristics of damage signals are
compared to verify the damage type of the composites at different stages. The results demonstrate
that the sentry function can effectively distinguish the four stages of the damage process: the
initial damage stage, the damage developing stage, the rapid damage stage and the failure stage.
By analysing the acoustic feature parameters and time–frequency characteristics of the signals,
the damage mechanism and the damage state of the composites can be obtained qualitatively.
Consequently, the AE technique is an effective tool for evaluating damage evolution of 3D_C/
C_TiC_Cu composites.

1. Introduction

Ceramic matrix composites have a high specific strength, modulus, corrosion resistance, oxidation resistance and high-temperature
resistance [1,2], which meets the performance requirements of harsh service conditions, and are widely used in national defense,
aerospace, automobile manufacturing and other fields [3–5]. 3D_C/C_TiC_Cu composite material is a new type of carbon fibre 3D
braided ceramic matrix composite. Currently, the properties of new materials are mainly obtained through experiments such as tensile
and bending tests [6,7]. With the development of nondestructive testing technology, the acoustic emission (AE) technique can provide
more perfect information from the testing of mechanical properties of materials [8–10]. It can continuously monitor the change of
material stress in real-time, master the damage evolution of materials, and finally realise the comprehensive evaluation of material
properties [11–14].
In recent years, many researchers have used the AE methodology to monitor cracks in composites. Li et al. [15] detected and
distinguished the damage behavior characteristics of C/SiC composites in tensile test by using AE technology. Sankar et al. [16] used it
to monitor the bending test of carbon-epoxy laminates and analysed their failure modes at different stages according to AE signals.
Gutkin et al. [17] studied AE signals in Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastics (CFRP) for various test configurations, and found that acoustic

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tongyonggang_csust@163.com (Y. Tong).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2022.109693
Received 20 December 2021; Received in revised form 11 July 2022; Accepted 14 August 2022
Available online 25 August 2022
0888-3270/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
X. Wang et al. Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 184 (2023) 109693

features can distinguish different failure modes. Mára et al. [18] used the AE signals to detect and evaluate the internal expansion
damage of carbon fiber reinforced composites with different layers. Biermann et al. [19] used the AE signals during cyclic deformation
to study the fatigue damage evolution of particle-reinforced metal matrix composites, and obtained that the short-term high damage
rate was caused by the crushing of large particles and that the long-term low damage rate was caused by the crushing of small particles.
Barile et al. [20] used the AE technology to evaluate the damage mode and the critical failure areas of CFRP hybrid joints.
According to the above studies, AE technology can effectively characterise the properties of materials and distinguish the types of
defects through differences in acoustic feature parameters or waveforms. However, an indicator function is lacking to differentiate the
damage stage of materials. In order to solve this problem, Minak et al. [21] proposed a new function based on the combination of
mechanical energy and AE energy, namely the sentry function, to study the damage evaluation and residual strength prediction of
CFRP laminates. Then, Oskouei et al. [22] used the sentry function to study the damage of composite laminated plates in the fracture
toughness test. Later, it was used to study the internal microscopic failure of glass polyester composites caused by the residual strength
of transverse loading [23]. Saeedifar et al. [24] used AE technology to monitor the damage state of composite laminated materials and
observed the sentry function changes of signals with different damage mechanisms, so as to study the evolution The large count means
that the inner damage is easy to occur, and the high energy represents the severe damage of invisible impact damage of materials in the
process of indentation loading.
In this research, the sentry function is used to study the damage process of 3D_C/C_TiC_Cu composites in a quasi-static three-point
bending experiment, and the mechanical properties of composites under different proportions are explored by AE technique. Firstly,
the sentry function is used to observe the changing trend of the internal damage and determine the changing stage of the damage. Then
the variation of feature parameters in each stage is studied to reveal the internal failure modes of the material. Finally, the time­
–frequency characteristics of signals in three stages and the statistical energy values are analysed, with which the damage modes at
different stages are determined.

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of raw material and composite material sample.

