Eurocode 2 GUIDE (How To Design With EC2 - 2007)

How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2
1. Introduction to Eurocodes
R S Narayanan FREng O Brooker BEng, CEng, MICE, MIStructE
The Eurocode family

This chapter shows how to use Eurocode 21 with the other Eurocodes. In
particular it introduces Eurocode: Basis of structural design2 and Eurocode 1:
Actions on structures3 and guides the designer through the process of
determining the design values for actions on a structure. It also gives a brief
overview of the significant differences between the Eurocodes and BS 81104,
(which will be superseded) and includes a glossary of Eurocode terminology.
The development of the Eurocodes started in 1975; since then they have
evolved significantly and are now claimed to be the most technically
advanced structural codes in the world. The many benefits of using Eurocode 2
are summarised below. There are ten Eurocodes covering all the main structural
materials (see Figure 1). They are produced by the European Committee for
Standardization (CEN), and will replace existing national standards in 28
countries.
Each country is required to publish a Eurocode with a national title page and
forward but the original text of the Eurocode must appear as produced by
CEN as the main body of the document. A National Annex (NA) can be
included at the back of the document (see Figure 2). Throughout this
publication it is assumed that the UK National Annexes will be used.
Table 1 details which existing standards relating to concrete design will be

replaced by the new Eurocodes. During the implementation period it is
recommended that existing standards are considered for use where the
European standards have not yet been issued.
Benefits of using Eurocode 2

Learning to use the new Eurocodes will require time and effort on
:cementZg]concretebg]nlmkrin[eb\Zmbhg This chapter is taken behalf of the designer, so what benefits will there be?
from The Concrete 1. The new Eurocodes are claimed to be the most technically
Centre’s publication, advanced codes in the world.
Ahpmh=^lb`g<hg\k^m^ How to design
Lmkn\mnk^lnlbg`>nkh\h]^+ 2. Eurocode 2 should result in more economic structures than
concrete structures
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using Eurocode 2 BS 8110.
(Ref. CCIP–006) 3. The Eurocodes are logical and organised to avoid repetition.
4. Eurocode 2 is less restrictive than existing codes.
5. Eurocode 2 is more extensive than existing codes.
6. Use of the Eurocodes will provide more opportunity for designers
to work throughout Europe.
7. In Europe all public works must allow the Eurocodes to be used.
Figure 1
The Eurocodes Eurocode: Basis of
BS EN 1990, Eurocode:
Basis of structural design
Structural safety,
serviceability and durability
structural design
BS EN 1991, Eurocode 1: This Eurocode underpins all structural design irrespective of the
Actions on structures
Actions on structures material of construction. It establishes principles and requirements for
safety, serviceability and durability of structures. (Note, the correct title
BS EN 1992, Eurocode 2: Concrete
BS EN 1993, Eurocode 3: Steel
is Eurocode not Eurocode 0.) The Eurocode uses a statistical approach
BS EN 1994, Eurocode 4: Composite Design and detailing to determine realistic values for actions that occur in combination with
BS EN 1995, Eurocode 5: Timber
BS EN 1996, Eurocode 6: Masonry each other.
BS EN 1999, Eurocode 9: Aluminium
Geotechnical
There is no equivalent British Standard for Eurocode: Basis of structural
BS EN 1997, Eurocode 7: BS EN 1998, Eurocode 8:
Geotechnical design Seismic design and seismic design and the corresponding information has traditionally been
design
replicated in each of the material Eurocodes. It also introduces new
definitions (see Glossary) and symbols (see Tables 2a and 2b), which
will be used throughout this publication to assist familiarity. Partial
Figure 2 factors for actions are given in this Eurocode, whilst partial factors for
Typical Eurocode layout
materials are prescribed in their relevant Eurocode.
Representative values
For each variable action there are four representative values. The
principal representative value is the characteristic value and this can be
B determined statistically or, where there is insufficient data, a nominal
A C
D value may be used. The other representative values are combination,
D
D frequent and quasi-permanent; these are obtained by applying to the
A: National title page D: Main text D
B: National Foreword E: Main Annex(es) E characteristic value the factors c 0 , c 1 and c 2 respectively (see Figure 3).
F
C: CEN title page F: National Annex A semi-probabilistic method is used to derive the c factors, which vary
depending on the type of imposed load (see Table 3). Further information
Table 1 on derivation of the c factors can be found in Appendix C of the Eurocode.
Concrete related Eurocodes and their equivalent current standards
Eurocode Title Superseded standards The combination value (c 0 Qk) of an action is intended to take
BS EN 1990 Basis of structural design BS 8110: Part 1 – section 2 account of the reduced probability of the simultaneous occurrence of
BS EN 1991–1–1 Densities, self-weight and BS 6399: Part 1 and BS 648 two or more variable actions. The frequent value (c 1 Qk) is such that it
imposed loads
BS EN 1991–1–2 Actions on structures – should be exceeded only for a short period of time and is used
exposed to fire primarily for the serviceability limit states (SLS) and also the accidental
BS EN 1991–1–3 Snow loads BS 6399: Part 2 ultimate limit state (ULS). The quasi-permanent value (c 2 Qk) may be
BS EN 1991–1–4 Wind actions BS 6399: Part 3 exceeded for a considerable period of time; alternatively it may be
BS EN 1991–1–5 Thermal actions – considered as an average loading over time. It is used for the long-term
BS EN 1991–1–6 Actions during execution –
affects at the SLS and also accidental and seismic ULS.
BS EN 1991–1–7 Accidental actions –
BS EN 1991–2 Traffic loads on bridges BD 37/88
Combinations of actions
BS EN 1991–3 Actions induced by cranes –
and machinery In the Eurocodes the term ‘combination of actions’ is specifically used
BS EN 1991–4 Silos and tanks – for the definition of the magnitude of actions to be used when a limit
BS EN 1992–1–1 General rules for buildings BS 8110: Parts 1, 2 and 3 state is under the influence of different actions. It should not be
BS EN 1992–1–2 Fire resistance of concrete BS 8110: Part 1,Table 3.2 and confused with ‘load cases’, which are concerned with the arrangement
structures BS 8110: Part 2, section 4
of the variable actions to give the most unfavourable conditions and
BS EN 1992–2 Bridges BS 5400: Part 4
are given in the material Eurocodes. The following process can be used
BS EN 1992–3 Liquid-retaining and BS 8007
containment structures to determine the value of actions used for analysis:
BS EN 1997–1 Geotechnical design – BS 6031, BS 8002, BS 8004, 1. Identify the design situation (e.g. persistent, transient, accidental).
General rules BS 8006, BS 8008 & BS 8081
2. Identify all realistic actions.
BS EN 1997–2 Geotechnical design – Ground BS 5930
investigation and testing 3. Determine the partial factors (see below) for each applicable
BS EN 1998 Design of structures for – combination of actions.
earthquake resistance (6 parts) 4. Arrange the actions to produce the most critical conditions.
2

Table 2a
Where there is only one variable action (e.g. imposed load) in a Selected symbols for Eurocode
combination, the magnitude of the actions can be obtained by Symbol Definition
multiplying them by the appropriate partial factors. Gk Characteristic value of permanent action
Qk Characteristic value of single variable action
Where there is more than one variable action in a combination, it is gG Partial factor for permanent action
necessary to identify the leading action (Qk,1) and other accompanying gQ Partial factor for variable action
actions (Qk,i). The accompanying action is always taken as the c0 Factor for combination value of a variable action
combination value. c1 Factor for frequent value of a variable action
c2 Factor for quasi-permanent value of a variable action
Ultimate limit state j Combination factor for permanent actions
The ultimate limit states are divided into the following categories:
EQU Loss of equilibrium of the structure. Table 2b
Selected subscripts
STR Internal failure or excessive deformation of the structure
Subscript Definition
or structural member.
A Accidental situation
GEO Failure due to excessive deformation of the ground.
c Concrete
FAT Fatigue failure of the structure or structural members.
d Design
The Eurocode gives different combinations for each of these ultimate E Effect of action
limit states. For the purpose of this publication only the STR ultimate fi Fire
limit state will be considered. k Characteristic
R Resistance
For persistent and transient design situations under the STR limit w Shear reinforcement
state, the Eurocode defines three possible combinations, which are given y Yield strength
in Expressions (6.10), (6.10a) and (6.10b) of the Eurocode (see Tables 4
and 5). The designer (for UK buildings) may use either (6.10) or the less Figure 3
favourable of (6.10a) and (6.10b). Representative values of variable actions ⁵
Characteristic value of QK
At first sight it appears that there is considerably more calculation

Instantaneous value of Q
required to determine the appropriate load combination; however, with Combination value of c0 QK
experience the designer will be able to determine this by inspection.
Frequent value of c1 QK
Expression (6.10) is always equal to or more conservative than the less
Quasi-
favourable of Expressions (6.10a) and (6.10b). Expression (6.10b) will permanent
value of c2 QK
normally apply when the permanent actions are not greater than 4.5
times the variable actions (except for storage loads (category E, Table 3)
where Expression (6.10a) always applies).
Time
Therefore, for a typical concrete frame building, Expression (6.10b) will Table 3
give the most structurally economical combination of actions. Recommended values of c factors for buildings (from UK National Annex)
Action c0 c1 c2
Imposed loads in buildings (see BS EN 1991–1–1)
For members supporting one variable action the combination
Category A: domestic, residential areas 0.7 0.5 0.3
1.25 Gk + 1.5 Qk (derived from (Exp 6.10b))
Category B: office areas 0.7 0.5 0.3
can be used provided the permanent actions are not greater
Category C: congregation areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
than 4.5 times the variable actions (except for storage loads). Category D: shopping areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category E: storage areas 1.0 0.9 0.8
Category F: traffic area, vehicle weight < 30 kN 0.7 0.7 0.6
Serviceability limit state
Category G: traffic area, 30 kN < vehicle weight < 160 kN 0.7 0.5 0.3
There are three combinations of actions that can be used to check the
Category H: roofs* 0.7 0 0
serviceability limit states (see Tables 6 and 7). Eurocode 2 indicates
Snow loads on buildings (see BS EN 1991–3)
which combination should be used for which phenomenon (e.g.
For sites located at altitude H > 1000 m above sea level 0.7 0.5 0.2
deflection is checked using the quasi-permanent combination). Care For sites located at altitude H < 1000 m above sea level 0.5 0.2 0
should be taken not to confuse the SLS combinations of characteristic, Wind loads on buildings (see BS EN 1991–1–4) 0.5 0.2 0
frequent and quasi-permanent, with the representative values that Temperature (non-fire) in buildings (see BS EN 1991–1–5) 0.6 0.5 0
have the same titles. Key
*See also 1991–1–1: Clause 3.3.2
3

Table 4
Design values of actions, ultimate limit state – persistent and transient design situations (table A1.2 (B) Eurocode)
Combination Expression reference Permanent actions Leading variable action Accompanying variable actions
Unfavourable Favourable Main (if any) Others
Exp. (6.10) g G, j, sup Gk , j , sup g G , j, inf G k , j , inf g Q,1 Qk,1 g Q,1 c 0 ,1 Q k,i
Exp. (6.10a) g G, j, sup Gk , j , sup g G , j, inf G k , j , inf g Q,1 c 0 ,1 Qk,1 g Q,1 c 0 ,1 Q k,i
Exp. (6.10b) jg G, j, sup Gk , j , sup g G , j, inf G k , j , inf g Q,1 Qk,1 g Q,1 c 0 ,1 Q k,i
Note
1 Design for either Expression (6.10) or the less favourable of Expressions (6.10a) and (6.10b).
Table 5
Design values of actions, derived for UK design, ultimate limit state – persistent and transient design situations
Combination Expression reference Permanent actions Leading variable action Accompanying variable actions
Unfavourable Favourable Main (if any) Others
Combination of permanent and variable actions
Exp. (6.10) 1.35 Gk a 1.0 Gk a 1.5c Qk
Exp. (6.10a) 1.35 Gk a 1.0 Gk a 1.5 c 0,1b Qk
Exp. (6.10b) 0.925 d x 1.35 Gk a
1.0 Gk a
1.5c Qk
Combination of permanent, variable and accompanying variable actions
Exp. (6.10) 1.35 Gk a 1.0 Gk a 1.5c Qk,1 1.5 c c 0,i b Q k,i
Exp. (6.10a) 1.35 Gk a 1.0 Gk a 1.5 c 0,1b Qk 1.5 c c 0,i b Q k,i
Exp. (6.10b) 0.925 d x 1.35 Gk a 1.0 Gk a 1.5c Qk,1 1.5 c c 0,i b Q k,i
Key
a Where the variation in permanent action is not considered significant, Gk,j,sup and Gk,j,inf may be taken as Gk c Where the accompanying load is favourable, g Q,i = 0
b The value of c 0 can be obtained from Table NA A1.1 of the UK National Annex (reproduced here as Table 3) d The value of j in the UK National Annex is 0.925
Table 6
Design values of actions, serviceability limit states
Combination Permanent actions Variable actions Example of use in Eurocode 2

Unfavourable Favourable Leading Others
Characteristic Gk,j,sup Gk,j,inf Qk,1 c 0 , i Qk,i
Frequent Gk,j,sup Gk,j,inf c 1,1 Qk,1 c 2 , i Qk,i Cracking – prestressed concrete
Quasi-permanent Gk,j,sup Gk,j,inf c 2,1 Qk,1 c 2 , i Qk,i Deflection
Notes
1 Where the variation in permanent action is not considered significant. Gk,j,sup and Gk,j,inf may be taken as Gk 2 For values of c 0, c 1 and c 2 refer to Table 3
Table 7
Example design combinations for deflection (quasi-permanent) derived for typical UK reinforced concrete design
Combination Permanent actions Variable action

Unfavourable Leading
Office Gk a 0.3 b Q k,1
Shopping area Gk a 0.6b Q k,1
Storage Gk a 0.8b Q k,1
Key
a Where the variation in permanent action is not considered significant Gk,j,sup and Gk,j,inf may be taken as Gk b Values of c 2 are taken from UK NA (see Table 3)
4

Eurocode 1 Table 8
Eurocode 1, its parts and dates of publication
Reference Title Publication date

Eurocode 1 supersedes BS 6399: Loading for buildings6 and BS 648:
Eurocode National Annex
Schedule of weights of building materials7. It contains within its ten parts
BS EN 1991–1–1 Densities, July December
(see Table 8) all the information required by the designer to assess the self-weight and 2002 2005
individual actions on a structure. It is generally self-explanatory and it imposed loads
is anticipated the actions to be used in the UK (as advised in the UK BS EN 1991–1–2 Actions on November Due
structures 2002 October
National Annex) will typically be the same as those in the current exposed to fire 2006a
British Standards. The most notable exception is the bulk density of BS EN 1991–1–3 Snow loads July December
reinforced concrete, which has been increased to 25 kN/m3. Currently 2003 2005
not all the parts of Eurocode 1 and their National Annexes are BS EN 1991–1–4 Wind actions April Due
2005 January
available, in which case it is advised that the loads recommended in 2007a
the current British Standards are used. BS EN 1991–1–5 Thermal actions March Due
2004 December
2006a
Eurocode 2 BS EN 1991–1–6 Actions during

execution
December
2005
Due
June
2007a
BS EN 1991–1–7 Accidental actions September Due
There are four parts to Eurocode 2; Figure 4 indicates how they fit into due to impact 2006 October
the Eurocode system, which includes other European standards. and explosions 2007a
BS EN 1991–2 Traffic loads October Due
on bridges 2003 December
Part 1–1 2006a
Eurocode 2, Part 1–1: General rules and rules for buildings9 is the BS EN 1991–3 Actions induced September Due
by cranes 2006 January
principal part which is referenced by the three other parts. For the UK and machinery 2007a
designer there are a number of differences between Eurocode 2 and BS EN 1991–4 Actions in silos June Due
BS 8110, which will initially make the new Eurocode seem unfamiliar. and tanks 2006 June
2007a
The key differences are listed below to assist in the familiarisation process.
Key
1. Eurocode 2 is generally laid out to give advice on the basis of a Planned publication date (correct at time of publication) Source: BSI8
phenomena (e.g. bending, shear etc) rather than by member
types as in BS 8110 (e.g. beams, slabs, columns etc). Figure 4
2. Design is based on characteristic cylinder strengths not cube Relationship between Eurocode 2 and other Eurocodes
strengths.
3. The Eurocode does not provide derived formulae (e.g. for bending, BS EN 1997 BS EN 1990 BS EN 1998
EUROCODE 7 EUROCODE EUROCODE 8
only the details of the stress block are expressed). This is the Geotechnical Basis of structural Seismic
traditional European approach, where the application of a Eurocode design design design
is expected to be provided in a textbook or similar publication.

The Eurocodes allow for this type of detail to be provided in
‘Non-contradictory complementary information’ (NCCI) (See BS EN 206 BS EN 1991 BS EN 10080
Specifying EUROCODE 1 Reinforcing
Glossary). concrete Actions on steels
structures
4. Units for stress are mega pascals, MPa (1 MPa = 1 N/mm2).
5. Eurocode 2 uses a comma for a decimal point. It is expected that
UK designers will continue to use a decimal point. Therefore to BS 8500 BS 4449
BS EN 1992
avoid confusion, the comma should not be used for separating Specifying Reinforcing
EUROCODE 2
concrete steels
multiples of a thousand. Design of concrete
structures
6. One thousandth is represented by ‰. Part 1–1: General
7. The partial factor for steel reinforcement is 1.15. However, the rules for structures
BS EN 13670 BS EN 13369
characteristic yield strength of steel that meets the requirements Execution of
Part 1–2: Structural
Precast
fire design
of BS 4449 will be 500 MPa; so overall the effect is negligible. structures concrete
8. Eurocode 2 is applicable for ribbed reinforcement with characteristic

yield strengths of 400 to 600 MPa. There is no guidance on plain
bar or mild steel reinforcement in the Eurocode, but guidance is BS EN 1992 BS EN 1992 Part 3: Precast
EUROCODE 2 EUROCODE 2 concrete
given in the background paper to the UK National Annex10. Part 2: Liquid-retaining product
9. The effects of geometric imperfection (‘notional horizontal loads’) Bridges structures standards
are considered in addition to lateral loads.
5

10. Minimum concrete cover is related to bond strength, durability Eurocode 7

and fire resistance. In addition to the minimum cover an
allowance for deviations due to variations in execution Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design17 is in two parts and gives guidance on
(construction) should be included. Eurocode 2 recommends geotechnical design, ground investigation and testing. It has a broad
that, for concrete cast against formwork, this is taken as 10 mm, scope and includes the geotechnical design of spread foundations, piled
unless the construction is subject to a quality assurance system foundations, retaining walls, deep basements and embankments. Like
in which case it could be reduced to 5 mm or even 0 mm where all the Eurocodes it is based on limit state design principles, which is
non-conforming members are rejected (e.g. in a precast yard). a significant variation for most geotechnical design. Further guidance
It is recommended that the nominal cover is stated on the related to simple foundations is given in Chapter 6, originally
drawings and construction tolerances are given in the ppublished as Foundations18.
specification.
11. Higher strengths of concrete are covered by Eurocode 2, up to
class C90/105. However, because the characteristics of higher Eurocode 8
strength concrete are different, some Expressions in the Eurocode
are adjusted for classes above C50/60. Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance19 is divided into
12. The ‘variable strut inclination’ method is used in Eurocode 2 for six parts and gives guidance on all aspects of design for earthquake
the assessment of the shear capacity of a section. In practice, resistance and covers guidance for the various structural materials for
design values for actual structures can be compared with all types of structures. It also includes guidance for strengthening and
tabulated values. Further advice can be found in Chapter 4, repair of buildings. In areas of low seismicity it is anticipated that detailing
originally published as Beams11. structures to Eurocode 2 will ensure compliance with Eurocode 8.
13. The punching shear checks are carried out at 2d from the face of
the column and for a rectangular column, the perimeter is
rounded at the corners. Related Standards
14. Serviceability checks can still be carried out using ‘deemed to
satisfy’ span to effective depth rules similar to BS 8110. However, BS 8500/BS EN 206
if a more detailed check is required, Eurocode 2 guidance varies BS 8500: Concrete – Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206–120
from the rules in BS 8110 Part 2. replaced BS 5328 in December 2003 and designers should currently
15. The rules for determining the anchorage and lap lengths are more be using this to specify concrete. Further guidance can found in
complex than the simple tables in BS 8110. Eurocode 2 considers Chapter 11, originally published as How to use BS 8500 with BS 811021.
the effects of, amongst other things, the position of bars during
concreting, the shape of the bar and cover. BS 4449/BS EN 10080
BS 4449: Specification for carbon steel bars for the reinforcement of
Part 1–2 concrete22 has been revised ready for implementation in January 2006.
Eurocode 2, Part 1–2: Structural fire design12, gives guidance on design for It is a complementary standard to BS EN 10080 Steel for the
fire resistance of concrete structures. Although much of the Eurocode reinforcement of concrete23 and Normative Annex C of Eurocode 2. The
is devoted to fire engineering methods, the design for fire resistance most significant changes are that steel characteristic yield will change
may still be carried out by referring to tables for minimum cover and to 500 MPa. There are three classes of reinforcement, A, B and C, which
dimensions for various elements. These are given in section 5 of Part indicate increasing ductility. Class A is not suitable for use where
1–2. Further advice on using the tabular method is given in Chapter 2, redistribution of 20% and above has been assumed in the design.
originally published as Getting started 13.
BS EN 13670
Part 2 BS 8110 Part 1 sections 6 and 7 specify the workmanship for concrete
Eurocode 2, Part 2: Bridges14 applies the general rules given in Part 1–1 construction. There is no equivalent guidance in Eurocode 2, and it is
to the design of concrete bridges. As a consequence both Part 1–1 and intended that execution (construction) will be covered in a new
Part 2 will be required to carry out a design of a reinforced concrete standard BS EN 13670 Execution of concrete structures24. This is still in
bridge. preparation and is not expected to be ready for publication until 2008
at the earliest. In the intervening period the draft background paper to
Part 3 the UK National Annex of Eurocode 2, Part 1-110 recommends that
Eurocode 2, Part 3: Liquid-retaining and containment structures15 applies designers use the National structural concrete specification for building
the general rules given in Part 1–1 to the liquid-retaining structures construction25, which refers to BS 8110 for workmanship.
and supersedes BS 800716.
6