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2. Sentry function

In the process of loading, the strain energy stored in materials will be released due to internal failure, and signal energy is the main
form of energy released by materials. The sentry function [24–27] describes the damage evolution behavior of composite materials by
the ratio of mechanical strain energy to cumulative AE energy during material loading, which is expressed as follows:
[ ]
Em (x)
f (x) = ln (1)
EAE (x)
where Em (x) is mechanical energy, x is displacement; EA (x) is accumulated AE energy:
The energy of the signal is the integral of amplitude over time, which represents the average strength of the stress wave. It is not
affected by attenuation, scattering, refraction and other phenomena in the propagation process [24]. Moreover, the sentry function
also contains the mechanical energy released during material loading, so it is more sensitive to damage to the material. Different trends
of the sentry function can reflect different damage states of material. Thus, the damage degree of the composite can be identified by the
function.

3. Experiment

To validate the effectiveness of the sentry function in the damage process of 3D_C/C_TiC_Cu composites, a quasi-static three-point
bending experiment was performed with the AE technique. The sample preparation process, the required equipment and related
parameters settings are introduced in this section.

3.1. Specimens

Three kinds of 3D_C/C_TiC_Cu composites were prepared by melting porous carbon fibres with different amounts of Ti-Cu alloy,
which were labelled as composites A, B and C. Fig. 1 (a) displays the schematic diagram of the composite prepared by alloy reaction
melting method. Fig. 1 (b) shows the macroscopic morphology of 3D_C/C_TiC_Cu composites. The three samples were manufactured
into a rectangle with the dimensions of 50*4*3 mm, and each sample had three specimens. The damage evolution of the composites
was studied by AE technique.

3.2. Experiment apparatus

The quasi-static three-point bending experiment was carried out with, a universal tensile testing machine (CMT-5105GL) using a
fixed displacement loading method, with in which a loading rate of 0.5 mm/min and a span of 40 mm. An AE device with a four-
channel PCI-2 system developed by PAC Company was used to monitor material damage. The sampling frequency is 1 MHz and
the number of sampling points is 1024. The acquisition parameters are set as shown in Table 1. The coupling agent Vaseline was evenly
spread on the sensor to ensure the coupling of the dynamic signal transmission. Only four sensors were installed symmetrically in the
fixture with the insulating tape because of the small dimensions of the composite sample. The schematic diagram of the experimental
device is shown in Fig. 2.

4. Results and discussion

In this section, the damage evolution stages of samples A, B and C are divided by the sentry function, and the material damage
modes are determined by investigating the changes in acoustic feature parameters and waveforms in each damage stage.

4.1. Bending test results

The analytical results of quasi-static three-point bending of samples A, B and C are shown in Fig. 3, from which the average bending
strengths of samples A, B and C are around 315 MPa, 227 MPa and 249 MPa, respectively. The bending strength curves of A1, B1 and C1
are illustrated in Fig. 3(b), where A1, B1 and C1 are one sample of A, B, and C respectively. It shows that the stress increases with the
continuous loading at the initial stage of loading. When the loading reaches the bending load limit of the material, the bending
strengths of A1, B1 and C1 reach the maximum, which are 311 MPa, 215 MPa and 241 MPa, respectively. The scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) at the fracture interface is shown in Fig. 4. It indicates that three damage modes of the material exist in the bending

Table 1
AE equipment parameter setting.
AE system Parameter

Pre-amplifier 40 dB
Sensor type MICRO-30/FP88
Sampling frequency 1 MHz
Threshold value 30 dB

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Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of the experimental device.

Fig. 3. Three-point bending curve of the 3D_C/C_TiC_Cu composites.

process, including matrix cracking, interface debonding and fibre fracture.