Glossary of Eurocode terminology

Term Definition
Principles Clauses that are general statements, definitions, requirements and analytical models for which no
alternative is permitted. They are identified by (P) after the clause number.
Application Rules These are generally recognised rules, which comply with the principles and satisfy their requirements.
Nationally Determined Parameter (NDP) Eurocodes may be used to satisfy national Building Regulations, which themselves will not be
harmonized. NDPs are therefore used to allow a country to set its own levels of safety. NDPs also allow
certain other parameters (generally influenced by climate, geography and geology) to be left open for
selection nationally: NDPs are advised in the National Annex.
National Annex (NA) A National Annex accompanies each Eurocode and it contains a) the values of NDPs b) the national
decision regarding the use of Informative Annexes and c) references to NCCIs
Normative The term used for the text of Standards that forms the core requirements. Compliance with Eurocodes
will generally be judged against the normative requirements.
Informative A term used only in relation to annexes, which seek to inform rather than require.
NCCI Non-contradictory complementary information. References in a National Annex which contains further
information or guidance which does not contradict the Eurocode.
Characteristic value A value that may be derived statistically with a probability of not being exceeded during a reference
period. The value corresponds to a specified fractile for a particular property of material or product. The
characteristic values are denoted by subscript ‘k’ (e.g. Qk etc). It is the principal representative value
from which other representative values may be derived.
Representative value Value used for verification of a limit state. It may be the characteristic value or an accompanying value,
e.g. combination, frequent or quasi-permanent.
Design values These refer to representative values modified by partial factors. They are denoted by subscript ‘d’
(e.g. f cd = f ck /g c ; Q d = g Q Q k).
Action (F) Set of forces, deformations or accelerations acting on the structure.
Combination of actions Set of design values used for the verification of the structural reliability for a limit state under the
simultaneous influence of different and statistically independent actions.
Fixed action Action that has a fixed distribution and position over the structure or structural member.
Free action Action that may have various spatial distributions over the structure.
Permanent actions (G) Actions that are likely to act throughout the life of the structure and whose variation in magnitude
with time is negligible (e.g. permanent loads).
Variable actions (Q) Actions whose magnitude will vary with time (e.g. wind loads).
Effect of action (E) Deformation or internal force caused by an action.
Accidental action (A) Action, usually of short duration but of significant magnitude, that is unlikely to occur on a given
structure during the design working life.
Accompanying action An action in a combination that is not the leading variable action.
Transient design situation Design situation that is relevant during a period much shorter than the design working life of the structure.
Persistent design situation Design situation that is relevant during a period of the same order as the design working life of the structure.
Accidental design situation Design situation involving exceptional conditions of the structure.
Irreversible serviceability limit state Serviceability limit state where some consequences of actions will remain when the actions are removed.
Reversible serviceability limit state Serviceability limit state where no consequences of actions will remain when the actions are removed.
Execution Construction of the works.
7

References
1 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. BSI (4 parts).
2 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1990, Eurocode: Basis of structural design. BSI, 2002.
3 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1991, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures. BSI (10 parts).
4 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8110: The structural use of concrete. BSI (3 parts).
5 GULVANESSIAN, H, CALGARO, J A & HOLICÝ, M T. Designers’ guide to EN 1990. Thomas Telford, 2002.
6 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 6399: Loading for buildings. BSI (3 parts).
7 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 648: Schedule of weights of building materials. BSI, 1964.
8 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. Web page: www.bsi-global.com/Eurocodes/Progress/index.xalter. BSI.
9 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–1, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. General rules and rules for buildings. BSI, 2004.
10 BRITISH STANDARD INSTITUTION. PD 6687. Background paper to the UK National Annex to BS EN 1992–1–1. BSI, 2006.
11 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Beams (TCC/03/19). The Concrete Centre, 2006.
12 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–2, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. Structural fire design. BSI, 2004.
13 BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Getting started (TCC/03/17). The Concrete Centre, 2005.
14 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–2, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. Bridges. BSI, 2005.
15 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–3, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. Liquid-retaining and containment structures.
BSI, due 2006.
16 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8007: Code of practice for design of concrete structures for retaining aqueous liquids. BSI, 1987.
17 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1997, Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design. BSI (2 parts).
18 WEBSTER, R & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Foundations (TCC/03/21). The Concrete Centre, 2006.
19 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1998, Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance. BSI (6 parts).
20 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8500: Concrete – Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206–1, 2002 (2 parts).
21 HARRISON, T A & BROOKER, O. How to use BS 8500 with BS 8110 (TCC/03/11). The Concrete Centre, 2005.
22 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 4449: Specification for carbon steel bars for the reinforcement of concrete. BSI, 2005.
23 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 10080: Steel for the reinforcement of concrete – Weldable reinforcing steel – General. BSI, 2005.
24 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. EN 13670: Execution of concrete structures – Part 1: Common. BSI, due 2008.
25 THE CONCRETE SOCIETY. CS 152: National structural concrete specification for building construction, third edition. The Society, 2004.
Acknowledgements
The content of this publication was produced as part of the project ‘Eurocode 2: transition from UK to European concrete design standards’. This
project was part funded by the DTI under the Partners in Innovation scheme. The lead partner was the British Cement Association. The work was
carried out under the guidance of the Concrete Industry Eurocode 2 Group, which consists of representatives from:
Alan Baxter and Associates • Arup • British Cement Association • British Precast • Building Research Establishment • Clark Smith Partnership •
Concrete Innovation and Design • Construct • Department for Trade and Industry • Office of the Deputy Prime Minister • The Concrete Centre •
The Concrete Society • Quarry Products Association.
Published by The Concrete Centre

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First
published November 2005, revised December 2006
latest version. This publication has been produced following a contract placed by the Department for Trade and Industry (DTI); the
© The Concrete Centre™ and British Cement Association views expressed are not necessarily those of the DTI.
2. Getting started
O Brooker BEng, CEng, MICE, MIStructE
The design process

This chapter is intended to assist the designer determine all the design
information required prior to embarking on detailed element design. It
covers design life, actions on structures, load arrangements, combinations
of actions, method of analysis, material properties, stability and
imperfections, minimum concrete cover and maximum crack widths.
The process of designing elements will not be revolutionised as a result

of using Eurocode 21, although much of the detail may change – as
described in subsequent chapters.
Similarly, the process of detailing will not vary significantly from current
practice. Guidance can be found in Chapter 10 or in Standard method of
detailing 2. With regard to specification, advice can be found in Chapter 1,
originally published as Introduction to Eurocodes3. Concept designs
prepared assuming that detailed design would be to BS 8110 may be
continued through to detailed design using Eurocode 2.
In the long-term it is anticipated that Eurocode 2 will lead to more

economic structures.
Design life
The design life for a structure is given in Eurocode: Basis of structural
design 4. The UK National Annex (NA) to Eurocode presents UK values
for design life; these are given in Table 1 (overleaf). These should be used
to determine the durability requirements for the design of reinforced
concrete structures.
:cementZg]concretebg]nlmkrin[eb\Zmbhg This chapter is taken

from The Concrete Actions on structures
Centre’s publication,
Lmkn\mnk^lnlbg`>nkh\h]^+ Eurocode 1: Actions on structures5 consists of 10 parts giving details of
concrete structures
R S Narayanan?K>g`
using Eurocode 2 a wide variety of actions. Further information on the individual codes
(Ref. CCIP–006) can be found in Chapter 1. Eurocode 1, Part 1–1: General actions –
Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings6 gives the densities and
self-weights of building materials (see Table 2 overleaf).
The key change to current practice is that the bulk density of reinforced
concrete has been increased to 25 kN/m3. The draft National Annex to
this Eurocode gives the imposed loads for UK buildings and a selection is
Table 1
Indicative design working life (from UK National Annex to Eurocode) reproduced in Table 3. It should be noted that there is no advice given
for plant rooms.
Design life (years) Examples
10 Temporary structures
10–30 Replaceable structural parts At the time of writing not all the parts of Eurocode 1 and their National
15–25 Agricultural and similar structures Annexes are available; it is advised that existing standards are considered
50 Buildings and other common structures for use where European standards have not yet been issued.
120 Monumental buildings, bridges and other civil
engineering structures
Load arrangements
Table 2
Selected bulk density of materials (from Eurocode 1, Part 1–1) The term load arrangements refers to the arranging of variable actions
(e.g. imposed and wind loads) to give the most onerous forces in a
Material Bulk density (kN/m3)
Normal weight concrete 24.0 member or structure and are given in Eurocode 2 and its UK NA.
Reinforced normal weight concrete 25.0
Wet normal weight reinforced concrete 26.0 For building structures, the UK NA to Eurocode 2, Part 1–1 allows any
of the following sets of load arrangements to be used for both the
ultimate limit state and serviceability limit state:
Figure 1
Alternate spans loaded
Load set 1. Alternate or adjacent spans loaded
The design values should be obtained from the more critical of:
� Alternate spans carrying the design variable and permanent loads
with other spans loaded with only the design permanent load (see
Figure 1). The value of gG should be the same throughout.
� Any two adjacent spans carrying the design variable and
permanent loads with other spans loaded with only the design
permanent load (see Figure 2). The value of gG should be the
same throughout.
Load set 2. All or alternate spans loaded

Figure 2 The design values should be obtained from the more critical of:
Adjacent spans loaded
� All spans carrying the design variable and permanent loads
(see Figure 3).
� Alternate spans carrying the design variable and permanent loads
with other spans loaded with only the design permanent load (see
Figure 1). The value of gG should be the same throughout.
Generally, load set 2 will be used for beams and slabs in the UK as it
requires three load arrangements to be considered, while load set 1
will often require more than three arrangements to be assessed.
Alternatively, the UK NA makes the following provision for slabs.
Load set 3. Simplified arrangements for slabs

The load arrangements can be simplified for slabs where it is only
necessary to consider the all spans loaded arrangement (see Figure 3),
provided the following conditions are met:
� In a one-way spanning slab the area of each bay exceeds 30 m2
Figure 3
All spans loaded (a bay means a strip across the full width of a structure bounded
on the other sides by lines of support).
� The ratio of the variable actions (Qk) to the permanent actions (Gk)
does not exceed 1.25.
� The magnitude of the variable actions excluding partitions does not
exceed 5 kN/m2.
2
10
2. Getting started
Combination of actions Standard to BS EN 206–17 (e.g. for class C28/35 concrete the cylinder
strength is 28 MPa, whereas the cube strength is 35 MPa). Typical
The term combination of actions refers to the value of actions to be concrete properties are given in Table 4.
used when a limit state is under the influence of different actions.
Concrete up to class C90/105 can be designed using Eurocode 2.
The numerical values of the partial factors for the ULS combination can For classes above C50/60, however, there are additional rules and
be obtained by referring to Eurocode: Basis of structural design or to variations. For this reason, the design of these higher classes is not
Chapter 1. considered in this publication.
For members supporting one variable action the ULS combination It should be noted that designated concretes (e.g. RC30) still refer
.( 1.25 Gk + 1.5 Qk (derived from Exp. (6.10b), Eurocode) to the cube strength.
can be used provided the permanent actions are not greater than
4.5 times the variable actions (except for storage loads). Reinforcing steel
Eurocode 2 can be used with reinforcement of characteristic
There are three SLS combinations of actions – characteristic, frequent strengths ranging from 400 to 600 MPa. The properties of steel
and quasi-permanent. The numerical values are given in Eurocode: Basis reinforcement in the UK for use with Eurocode 2 are given in
of structural design. BS 4449 (2005): Specification for carbon steel bars for the
reinforcement of concrete 8 and are summarised in Table 5 (on page 4).
A characteristic yield strength of 500 MPa has been adopted by the
Material properties UK reinforcement industry. There are three classes of reinforcement,
A, B and C, which provide increasing ductility. Class A is not suitable
Concrete where redistribution of 20% and above has been assumed in the
In Eurocode 2 the design of reinforced concrete is based on the design. There is no provision for the use of plain bar or mild steel
characteristic cylinder strength rather than cube strength and should reinforcement, but guidance is given in the background paper to the
be specified according to BS 8500: Concrete – complementary British National Annex9.
Table 3
Selected imposed loads for buildings (from draft UK National Annex to Eurocode 1, Part 1–1)
Category Example use qk (kN/m2) Qk (kN)

A1 All uses within self-contained dwelling units 1.5 2.0
A2 Bedrooms and dormitories 1.5 2.0
A3 Bedrooms in hotels and motels, hospital wards and toilets 2.0 2.0
A5 Balconies in single family dwelling units 2.5 2.0
A7 Balconies in hotels and motels 4.0 min. 2.0 at outer edge
B1 Offices for general use 2.5 2.7
C5 Assembly area without fixed seating, concert halls, bars, places of worship 5.0 3.6
D1/2 Shopping areas 4.0 3.6
E12 General storage 2.4 per m height 7.0
E17 Dense mobile stacking in warehouses 4.8 per m height (min. 15.0) 7.0
F Gross vehicle weight ≤ 30kN 2.5 10.0
Table 4
Selected concrete properties based on Table 3.1 of Eurocode 2, Part 1–1
Symbol Description Properties

fck (MPa) Characteristic cylinder strength 12 16 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 28a 32a
fck,cube (MPa) Characteristic cube strength 15 20 25 30 37 45 50 55 60 35 40
fctm (MPa) Mean tensile strength 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.6 2.9 3.2 3.5 3.8 4.1 2.8 3.0
Ecm b (GPa) Secant modulus of elasticity 27 29 30 31 33 34 35 36 37 32 34
Key
a Concrete class not cited in Table 3.1, Eurocode 2, Part 1–1
b Mean secant modulus of elasticity at 28 days for concrete with quartzite aggregates. For concretes with other aggregates refer to Cl 3.1.3 (2)
3
11
Table 5
Characteristic tensile properties of reinforcement Structural analysis
Class (BS 4449) and designation (BS 8666) A B C
The primary purpose of structural analysis in building structures is to
Characteristic yield strength fyk or f 0.2k (MPa) 500 500 500
establish the distribution of internal forces and moments over the
Minimum value of k = ( ft /fy ) k ≥ 1.05 ≥ 1.08 ≥ 1.15 < 1.35
whole or part of a structure and to identify the critical design
Characteristic strain at maximum force e uk (%) ≥ 2.5 ≥ 5.0 ≥ 7.5
conditions at all sections. The geometry is commonly idealised by
Notes
1 Table derived from BS EN 1992–1–1 Annex C, BS 4449: 2005 and BS EN 1008010 . considering the structure to be made up of linear elements and plane
2 The nomenclature used in BS 4449: 2005 differs from that used in BS EN 1992–1–1 two-dimensional elements.
Annex C and used here.
3 In accordance with BS 8666, class H may be specified, in which case class A, B or C
may be supplied. The type of analysis should be appropriate to the problem being
considered. The following may be used: linear elastic analysis, linear
Table 6 elastic analysis with limited redistribution, and plastic analysis. Linear
Bending moment and shear co-efficients for beams elastic analysis may be carried out assuming cross sections are
Moment Shear uncracked (i.e. concrete section properties); using linear stress-strain
Outer support 25% of span moment 0.45 (G + Q) relationships, and assuming mean values of elastic modulus.
Near middle of end span 0.090 Gl + 0.100 Ql
At first interior support – 0.094 (G + Q) l 0.63 (G + Q)a For the ultimate limit state only, the moments derived from elastic
At middle of interior spans 0.066 Gl + 0.086 Ql analysis may be redistributed (up to a maximum of 30%) provided
At interior supports – 0.075 (G + Q) l 0.50 (G + Q) that the resulting distribution of moments remains in equilibrium with
Key the applied loads and subject to certain limits and design criteria (e.g.
a 0.55 (G + Q) may be used adjacent to the interior span.
limitations of depth to neutral axis).
Notes
1 Redistribution of support moments by 15% has been included.
2 Applicable to 3 or more spans only and where Qk ≤ G k. Regardless of the method of analysis used, the following principles apply:
3 Minimum span ≥ 0.85 longest span.
4 l is the effective length, G is the total of the ULS permanent actions, Q is the total � Where a beam or slab is monolithic with its supports, the critical
of the ULS variable actions.
design hogging moment may be taken as that at the face of the
support, but should not be taken as less than 0.65 times the full
Table 7 fixed end moment.
Exposure classes
� Where a beam or slab is continuous over a support that may be
Class Description considered not to provide rotational restraint, the moment
No risk of corrosion or attack calculated at the centre line of the support may be reduced by
X0 For concrete without reinforcement or embedded metal where there (FEd,sup t/8), where FEd,sup is the support reaction and t is the breadth
is no significant freeze/thaw, abrasion or chemical attack. of the support.
Corrosion induced by carbonation � For the design of columns the elastic moments from the frame
XC1 Dry or permanently wet action should be used without any redistribution.
XC2 Wet, rarely dry
XC3/4 Moderate humidity or cyclic wet and dry Bending moment and shear force co-efficients for beams are given in
Corrosion induced by chlorides other than from seawater
Table 6; these are suitable where spans are of similar length and the
other notes to the table are observed.
XD1 Moderate humidity
XD2 Wet, rarely dry
XD3 Cyclic wet and dry
Corrosion induced by chlorides from seawater
Minimum concrete cover
XS1 Exposed to airborne salt but not in direct contact with sea water The nominal cover can be assessed as follows:
XS2 Permanently submerged
cnom = cmin + D cdev Exp. (4.1)
XS3 Tidal, splash and spray zones
Freeze/thaw with or without de-icing agents Where cmin should be set to satisfy the requirements below:
XF1 Moderate water saturation without de-icing agent � safe transmission of bond forces
XF2 Moderate water saturation with de-icing agent � durability

� fire resistance
XF3 High water saturation without de-icing agent
and D cdev is an allowance which should be made in the design for
XF4 High water saturation with de-icing agent or sea water
deviations from the minimum cover. It should be taken as 10 mm,
Chemical attack (ACEC classes)
unless fabrication (i.e. construction) is subjected to a quality assurance
Refer to BS 8500–1 and Special Digest 111
system, in which case it is permitted to reduce D cdev to 5 mm.
4
12
2. Getting started
Figure 4
Sections through structural members, showing nominal axis distance, a National Annex (Table 4.3 (N) (BS)) gives durability requirements that
comply with BS 8500, but which significantly modify the approach
taken in Eurocode 2. To determine the minimum cover for durability
(and also the strength class and minimum water cement ratio) either
the UK National Annex or BS 8500 can be used.
The various exposure classes from BS 8500 are given in Table 7. Selected
recommendations are given in Table 8 (on page 6) for the concrete
strength, minimum cement ratio, minimum concrete cover and maximum
cement content for various elements in a structure based on the exposure
of that element. This is taken from Chapter 11, originally published as
How to use BS 8500 with BS 811013.
Table 9
Minimum column dimensions and axis distances for columns with
rectangular or circular section – method A
Design for fire resistance
Eurocode 2 Part 1–2: Structural fire design14, gives several methods
Standard fire Minimum dimensions (mm)
resistance Column width ( bmin)/axis distance (a) of the main bars for determining the fire resistance of concrete elements; further
Column exposed on more Exposed on one side guidance can be obtained from specialist literature. Design for
than one side ( m f i = 0.7) ( m f i = 0.7) fire resistance may still be carried out by referring to tables to
R 60 250/46 155/25 determine the minimum cover and dimensions for various elements,
350/40 as set out below.
R 120 350/57* 175/35
450/51*
Rather than giving the minimum cover, the tabular method is based
R 240 † 295/70
on nominal axis distance, a (see Figure 4). This is the distance from the
Notes
1 Refer to BS EN 1992–1–2 for design limitations.
centre of the main reinforcing bar to the surface of the member. It is
2 m fi is the ratio of the design axial load under fire conditions to the design resistance a nominal (not minimum) dimension. The designer should ensure that
of the column at normal temperature conditions. Conservatively m fi may be taken
as 0.7
a ≥ cnom + f link + f bar /2.
* Minimum 8 bars
† Method B indicates 600/70 for R 240 and m fi = 0.7 and may be used.
See EN 1992–1–2 Table 5.2b
There are three standard fire exposure conditions that may be satisfied:
R Mechanical resistance for load bearing
E Integrity of separation
Minimum cover for bond I Insulation
The minimum cover to ensure adequate bond should not be less than
the bar diameter, or equivalent bar diameter for bundled bars, unless Tables 9 and 10 give the minimum dimensions for columns and slabs
the aggregate size is over 32 mm. to meet the above conditions. The tables offer more flexibility than
BS 8110 in that there are options available to the designer e.g. section
Minimum cover for durability sizes can be reduced by increasing the axis distance. Further information
The recommendations for durability in Eurocode 2 are based on is given in Eurocode 2 and subsequent chapters, including design
BS EN 206–112. In the UK the requirements of BS EN 206 –1 are limitations and data for walls and beams.
applied through the complementary standard BS 8500. The UK
Table 10
Minimum dimensions and axis distances for reinforced concrete slabs
Standard Minimum dimensions (mm)

fire One-way Two-way spanning slab Flat slab Ribs in a two-way spanning ribbed slab
resistance spanning slab l y /l x ≤ 1.5 1.5 < l y /l x ≤ 2 (bmin is the width of the rib)
REI 60 hs = 80 80 80 180 bmin = 100 120 ≥200
a = 20 10 15 15 a= 25 15 10
REI 120 hs = 120 120 120 200 bmin = 160 190 ≥300
a = 40 20 25 35 a= 45 40 30
REI 240 hs = 175 175 175 200 bmin = 450 700 –––
a = 65 40 50 50 a= 70 60
Notes
1 Refer to BS EN 1992–1–2 for design limitations.
2 a is the axis distance (see Figure 4).
3 h s is the slab thickness, including any non-combustible flooring.
5
13
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2 BS 8500 for building structures
8
Table 2
Selected a recommendations for normal-weight reinforced concrete quality for combined exposure classes and cover to reinforcement for at least a
50-year intended working life and 20 mm maximum aggregate size
Exposure conditions Cement/ Strength classc, maximum w/c ratio, minimum cement or combination
combination content (kg/m3), and equivalent designated concrete (where applicable)
designationsb
Typical example Primary Secondary Nominal cover to reinforcementd
15 + D c dev 20 + D c dev 25 + D c dev 30 + D c dev 35 + D c dev 40 + D c dev 45 + D c dev 50 + D c dev
Internal mass
X0 ___ All Recommended that this exposure is not applied to reinforced concrete
concrete
Internal elements C20/25,
(except humid XC1 ___ All 0.70, 240 or <<< <<< <<< <<< <<< <<< <<<
locations) RC20/25
Buried concrete C25/30,
in AC-1 ground XC2 AC-1 All ___ ___ 0.65, 260 or <<< <<< <<< <<< <<<
conditions e RC25/30
Vertical surface C40/50, C30/37, C28/35, C25/30,
protected from ___ All except
All except IVB ___ 0.45, 340 or 0.55, 300 0.60, 280 or 0.65, 260 or <<< <<< <<<
IVB-V
direct rainfall RC40/50 or RC30/37 RC28/35 RC25/30
C40/50, C30/37, C28/35,
Exposed vertical
XF1
All except
All except IVB ___ 0.45, 340 or 0.55, 300 0.60, 280 or <<< <<< <<< <<<
surfaces IVB-V
XC3 RC40/50 or RC30/37 RC28/35
& C40/50,0.45,
XC4 XF3
All except
All except IVB ___ 340 g or <<< <<< <<< <<< <<< <<<
IVB-V
RC40/50XFg
Exposed horizontal
surfaces C30/37, C28/35, C25/30,
C32/40,
XF3 (air All except
All except IVB ___ ___ 0.55,
0.55, 300
300
0.60, 280 0.60, 280
<<< <<< <<<
entrained) IVB-V plus g,h plus air g,h plus air g, h, j
plus air
air g,h
or PAV2 or PAV1
Elements subject
to airborne XD1f ___ All ___ ___ C40/50, C32/40, C28/35,
<<< <<< <<<
0.45, 360 0.55, 320 0.60, 300
chlorides
IIB-V, IIIA ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ C35/45, C32/40, C28/35,
0.40, 380 0.45, 360 0.50, 340
Car park decks and
areas subject to ___ CEM I, IIA, ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ See C40/50, C35/45,
IIB-S, SRPC BS 8500 0.40, 380 0.45, 360
de-icing spray
IIIB, IVB-V ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ C32/40, C28/35, C25/30,
0.40, 380 0.45, 360 0.50, 340
IIB-V, IIIA ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ C35/45, C32/40, C32/40,
0.40, 380 0.45, 360 0.50, 340
Vertical elements XD3f
subject to de-icing XF2
CEM I, IIA, ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ See C40/50, C35/45,
IIB-S, SRPC BS 8500 0.40, 380 0.45, 360
spray and freezing
IIIB, IVB-V ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ C32/40, C32/40 C32/40,
0.40, 380 0.45, 360 0.50, 340
Car park decks, XF4

CEM I, IIA, ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ See C40/50,
<<<
ramps and external IIB-S, SRPC BS 8500 0.40, 380 g
areas subject to
freezing and XF4 (air ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ C28/35, C28/35 C28/35,
IIB-V, IIIA, IIIB 0.40, 380g, h 0.45, 360g, h 0.50, 340g, h
de-icing salts entrained)
CEM I, IIA, ___ ___ ___ See C35/45, C32/40,

<<< <<<
IIB-S, SRPC BS 8500 0.45, 360 0.50, 340
XF1
Exposed vertical
XF1 IIB-V, IIIA ___ ___ ___ See C32/40, C28/35, C25/30,
C28/35,
<<<
surfaces near coast BS 8500 0.45, 360 0.50, 340 0.55, 320
XS1 f
___ IIIB ___ ___ ___ C32/40, C25/30, C25/30, C25/30,
<<<
0.40, 380 0.50, 340 0.50, 340 0.55, 320
Exposed horizontal XF3 or
XF4
CEM I, IIA, ___ ___ ___ See C40/50,
<<< <<< <<<
surfaces near coast XF4 IIB-S, SRPC BS 8500 0.45, 360 g
Key d D c dev is an allowance for deviations. ___ Not recommended
a This table comprises a selection of common exposure class combinations. e For sections less than 140 mm thick refer to BS 8500.
Requirements for other sets of exposure classes, e.g. XD2, XS2 and XS3 should f Also adequate for exposure class XC3/4. <<< Indicates that concrete
be derived from BS 8500-1: 2006,
2002, Annex A. g Freeze/thaw resisting aggregates should be specified. quality in cell to the left
b See BS 8500-2,Table 1. (CEM I is Portland cement, IIA to IVB are cement combinations.) h Air entrained concrete is required. should not be reduced
c For prestressed concrete the minimum strength class should be C28/35. j This option may not be suitable for areas subject to
severe abrasion.
6
14 3
2. Getting started
Stability and imperfections Crack control

The effects of geometric imperfections should be considered in Crack widths should be limited to ensure appearance and durability
combination with the effects of wind loads (i.e. not as an alternative are satisfactory. In the absence of specific durability requirements
load combination). For global analysis, the imperfections may be (e.g. water tightness) the crack widths may be limited to 0.3 mm in
represented by an inclination y i . all exposure classes under the quasi-permanent combination. In the
absence of requirements for appearance, this limit may be relaxed (to
y i = (1/200) x a h x a m say 0.4 mm) for exposure classes X0 and XC1 (refer to Table 7). The
where theoretical size of the crack can be calculated using the expressions
a h = (2/Rl), to be taken as not less than 2/3 nor greater than 1.0 given in Cl 7.3.4 from Eurocode 2–1–1 or from the ‘deemed to satisfy’
a m = [0.5 (1 + 1/m)]0.5 requirements that can be obtained from Table 11, which is based on
l is the height of the building in metres tables 7.2N and 7.3N of the Eurocode. The limits apply to either the
m is the number of vertical members contributing to the horizontal bar size or the bar spacing, not both.
force in the bracing system.
Figure 5
The effect of the inclination may be represented by transverse forces at Examples of the effect of geometric imperfections
each level and included in the analysis along with other actions (see
Figure 5):
Effect on bracing system: Hi = y i (Nb – Na)

Effect on floor diaphragm: Hi = y i (Nb + Na)/2
Effect on roof diaphragm: Hi = y i Na
where Na and Nb are longitudinal forces contributing to Hi.
In most cases, an allowance for imperfections is made in the partial

factors used in the design of elements. However for columns, the effect a) Bracing system b) Floor diaphragm c) Roof diaphragm
of imperfections, which is similar in principle to the above, must be
considered (see Chapter 5, originally published as Columns15).
Figure 6
Determination of steel stress for crack width control
Table 11
Maximum bar size or spacing to limit crack width
Steel wmax = 0.4 mm wmax = 0.3 mm

stress
Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum
(s s)MPa bar bar bar bar
size (mm) spacing (mm) size (mm) spacing (mm)
160 40 300 32 300

200 32 OR 300 25 OR 250
240 20 250 16 200
280 16 200 12 150
320 12 150 10 100
360 10 100 8 50
Note
The steel stress may be estimated from the expression below (or see Figure 6):
ss = fyk m As,req
gms n As,prov d
where
fyk = characteristic reinforcement yield stress
gms = partial factor for reinforcing steel
m = total load from quasi-permanent combination
n = total load from ULS combination To determine stress in the reinforcement (ss), calculate the ratio Gk/Qk,
As,req = area of reinforcement at the ULS read up the graph to the appropriate curve and read across to determine ssu .
As,req
As,prov = area of reinforcement provided
d = ratio of redistributed moment to elastic moment
ss can be calculated from the expression: ss = ssu (As,prov d)( )
1
7
15
2. Getting started
References
2 INSTITUTION OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS/THE CONCRETE SOCIETY. Standard method of detailing. ISE/CS. 2006.
3 NARAYANAN, R S & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Introduction to Eurocodes (TCC/03/16). The Concrete Centre, 2005.
4 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1990, Eurocode: Basis of structural design. BSI, 2002.
5 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1991, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures. BSI (10 parts).
6 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1991, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures Part 1–1: General actions – Densities, self-weight, imposed loads
for buildings. BSI, 2002.
7 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8500–1: Concrete – Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206–1– Part 1: Method of specifying and
guidance for the specifier. BSI, 2002.
8 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 4449: Specification for carbon steel bars for the reinforcement of concrete. BSI, 2005.
9 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. Background paper to the UK National Annex to BS EN 1992–1–1. BSI, 2006.
10 BRITISH STAND ARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 10080: Steel for the reinforcement of concrete – Weldable reinforcing steel – General. BSI, 2005.
11 BUILDING RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT. Special Digest 1: Concrete in aggressive ground. BRE, 2005.
12 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 206–1: Concrete – Part: Specification, performance, production and conformity. BSI, 2000.
13 HARRISON, T A BROOKER, O. How to use BS 8500 with BS 8110 (TCC/03/11). The Concrete Centre, 2005.
14 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–2, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. General rules – structural fire design, BSI, 2004.
15 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Columns, (TCC/03/20). The Concrete Centre, 2006.
Acknowledgements

0700 4 500 500 or 0700 4 CONCRETE Tel: +44 (0)1276 606800
Fax: +44 (0)1276 606801
First
16 published December 2005, revised December 2006
© The Concrete Centre™ views expressed are not necessarily those of the DTI.
4. Beams
structures using
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode
Eurocode 22
4. Beams
M Moss
R Moss BSc, ;L\%
PhD,Ia=%
DIC, =B<%
CEng,<>g`%
MICE,FB<>%
MIStructE O Brooker
FBLmkn\m>O Brooker BEng,;>g`%
CEng,<>g`%
MICE,FB<>% FBLmkn\m>
MIStructE
Designing to Eurocode 2
This chapter covers the analysis and design of concrete beams to Eurocode 21
which is essentially the same as with BS 81102' Ahpô^k% maêZrhnmZg]
\hgm^gmh_>nkh\h]^+fZrZii^ZkngnlnZemh]^lb`g^kl_ZfbebZkpbma;L1**)'
>nkh\h]^+]h^lghm\hgmZbgma^]^kbo^]_hkfneZ^hkli^\b_b\`nb]Zg\^hg
]^m^kfbgbg`fhf^gmlZg]la^Zk_hk\^l' MablaZlZkbl^g[^\Znl^bmaZl
[^^g>nkhi^ZgikZ\mb\^mh`boîkbg\bie^lbgma^\h]^lZg]_hkma^]^mZbe^]
Ziieb\Zmbhgmh[îk^l^gm^]bghma^klhnk\^lln\aZlm^qm[hhdl'
<aZim^k*%hkb`bgZeerin[ebla^]ZlBgmkh]n\mbhgmh>nkh\h]^l%abàebàm^]ma^
3
d^r]b__^k^g\^l[^mp^^g>nkh\h]^+Zg];L1**)% bg\en]bg`m^kfbgheh`r'
Bmlahne][^ghm^]maZmoZen^l_khfma^NDGZmbhgZe:gg^q!G:"aZo^[^^g
nl^]makhnàhnm% bg\en]bgòZen^lmaZmZk^^f[^]]^]bg]^kbo^] _hkfneZ^
!]^kboZmbhgl\Zg[^_hng]Zmppp'^nkh\h]^+'bg_h"' :eblmh_lrf[hel kêZm^]
mh[^Zf]^lb`gbl`bo^gZmma^^g]h_mabl\aZim^k'
Design procedure
:ikh\^]nk^_hk\Zkkrbg`hnmma^]^mZbe^]]^lb`gh_[^ZflbllahpgbgMZ[e^*'
MablZllnf^lmaZmma^[^Zf]bf^glbhglaZoîkôbhnler[^^g]^m^kfbg^]
]nkbg`\hg\îmnZe]^lb`g' <hg\îm]^lb`glikîZk^]Zllnfbg`]^mZbe^]]^lb`g
phne][^mh;L1**)fZr[^\hgmbgn^]makhnàmh]^mZbe^]]^lb`gnlbg`
>nkh\h]^+' Fhk^]^mZbe^]Z]ob\^hg]^m^kfbgbg`]^lb`geb_^% Z\mbhgl% fZm^kbZe
ikhi^kmb^l% f^mah]lh_ZgZerlbl% fbgbfnf\hg\k^m^\ho^k_hk]nkZ[bebmrZg]
\hgmkheh_\kZ\dpb]mal\Zg[^_hng]bg<aZim^k+%hkb`bgZeerin[ebla^]Zl
@^mmbg`lmZkm^] %Zg] in<aZim^k*'

Fire resistance
from The Concrete
Centre’s publication, >nkh\h]^+% IZkm*¾+3 Lmkn\mnkZe_bk^]^lb`g% `bo^lZ\ahb\^h_Z]oZg\^]%
Lmkn\mnk^lnlbg`>nkh\h]^+ lbfieb_b^]hkmZ[neZkf^mah]l_hk ]^m^kfbgbg`ma^_bk^k^lblmZg\^' Nlbg`mZ[e^l
concrete structures
R S Narayanan?K>g`
using Eurocode 2 blma^_Zlm^lmf^mah]_hk]^m^kfbgbg`ma^fbgbfnf]bf^glbhglZg]\ho^k
(Ref. CCIP–006) _hk[^Zfl' Ma^k^Zk^% ahpô^k% lhf^k^lmkb\mbhglZg]b_ma^l^Ziier_nkma^k
`nb]Zg\^hgma^Z]oZg\^]Zg]lbfieb_b^]f^mah]l\Zg[^h[mZbg^]_khf
li^\bZeblmebm^kZmnk^ ' KZma^kmaZg`bobg`Zfbgbfnf\ho^k% ma^mZ[neZkf^mah]
bl[Zl^]hgghfbgZeZqbl]blmZg\^% Z !l^^?b`nk^*"' Mablblma^]blmZg\^_khf
ma^\^gmk^h_ma^fZbgk^bg_hk\bg`[Zkmhma^mhihk[hmmhflnk_Z\^h_ma^
<hgmbgn^liZ`^+0
Table 1
Beam design procedure
Step Task Further guidance

Chapter in this publication Standard
* =^m^kfbg^]^lb`geb_^ +3@^mmbg`lmZkm^] G:mh;L>G*22)MZ[e^G:'+'*
+ :ll^llZ\mbhglhgma^[^Zf +3@^mmbg`lmZkm^] ;L>G*22*!*)iZkml"Zg]GZmbhgZe:gg^q^l
, =^m^kfbg^pab\a\hf[bgZmbhglh_Z\mbhglZiier *3Bgmkh]n\mbhgmh>nkh\h]^l G:mh;L>G*22)MZ[e^lG:':*'*Zg]G:':*'+!;"
- =^m^kfbgêhZ]bg`ZkkZg`^f^gml +3@^mmbg`lmZkm^] G:mh;L>G*22+¾*¾*
. :ll^ll]nkZ[bebmrk^jnbk^f^gmlZg]]^m^kfbg^\hg\k^m^lmk^g`ma +3@^mmbg`lmZkm^] ;L1.))3 +))+
/ <a^\d\ho^kk^jnbk^f^gml_hkZiikhikbZm^_bk^k^lblmZg\î^kbh] +3@^mmbg`lmZkm^] Zg]Â?bk^k^lblmZg\^Ã :iikho^]=h\nf^gm;' ;L>G*22+¾*¾*3 L^\mbhg.
l^\mbhg
0 <Ze\neZm^fbg' \ho^k_hk]nkZ[bebmr% _bk^Zg][hg]k^jnbk^f^gml +3@^mmbg`lmZkm^] ;L>G*22+¾*¾*<e-'-'*
1 :gZerl^lmkn\mnk^mhh[mZbg\kbmb\Zefhf^gmlZg]la^Zk_hk\^l +3@^mmbg`lmZkm^] Zg]MZ[e^, ;L>G*22+¾*¾*l^\mbhg.
2 =^lb`g_e^qnkZek^bg_hk\^f^gm L^^Â?e^qnk^Ã l^\mbhg ;L>G*22+¾*¾*l^\mbhg/'*
*) <a^\dla^Zk\ZiZ\bmr L^^ÂO^kmb\Zela^ZkÃ l^\mbhg ;L>G*22+¾*¾*l^\mbhg/'+
** <a^\d]^_e^\mbhg L^^Â=^_e^\mbhgÃ l^\mbhg ;L>G*22+¾*¾*l^\mbhg0'-
*+ <a^\dliZ\bg`h_[Zkl +3@^mmbg`lmZkm^] ;L>G*22+¾*¾*l^\mbhg0',
Note
G:6GZmbhgZe:gg^q
Table 2
Minimum dimensions and axis distances for beams made with reinforced concrete for fire resistance
Standard fire resistance Minimum dimensions (mm)
Possible combinations of a and bmin where a is the average axis distance and bmin is the width of the beam
Simply supported beams Continuous beams
A B C D E F G H
R60 bmin = 120 160 200 300 120 200
a= 40 35 30 25 25 12a
R90 bmin = 150 200 300 400 150 250
a= 55 45 40 35 35 25
R120 bmin = 200 240 300 500 200 300 450 500
a= 65 60 55 50 45 35 35 30
R240 bmin = 280 350 500 700 280 500 650 700
a= 90 80 75 70 75 60 60 50
Notes
1 This table is taken from BS EN 1992–1–2 Tables 5.5 and 5.6.
2 The axis distance, asd , from the side of the beam to the corner bar should be a +10 mm except where bmin is greater than the values in columns C and F.
3 The table is valid only if the detailing requirements (see note 4) are observed and, in normal temperature design, redistribution of bending moments does not exceed 15%.
4 For fire resistance of R90 and above, for a distance of 0.3l eff from the centre line of each intermediate support, the area of top reinforcement should not be less than the following:
A s,req (x) = A s,req ( 0 )( 1– 2.5 ( x/ l eff ) )
where:
x is the distance of the section being considered from the centre line of the support.
A s,req ( 0 ) is the area of reinforcement required for normal temperature design.
A s,req (x) is the minimum area of reinforcement required at the section being considered but not less than that required for normal temperature design.
l eff is the greater of the effective lengths of the two adjacent spans.
5 For fire resistances R120 – R240, the width of the beam at the first intermediate support should be at least that in column F, if both the following conditions exist:
a there is no fixity at the end support; and
b the acting shear at normal temperature Vsd > 0.67 V Rd,max .
Key
a Normally the requirements of BS EN 1992–1–1 will determine the cover.
Figure 1 Figure 3
Section through structural member, Simplified rectangular stress block for
showing nominal axis distances a and asd concrete up to class C50/60 from Eurocode 2
b εc fcd
ε sc
d2
x As2 0.8x Fsc
Fc
h>b Neutral axis
d
h z
a
As Fst
asd εs
b
Section Strain Stress block and forces
2
26
4. Beams
Figure 2
member. It is a nominal (not minimum) dimension, so the designer Procedure for determining flexural reinforcement
should ensure that:
a ≥ cnom + f link + f bar /2 and asd = a + 10 mm START
Table 2 gives the minimum dimensions for beams to meet the
standard fire periods. Carry out analysis of beam to determine
design moments (M) (see Table 3)
Flexure Concrete class No Outside scope of this

≤C50/60? publication
The design procedure for flexural design is given in Figure 2; this includes Yes
derived formulae based on the simplified rectangular stress block from M
Determine K from K =
Eurocode 2. Table 3 may be used to determine bending moments and bd 2 fck
shear forces for beams, provided the notes to the table are observed.
Determine K’ from Table 4 or
Table 3 K’ = 0.60d – 0.18 d2 – 0.21
Bending moment and shear coefficients for beams where d ≤ 1.0
Moment Shear
Outer support 25% of span moment 0.45 (G + Q) No Compression reinforcement
Is K ≤ K ’ ? required
G^Zkfb]]e^h_^g]liZg )')2)Gl + 0.100 Ql
At first interior support – 0.094 (G + Q) l 0.63 (G + Q)a
Yes
At middle of interior spans 0.066 Gl + 0.086 Ql Calculate lever arm z from
At interior supports – 0.075 (G + Q) l 0.50 (G + Q)
No compression reinforcement required 2 [
z = d 1 + 1 – 3.53 K ’ ]
Key
a 0.55 (G + Q) may be used adjacent to the interior span.
Notes
1 Redistribution of support moments by 15% has been included. Obtain lever arm z from Table 5 or use Calculate compression
2 Applicable to 3 or more spans only and where Qk ≤ G k. reinforcement required from
3 Minimum span ≥ 0.85 longest span. z= d
2 [1 + 1 – 3.53 K ] ≤ 0.95d As2 =
(K– K’) fck bd 2
4 l is the span, G is the total of the ULS permanent actions, Q is the total fsc(d– d2)
of the ULS variable actions.
where
Calculate tension reinforcement
Table 4
Values for K ’
required from
As =
M
fsc = 700
[ x – d2
x ] ≤ fyd
fyd z
% redistribution d (redistribution ratio) K ’
) *')) )'+)1Z Calculate tension
Check minimum reinforcement
reinforcement required from
*) )'2) )'*1+Z requirements (see Table 6)
0.26 fctm bt d K’fck bd 2 fsc
*. )'1. )'*/1 As,min = where fck ≥ 25 As = + As2
fyk fyd z fyd
+) )'1) )'*.,
+. )'0. )'*,0
,) )'0) )'*+) Check maximum reinforcement requirements As,max = 0.04 Ac
for tension or compression reinforcement outside lap locations
Key
a Bmblh_m^gk^\hf^g]^]bgma^NDmaZm D£lahne][êbfbm^]mh)'*/1mh^glnk^]n\mbe^_Zbenk^'
Table 5 Table 6
z/d for singly reinforced rectangular sections Minimum percentage of required reinforcement
K z/d K z/d fck fctm Minimum percentage (0.26 fctm / fyka)