4.2. Process of internal damage signals

The sentry function is obtained by substituting the mechanical energy and signal energy of materials into Eq. (1), and then the
evolution process of internal damage of materials is accurately divided into four stages based on the change of the function: I, II, III and
IV, as shown by the blue dotted line in Fig. 5. The mutation positions of signal feature parameters are consistent with the mutation
position of stress in the whole process, which mainly appears near the distinction line of stages II, III and IV. In the initial damage stage
(stage I), the sentry function diagrams show an upward trend. While the dispersed micro damage occurs in the material inside, the

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Fig. 4. SEM image of 3D_C/C_TiC_Cu composite fracture.

integrity of the material will not be immediately destroyed. In the damage developing stage (stage II), the sentry function diagrams
show a gradual downward trend, which means that the crack propagation is accelerated under continuous loading and the signal
energy released by the internal damage of the material is accelerated. In the rapid damage stage (stage III), the function diagrams show
a sharp downward trend. The accumulation of the material damage aggravates the fibre fracture, causing macroscopic damage.
Therefore, it can be seen that the integrity of the material structure is seriously damaged, and the mechanical properties of the material
are reduced at this stage. Stage IV is defined as the failure stage, showing a stable trend by the sentry function. The balance between the
material damage mechanism and the toughening mechanism (fibre stretching and stretching) leads to a balance of mechanical and AE
energy.
The internal damage activity of materials can be well reflected by acoustic feature parameters: count and energy [13,28]. A large
number of counts indicates that the probability of internal damage is high, and a strong energy indicates that the damage is serious.
Therefore, the two parameters are selected to study material evolution. The results are shown in Fig. 5. It is observed that when the
stress changes abruptly, the AE parameters change obviously. The sudden change of stress is mainly caused by material damage, which
indicates that the AE parameters can sensitively represent the state of material damage. The change-points of cumulative count and
energy curve are consistent with the stage division of the sentry function curve, especially in the severe damage stage.
The damage evolution of each damage stage will be studied in detail. In stage I, the AE counts of A1, B1 and C1 range from 1 to 63,
and the energy ranges from 0 to 10 mV•ms. It can be known that these signals with few counts and low energy are produced by the
cracking of the material matrix [28,29]. In stage II, the counts range from 1 to 243, and the energy ranges from 5 mV•ms to 100
mV•ms. The acoustic feature parameters of this stage are larger than those of the previous stage, which illustrates besides matrix
cracking, interfacial debonding also occurs at this stage. In stage III, the energy intensity and count increase more significantly than in
the first two stages, and the aggregate shift range of parameters is wider. In addition to matrix cracking and interfacial debonding,
there are also a large number of fibre fractures. Stage IV belongs to the failure stage and it will not be discussed here.
The duration of the three samples in these four stages is compared in Table 2. Since stage III is a crucial stage in which the
destructive damage gradually accumulates, evolves and intensifies until the specimen fails to fracture, this stage was selected to study
the difference in bending strength of composites. The duration of each sample in stage III is 44.3 s, 19.75 s and 35.9 s for A1, B1 and C1,
respectively. The peak energies released by fracture of each sample under the extreme load are 12182 mV•ms, 6474 mV•ms and 8973
mV•ms, as shown in Fig. 5(b, d, f). Sample A1 has the longest duration and the largest peak value. Sample B1 has the shortest duration
and the smallest value. And sample C1 is among them. The higher the bending capacity of the composites, the longer the duration of
damage, and the higher the peak energy at the moment of fracture in the rapid damage stage. Therefore, the AE technique is suitable
for studying the properties of the materials.

4.3. Time-frequency analysis of AE signals

To investigate the damage mechanism of the material in different stages, the K-means method is used for damage classification. The
sum of squares of error (SSE) and Davies-bouldin index are used to determine the number of clustering. The seven AE parameters
(rising time, count, energy, during time, peak frequency, signal strength and absolute energy) are chosen as the characteristic pa­
rameters. Then, the time–frequency characteristics of different damage types in three stages are analysed to confirm the accuracy of
classification. Finally, the statistical analysis of the damage modes in three stages is done based on the signal energy.
The signal processing method of short-time Fourier transform (STFT) can accurately describe the frequency and amplitude changes
of the burst non-stationary signal when it shifts with time in the time–frequency [30,31]. Therefore, it can be selected to analyse the
signals in the first three stages, as shown in Fig. 6. A signal corresponding to the matrix cracking damage in stage I is shown in Fig. 6 (a),
the frequency range of the signal is 100 kHz to 200 kHz. The peak frequency of the signal appears around 100 kHz, and the maximum

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Fig. 5. Sentry function and signal duration characteristics of samples.