©)'). )' 2.) Z )'*, )'1/1 +. +'/ )'*,
)')/ )'2-- )'*- )'1./ +1 +'1 )'*-
)')0 )'2,- )'*. )'1-, ,) +'2 )'*.
)')1 )'2+- )'*/ )'1,) ,+ ,') )'*/
)')2 )'2*, )'*0 )'1*/ ,. ,'+ )'*0
)'*) )'2)+ )'*1 )'1)+ -) ,'. )'*1
)'** )'12* )'*2 )'010 -. ,'1 )'+)
)'*+ )'11) )'+) )'00* .) -'* )'+*
Key Key
a Ebfbmbg`s mh)'2.] blghmZk^jnbk^f^gmh_>nkh\h]^+% [nmbl\hglb]^k^]mh[^`hh]ikZ\mb\^' a :llnfbg`_rd 6 .))FIZ
273
Figure 4
Strut inclination method Eurocode 2 offers various methods for determining the stress-strain
relationship of concrete. For simplicity and familiarity the method
Concrete strut in compression
presented here is the simplified rectangular stress block, which is
similar to that found in BS 8110 (see Figure 3).
Eurocode 2 gives recommendations for the design of concrete up to

y
class C90/105. However, for concrete greater than class C50/60, the
stress block is modified. It is important to note that concrete strength
is based on the cylinder strength and not the cube strength (i.e. for
class C30/37 the cylinder strength ( fck ) is 30 MPa, whereas the cube
Longitudinal Vertical shear strength is 37 MPa).
reinforcement in tension reinforcement
Vertical shear
Figure 5
Procedure for determining vertical shear reinforcement Eurocode 2 introduces the strut inclination method for shear capacity
checks. In this method the shear is resisted by concrete struts acting in
START compression and shear reinforcement acting in tension.
Determine vEd where The angle of the concrete strut varies, depending on the shear force
vEd = design shear stress [ vEd = VEd /(bwz) = VEd /(0 9. bwd)] applied (see Figure 4). The procedure for determining the shear capacity
of a section is shown in Figure 5 (which includes UK NA values) and is
Determine the concrete strut capacity v Rd, max cot y = 2.5
in terms of shear stress in the vertical plane rather than a vertical force
from Table 7 as given in Eurocode 2. Where shear reinforcement is required, then
the angle of the concrete strut should be calculated. For many typical
beams the minimum angle of strut will apply (when cot y = 2.5 or y =
Is Is
21.8º) i.e. for class C30/37 concrete the strut angle exceeds 21.8º only
No No Redesign
vEd < vRd,max coty = 2.5? v Ed < v Rd,max cot y = 1.0? when the shear stress is greater than 3.27 N/mm2 (refer to Table 7).
section
(see Table 7)
As with BS 8110, there is a maximum permitted shear capacity, vRd,max ,
(when cot y = 1.0 or y = 45º), but this is not restricted to 5 MPa as in
Yes (cot y = 2.5) Yes
BS 8110.
Determine y from:
y = 0.5 sin -1 T vEd

0.20 fck (1 – fck /250) V Deflection
Calculate area of shear reinforcement: >nkh\h]^+aZlmphZem^kgZmbo^f^mah]l_hk\a^\dbg`]^_e^\mbhg%
Asw vEd bw
= ^bma^kZebfbmbg`liZg&mh&]îmakZmbhfZr[^nl^]hkma^ma^hk^mb\Ze
s fywd cot y
]^_e^\mbhg\Zg[^Zll^ll^]nlbg`ma^^qik^llbhgl`bo^gbgma^<h]^'
MaêZmm^kbl]^Zempbmabg]^mZbebg<aZim^k1%hkb`bgZeerin[ebla^]Zl
Check maximum spacing for vertical shear reinforcement: =^_e^\mbhg\Ze\neZmbhgl7'
s l, max = 0.75 d
Ma^liZg&mh&]îmakZmbhllahne]^glnk^maZm]^_e^\mbhgblebfbm^]mh
liZg(+.)Zg]mablblmaîkh\^]nkîk^l^gm^]bg?b`nk^/'
Table 7
Minimum and maximum concrete strut capacity in terms of stress
fck
20
v Rd,max cot y = 2.5
2.54
v Rd,max cot y = 1.0
3.68
Flanged beams
25 3.10 4.50
28 3.43 4.97 ?eZg`^][^Zfl\Zg[^mk^Zm^]bgfn\ama^lZf^pZrZlbg;L1**)'
30 3.64 5.28 Ma^fZbg]b__^k^g\^l\hfiZk^]pbma;L1**)Zk^maZmma^Zll^llf^gm
32 3.84 5.58 h_ma^_eZg`^pb]mablfhk^lhiablmb\Zm^]!l^^?b`nk^l2Zg]*)"Zg]
35 4.15 6.02
40 4.63 6.72 maZm>nkh\h]^+\hgmZbglZ\a^\dmh\hg_bkfmaZmma^la^Zklmk^llZm
45 5.08 7.38
50 5.51 8.00 <hgmbgn^liZ`^,*
4
28
4. Beams
Figure 6 Figure 8
Procedure for assessing deflection Determination of steel stress
START 320
Determine basic l/d and K from Figure 7 300
Unmodified steel stress, ssu

280
Determine Factor 1 (F1)
For ribbed or waffle slabs
F1 = 1 – 0.1 ((bf/bw) – 1) ≥ 0.8† 260
(bf is flange breadth and bw is rib breadth)
Otherwise F1 = 1.0 240
Determine Factor 2 (F2) 220

Where the slab span exceeds 7 m and it supports
brittle partitions, F2 = 7/leff ≤ 1.0 200
Otherwise F2 = 1.0
180
Determine Factor 3 (F3) 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
F3 = 310/ss
Where ss = Stress in reinforcement at serviceability Ratio Gk /Qk
limit state (see Figure 8)
ss may assumed to be 310 MPa (i.e. F3 = 1.0)
c2 = 0.8, gG = 1.35 c2 = 0.6, gG = 1.25
Note: As,prov ≤ 1.5 As,req’d (UK National Annex) Increase
As,prov c2 = 0.6, gG = 1.35 c2 = 0.3, gG = 1.25
c2 = 0.3, gG = 1.35 c2 = 0.2, gG = 1.25
Is basic l/d x K x F1 x F2 x F3 ≥ Actual l/d ? c2 = 0.2, gG = 1.35
No
Yes
To determine stress in the reinforcement (ss), calculate the ratio
Check complete Gk/Qk, read up the graph to the appropriate curve and read across
to determine ssu .
† The Eurocode is ambiguous regarding linear interpolation. It is understood that
As,req
it was the intention of the drafting committee that linear interpolation be used
and this is in line with current UK practice.
ss can be calculated from the expression: ss = ssu
As,prov d
1
( )( )
Figure 7
Basic span-to-effective-depth ratios
36
Notes
34 1 Mabl`kZiaZllnf^llbfierlniihkm^]liZg\hg]bmbhg
!D 6*')"'
fck = 50 D 6*'._hkbgm^kbhkliZg\hg]bmbhg
32
fck = 45 D 6*',_hk^g]liZg\hg]bmbhg
D 6)'-_hk\Zgmbeô^kl'
30 fck = 40
fck = 35 2 <hfik^llbhgk^bg_hk\^f^gm% rÃ% aZl[^^gmZd^gZl)'
28 fck = 32 3 <nko^l[Zl^]hgma^_heehpbg`^qik^llbhgl3
Span to depth ratio (l/d)
fck = 30
T ! "V
*'.
26 fck = 28 e *'. _\d r ) _\d
r)
6D ** $ $ ,'+ ¾*
] r r
fck = 25
24
fck = 20 pa^k^r ©r )
22
Zg]
20
18
e
] T
6D ** $
*'. _\d r )
! r ¾ r Ã"
$
_\d
*+
rÃ
r) V
pa^k^r 7r ) '
16
14
12
0.40% 0.60% 0.80% 1.00% 1.20% 1.40% 1.60% 1.80% 2.00%
Percentage of tension reinforcement (A s,req’d /bd)
295
Figure 11 Figure 9
Procedure for determining flexural capacity of flanged beams Definition of lo, for calculation of effective flange width
START
l0 = 0.85 l1 l0 = 0.15 (l1 + l2 ) l0 = 0.7 l2 l0 = 0.15 l2 + l3

Carry out analysis of beam to determine design
moments, M (see Table 3)
l1 l2 l3
Determine l0 (see Figure 9) and beff from:

beff = (bw + beff1 + beff2) where Figure 10
beff1 = (0.2b1 + 0.1 l0) ≤ 0.2 l0 ≤ b1 Effective flange width parameters
beff2 = (0.2b2 + 0.1 l0) ≤ 0.2 l0 ≤ b2
Note: The flange width at the support will be beff
different from that at mid-span. beff,1 beff,2
For symbols refer to Figures 9 and 10
bw
M b1 b1 b2 b2
Determine K from K =
bd 2 fck
where b = bw at support b
b = beff in span
Figure 12
Placing of tension reinforcement in flanged cross section
K’ = 0.60d – 0.18 d2 – 0.21 where d ≤ 1.0
beff
As
Calculate lever arm z from
z=
d
2 [1 + 1 – 3.53 K ≤ 0.95d ] hf
Calculate depth to neutral axis x from: beff1 bw beff2

x = 2.5 (d – z)
Neutral axis in
flange. Design
Yes as rectangular
Is x ≤ 1.25hf ? section (Figure 2)
and then check
longitudinal shear
(Figure 14)
No
Figure 13
Neutral axis in web
Calculate moment capacity of flange from:
Notations for the connection between flange and web
MR,f = 0.57 fck (beff – bw) hf (d – 0.5hf)
M – MR,f Fd A
and Kf = yf
fck bw d 2
Compressive struts
Fd beff
Dx
Asf
Sf
No
Is Kf ≤ K ’? Redesign section A hf
Yes Longitudinal bar

anchored beyond Fd + D Fd
this projected point
Calculate area of reinforcement required from Check longitudinal
MR,f M – MR,f shear Fd + D Fd
As = + (see Figure 14) bw
fywd (d – 0.5 hf ) fywd
6
30
4. Beams
ma^bgm^k_Z\^h_ma^_eZg`^Zg]p^[\Zg[^k^lblm^][rma^mkZglo^kl^ Minimum area of shear reinforcement

k^bg_hk\^f^gmbgma^_eZg`^' Maîhlbmbhgh_ma^g^nmkZeZqbllahne] Ma^fbgbfnfZk^Zh_la^Zkk^bg_hk\^f^gmbg[^Zfl%:lp%fbglahne]
[^]^m^kfbg^]% Zg]ma^gma^ Zk^Zh_k^bg_hk\^f^gm\Zg[^\Ze\neZm^] [^\Ze\neZm^]_khf
]î^g]bg`pa^ma^kbmeb^lbgma^_eZg`^hkp^[!l^^?b`nk^**"' :lp
4 r p%fbg
l[p
:mlniihkmlma^m^glbhgk^bg_hk\^f^gmmhk^lblmah``bg`fhf^gml pa^k^r p%fbg \Zg[^h[mZbg^]_khfMZ[e^2'
lahne][^]blmkb[nm^]Z\khllma^_neepb]mah_ma^^__^\mbo^_eZg`^Zl
lahpgbg?b`nk^*+' Ma^liZg&mh&]îma]^_e^\mbhg\a^\dlnlbg`kZmbhh_
m^glbhgk^bg_hk\^f^gmlahne][^[Zl^]hgZk^Zh_\hg\k^m^Z[ho^ Figure 14
Procedure for determining longitudinal shear capacity of flanged beams
\^gmk^h_m^glbhglm^ê'
Longitudinal shear Calculate the longitudinal shear stress

from: vEd = D Fd/(hf D x)
Ma^la^Zklmk^llbgmaô^kmb\ZeieZg^[^mp^^gma^_eZg`^Zg]p^[lahne] (see Figure 13)
[^Zll^ll^]Z\\hk]bg`mhl^\mbhg/'+'-Zg]?b`nk^/'0h_ma^>nkh\h]^
!kîkh]n\^]a^k^Zl?b`nk^*,"' Ma^\aZg`^bg_hk\^bgma^_eZg`^\Zg
[^Zll^ll^]_khfma^fhf^gmZg]eô^kZkfZmZiZkmb\neZkeh\Zmbhg' Is length of Yes
Determine the concrete
strut capacity from Table 8
Ma^>nkh\h]^lmZm^lmaZmma^fZqbfnfe^g`mamaZm\Zg[^\hglb]^k^] flange under consideration or from:
in tension? vRd = 0.195 fck (1 – fck/250)
_hkma^\aZg`^bg_hk\^blaZe_ma^]blmZg\^[^mp^^gma^fZqbfnf
fhf^gmZg]maîhbgmpa^k^ma^fhf^gmbls^kh' <e^Zker% ma^fZqbfnf No
ehg`bmn]bgZe_hk\^pbeeh\\nkpa^k^ma^\aZg`^bgfhf^gm% Zg]
ma^k^_hk^_hk\^% blma^`k^Zm^lm4 _hkZngb_hkfer]blmkb[nm^]ehZ]hgZ Determine the concrete strut capacity
from Table 8 or from:
\hgmbgnhnl[^Zfmablpbee[^maê^g`mah_[^Zf\ehl^lmmhma^lniihkm' vRd = 0.160 fck (1 – fck/250)
?b`nk^*-lahplZ_ehp\aZkm_hkZll^llbg`maêhg`bmn]bgZela^Zk
\ZiZ\bmr4 bgfZgr\Zl^lma^mkZglo^kl^k^bg_hk\^f^gmbgma^leZ[pbee[^ Determine y f from:
No No
ln__b\b^gmmhk^lblmma^la^Zk_hk\^' Mabl\a^\dblbg\en]^]mh^glnk^maZm
pa^kîZkmb\neZkermabg_eZg`^lZk^nl^]ma^k^blZ]^jnZm^k^bg_hk\^f^gm'
Is v RD > vEd ?
yf = 0.5 sin-1 T vEd
0.2 fck (1 – fck /250) V Is v RD > vEd ?
Maêhg`bmn]bgZela^Zk\ZiZ\bmrbl[Zl^]hgmaôZkbZ[e^lmknmbg\ebgZmbhg Yes (cot y f = 2.0) Yes (cot y f

f^mah]% pab\apZl]^l\kb[^]bgma^l^\mbhghgo^kmb\Zela^Zk' = 1.25)
Calculate area of transverse reinforcement from:
Asf vEd hf
=
Rules for spacing and s fyd cot y f
quantity of reinforcement Table 8

Concrete strut capacity for longitudinal shear in flanged beams
Minimum area of longitudinal reinforcement fck v Rd,max
Ma^fbgbfnfZk^Zh_k^bg_hk\^f^gmbl:l%fbg 6)'+/_\ mf [ m ](_r d [nm Flange in compression Flange in tension
ghme^llmaZg)'))*,[ m]% pa^k^[ m blma^f^Zgpb]mah_ma^m^glbhg +) +'2- ,'.2
shg^!l^^MZ[e^/"' ?hkZM&[^Zfpbmama^_eZg`^bg\hfik^llbhg% hger +. ,'/) -',2
ma^pb]mah_ma^p^[blmZd^gbgmhZ\\hngmbg\Ze\neZmbg`maôZen^h_[ +1 ,'21 -'1.
,) -'++ .'*.
,+ -'-/ .'--
Maximum area of longitudinal reinforcement ,. -'1+ .'10
Ma^fZqbfnfZk^Zh_m^glbhghk\hfik^llbhgk^bg_hk\^f^gm% hnmlb]^ -) .',1 /'..
eZieh\Zmbhgllahne]ghm^q\^^]:l%fZq 6)')-:\ -. .'2) 0'+)
.) /'-) 0'1)
Minimum spacing of reinforcement
Ma^fbgbfnf\e^Zk]blmZg\^[^mp^^g[Zkllahne][^ma^`k^Zm^kh_3 Table 9
;Zk]bZf^m^k Values for r w,min
:``k^`Zm^lbsîenl.ff fck 20 25 28 30 32 35 40 45 50
+)ff r p%fbgq*) &, )'0+ )'1) )'1. )'11 )'2* )'2. *')* *')0 *'*,
317
4. Beams
Selected symbols
Symbol Definition Value Symbol Definition Value
:\ <khlll^\mbhgZeZk^Zh_\hg\k^m^ eh =blmZg\^[^mp^^gihbgmlh_s^khfhf^gm
:l :k^Zh_m^glbhglm^ê e(] LiZg&mh&]îmakZmbh
:l+ :k^Zh_\hfik^llbhglm^ê F =^lb`gfhf^gmZmma^NEL
:l% ikho :k^Zh_m^glbhglm^êikhob]^] q =îmamhg^nmkZeZqbl !]&s"()'-
:l% k^jÃ] :k^Zh_m^glbhglm^êk^jnbk^] qfZq EbfbmbgòZen^_hk]îmamhg^nmkZeZqbl !d ¾)'-"] pa^k^d ©*')
[^__ >__^\mbo^_eZg`^pb]ma s Eô^kZkf
[m F^Zgpb]mah_ma^m^glbhgshg^ a \\ <h^__b\b^gmmZdbg`Z\\hngmh_ehg`m^kf )'1._hk_e^qnk^Zg]
^__^\mlhg\hfik^llbo^lmk^g`maZg]h_ ZqbZeehZ]l
[fbg Pb]mah_[^Zfhkkb[
ng_ZohnkZ[e^^__^\mlk^lnembg`_khfma^ *')_hkhma^kia^ghf^gZ
[p Pb]mah_l^\mbhg% hkpb]mah_p^[hg_eZg`^][^Zfl pZrehZ]blZiieb^] !?khfNDGZmbhgZe:gg^q"
] >__^\mbo^]îma d KZmbhh_ma^k^]blmkb[nm^]fhf^gmmhma^
]+ >__^\mbo^]îmamh\hfik^llbhgk^bg_hk\^f^gm êZlmb\[^g]bg`fhf^gm
_\] =^lb`goZen^h_\hg\k^m^\hfik^llbo^lmk^g`ma a\\ _\d (g\ _hk_\d ©<.)(/) gf IZkmbZe_Z\mhk_hkfZm^kbZeikhi^kmb^l *'*._hkk^bg_hk\^f^gm!gl"
*'._hk\hg\k^m^!g\"
_\d <aZkZ\m^kblmb\\rebg]^klmk^g`mah_\hg\k^m^
r) K^_^k^g\^k^bg_hk\^f^gmkZmbh R_\d (*)))
_\mf F^ZgoZen^h_ZqbZem^glbe^lmk^g`ma )',)_\d!+(," _hk_\d ©<.)(/)
!_khfMZ[e^,'*% >nkh\h]^+" r K^jnbk^]m^glbhgk^bg_hk\^f^gmZmfb]&liZg :l([] !_hkk^\mZg`neZk[^Zfl"
mhk^lblmma^fhf^gm]n^mhma^]^lb`g
a_ ?eZg`^mab\dg^ll ehZ]l!hkZmlniihkm_hk\Zgmbeô^kl"
D ?Z\mhkmhmZd^Z\\hngmh_ma^]b__^k^gm L^^mZ[e^G:'-bg rÃ K^jnbk^]\hfik^llbhgk^bg_hk\^f^gmZm :l+([]
lmkn\mnkZelrlm^fl NDGZmbhgZe:gg^q fb]&liZgmhk^lblmma^fhf^gm]n^mhma^
e^__ >__^\mbo^liZgh_f^f[^k L^^L^\mbhg.','+'+!*" ]^lb`gehZ]l!hkZmlniihkm_hk\Zgmbeô^kl"
References
1 ;KBMBLALM:G=:K=LBGLMBMNMBHG' ;L>G*22+¾*¾*% >nkh\h]^+3 =^lb`gh_\hg\k^m^lmkn\mnk^l¾IZkm*¾*@^g^kZekne^lZg]kne^l_hk
[nbe]bg`l' ;LB% +))-'
2 ;KBMBLALM:G=:K=LBGLMBMNMBHG' ;L1**)¾*3 Ma^lmkn\mnkZenl^h_\hg\k^m^¾IZkm*% <h]^h_ikZ\mb\^_hk]^lb`gZg]\hglmkn\mbhg' ;LB% *220'
3 G:K:R:G:G% KL;KHHD>K% H' Ahpmh]^lb`g\hg\k^m^lmkn\mnk^lnlbg`>nkh\h]^+3 Bgmkh]n\mbhgmh>nkh\h]^l' Ma^<hg\k^m^<^gmk^% +)).'
4 ;KHHD>K% H' Ahpmh]^lb`g\hg\k^m^lmkn\mnk^lnlbg`>nkh\h]^+3 @^mmbg`lmZkm^]' Ma^<hg\k^m^<^gmk^% +)).'
5 ;KBMBLALM:G=:K=LBGLMBMNMBHG' ;L>G*22+¾*¾+% >nkh\h]^+3 =^lb`gh_\hg\k^m^lmkn\mnk^l' @^g^kZekne^l¾lmkn\mnkZe_bk^]^lb`g' ;LB% +))-
6 =>I:KMF>GMH?<HFFNGBMB>L:G=EH<:E@HO>KGF>GM' AZg][hhdmh>G&*22+&*&+ ' =<E@%]n^+))/'
7 P>;LM>K% K;KHHD>K% H' Ahpmh]^lb`g\hg\k^m^lmkn\mnk^lnlbg`>nkh\h]^+3 =^_e^\mbhg\Ze\neZmbhgl' Ma^<hg\k^m^<^gmk^% +))/'
Acknowledgements

0700 4 500 500 or 0700 4 CONCRETE Tel: +44 (0)1276 606800
Fax: +44 (0)1276 606801
First
32 published February 2006, revised December 2006
3. Slabs
R M Moss BSc, PhD, DIC, CEng, MICE, MIStructE O Brooker BEng, CEng, MICE, MIStructE
This chapter covers the analysis and design of slabs to Eurocode 21 which is
essentially the same as with BS 81102. However, the layout and content of
Eurocode 2 may appear unusual to designers familiar with BS 8110. Eurocode 2
does not contain the derived formulae or specific guidance on determining
moments and shear forces. This has arisen because it has been European
practice to give principles in the codes and for the detailed application to
be presented in other sources such as textbooks.
Chapter 1, originally published as Introduction to Eurocodes3, highlighted the

key differences between Eurocode 2 and BS 8110, including terminology.
Chapter 7, originally published as Flat slabs4 covers the design of flat slabs.
It should be noted that values from the UK National Annex (NA) have been
used throughout, including values that are embedded in derived formulae.
(Derivations can be found at www.eurocode2.info.) A list of symbols related to
slab design is given at the end of this chapter.
Design procedure
A procedure for carrying out the detailed design of slabs is shown in Table 1.
This assumes that the slab thickness has previously been determined during
conceptual design. More detailed advice on determining design life, actions,
material properties, methods of analysis, minimum concrete cover for
durability and control of crack widths can be found in Chapter 2, originally
published as Getting started 5.
Fire resistance
from The Concrete Eurocode 2, Part 1–2: Structural fire design6, gives a choice of advanced,
Centre’s publication, simplified or tabular methods for determining the fire resistance. Using tables
Lmkn\mnk^lnlbg`>nkh\h]^+ is the fastest method for determining the minimum dimensions and cover for
concrete structures
R S Narayanan?K>g`
using Eurocode 2 slabs. There are, however, some restrictions which should be adhered to.
(Ref. CCIP–006) Further guidance on the advanced and simplified methods can be obtained
from specialist literature.
Rather than giving a minimum cover, the tabular method is based on

nominal axis distance, a. This is the distance from the centre of the main
reinforcing bar to the surface of the member. It is a nominal (not minimum)
Continues page 19
Table 1
Slab design procedure

1 Determine design life 2: Getting started NA to BS EN 1990 Table NA.2.1
2 Assess actions on the slab 2: Getting started BS EN 1991 (10 parts) and National Annexes
3 Determine which combinations of actions apply 1: Introduction to Eurocodes NA to BS EN 1990 Tables NA.A1.1 and NA.A1.2 (B)
4 Determine loading arrangements 2: Getting started NA to BS EN 1992–1–1
5 Assess durability requirements and determine concrete strength 2: Getting started BS 8500: 2002
6 Check cover requirements for appropriate fire resistance period 2: Getting started and Table 2 Approved Document B. BS EN 1992–1–2: Section 5
7 Calculate min. cover for durability, fire and bond requirements 2: Getting started BS EN 1992–1–1 Cl 4.4.1
8 Analyse structure to obtain critical moments and shear forces 2: Getting started and Table 3 BS EN 1992–1–1 section 5
9 Design flexural reinforcement See Figure 1 BS EN 1992–1–1 section 6.1
10 Check deflection See Figure 3 BS EN 1992–1–1 section 7.4
11 Check shear capacity See Table 7 BS EN 1992–1–1 section 6.2
12 Check spacing of bars 2: Getting started BS EN 1992–1–1 section 7.3
Note
NA = National Annex.
Table 2
Minimum dimensions and axis distances for reinforced concrete slabs (excluding flat slabs)

resistance
One-way a,b Two-way spanning slab a,b,c,d Ribs in a two-way spanning ribbed slabe
spanning slab l y /l x ≤ 1.5 f 1.5 <l y /l x ≤ 2f
REI 60 hs = 80 80 80 b min = 100 120 ≥200

a= 20 10 g 15g a= 25 15g 10g
REI 90 hs = 100 100 100 b min = 120 160 ≥250
a= 30 15g 20 a= 35 25 15g
REI 120 hs = 120 120 120 b min = 160 190 ≥300
a= 40 20 25 a= 45 40 30
REI 240 hs = 175 175 175 b min = 450 700
–––
a= 65 40 50 a= 70 60
Notes Key
1 This table is taken from BS EN 1992–1–2 Tables 5.8 to 5.11. For flat slabs refer to a The slab thickness hs is the sum of the slab thickness and the thickness of any
Chapter 7. non-combustible flooring.
2 The table is valid only if the detailing requirements (see note 3) are observed and in b For continuous solid slabs a minimum negative reinforcement As ≥ 0.005 A c
normal temperature design redistribution of bending moments does not exceed 15%. should be provided over intermediate supports if
3 For fire resistance of R90 and above, for a distance of 0.3l eff from the centre line of each 1) cold worked reinforcement is used; or
intermediate support, the area of top reinforcement should not be less than the following: 2) there is no fixity over the end supports in a two span slab; or
A s,req (x) = A s,req ( 0 ) ( 1 – 2.5 ( x/ l eff ) ) 3) where transverse redistribution of load effects cannot be achieved.
where: c In two way slabs the axis refers to the lower layer of reinforcement.
x is the distance of the section being considered from the centre
d The term two way slabs relates to slabs supported at all four edges. If this is
line of the support.
not the case, they should be treated as one-way spanning slabs.
A s,req ( 0 ) is the area of reinforcement required for normal temperature design.
e For two-way ribbed slabs the following notes apply:
A s,req (x) is the minimum area of reinforcement required at the section
The axis distance measured to the lateral surface of the rib should be at
being considered but not less than that required for normal
least (a + 10).
temperature design.
The values apply where there is predominantly uniformly distributed loading.
l eff is the greater of the effective lengths of the two adjacent spans.
There should be at least one restrained edge.
4 There are three standard fire exposure conditions that need to be satisfied:
The top reinforcement should be placed in the upper half of the flange.
E Integrity of separation f l x and l y are the spans of a two-way slab (two directions at right angles) where
I Insulation l y is the longer span.
5 The ribs in a one-way spanning ribbed slab can be treated as beams and reference can g Normally the requirements of BS EN 1992–1–1 will determine the cover.
be made to Chapter 4, Beams. The topping can be treated as a two-way slab where
1.5 < ly / lx ≤ 2.
2
18
3. Slabs
Figure 1
Procedure for determining flexural reinforcement dimension, so the designer should ensure that
a ≥ cnom + f link + f bar /2.
START The requirements for various types of slab are given in Table 2.
Carry out analysis of slab to determine design moments (M)

(Where appropriate use coefficients from Table 3) Flexure
The design procedure for flexural design is given in Figure 1; this
No Outside scope of includes derived formulae based on the simplified rectangular stress
Concrete class
≤C50/60? this publication block from Eurocode 2. Where appropriate, Table 3 may be used to
determine bending moments and shear forces for slabs. Further
Yes information for the design of two-way, ribbed or waffle slabs is given in
Determine K from: K =
M the appropriate sections on pages 5 and 6.
bd 2 fck
Table 4
Values for K ’
K’ = 0.60d – 0.18 d 2 – 0.21 where d ≤ 1.0
% redistribution d (redistribution ratio) K’
0 1.00 0.208a
Compression
reinforcement
10 0.90 0.182a
No
Is K ≤ K ’ ? required – not 15 0.85 0.168
recommended for
typical slabs 20 0.80 0.153
Yes
25 0.75 0.137
30 0.70 0.120
No compression reinforcement required Key
a It is often recomended in the UK that K´ should be limited to 0.168 to ensure ductile failure.
Obtain lever arm z from Table 5 or

Table 5
z=
d
2 [
1 + 1 – 3.53 K ≤ 0.95d] z/d for singly reinforced rectangular sections
K z/d K z/d
Calculate tension reinforcement required from ≤0.05 0.950a 0.13 0.868
M
As = 0.06 0.944 0.14 0.856
fyd z
0.07 0.934 0.15 0.843
0.08 0.924 0.16 0.830
Check minimum reinforcement requirements (see Table 6) 0.09 0.913 0.17 0.816
0.26 fctm bt d 0.10 0.902 0.18 0.802
As,min = where fck ≥ 25
fyk 0.11 0.891 0.19 0.787
0.12 0.880 0.20 0.771
Key
Check maximum reinforcement requirements
a Limiting z to 0.95d is not a requirement of Eurocode 2, but is considered to be good practice.
As,max = 0.04 Ac for tension or compression
reinforcement outside lap locations
Table 6
Minimum percentage of reinforcement required
Table 3
Bending moment and shear coefficients for slabs fck fctm Minimum % (0.26 fctm /fyka )
25 2.6 0.13%
End support /slab connection First Interior Interior
interior spans supports 28 2.8 0.14%
Pinned Continuous
support 30 2.9 0.15%
End End End End
support span support span 32 3.0 0.16%
Moment 0 0.086Fl – 0.04Fl 0.075Fl –0.086Fl 0.063Fl –0.063Fl 35 3.2 0.17%
Shear 0.40F 0.46F 0.6F 0.5F 40 3.5 0.18%
Notes 45 3.8 0.20%
1 Applicable to one-way spanning slabs where the area of each bay exceeds 30 m2,
Qk ≤ 1.25 Gk and qk ≤ 5 kN/m2 50 4.1 0.21%
2 F is the total design ultimate load, l is the span Key
3 Minimum span > 0.85 longest span, minimum 3 spans
4 Based on 20% redistribution at supports and no decrease in span moments a Where fyk = 500 MPa.
3
19
Eurocode 2 offers various methods for determining the stress-strain Deflection

relationship of concrete. For simplicity and familiarity the method
presented here is the simplified rectangular stress block, which is Eurocode 2 has two alternative methods of designing for deflection,
similar to that found in BS 8110 (see Figure 2). either by limiting span-to-depth ratio or by assessing the theoretical
deflection using the Expressions given in the Eurocode. The latter
The Eurocode gives recommendations for the design of concrete up to is dealt with in detail in Chapter 8, originally published as Deflection
class C90/105. However, for concrete greater than class C50/60, the stress calculations7.
block is modified. It is important to note that concrete strength is based
on the cylinder strength and not the cube strength (i.e. for class C28/35 The span-to-depth ratios should ensure that deflection is limited to
the cylinder strength is 28 MPa, whereas the cube strength is 35 MPa). span /250 and this is the procedure presented in Figure 3.
Figure 2
Simplified rectangular stress block for concrete up to class C50/60 from Eurocode 2
Figure 3 Figure 4
Procedure for assessing deflection Determination of steel stress
START
Determine basic l/d from Figure 5

For ribbed or waffle slabs
F1 = 1 – 0.1 ((bf/bw) – 1) ≥ 0.8†
Otherwise F1 = 1.0

Where the slab span exceeds 7 m and it supports
brittle partitions, F2 = 7/leff
Otherwise F2 = 1.0

F3 = 310/ss
Where ss = Stress in reinforcement at serviceability
ss may be assumed to be 310 MPa (i.e. F3 = 1.0)
Note: As,prov ≤ 1.5 As,req’d (UK National Annex) Increase
As,prov
Is basic l/d x F1 x F2 x F3 ≥ Actual l/d ?

No
Yes
To determine stress in the reinforcement (ss), calculate the ratio
Gk/Qk , read up the graph to the appropriate curve and read across
Check complete to determine ssu .
As,req
† The Eurocode is ambiguous regarding linear interpolation. It is understood that this
was the intention of the drafting committee and is in line with current UK practice.
ss can be calculated from the expression: ss = ssu ( )( )
As,prov d
1
4
20
3. Slabs
Design for shear Table 7

vRd,c resistance of members without shear reinforcement, MPa
It is not usual for a slab to contain shear reinforcement, therefore it is rI = Effective depth, d (mm)
As /(bd)
only necessary to ensure that the concrete shear stress capacity ≤200 225 250 275 300 350 400 450 500 600 750
without shear reinforcement (vRd,c – see Table 7) is more than applied
0.25% 0.54 0.52 0.50 0.48 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.40 0.38 0.36
shear stress (vEd = VEd /( bd )). Where shear reinforcement is required,
e.g. for ribs in a ribbed slab, refer to Chapter 4, originally published as 0.50% 0.59 0.57 0.56 0.55 0.54 0.52 0.51 0.49 0.48 0.47 0.45
Beams 8. 0.75% 0.68 0.66 0.64 0.63 0.62 0.59 0.58 0.56 0.55 0.53 0.51
1.00% 0.75 0.72 0.71 0.69 0.68 0.65 0.64 0.62 0.61 0.59 0.57
Two-way slabs 1.25% 0.80 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.73 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.66 0.63 0.61
1.50% 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.79 0.78 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.70 0.67 0.65
Unlike BS 8110 there is no specific guidance given in Eurocode 2 on
how to determine the bending moments for a two-way slab. The 1.75% 0.90 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.82 0.79 0.77 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.68
assessment of the bending moment can be carried out using any ≥2.00% 0.94 0.91 0.89 0.87 0.85 0.82 0.80 0.78 0.77 0.74 0.71
suitable method from Section 5 of the Code. However, co-efficients
k 2.000 1.943 1.894 1.853 1.816 1.756 1.707 1.667 1.632 1.577 1.516
may be obtained from Table 8 (taken from the Manual for the design of
building structures to Eurocode 29) to determine bending moments per Table derived from: v Rd,c = 0.12 k (100r I fck)1/3 ≥ 0.035 k1.5 fck 0.5
unit width (Msx and Msy) where: where k = 1 + R(200/d) ≤ 2 and r I = As /(bd) ≤ 0.02
Note
Msx = bsx w lx2 1 This table has been prepared for fck = 30.
2 Where r I exceeds 0.40% the following factors may be used:
Msy = b sy w lx2
fck 25 28 32 35 40 45 50
Where bsx and bsy are coefficients, lx is the shorter span and w (load
Factor 0.94 0.98 1.02 1.05 1.10 1.14 1.19
per unit area) is the STR ultimate limit state combination. For more
information on combinations refer toChapter 1, originally published as
Introduction to Eurocodes3.
Figure 5
Basic span-to-effective-depth ratios
Notes
1 For two-way spanning slabs, the check should be
carried out on the basis of the shorter span.
2 This graph assumes simply supported span
condition (K = 1.0).
K = 1.5 for interior span condition
K = 1.3 for end span condition
K = 0.4 for cantilevers
3 Compression reinforcement, r’, has been taken as 0.
4 Curves based on the following expressions:
[ ( )]
1.5
l 1.5 fck r 0 fck
r0
= K 11 + + 3.2 –1
d r r
where r ≤ r 0
and
l
d
= K 11 +[1.5 fck r 0
( r – r ’)
+
fck
12
r’
r0 ]
where r > r 0 .
Percentage of tension reinforcement (As,req’d/bd)
5
21
Ribbed or waffle slabs Figure 6

Procedure for determining flexural capacity of flanged ribs
Current practices for determining forces in ribbed and waffle slabs may also
START
be used for designs to Eurocode 2. Where a waffle slab is treated as a
two-way slab refer to previous section, but note that their torsional stiffness
is significantly less than for a two-way slab and the bending moment co-
efficients may not be applicable. Where it is treated as a flat slab reference No Outside scope
Concrete class of this
may be made to Chapter 7, originally published as Flat slabs4 ≤ C50/60? publication
The position of the neutral axis in the rib should be determined, and Yes
then the area of reinforcement can be calculated depending on Determine l0 (see Figure 7) and beff from:
whether it lies in the flange or web (see flow chart in Figure 6). The beff = (bw + beff1 + beff2) where
beff1 = (0.2b1 + 0.1 l0) ≤ 0.2 l0 ≤ b1
main differences compared with BS 8110 are that the assessment of
beff2 = (0.2b2 + 0.1 l0) ≤ 0.2 l0 ≤ b2
the flange width is more sophisticated (see Figures 7 and 8). Note: The flange width at the support will be
different from that at mid-span.
For symbols refer to Figures 7 and 8
Where a slab is formed with permanent blocks or a with a topping
thickness less than 50 mm and one-tenth of the clear distance
between ribs it is recommended that a longitudinal shear check is
M
carried out to determine whether additional transverse reinforcement is Determine K from: K =
bd 2 fck
required (see BS EN 1992–1–1, Cl 6.2.4).
Table 8 Determine K’ from Table 2 or

Bending moment coefficients for two-way spanning rectangular slabs
K’ = 0.60d – 0.18 d2 – 0.21 where d ≤ 1.0
supported by beams
Type or panel Short span coefficients for Long-span

and moments values of ly /lx coefficients
Calculate lever arm z from
considered for all values
of ly /lx z=
d
2 [
1 + 1 – 3.53 K ≤ 0.95d ]
1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0
Interior panels Calculate depth to neutral axis x from:

x = 2.5 (d – z)
Negative moment 0.031 0.044 0.053 0.059 0.063 0.032
at continuous edge
Neutral axis in
Positive moment 0.024 0.034 0.040 0.044 0.048 0.024 Yes flange.
at midspan Is x ≤ 1.25hf Design as
rectangular
section.
One short edge discontinuous
No
Negative moment 0.039 0.050 0.058 0.063 0.067 0.037
at continuous edge Neutral axis in web
Calculate moment capacity of flange from:
Positive moment 0.029 0.038 0.043 0.047 0.050 0.028 MR,f = 0.57 fck (beff – bw) hf (d – 0.5hf)
at midspan
M – MR,f
and Kf =
One long edge discontinuous fck bw d 2
Negative moment 0.039 0.059 0.073 0.083 0.089 0.037

at continuous edge
No
Is Kf ≤ K ’ Redesign
Positive moment 0.030 0.045 0.055 0.062 0.067 0.028 section
at midspan
Two adjacent edges discontinuous Yes
Negative moment 0.047 0.066 0.078 0.087 0.093 0.045 Calculate area of reinforcement required from
at continuous edge MR,f M – MR,f
As = +
fywd (d – 0.5 hf ) fywd z
Positive moment 0.036 0.049 0.059 0.065 0.070 0.034
at midspan
6
22
3. Slabs
Figure 7 Figure 8
Definition of l0 , for calculation of effective flange width Effective flange width parameters
Rules for spacing and Selected symbols

Symbol Definition Value
quantity of reinforcement Ac
As
Cross sectional area of concrete
Area of tension steel
bh
As2 Area of compression steel

Minimum area of principal reinforcement As, prov Area of tension steel provided
The minimum area of principal reinforcement in the main direction is As, req’d Area of tension steel required
As,min = 0.26 fc tm b t d/fy k but not less than 0.0013b td, where b t is the beff Effective flange width
mean width of the tension zone (see Table 6). For a T-beam with the bt Mean width of the tension zone
flange in compression, only the width of the web is taken into account bmin Width of beam or rib
in calculating the value of b t. bw Width of rib web
d Effective depth
Minimum area of secondary reinforcement d2 Effective depth to compression reinforcement
The minimum area of secondary transverse reinforcement is
fcd Design value of concrete compressive strength acc fck /gc
20% As,min . In areas near supports, transverse reinforcement is not
fck Characteristic cylinder strength of concrete
necessary where there is no transverse bending moment.
fctm Mean value of axial tensile strength 0.30 fck2/3 for fck ≤ C50/60
(from Table 3.1, Eurocode 2)
Maximum area of reinforcement hf Flange thickness
Outside lap locations, the maximum area of tension or compression hs Slab thickness
reinforcement should not exceed As,max = 0.04 Ac K Factor to take account of the different See Table NA.4 in
structural systems UK National Annex
Minimum spacing of reinforcement leff Effective span of member See Section 5.3.2.2 (1)
The minimum clear distance between bars should be the greater of: l0 Distance between points of zero moment
� Bar diameter l/d Limiting span-to-depth ratio
� Aggregate size plus 5 mm lx, ly Spans of a two-way slab

� 20 mm M Design moment at the ULS
x Depth to neutral axis (d – z)/0.4
Maximum spacing of reinforcement xmax Limiting value for depth to neutral axis (d – 0.4)d where d ≤1.0
For slabs less than 200 mm thick the following maximum spacing z Lever arm
rules apply: a cc Coefficient taking account of long term 0.85 for flexure and
effects on compressive strength and of axial loads.
� For the principal reinforcement: 3h but not more than 400 mm
unfavourable effects resulting from the 1.0 for other phenomena
� For the secondary reinforcement: 3.5h but not more than 450 mm way load is applied (From UK National Annex)
d Ratio of the redistributed moment to the
The exception is in areas with concentrated loads or areas of maximum elastic bending moment
moment where the following applies: gm Partial factor for material properties 1.15 for reinforcement (gs )
1.5 for concrete (gc )
� For the principal reinforcement: 2h but not more than 250 mm
r0 Reference reinforcement ratio Rfck /1000
� For the secondary reinforcement: 3h but not more than 400 mm
r Required tension reinforcement at mid-span As/bd
Where h is the depth of the slab.
to resist the moment due to the design
loads (or at support for cantilevers)
For slabs 200 mm thick or greater the bar size and spacing should be r’ Required compression reinforcement at As2/bd
limited to control the crack width and reference should be made to mid-span to resist the moment due to the
design loads (or at support for cantilevers)
section 7.3.3 of the Code or Chapter 2, originally published as Getting
started 5.
7
23
3. Slabs
References
1 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–1: Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures – Part 1–1 General rules and rules for buildings. BSI, 2004.
2 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8110–1: The structural use of concrete – Part 1, Code of practice for design and construction. BSI, 1997.
3 NARAYANAN, R S & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Introduction to Eurocodes. The Concrete Centre, 2005.
4 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Flat slabs. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
5 BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Getting started. The Concrete Centre, 2005.
6 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–2, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. General rules – structural fire design, BSI 2004.
7 WEBSTER, R & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Deflection calculations. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
8 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Beams. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
9 THE INSTITUTION OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS/THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. Manual for the design of concrete building structures to
Eurocode 2. IStructE/ICE, 2006.
Acknowledgements