Fig. 5. (continued).

Table 2
AE duration of the four stages.
Sample Four different stages
Stage I (s) Stage II (s) Stage III (s) Stage IV (s)

A1 0–26.80 26.80–64.80 64.80–109.10 109.10–199.20

B1 0–15.00 15.00–43.90 43.90–63.65 63.65–179.42
C1 0–18.10 18.10–74.90 74.90–110.80 110.80–189.94

amplitude is 3 × 10-3 V. This signal has characteristics of low frequency and low amplitude, corresponding to the signal with low
energy and low count at the same stage (as shown in Fig. 5). A signal corresponding to the interfacial debonding in stage II is shown in
Fig. 6 (b). Its frequency range is from 200 kHz to 300 kHz. The peak frequency of the signal appears around 200 kHz, and the maximum
amplitude is 1.5 × 10-2 V. This signal has a high-frequency range and amplitude. A signal corresponding to the fibre fracture in stage III
is shown in Fig. 6 (c). Its frequency range is from 300 kHz to 500 kHz. The peak frequency of the signal appears around 300 kHz, and
the maximum amplitude is 0.3 V. Compared with the previous stages, the signal has a higher frequency and amplitude. These char­
acteristics are consistent with references [16,32,33]. The time–frequency characteristics of different damage modes are summarized in
Table 3.
Combining Figs. 5 and 6, it is concluded that the corresponding energy ranges of three damage modes, including matrix cracking,
interface debonding and fibre fracture, are 0–10 mV•ms, 10–100 mV•ms and more than 100 mV•ms, respectively. The proportion of
three damage modes in three stages as shown in Fig. 7. Matrix cracking is the main damage mode, which runs through the whole
process of material bending test. In stage I, the energies of all sample signals are less than 10 mV•ms, which indicates that only matrix
cracking occurs. In stage II, interfacial debonding of samples A1, B1 and C1 are 0.6 %, 1.1 % and 0.5 % respectively. In stage III, fibre
fracture damages with energy exceeding 100 mV•ms occur.
Therefore, it is feasible to judge the damage state of materials according to the type of AE signals. For example, only matrix cracking
signal incurred is the stage I, and the fiber fracture signal only exists in the stage III. However, this kind of judgment can only be a
qualitative judgment, and the effectiveness of the results is greatly affected by the occurrence time of different types of signals.

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Fig. 6. Time-frequency analysis of signals in different stages.

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Table 3
Time-frequency characteristics of different damage modes.
Damage mode Frequency range Max-amplitude

Matrix cracking 100–200 kHz 3 × 10-3 V

Interfacial debonding 200–300 kHz 1.5 × 10-2 V
Fiber fracture 300–500 kHz 0.3 V

Fig. 7. The proportion of the signal number in energy range in different stages.

5. Conclusion

In this study, the characteristics of 3D_C/C_TiC_Cu new ceramic matrix composites were studied by AE technology, and the
following conclusions are drawn:
(1) The damage state and the damage evolution of materials is successfully distinguished by the change trend of the sentry function.
The sentry function curve can divide the damage process of the composite into the initial damage stage, the damage developing stage,
the rapid damage stage and the failure stage.
(2) The AE feature parameters can properly interpret the damage evolution process of materials. The variations of the parameters
not only reveal the properties of the composites with different proportions but also are proportional to the bending resistance.
(3) The damage modes in the whole bending loading process of the composite are effectively identified by the AE parameters and
waveforms. The damage mechanism of the composites is clarified and the damage state of the composites is estimated according to the
type of AE signals qualitatively.
In this paper, only the fracture position of the material after fracture was scanned by SEM. The microscopic failure morphology will
be observed by the SEM under different load levels to make the damage change more convincing in future work.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

Acknowledgement

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China [grant numbers 52075049 and 52005053]; the
Natural Science Foundation of Hunan Province, China [grant numbers 2019JJ50657,2020JJ4614 and 2020JJ2028]; and the Inno­
vation Platform Open Fund of Education Department of Hunan Province, China [grant number 19K009].

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