0700 4 500 500 or 0700 4 CONCRETE Tel: +44 (0)1276 606800
Fax: +44 (0)1276 606801
First
24 published January 2006, revised December 2006
5. Columns
R Moss BSc, PhD, DIC, CEng, MICE, MIStructE O Brooker BEng, CEng, MICE, MIStructE
This chapter is intended to assist engineers with the design of columns and
walls to Eurocode 21. It sets out a design procedure to follow and gives useful
commentary on the provisions within the Eurocode. The layout and content
of Eurocode 2 may appear unusual to designers familiar with BS 81102.
Eurocode 2 does not contain the derived formulae; this is because it has been
European practice to give principles and general application rules in the codes
and for detailed application rules to be presented in other sources such as
textbooks or guidance documents.
Chapter 1, originally published as Introduction to Eurocodes 3, highlighted the

It should also be noted that values from the UK National Annex (NA) have
been used throughout this publication, including values that are embedded in
derived formulae. (Derivations can be found at www.eurocode2.info.) A full list
of symbols related to column design is given at the end of this chapter.
Design procedure
A procedure for carrying out the detailed design of braced columns (i.e.
columns that do not contribute to resistance of horizontal actions) is shown
in Table 1. This assumes that the column dimensions have previously been
determined during conceptual design or by using quick design methods, for
example those presented in Economic concrete frame elements 4. Column sizes
should not be significantly different from those obtained using BS 8110. Steps
1 to 4 of Table 1 are covered by earlier chapters and the next step is therefore
to consider fire resistance.

from The Concrete
Fire resistance
Ahpmh=^lb`g<hg\k^m^ How to design Eurocode 2, Part 1–2: Structural fire design5, gives a choice of advanced, simplified
Lmkn\mnk^lnlbg`>nkh\h]^+
concrete structures or tabular methods for determining fire resistance of columns. Using tables is the
using Eurocode 2
A J Bond F:FL\=B<Ia=FB<><>g` T Harrison ;L\Ia=<>g`FB<>?B<M R S Narayanan?K>g`
fastest method for determining the minimum dimensions and cover for columns.
O Brooker ;>g`<>g`FB<>FBLmkn\m> R M Moss;L\Ia==B<<>g`FB<>FBLmkn\m> R Webster<>g`?BLmkn\m>
(Ref. CCIP–006)
There are, however, some restrictions and if these apply further guidance can
be obtained from specialist literature.6 The simplified method may give more
economic columns, especially for small columns and/or high fire resistance periods.
Rather than giving a minimum cover, the tabular method is based on nominal
axis distance, a (see Figure 1). This is the distance from the centre of the main
Continues page 35
Table 1
Column design procedure

Chapter in the publication Standard
1 Determine design life 2: Getting started UK NA to BS EN 1990 Table NA.2.1
2 Assess actions on the column 2: Getting started BS EN 1991 (10 parts) and UK National Annexes
3 Determine which combinations of actions apply 1: Introduction to Eurocodes UK NA to BS EN 1990 Tables NA.A1.1 and NA.A1.2 (B)
5 Check cover requirements for appropriate fire resistance period 2: Getting started and Table 2 Approved Document B. BS EN 1992–1–2
6 Calculate min. cover for durability, fire and bond requirements 2: Getting started BS EN 1992–1–1 Cl. 4.4.1
7 Analyse structure to obtain critical moments and axial 2: Getting started and ‘Structural BS EN 1992–1–1 section 5
forces analysis’ section
8 Check slenderness See Figures 2 and 3 BS EN 1992–1–1 section 5.8
9 Determine area of reinforcement required See Figures 2 and 3 BS EN 1992–1–1 section 6.1
10 Check spacing of bars ‘Rules for spacing’ section BS EN 1992–1–1 sections 8 and 9
Note
NA = National Annex.
Table 2 Figure 1
Minimum column dimensions and axis distances for fire resistance Section through structural member, showing nominal axis distance a

resistance
Column width bmin/axis distance, a, of the main
bars
Column exposed on more than Column
one side exposed on
one side
(µfi = 0.7) h≥b
µfi = 0.5 µfi = 0.7
R 60 200/36 250/46 155/25
300/31 350/40
a
R 90 300/45 350/53 155/25
400/38 a 450/40 a
b
R 120 350/45 a 350/57 a 175/35
450/40 a 450/51a
b
R 240 450/75a 295/70 Table 3
Minimum reinforced concrete wall dimensions and axis distances for
load-bearing for fire resistance
Note
The table is taken from BS EN 1992–1–2 Table 5.2a (method A) and is valid under the Standard Minimum dimensions (mm)
following conditions: fire
resistance Wall thickness/axis distance, a, of the main bars
1 The effective length of a braced column under fire conditions lo,fi ≤ 3m. The value of lo,fi
may be taken as 50% of the actual length for intermediate floors and between 50% Wall exposed on one side Wall exposed on two
and 70% of the actual length for the upper floor column. (µfi = 0.7) sides ( µfi = 0.7)
2 The first order eccentricity under fire conditions should be ≤ 0.15b (or h). Alternatively REI 60 130/10 a 140/10 a
use method B (see Eurocode 2, Part 1–2, Table 5.2b). The eccentricity under fire
conditions may be taken as that used in normal temperature design. REI 90 140/25 170/25
3 The reinforcement area outside lap locations does not exceed 4% of the concrete REI 120 160/35 220/35
cross section.
REI 240 270/60 350/60
4 µfi is the ratio of the design axial load under fire conditions to the design resistance of
the column at normal temperature conditions. µfi may conservatively be taken as 0.7. Notes
Key 1 The table is taken from BS EN 1992–1–2 Table 5.4.
a Minimum 8 bars 2 See note 4 of Table 2.
b Method B may be used which indicates 600/70 for R 240 and µfi = 0.7. Key
See BS EN 1992–1–2 Table 5.2b
34
5. Columns
reinforcing bar to the surface of the member. It is a nominal (not present methods A and B. Both are equally applicable, although
minimum) dimension, and the designer should ensure that: method A has smaller limits on eccentricity than method B. Method A
a ≥ cnom + f link + f bar/2. is slightly simpler and is presented in Table 2; limits of applicability
are given in the notes. Similar data for load-bearing walls is given in
For columns there are two tables given in Eurocode 2 Part 1–2 that Table 3.
Figure 2 For columns supporting the uppermost storey, the eccentricity will
Flow chart for braced column design often exceed the limits for both methods A and B. In this situation
Annex C of Eurocode 2, Part 1–2 may be used. Alternatively,
START
consideration can be given to treating the column as a beam for
determining the design fire resistance.
Initial column size may be determined using quick design

methods or through iteration.
Column design
Determine the actions on the column A flow chart for the design of braced columns is shown in Figure 2. For
using an appropriate analysis method. slender columns, Figure 3 will also be required.
The ultimate axial load is NEd and the ultimate moments
are Mtop and Mbottom (Moments from analysis)
Structural analysis
The type of analysis should be appropriate to the problem being
Determine the effective length, lo, using either: considered. The following may be used: linear elastic analysis, linear
1. Figure 5
2. Table 4 elastic analysis with limited redistribution, plastic analysis and
3. Expression (5.15) from BS EN 1992–1–1
non-linear analysis. Linear elastic analysis may be carried out assuming
cross sections are uncracked (i.e. concrete section properties),
using linear stress-strain relationships and assuming mean values
Determine first order moments (see Figure 4)
M01 = Min {|Mtop|, |Mbottom|} + ei NEd of long-term elastic modulus.
M02 = Max {|Mtop|, |Mbottom|} + ei NEd
Where ei = Max {lo/400, h/30, 20} (units to be in millimetres).
M01 and M02 should have the same sign
For the design of columns the elastic moments from the frame action
if they give tension on the same side. should be used without any redistribution. For slender columns a
non-linear analysis may be carried out to determine the second order
moments; alternatively use the moment magnification method
Determine slenderness, l, from either:
l = lo/i where i = radius of gyration or
(Cl 5.8.7.3) or nominal curvature method (Cl 5.8.8) as illustrated in
l = 3.46 lo/h for rectangular sections (h = overall depth) or Figure 3. The latter is expected to be adopted in the UK.
l = 4.0 lo/d for circular sections (d = column diameter)
Design moments
Determine slenderness limit, λlim, from: The design bending moment is illustrated in Figure 4 and defined as:
l 15.4C
lim =
√n MEd = Max {M02, M0e + M2, M01 + 0.5 M2}
(See ‘Slenderness’ section on page 5 for explanation.)
where
M01 = Min {|Mtop|, |Mbottom|} + ei NEd
Yes M02 = Max {|Mtop|, |Mbottom|} + ei NEd
Column is slender
Is l ≥ l lim? (refer to Figure 3).
ei = Max {lo/400, h/30, 20} (units to be in millimetres).
Mtop, Mbottom = Moments at the top and bottom of the column
No M0e = 0.6 M02 + 0.4 M01 ≥ 0.4 M02
Column is not slender. MEd = M02
M2 = NEd e2 where NEd is the design axial load and e2
is deflection due to second order effects
M01 and M02 should be positive if they give tension on the same side.
Use column chart (see Figure 9) to find As required for NEd
and MEd. Alternatively, solve by iteration or by using RC
Spreadsheet TCC53 from Spreadsheets for concrete design to A non-slender column can be designed ignoring second order effects
BS 8110 and Eurocode 2 7
and therefore the ultimate design moment, MEd = M02.
The calculation of the eccentricity, e2, is not simple and is likely to

Check rules for spacing and quantity of reinforcement
(see page 7) require some iteration to determine the deflection at approximately
mid-height, e2. Guidance is given in Figure 3.
35
Figure 3 Effective length

Flow chart for slender columns (nominal curvature method)
Figure 5 gives guidance on the effective length of the column.
However, for most real structures Figures 5f) and 5g) only are
From Figure 2 applicable, and Eurocode 2 provides two expressions to calculate the
effective length for these situations. Expression (5.15) is for braced
Determine Kr from Figure 9 or from members and Expression (5.16) is for unbraced members.
Kr = (nu - n) / (nu - nbal) ≤ 1
where
n = NEd / (Ac fcd), relative axial force
In both expressions, the relative flexibilities at either end, k1 and k2,
NEd = the design value of axial force should be calculated. The expression for k given in the Eurocode
nu = 1 + w
nbal = 0.4 involves calculating the rotation of the restraining members, which in
w = As,est fyd / (Ac fcd) practice requires the use of framework analysis software. Alternatively,
As,est = the estimated total area of steel
Ac = the area of concrete PD 6687: Background paper to the UK National annex 8 provides a
simplification, based on the stiffness of the beams attached to either
side of the column. This relative stiffness, k, can therefore be calculated
Calculate Kh from Kh = 1 + b hef ≥ 1
where as follows (provided the stiffness of adjacent columns does not vary by
hef = the effective creep ratio
b = 0.35 + fck/200 – λ/150
more than 15% of the higher stiffness):
l = the slenderness ratio.
See section on creep (page 6) EIc 2EIb
k=
lc
Σl b
≥ 0.1
Calculate e2 from where

e2 = 0.1 (
Kh fyd
Kr
0.45d Es
l0
2
) Revise value
of As,est
Ic, Ib are the column and beam uncracked second moments of area
where lc, lb are the column and beam lengths
Es = elastic modulus of reinforcing steel
(200 GPa)
Once k1 and k2 have been calculated, the effective length factor, F, can
be established from Table 4 for braced columns. The effective length is
then lo = Fl.
M0e = 0.6 M02 + 0.4 M01 ≥ 0.4 M02
M2 = NEd e2
MEd = Max {M02, M0e + M2, M01 + 0.5 M2} For a 400 mm square internal column supporting a 250 mm thick flat
slab on a 7.5 m grid, the value of k could be 0.11, and therefore lo = 0.59l.
In the edge condition k is effectively doubled and lo = 0.67l. If the internal
Use column chart to find As,req’d for NEd and MEd column had a notionally ‘pinned’ support at its base then lo = 0.77l.
Alternatively, solve by iteration or by using
RC Spreadsheet7
It is also generally accepted that Table 3.19 of BS 8110 may
conservatively be used to determine the effective length factor. In the
long term, Expressions (5.15) and (5.16) will be beneficial as they are
No
Is As req’d & As, est? particularly suitable for incorporation into design software.
Yes Figure 4
Design bending moments
Check detailing requirements
M02
M ei NEd M02
Figure 5
Effective lengths for isolated members
M0e M0e + M2
M2 = NEd e2
+ =
y
y
l
y
M M01 0.5 M2 M01 + 0.5 M2
First order Additional second Total moment
moments for order moments for diagram for
a) l0 = l b) l0 = 2l c) l0 = 0.7l d) l0 = l /2 e) l0 = l f) l/2 < l0 < l g) l0 > 2l ‘stocky’ columns ‘slender’ columns ‘slender’ columns
Figure 4
Figure 5 Design moments
Effective lengths for isolated members
36
File How t o Columns Figure 4
File How to Columns Fig 5 25.01.06
25.01.06 Job No.
Job No.
5. Columns
Table 4 Slenderness
Effective length factor, F, for braced columns
Eurocode 2 states that second order effects may be ignored if they
k2 k1 are less than 10% of the first order effects. As an alternative, if the
0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.70 1.00 2.00 5.00 9.00 Pinned slenderness (l) is less than the slenderness limit (l lim), then second
order effects may be ignored.
0.10 0.59 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.67 0.69 0.71 0.73 0.75 0.76 0.77
0.20 0.62 0.65 0.68 0.69 0.71 0.73 0.74 0.77 0.79 0.80 0.81 Slenderness, l = lo/i where i = radius of gyration and slenderness limit.
0.30 0.64 0.68 0.70 0.72 0.73 0.75 0.77 0.80 0.82 0.83 0.84
20ABC 15.4C
0.40 0.66 0.69 0.72 0.74 0.75 0.77 0.79 0.82 0.84 0.85 0.86 l lim = ≤
n n
0.50 0.67 0.71 0.73 0.75 0.76 0.78 0.80 0.83 0.86 0.86 0.87
where
0.70 0.69 0.73 0.75 0.77 0.78 0.80 0.82 0.85 0.88 0.89 0.90
A = 1/(1+0.2 hef) (if hef is not known, A = 0.7 may be used)
1.00 0.71 0.74 0.77 0.79 0.80 0.82 0.84 0.88 0.90 0.91 0.92 B= (if ω, reinforcement ratio, is not known,
2.00 0.73 0.77 0.80 0.82 0.83 0.85 0.88 0.91 0.93 0.94 0.95 B = 1.1 may be used)
5.00 0.75 0.79 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.90 0.93 0.96 0.97 0.98 C = 1.7 – rm (if rm is not known, C = 0.7 may be used – see below)
9.00 0.76 0.80 0.83 0.85 0.86 0.89 0.91 0.94 0.97 0.98 0.99 n = NEd / (Ac fcd)
Pinned 0.77 0.81 0.84 0.86 0.87 0.90 0.92 0.95 0.98 0.99 1.00 rm = M01/M02
M01, M02 are the first order end moments, |M02| ≥ |M01|
Figure 6
Calculating factor C If the end moments M01 and M02 give tension on the same side,
rm should be taken positive.
105 kNm 105 kNm 105 kNm
Of the three factors A, B and C, C will have the largest impact on
l lim and is the simplest to calculate. An initial assessment of l lim can
therefore be made using the default values for A and B, but including
a calculation for C (see Figure 6). Care should be taken in determining
105 kNm 0 105 kNm
C because the sign of the moments makes a significant difference. For
rm = 1.0 rm = 0 rm = -1.0
unbraced members C should always be taken as 0.7.
a) C = 1.7 - 1 = 0.7 b) C = 1.7 - 0 = 1.7 c) C = 1.7 + 1.0 = 2.7
Column design resistance
Note For practical purposes the rectangular stress block used for the design
Figure 7 columns, C = 0.7
For unbraced
Stress block diagram for columns of beams (see Chapter 4, originally published as Beams 9) may also be
Figure 6
Calculating Factor C used for the design of columns (see Figure 7). However, the maximum
f cd d2 compressive strain for concrete classes up to and including C50/60,
ecu 2 s sc
File How t o Columns Figure 6 esc As2 when the whole section is in pure compression, is 0.00175 (see Figure
25.01.06
Job No. dc
x 8a). When the neutral axis falls outside the section (Figure 8b), the
h maximum allowable strain is assumed to lie between 0.00175 and
n. axis
d2 0.0035, and may be obtained by drawing a line from the point of zero
ey As
s st strain through the ‘hinge point’ of 0.00175 strain at mid-depth of the
section. When the neutral axis lies within the section depth then the
a) Strain diagram b) Stress diagram
maximum compressive strain is 0.0035 (see Figure 8c).
Figure 8
Figure 8 diagram for columns
Stress block
Strain diagrams for columns
File Hoe to Columns Figure 8

0.00175 0.00175 x / ( x – h /2) 0.0035 max 0.0035 max
25.01.06
Job No.
x x
h/ 2
hinge hinge
h point h d point
x
ex ex
0.00175 0.00175 min
a) Pure compression b) When x > h c) When x < h d) General relationship
Figure 7
Strain diagrams for columns
37
File How to columns Fig 7

25.01.06
The general relationship is shown in Figure 8d). For concrete classes Creep
above C50/60 the principles are the same but the maximum strain Depending on the assumptions used in the design, it may be necessary
values vary. to determine the effective creep ratio hef (ref. Cl. 3.1.4 & 5.8.4). A
nomogram is provided in the Eurocode (Figure 3.1) for which the
Two expressions can be derived for the area of steel required, (based on cement strength class is required; however, at the design stage it often
a rectangular stress block, see Figure 7) one for the axial loads and the not certain which class applies. Generally, Class R should be assumed.
other for the moments: Where the ground granulated blastfurnace slag (ggbs) exceeds 35%
AsN /2 = (NEd – fcd b dc) / (σsc – σst) of the cement combination or where pulverized fuel ash (pfa) exceeds
where 20% of the cement combination, Class N may be assumed. Where
AsN = Area of reinforcement required to resist axial load ggbs exceeds 65% or where pfa exceeds 35%, Class S may be assumed.
NEd = Axial load
fcd = Design value of concrete compressive strength
σsc (σst) = Stress in compression (and tension) reinforcement Biaxial bending
b = Breadth of section
dc = Effective depth of concrete in compression = lx ≤ h The effects of biaxial bending may be checked using Expression (5.39),
l = 0.8 for ≤ C50/60 which was first developed by Breslaer.
x = Depth to neutral axis a a
h = Height of section ( ) + ( ) ≤ 1.0

MEdz
MRdz
MEdy
MRdy
AsM /2 = [M – fcd b dc(h/2 – dc/2)] / [(h/2–d2) (σsc+σst)] where

where MEdz,y = Design moment in the respective direction including second
AsM = Total area of reinforcement required to resist moment order effects in a slender column
MRdz,y = Moment of resistance in the respective direction
Realistically, these can only be solved iteratively and therefore either a = 2 for circular and elliptical sections; refer to Table 5 for rectangular
computer software (e.g. RC Spreadsheet TCC53 from Spreadsheets for sections
concrete design to BS 8110 and EC27) or column design charts (see NRd = Ac fcd + As fyd
Figures 9a to 9e) may be used. Continues page 41
Figure 9a
Column design chart for rectangular columns d2 /h = 0.05
1.3
Kr = 0.2
1.2 d2/h = 0.05
0.3 Asfyk/bhfck
1.1
1.0 0.4
1.0 0.9
0.8
0.9
0.7 0.5
0.6
0.8
0.5 0.6
0.7 0.4
N/bhfck
0.3
0.7
0.6 0.2
0.1
0.5
0 0.8
0.4
0.9
0.3
1.0
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45
2
M/bh fck
38
5. Columns
Figure 9b
1.3
0.2
1.2 d2/h = 0.10
0.3 Asfyk/bhfck
1.1
1.0 0.4
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.9
0.7 0.5
0.8 0.6
0.5
0.6
0.7 0.4
N/bhfck
0.3
0.7
0.6 0.2
0.1
0.5
0 0.8
0.4
0.9
0.3
Kr =1
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45
2
M/bh fck
Figure 9c
1.3
0.2
1.2 d2/h = 0.15
0.3
1.1
Asfyk/bhfck
1.0
1.0 0.9 0.4
0.8
0.9
0.7 0.5
0.8 0.6
0.5 0.6
0.7 0.4
N/bhfck
0.3
0.6 0.2 0.7
0.1
0.5 0 0.8
0.4
0.9
0.3
Kr =1
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40
2
M/bh fck
39
Figure 9d
1.3
0.2
1.2 d2/h = 0.20
0.3 Asfyk/bhfck
1.1
1.0
1.0
0.9 0.4
0.9 0.8
0.7 0.5
0.8 0.6
0.5
0.6
N/bhfck
0.7 0.4
0.3
0.6 0.2 0.7
0.1
0.5
0
0.8
0.4
0.3 0.9
0.2
Kr = 1
0.1
0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35
2
M/bh f ck
Figure 9e
1.3
0.2
1.2 d2/h = 0.25
1.1 0.3
Asfyk/bhfck
1.0 1.0
0.9 0.4
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.8
0.6 0.5
0.5
0.7
N/bhfck
0.4
0.3 0.6
0.6
0.2
0.5 0.1
0 0.7
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.9
0.2
0.1
Kr = 1
0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
2
M/bh fck
40
5. Columns
Table 5 Selected symbols

Value of a for rectangular sections Symbol Definition Value
1/r0 Reference curvature εyd/(0.45 d)
NEd /NRd 0.1 0.7 1.0
1/r Curvature Kr Kh 1/r0
a 1.0 1.5 2.0
a Axis distance for fire resistance
Note
Linear interpolation may be used. A Factor for determining slenderness limit 1 / (1+0.2 hef)
Ac Cross sectional area of concrete bh
Unbraced columns
As Area of total column reinforcement
B Factor for determining slenderness limit
c Factor depending on curvature distribution 10 (for constant cross-section)

There is no comment made on the design of sway frames in Eurocode 2.
C Factor for determining slenderness limit 1.7 – rm
However, it gives guidance on the effective length of an unbraced
member in Expression (5.16). The value for C of 0.7 should always be d Effective depth
used in Expression (5.13N). The design moments should be assessed e2 Second order eccentricity (1/r)lo/c
including second order effects. The tabular method for fire resistance ei Eccentricity due to geometric imperfections
design (Part 1–2) does not explicitly cover unbraced columns; however Es Elastic modulus of reinforcing steel 200 GPa
reference can be made to the Handbook to EN 1992–1–2 6. fcd Design value of concrete compressive strength αcc fck/γc
Walls l Clear height of compression member between

end restraints
lo Effective length
When the section length of a vertical element is four times greater
Kr Correction factor depending on axial load
than its thickness it is defined as a wall. The design of walls does not
Kh Factor taking into account creep
differ significantly from that for columns except for the following:
M01,M02 First order moments including the effect of
■ The requirements for fire resistance (see Table 3). geometric imperfections |M02| ≥ |M01|
■ Bending will be critical about the weak axis.
M2 Nominal second order moment NEd e2
■ There are different rules for spacing and quantity of reinforcement
M0e Equivalent first order moment 0.6 M02 + 0.4 M01 ≥ 0.4 M02
(see below).
MEd Ultimate design moment
There is no specific guidance given for bending about the strong axis MEqp First order bending moment under
quasi-permanent loading
for stability. However, the principles of CIRIA Report 10810 may be
n Relative axial force NEd/(Acfcd)
followed. Alternatively the strut and tie method may be used (section
6.5 of the Eurocode). nbal Value of n at maximum moment of resistance 0.4
nu Factor to allow for reinforcement in the column 1 +ω
Rules for spacing and NEd
rm
Ultimate axial load
Moment ratio M01/M02
quantity of reinforcement x
z
Depth to neutral axis
Lever arm
(d – z)/0.4
αcc Coefficient taking account of long term effects 0.85 for flexure and axial
Maximum areas of reinforcement on compressive strength and of unfavourable loads. 1.0 for other
In Eurocode 2 the maximum nominal reinforcement area for columns effects resulting from the way load is applied phenomena (From UK NA)
and walls outside laps is 4% compared with 6% in BS 8110. However, β Factor 0.35 + fck/200 – λ/150
this area can be increased provided that the concrete can be placed εyd Design value of strain in reinforcement fyd/Es
and compacted sufficiently. If required self-compacting concrete may γm Partial factor for material properties 1.15 for reinforcement (γs)
be used for particularly congested situations, where the reinforcing bars 1.5 for concrete (γc)
should be spaced to ensure that the concrete can flow around them. l Slenderness lo/i
Further guidance can be found in Self-compacting concrete.11 l lim Slenderness limit
μfi Degree of utilisation in a fire NEd,fi /NRd

Minimum reinforcement requirements hef Effective creep ratio h(∞,to) MEqp /MEd
The recommended minimum diameter of longitudinal reinforcement in h (∞,to) Final creep co-efficient to Cl 3.1.4
columns is 12 mm. The minimum area of longitudinal reinforcement in
ω Mechanical reinforcement ratio As fyd/(Ac fcd)
columns is given by: As,min = 0.10 NEd/fyd ≥ 0.002Ac Exp. (9.12N)
|x| Absolute value of x
The diameter of the transverse reinforcement should not be less than
Max. {x,y+z} The maximum of values x or y + z
6 mm or one quarter of the maximum diameter of the longitudinal bars.
41
5. Columns
Spacing requirements for columns Particular requirements for walls

The maximum spacing of transverse reinforcement (i.e. links) in The minimum area of vertical reinforcement in walls is given by:
columns (Clause 9.5.3(1)) should not exceed:
■ 12 times the minimum diameter of the longitudinal bars.
As,min = 0.002Ac
■ 60% of the lesser dimension of the column.
Half of this area should be located at each face. The distance between
■ 240 mm.
two adjacent vertical bars should not exceed the lesser of either three
At a distance greater than the larger dimension of the column above times the wall thickness or 400 mm.
or below a beam or slab these spacings can be increased by a factor
of 1.67. The minimum clear distance between the bars should be the The minimum area of horizontal reinforcement in walls is the greater
greater of the bar diameter, aggregate size plus 5 mm or 20 mm. of either 25% of vertical reinforcement or 0.001 Ac. However, where
No longitudinal bar should be further than 150 mm from transverse crack control is important, early age thermal and shrinkage effects
reinforcement (links) in the compression zone. should be considered explicitly.
References
2 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8110–1, Structural use of concrete – Part 1, Code of practice for design and construction. BSI, 2004.
3 NARAYANAN, R S & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Introduction. The Concrete Centre, 2005.
4 GOODCHILD, C H. Economic concrete frame elements. BCA 1997.
5 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–2. Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. General rules – structural fire design. BSI, 2004.
6 DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNITIES AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT. Handbook to EN 1992–1–2. DCLG, due 2006.
7 GOODCHILD, C H WEBSTER, R M. Spreadsheets for concrete design to BS 8110 and Eurocode 2, version 3. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
8 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. Background paper to the UK National Annex to BS EN 1992–1–1 and BS EN 1992–1–2. BSI, due 2006.
10 CIRIA. Report 102: Design of shear wall buildings. CIRIA, 1984.
11 THE CONCRETE SOCIETY. Technical Report No 62: Self-compacting concrete. A review. The Society, 2005.
Acknowledgements

0700 4 500 500 or 0700 4 CONCRETE Tel: +44 (0)1276 606800
Fax: +44 (0)1276 606801
First
42 published March 2006, revised December 2006
Eurocode 2 Column Design Charts
6. Foundations
R Webster CEng, FIStructE O Brooker BEng, CEng, MICE, MIStructE
Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design

Scope
All foundations should be designed so that the soil safely resists the
actions applied to the structure. The design of any foundation consists of
two components; the geotechnical design and the structural design of the
foundation itself. However, for some foundations (e.g. flexible rafts) the effect
of the interaction between the soil and structure may be critical and must
also be considered. Geotechnical design is covered by Eurocode 71, which
supersedes several current British Standards including BS 59302, BS 80023
and BS 80044. The new Eurocode marks a significant change in geotechnical
design in that limit state principles are used throughout and this should
ensure consistency between the Eurocodes. There are two parts to Eurocode 7,
Part 1: General rules and Part 2: Ground investigation and testing. Guidance on
the design of retaining walls can be found in Chapter 9.
The essential features of Eurocode 7, Part 1 relating to foundation design are

discussed in this chapter. It should be emphasised that this publication covers
only the design of simple foundations, which are a small part of the scope of
Eurocode 7. Therefore it should not be relied on for general guidance on this
Eurocode. At the time of writing it is anticipated that the National Annex (NA)
for Part 1 will be published in July 2007.
Limit states
The following ultimate limit states (ULS) should be satisfied for geotechnical
design; they each have their own combinations of actions. (For an explanation
of Eurocode terminology please refer to Chapter 1, originally published as
Introduction to Eurocodes5.)
EQU Loss of equilibrium of the structure.
STR Internal failure or excessive deformation of the structure or structural
member.
GEO Failure due to excessive deformation of the ground.
:cementZg]concretebg]nlmkrin[eb\Zmbhg This chapter is taken UPL Loss of equilibrium due to uplift by water pressure.
from The Concrete
HYD Failure caused by hydraulic gradients.
concrete structures In addition, the serviceability limit states (SLS) should be satisfied. It will
using Eurocode 2
usually be clear that one of the limit states will govern the design and
(Ref. CCIP–006)
therefore it will not be necessary to carry out checks for all of them, although
it is considered good practice to record that they have all been considered.
Geotechnical Categories
Eurocode 7 recommends three Geotechnical Categories to assist in establishing
the geotechnical design requirements for a structure (see Table 1).
It is anticipated that structural engineers will take responsibility for the to be applied to the actions for these combinations of partial factors
geotechnical design of category 1 structures, and that geotechnical are given in Table 2 and the partial factors for the geotechnical
engineers will take responsibility for category 3 structures. The material properties are given in Table 3. Combination 1 will generally
geotechnical design of category 2 structures may be undertaken by govern the structural resistance, and Combination 2 will generally
members of either profession. This decision will very much depend on govern the sizing of the foundations.
individual circumstances.
The partial factors for soil resistance to sliding and bearing should be
Methods of design and combinations taken as 1.0 for both combinations.
There has not been a consensus amongst geotechnical engineers
over the application of limit state principles to geotechnical design. The partial factors to be applied to the actions at the EQU limit state
Therefore, to allow for these differences of opinion, Eurocode 7 are given in Table 4; the geotechnical material partial factors being the
provides for three Design Approaches to be used for the ULS. The same as for Combination 2 in Table 3.
decision on which approach to use for a particular country is given
in its National Annex. In the UK Design Approach 1 will be specified For the SLS, Eurocode 7 does not give any advice on whether the
in the National Annex. For this Design Approach (excluding pile and characteristic, frequent or quasi-permanent combination should be
anchorage design) there are two sets of combinations to use for the used. Where the prescriptive method is used for spread foundations
STR and GEO ultimate limit states. The values for the partial factors (see page 3) then the characteristic values should be adopted. For
Table 1
Geotechnical categories of structures
Category Description Risk of geotechnical failure Examples from Eurocode 7
1 Small and relatively simple structures Negligible None given
2 Conventional types of structure and foundation No exceptional risk Spread foundations

with no difficult ground or loading conditions
3 All other structures Abnormal risks Large or unusual structures
Exceptional ground conditions
Table 2
Design values of actions derived for UK design, STR/GEO ultimate limit state – persistent and transient design situations
Combination Permanent actions Leading variable Accompanying variable actions

Expression reference action
from BS EN 1990 Unfavourable Favourable Main (if any) Others
Combination 1 (Application of combination 1 (BS EN 1997) to set B (BS EN 1990))
Exp. (6.10) 1.35 Gka 1.0 Gka 1.5b Qk – 1.5b co,ic Qk,i
Exp. (6.10a) 1.35 Gka 1.0 Gka – 1.5 co,1c Qk 1.5b co,ic Qk,i
Exp. (6.10b) 0.925d x 1.35 Gka 1.0 Gka 1.5b Qk – 1.5b co,ic Qk,i
Combination 2 (Application of combination 2 (BS EN 1997) to set C (BS EN 1990))
Exp. (6.10) 1.0 Gka 1.0 Gka 1.3b Qk,1 – 1.3b co,i b Qk,i
Key
a Where the variation in permanent action is not considered significant Gk,j,sup and Gk,j,inf may be taken as Gk
b Where the action is favourable, gQ,i = 0 and the variable actions should be ignored
c The value of c o can be obtained from Table NA.A1.1 of the UK NA to BS EN 1990 (or see Table 3 of Chapter 1)
d The value of j in the UK NA to BS EN 1990 is 0.925
Table 3
Partial factors for geotechnical material properties
Angle of shearing Effective cohesion Undrained shear Unconfined strength Bulk density
resistance strength
(apply to tan h)
Symbol gh gc’ gcu gqu gg
Combination 1 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Combination 2 1.25 1.25 1.4 1.4 1.0
44
6. Foundations
direct methods of calculation the frequent combination can be used

for sizing of foundations and the quasi-permanent combination can be Spread foundations
used for settlement calculations.
The geotechnical design of spread foundations (e.g. strip and pad
Further information on design combinations can be found in Chapter 1, foundations) is covered by section 6 of Eurocode 7, Part 1 and this
originally published as Introduction to Eurocodes5. gives three methods for design:
■ Direct method – calculation is carried out for each limit state.
Geotechnical design report ■ Indirect method – experience and testing used to determine
A geotechnical design report should be produced for each project, serviceability limit state parameters that also satisfy all relevant
even if it is only a single sheet. The report should contain details of limit states (included in Eurocode 7 mainly to suit French design
the site, interpretation of the ground investigation report, geotechnical methods, and is not discussed further here).
design recommendations and advice on supervision, monitoring and ■ Prescriptive method in which a presumed bearing resistance is used.
maintenance of the works. It is likely that this report will require input
from more than one consultant, depending on whether the project is in For most spread foundations in the UK, settlement will be the
Geotechnical Category 1, 2 or 3. governing criterion; traditionally ‘allowable bearing pressures’ have been
used to limit settlement. This concept of increasing the factor of safety
The foundation design recommendations should include bearing on bearing resistances to control settlement may still be used with the
resistances and characteristic values for soil parameters. It should prescriptive method. The exception is for soft clays where Eurocode 7
also clearly state whether the values are applicable to SLS or ULS and requires settlement calculations to be undertaken.
whether they are for Combination 1 or Combination 2.
When using the direct method, calculations are carried out for each
limit state. At the ULS, the bearing resistance of the soil should be
Table 4
Design values of actions derived for UK design, EQU ultimate limit checked using partial factors on the soil properties as well as on
state – persistent and transient design situations the actions. At the SLS the settlement of the foundations should be
calculated and checked against permissible limits.
Combination Permanent actions Leading Accompanying variable
Expression variable actions
reference action The prescriptive method may be used where calculation of the soil
Unfavourable Favourable Main Others
(if any) properties is not possible or necessary and can be used provided that
Exp. (6.10) 1.1 Gka 0.90 Gka 1.5b Qk – 1.5c co,i c Qk,i conservative rules of design are used. Therefore reference can continue
to be made to Table 1 of BS 8004 (see Table 5) to determine presumed
Key
a Where the variation in permanent action is not considered significant Gk, j, sup
(allowable) bearing pressures for category 1 structures and preliminary
and Gk, j, inf may be taken as Gk calculations for category 2 structures. Alternatively, the presumed
b Where the action is favourable, gQ, i = 0 and the variable actions should be ignored bearing resistance to allow for settlement can be calculated by the
c The value of co can be obtained from Table NA.A1.1 of the UK NA to BS EN 1990 geotechnical designer and included in the geotechnical design report.
Table 5
Presumed allowable bearing values under static loading (from BS 8004)
Category Type of soil Presumed allowable bearing value (kN/m2) Remarks
Non- Dense gravel, or dense sand and gravel > 600 Width of foundation not less than 1 m.
cohesive Groundwater level assumed to be below the base
soils Medium dense gravel, or medium < 200 to 600 of the foundation.
dense sand and gravel
Loose gravel, or loose sand and gravel < 200
Compact sand > 300
Medium dense sand 100 to 300
Loose sand < 100
Cohesive Very stiff boulder clay and hard clay 300 to 600 Susceptible to long-term consolidation settlement
soils
Stiff clay 150 to 300
Firm clay 75 to 150
Soft clay and silt <75
Very soft clay and silt Not applicable
Note
These values are for preliminary design purposes only.
45
A flow chart showing the design process for shallow foundations is Partial factors for the soil parameters used to determine the resistances
given in Figure 1. can be obtained from Table 3 above (Combination 2).
Where there is a moment applied to the foundation, the EQU limit The pressure distribution under the base should be assessed to ensure
state should also be checked. Assuming the potential overturning of that the maximum pressure does not exceed the bearing resistances
the base is due to the variable action from the wind, the following obtained from the geotechnical design report at both EQU and GEO
combination should be used (the variable imposed action is not ultimate limit states (see Figure 2). If the eccentricity is greater than
considered to contribute to the stability of the structure): L/6 at SLS, then the pressure distribution used to determine the
settlement should be modified because tension cannot occur between
0.9 Gk + 1.5 Qk,w EQU combination the base and the soil. In this case the designer should satisfy himself
where: that there will be no adverse consequences (e.g. excessive rotation of
Gk is the stabilising characteristic permanent action the base). It should also be noted that the ULS pressure distribution
(Use 1.1 Gk for a destabilising permanent action) diagram will be rectangular and not trapezoidal.
Qk,w is the destabilising characteristic variable wind action
Reinforced concrete pads
Figure 1
Procedures for depth of spread foundations Where the pad foundations require reinforcement the following checks
should be carried out to ensure:
■ Sufficient reinforcement to resist bending moments.
START
■ Punching shear strength.
■ Beam shear strength.
Obtain soil parameters from Ground Investigation report
The moments and shear forces should be assessed using the STR
combination:
1.35 Gk + 1.5 Qk STR combination 1 (Exp. (6.10))
Design using
Yes No
direct method?
However, there may be economies to made from using Expressions
(6.10a) or (6.10b) from the Eurocode.
Size foundation
Use prescriptive method.
(geotechnical design) using
Size foundation The critical bending moments for design of bottom reinforcement
the worst of Combinations
(geotechnical design) are located at the column faces. Both beam shear and punching
1 or 2 (ULS) for actions
using SLS for actions
and geotechnical material shear should then be checked at the locations shown in Figure 3. For
and presumed
properties. Combination 2
bearing resistance
will usually govern. punching shear the ground reaction within the perimeter may be
deducted from the column load (Expression (6.48), Eurocode 2–1–16).
It is not usual for a pad foundation to contain shear reinforcement,
therefore it is only necessary to ensure that the concrete shear stress
Check overturning using EQU
Is there an limit state for actions and capacity without shear reinforcement (vRd,c – see Table 6) is greater than
overturning moment? GEO Combination 2
Yes applied shear stress (vEd = VEd/(bd)).
for material properties.
No If the basic shear stress is exceeded, the designer may increase the
depth of the base. Alternatively, the amount of main reinforcement
Design foundation (structural design) using the worst of
Combinations 1 and 2 (ULS) for actions and geotechnical could be increased or, less desirably, shear links could be provided. (See
material properties.
Chapter 4, originally published as Beams8 for an explanation of how to
design shear reinforcement.)
Figure 2
Pressure distributions for pad foundations
M M M
P 6e
1
L L
P or P P
2P P
1.5 L 3 e L 2e
e e
P P
e = M/ P e
P 6e L = width of base P
1+
L L
SLS pressure distributions ULS pressure distribution
Figure 2
Pressure Distribution for Pa d Foundations
46
How to Foundations
Fi g 2 16.02.06
6. Foundations
Design for punching shear Figure 4

Procedure for determining punching shear capacity for pad foundations
Eurocode 2 provides specific guidance on the design of foundations for
punching shear, and this varies from that given for slabs. In Eurocode 2 the
shear perimeter has rounded corners and the forces directly resisted by START
the ground should be deducted (to avoid unnecessarily conservative

designs). The critical perimeter should be found iteratively, but it is
Determine value of factor β
generally acceptable to check at d and 2d. Alternatively, a spreadsheet (β =1.0 when applied moment is zero; refer to Expressions
could be used (e.g. spreadsheet TCC81 from Spreadsheets for concrete (6.38) to (6.42) from BS EN 1992–1–1 for other cases)
design to BS 8110 and Eurocode 2 7). The procedure for determining the
punching shear requirements is shown in Figure 4.
Determine value of vEd,max
(design shear stress at face of column) from:
Table 6 vEd,max = β(VEd – DVEd) (from Exp. (6.38))
vRd,c resistance of members without shear reinforcement, MPa (u0deff)
rl Effective depth, d (mm) where u0 is perimeter of column
(see Clause 6.4.5 for columns at base edges)
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000a deff = (dy + dz)/2 where dy and dz
are the effective depths in orthogonal directions
0.25% 0.47 0.43 0.40 0.38 0.36 0.35 0.35 0.34
0.50% 0.54 0.51 0.48 0.47 0.45 0.44 0.44 0.43
Determine value of vRd,max (refer to Table 7)
0.75% 0.62 0.58 0.55 0.53 0.52 0.51 0.50 0.49
1.00% 0.68 0.64 0.61 0.59 0.57 0.56 0.55 0.54
1.25% 0.73 0.69 0.66 0.63 0.62 0.60 0.59 0.58 No
Is vEd,max < vRd,max? Redesign foundation
1.50% 0.78 0.73 0.70 0.67 0.65 0.64 0.63 0.62
1.75% 0.82 0.77 0.73 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.66 0.65 Yes
≥2.00% 0.85 0.80 0.77 0.74 0.72 0.70 0.69 0.68
Determine value of vEd, (design shear stress) from:
k 1.816 1.707 1.632 1.577 1.535 1.500 1.471 1.447 vEd = (VEd – DVEd)
Key (u1deff)
where u1 is length of control perimeter (refer to Figure 5). For
a For depths greater than 1000 calculate vRd,c directly. eccentrically loaded bases, refer to Exp. (6.51).
Notes The control perimeter will have to be found through iteration;
it will usually be between d and 2d
1 T able derived from: vRd,c = 0.12 k (100r I fck)(1/3) ≥ 0.035 k1.5 fck0.5
where k = 1 + √(200/d) ≤ 2 and r I = √(rIy +r Iz) ≤ 0.02,
r Iy = Asy/(bd) and r Iz = Asz/(bd)
2 T his table has been prepared for fck = 30; Determine concrete punching shear capacity vRd (without
where r l exceed 0.40% the following factors may be used: shear reinforcement) from 2dvRd,c/a (Refer to Table 6 for vRd,c)
fck 25 28 32 35 40 45 50
Factor 0.94 0.98 1.02 1.05 1.10 1.14 1.19 Either increase main
steel, or provide
Is vEd < vRd at No punching shear
critical perimeter? reinforcement required.
(Not recommended
Figure 3 for foundations.)
Yes
Shear checks for pad foundations
No shear reinforcement required. Check complete.
Beam shear Punching shear perimeters,

faces (load within deducted from V Ed)
Figure 5
Typical basic control perimeters around loaded areas
2d
u1
u1 2d
2d
bz
Bends may be
d required
h d
by
Figure 3
Figure 5
Shear checks for pad foundations
Typical basic control perimeters around loaded areas.
How to Foundations 47
Fi g 3 20.02.06 How to Foundations
Job No. Fi g 5 20.02.06
Job No.
Raft foundations flexure reference should be made to Chapter 4, originally published as

Beams 8.
The basic design processes for rafts are similar to those for isolated Alternatively, a truss analogy may be used; this is covered in Sections 5.6.4
pad foundations or pilecaps. The only difference in approach lies in the and 6.5 of Eurocode 2–1–1. The strut angle y should be at least 21.8° to
selection of an appropriate method for analysing the interaction between the horizontal; note that y should be measured in the plane of the column
the raft and the ground so as to achieve a reasonable representation of and pile.
their behaviour. For stiffer rafts (i.e. span-to-thickness greater than 10) with
a fairly regular layout, simplified approaches such as yield line or the flat Both beam shear and punching shear should then be checked as shown in
slab equivalent frame method may be employed, once an estimation of Figure 6. For beam shear, the design resistances in Table 6 may be used. If the
the variations in bearing pressure has been obtained from a geotechnical basic shear stress is exceeded, the designer should increase the depth of the
specialist. Whatever simplifications are made, individual elastic raft base. Alternatively, the amount of main reinforcement could be increased or,
reactions should equate to the applied column loads. less desirably, shear links could be provided. Care should be taken that main
bars are fully anchored. As a minimum, a full anchorage should be provided
Thinner, more flexible rafts or those with a complex layout may require from the inner face of piles. Large radius bends may be required.
the application of a finite element or grillage analysis. For rafts bearing
on granular sub-grades or when contiguous-piled walls or diaphragm When assessing the shear capacity in a pile cap, only the tension steel
perimeter walls are present, the ground may be modelled as a series placed within the stress zone should be considered as contributing to the
of Winkler springs. However, for cohesive sub-grades, this approach is shear capacity (see Figure 7).
unlikely to be valid, and specialist software will be required.
Figure 6
Critical shear perimeters for piles
Piled foundations f /5 Beam shear 5 d from column face
For the purpose of this chapter it is assumed that the pile design will be
carried out by a specialist piling contractor. The actions on the piles must f /5
be clearly conveyed to the pile designer, and these should be broken down
into the unfactored permanent actions and each of the applicable variable
Punching shear 5 2d from column face
actions (e.g. imposed and wind actions). The pile designer can then carry
out the structural and geotechnical design of the piles. f
Where moments are applied to the pilecap the EQU combination

should also be used to check the piles can resist the overturningFigure
forces.6
Critical shear Figure 7 for piles
perimeters
These EQU loads must also be clearly conveyed to the pile designer
Shear reinforcement for pilecaps
and procedures put in place to ensure the piles are designed forHow
the to Foundations
Fi g 6 20.02.06
correct forces.
Job No. A s contributing to shear capacity
A pilecap may be treated as a beam in bending, where the critical

bending moments for the design of the bottom reinforcement are Stress zone
o
located at the column faces. For further guidance on designing for 45
Table 7
Values for vRd, max
fck vRd,max Figure

Figure 78
20 3.68 Dimensions for plain
Shear reinforcement forfoundations
pilecaps.
25 4.50
How to Foundations
28 4.97 Fi g 7 20.02.06
Job No. a a
30 5.28
32 5.58
hF
35 6.02
40 6.72
bF
45 7.38
50 8.00
Figure 8
Dimensions for plain foundations
48 How to Foundations
Fi g 8 20.02.06
Job No.
6. Foundations
Plain concrete foundations Table 8

Minimum percentage of reinforcement required
Strip and pad footings may be constructed from plain concrete fck fctm Minimum % (0.26 fctm /fyka )
provided the following rules are adhered to. 25 2.6 0.13%
■ In compression, the value of acc, the coefficient taking account of 28 2.8 0.14%
long-term effects applied to design compressive strength 30 2.9 0.15%
(see Cl. 3.1.6), should be taken as 0.6 as opposed to 0.85 for 32 3.0 0.16%
reinforced concrete. 35 3.2 0.17%
■ The minimum foundation depth, hF, (see Figure 8) may be 40 3.5 0.18%
calculated from: 45 3.8 0.20%
50 4.1 0.21%
Key
a Where fyk = 500 MPa.
where:
sgd = the design value of the ground bearing pressure
fctd = the design concrete tensile strength from Exp. (3.16) Selected symbols
Symbol Definition Value
For many situations this is unlikely to offer any savings over the current Ac Cross sectional area of concrete bh
practice of designing for hf ≥ a. As Area of tension steel
As, prov Area of tension steel provided
The possibility of splitting forces, as advised in Clause 9.8.4 of Eurocode
As, req’d Area of tension steel required
2–1–1, may need to be considered.
d Effective depth
Eurocode 2 allows plain concrete foundations to contain reinforcement deff Average effective depth (dy + dz) /2
for control of cracking. fcd Design value of concrete compressive strength acc fck /gc
fctm Mean value of axial tensile strength 0.30 fck2/3 for fck ≤ C50/60
Rules for spacing and

Gk Characteristic value of permanent action
(from Table 3.1, Eurocode 2)
quantity of reinforcement
h Overall depth of the section
leff Effective span of member See Section 5.3.2.2 (1)
M Design moment at the ULS
Crack control Qk Characteristic value of a variable action
Refer to Chapter 2, originally published as Getting started 9. Qk,w Characteristic value of a variable wind action
VEd Design value of applied shear force
Minimum area of principal reinforcement vEd Design value of applied shear stress
VRd,c Design value of the punching shear
The minimum area of reinforcement is As,min = 0.26 fctm bt d/fyk but not
resistance without punching shear reinforcement
less than 0.0013bt d (see Table 8). vRd,c Design value of the punching shear stress
resistance without punching shear reinforcement
Maximum area of reinforcement vRd,max Design value of the maximum punching shear
resistance along the control section considered
Except at lap locations, the maximum area of tension or compression
reinforcement, should not exceed As,max = 0.04 Ac
xmax Limiting value for depth to neutral axis (d – 0.4)d where d ≤1.0
z Lever arm
Minimum spacing of reinforcement acc Coefficient taking account of long term 0.85 for flexure and
The minimum spacing of bars should be the greater of: effects on compressive strength and of axial loads, 1.0 for
■ Bar diameter, unfavourable effects resulting from the way other phenomena
load is applied (From UK National Annex)
■ Aggregate size plus 5 mm, or
b Factor for determining punching shear stress
■ 20 mm. d Ratio of the redistributed moment to the elastic
bending moment
Deep elements gm Partial factor for material properties
For deep elements the advice in Eurocode 2 for the side faces of deep r0 Reference reinforcement ratio fck/1000
beams may be followed. The UK National Annex recommends that 0.2% r l Required tension reinforcement at mid-span As l bd
is provided in each face. The distance between bars should not exceed loads (or at support for cantilevers)
the lesser of twice the beam depth or 300 mm. For pile caps the side c0 Factor for combination value of a variable action
face may be unreinforced if there is no risk of tension developing. c1 Factor for frequent value of a variable action
c2 Factor for quasi-permanent value of a variable action
49
6. Foundations
References
1 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1997: Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design. BSI (2 parts).
2 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 5930: Code of practice for site investigation. BSI, 1999.
3 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8002: Code of practice for earth retaining structures. BSI, 1994.
4 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8004: Code of practice for foundations. BSI, 1986.
7 GOODCHILD, C H & WEBSTER R M. Spreadsheets for concrete design to BS 8110 and Eurocode 2, version 3. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
Acknowledgements

0700 4 500 500 or 0700 4 CONCRETE Tel: +44 (0)1276 606800
Fax: +44 (0)1276 606801
First
50 published April 2006, revised December 2006
7. Flat slabs
R Moss BSc, PhD, DIC, CEng, MICE, MIStructE O Brooker BEng, CEng, MICE, MIStructE
This chapter covers the analysis and design of concrete flat slabs to Eurocode
21, a process which is essentially the same as when using BS 81102. However,
the layout and content of Eurocode 2 may appear unusual to designers
familiar with BS 8110. Eurocode 2 does not contain the derived formulae or
specific guidance on determining moments and shear forces. This has arisen
because it has been European practice to give principles in the codes and for
the detailed application to be presented in other sources such as textbooks.
Chapter 1, originally published as Introduction to Eurocodes3, highlighted the

It should be noted that values from the UK National Annex (NA) have been
used throughout this publication, including values that are embedded in
derived formulae (derivations can be found at www.eurocode2.info). A list of
symbols related to flat slab design is given at the end of this chapter.
Analysis
Using Eurocode 2 for the analysis of flat slabs is similar to using BS 8110. The
following methods may be used:
■ Equivalent frame method
■ Finite element analysis
■ Yield line analysis
■ Grillage analogy
The Eurocode gives further advice on the equivalent frame method in

Annex I and designers used to BS 8110 will find this very familiar. Once the
bending moments and shear forces have been determined, the following
guidance can be used for the design of flat slabs.
This chapter is taken

Design procedure
:cementZg]concretebg]nlmkrin[eb\Zmbhg
from The Concrete

concrete structures
A procedure for carrying out the detailed design of flat slabs is shown in Table 1.
R S Narayanan?K>g`
using Eurocode 2 This assumes that the slab thickness has previously been determined during
(Ref. CCIP–006) conceptual design. Concept designs prepared assuming detailed design would
be to BS 8110 may be continued through to detailed design using Eurocode 2.
More detailed advice on determining design life, loading, material properties,
methods of analysis, minimum concrete cover for durability and bond, and
control of crack widths can be found in Chapter 2, originally published as
Getting started 4.
Fire resistance (not minimum) dimension, so the designer should ensure that
a ≥ cnom + f link + f bar /2
Eurocode 2, Part 1–2: Structural fire design5, gives a choice of advanced, The requirements for flat slabs are given in Table 2.
simplified or tabular methods for determining the fire resistance. Using
tables is the fastest method for determining the minimum dimensions
and cover for flat slabs. There are, however, some restrictions and if these Flexure
apply further guidance can be obtained from specialist literature6.
The design procedure for flexural design is given in Figure 1; this
Rather than giving a minimum cover, the tabular method is based includes derived formulae based on the simplified rectangular stress
on nominal axis distance, a. This is the distance from the centre of block from Eurocode 2. Where appropriate Table 3 may be used to
the reinforcing bar to the surface of the member. It is a nominal determine bending moments for flat slabs.
Table 1
Flat slab design procedure

1 Determine design life 2: Getting started NA to BS EN 1990 Table NA.2.1
2 Assess actions on the slab 2: Getting started BS EN 1991 (10 parts) and National Annexes
3 Determine which combinations of actions apply 1: Introduction to Eurocodes NA to BS EN 1990 Tables NA.A1.1 and NA.A1.2 (B)
4 Determine loading arrangements 2: Getting started NA to BS EN 1992–1–1
6 Check cover requirements for appropriate fire resistance period 2: Getting started and Table 2 Approved Document B. BS EN 1992–1–1: Section 5
7 Calculate min. cover for durability, fire and bond requirements 2: Getting started BS EN 1992–1–1 Cl 4.4.1
8 Analyse structure to obtain critical moments and shear forces 2: Getting started and Table 3 BS EN 1992–1–1 Section 5
9 Design flexural reinforcement See Figure 1 BS EN 1992–1–1 Section 6.1
10 Check deflection See Figure 3 BS EN 1992–1–1 Section 7.4
11 Check punching shear capacity See Figure 6 BS EN 1992–1–1 Section 6.4
12 Check spacing of bars 2: Getting started BS EN 1992–1–1 Section 7.3
13 Check resistance to moment transfer from column to slab – BS EN 1992–1–1 Annex I 1.2(5)
Note
NA = National Annex
Table 2
Minimum dimensions and axis distances for reinforced concrete slabs
Standard fire resistance Minimum dimensions (mm)

Slab thickness, hs Axis distance, a
REI 60 180 15a
REI 90 200 25
REI 120 200 35
REI 240 200 50
Notes
1 This table is taken from BS EN 1992–1–2 Table 5.9.
2 The axis distance is to the centre of the outer layer of reinforcement.
3 The table is valid only if the detailing requirements (see note 4) are observed and, in the normal temperature design, redistribution of bending moments does not exceed 15%.
4 For fire resistance of R90 and above, at least 20% of the total top reinforcement in each direction over intermediate supports required by BS EN 1992–1–1 should be continuous over
the full span. This reinforcement should be placed in the column strip.
5 There are three standard fire exposure conditions that may need to be satisfied:
E Integrity of separation
I Insulation
Key
52
7. Flat slabs
Figure 1 Whichever method of analysis is used, Cl. 9.4.1 requires the designer
Procedure for determining flexural reinforcement to concentrate the reinforcement over the columns. Annex I of the
Eurocode gives recommendations for the equivalent frame method on
START how to apportion the total bending moment across a bay width into
column and middle strips to comply with Cl. 9.4.1. Designers using
Carry out analysis of slab to determine design moments grillage, finite element or yield line methods may also choose to follow
(M) (Where appropriate use coefficients from Table 3).
the advice in Annex I to meet this requirement.
Eurocode 2 offers various methods for determining the stress-strain

No Outside scope of relationship of concrete. For simplicity and familiarity the method
Concrete class
≤C50/60? this publication
presented here is the simplified rectangular stress block (see Figure 2),
which is similar to that found in BS 8110.
Yes
M The Eurocode gives recommendations for the design of concrete up

Determine KK from:
Determine from: K =
bd 2 fck to class C90/105. However, for concrete strength greater than class
C50/60, the stress block is modified. It is important to note that
Determine K’ from Table 4 or concrete strength is based on the cylinder strength and not the cube
K’ = 0.60d – 0.18 d 2 – 0.21 where d ≤ 1.0
strength (i.e. for class C28/35 the cylinder strength is 28 MPa, whereas
the cube strength is 35 MPa).
Compression
No reinforcement Table 4
Is K ≤ K ’ ? required – not Values for K’
recommended for
typical slabs
% redistribution d (redistribution ratio) K’
Yes 0 1.00 0.208a
10 0.90 0.182a
No compression reinforcement required
15 0.85 0.168
20 0.80 0.153
Obtain lever arm z from Table 5 or 25 0.75 0.137
30 0.70 0.120
z=
d
2 [1 + 1 – 3.53 K ≤ 0.95d] Key
a It is often recommended in the UK that K´ should be llimited to 0.168 to ensure
ductile failure
Calculate tension reinforcement required from
M Table 5
As =
fyd z
z/d for singly reinforced rectangular sections
K z/d K z/d
Check minimum reinforcement requirements (see Table 6) ≤ 0.05 0.950a 0.13 0.868
0.26 fctm bt d 0.06 0.944 0.14 0.856
As,min = where fyk ≥ 25
fyk
0.07 0.934 0.15 0.843
0.08 0.924 0.16 0.830
0.09 0.913 0.17 0.816
Check maximum reinforcement requirements.
As,max = 0.04 Ac for tension or compression 0.10 0.902 0.18 0.802
reinforcement outside lap locations 0.11 0.891 0.19 0.787
0.12 0.880 0.20 0.771
Key
a Limiting z to 0.95d is not a requirement of Eurocode 2, but is considered to be good practice
Table 3
Bending moment coefficients for flat slabs
Table 6
End support/slab connection First Interior Interior Minimum percentage of reinforcement required
interior spans supports
Pinned Continuous support fck fctm Minimum % (0.26 fctm /fyka )
End End End End 25 2.6 0.13%
support span support span 28 2.8 0.14%
Moment 0 0.086Fl – 0.04Fl 0.075Fl –0.086Fl 0.063Fl – 0.063Fl 30 2.9 0.15%
32 3.0 0.16%
Notes
35 3.2 0.17%
1 Applicable to slabs where the area of each bay exceeds 30 m2, 40 3.5 0.18%
Qk, ≤ 1.25 Gk and qk ≤ 5 kN/m2
45 3.8 0.20%
2 F is the total design ultimate load, l is the effective span
3 Minimum span > 0.85 longest span, minimum 3 spans
50 4.1 0.21%
4 Based on 20% redistribution at supports and no decrease in span moments Key
a Where fyk = 500 MPa
53
Deflection depth ratios are appropriate where the structure remains propped
during construction or until the concrete attains sufficient strength to
support the construction loads. It can generally be assumed that early
Eurocode 2 has two alternative methods of designing for deflection; striking of formwork will not significantly affect the deflection after
either by limiting span-to-depth ratio or by assessing the theoretical installing the cladding and/or partitions9.
deflection using the Expressions given in the Eurocode. The latter is
dealt with in detail in Chapter 8, originally published as Deflection
calculations 7. Punching shear
The span-to-depth ratios should ensure that deflection is limited The design value of the punching shear force, VEd, will usually be the
to span/250 and this is the procedure presented in Figure 3. The support reaction at the ultimate limit state. In principle the design
Background paper to the UK National Annex 8 notes that the span-to- for punching shear in Eurocode 2 and BS 8110 is similar. The main
differences are as follows.
Figure 2 ■ Standard factors for edge and corner columns that allow for
Simplified rectangular stress block for concrete up to class C50/60 moment transfer (b) are greater in Eurocode 2. However, b can
from Eurocode 2
be calculated directly from Expressions (6.38) to (6.46) of the
Eurocode to give more efficient designs.
Figure 4
Basic span-to-effective-depth ratios for flat slabs
39
37 fck = 50
Figure 3 fck = 45
Procedure for assessing deflection 35 fck = 40
fck = 35
33 fck = 32
Span-to-effective-depth ratio (l/d)
START fck = 30
31 fck = 28
fck = 25
Determine basic l/d from Figure 4 29 fck = 20
27
For ribbed or waffle slabs 25
F1 = 1 – 0.1 ((bf/bw) – 1) ≥ 0.8†
21
Where the slab span exceeds 8.5 m and it supports 19
brittle partitions, F2 = 8.5/leff
15
Determine Factor 3 (F3) 0.40% 0.60% 0.80% 1.00% 1.20% 1.40% 1.60% 1.80% 2.00%
F3 = 310/ss Percentage of tension reinforcement (A s /bd)
Where ss = Stress in reinforcement at serviceability
ss may be assumed to be 310 MPa (i.e. F3 = 1.0)
Notes
Note: As,prov ≤ 1.5 As,req’d (UK National Annex) Figure 4
Increase Basic span-to-depth ratios for flat slabs flat slab (K = 1.2).
1 This graph assumes a simply supported
As,prov
2 Compression reinforcement, r’, has been taken as 0.
Is basic l/d x F1 x F2 x F3 ≥ Actual l/d ? File3 How

Curves
tobased on theFig
flat slabs following expressions:
No v1 14.03.06
[ ( ) ]
l fck r 0 r0 1.5
Job No. = K 11 + 1.5
Yes + 3.2 fck –1 where r ≤ r 0 and
d r r
Check complete

† The Eurocode is ambiguous regarding linear interpolation. It is understood that this
was the intention of the drafting committee and is in line with current UK practice.
l
d
= K 11 +
1.5 fck r 0
( r – r ’)
+
[ fck
12 ]
r’
r0
where r > r 0 .
54
7. Flat slabs
■ In Eurocode 2 the maximum value of shear at the column face is As an alternative to using shear links, proprietary shear stud rails
not limited to 5 MPa, and depends on the concrete strength used. may be used. Eurocode 2 (Figure 6.22) allows them to be laid out
■ With Eurocode 2 the permissible shear resistance when using shear
in a radial or cruciform pattern and gives spacing requirements for
links is higher, although such designs may not be economic or both. Other techniques are available for increasing punching shear
desirable. resistance and these are covered in a best practice guide10.
■ The control perimeters for rectangular columns in Eurocode 2 have

Figure 6
rounded corners. Procedure for determining punching shear capacity
■ Where shear reinforcement is required the procedure in Eurocode 2
is simpler; the point at which no shear reinforcement is required can
START
be calculated directly and then used to determine the extent of the
area over which shear reinforcement is required.
Determine value of factor β
■ It is assumed that the reinforcement will be in a radial arrangement. (refer to Figure 7 or Expressions (6.38) to (6.46)
of the Eurocode)
However, the reinforcement can be laid on a grid provided the
spacing rules are followed.
Determine value of vEd,max
The procedure for determining the punching shear requirements is (design shear stress at face of column) from:
shown in Figure 6. vEd,max = β VEd /(ui deff)
where ui is perimeter of column
deff = (dy + dz)/2 (dy and dz
are the effective depths in orthogonal directions)
Figure 5
Determination of steel stress Determine value of vRd,max from Table 7
No
320 Is vEd,max ≤ vRd,max? Redesign slab
300
Yes
Unmodified steel stress, ssu
280 Determine value of vEd, (design shear stress) from:

vEd,max = β VEd /(ui deff)
260 where u1 is length of control perimeter (see Figure 8)
240
Determine concrete punching shear capacity
(without shear reinforcement), vRD,c from Table 8
220 where r l = (r ly r lz)0.5
(r ly, r lz are the reinforcement ratios in two orthogonal
200 directions for fully bonded tension steel, taken over a
width equal to column width plus 3d each side.)
180
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
No Punching shear
Ratio Gk/Qk Is vEd > vRd,c? reinforcement not
required
c2 = 0.8, gG = 1.35 c2 = 0.6, gG = 1.25 Yes
c2 = 0.6, gG = 1.35 c2 = 0.3, gG = 1.25
Determine area of punching shear reinforcement per perimeter
c2 = 0.3, gG = 1.35 c2 = 0.2, gG = 1.25 from:
Asw = (vEd – 0.75vRd,c)sr u1/(1.5 fywd,ef)
c2 = 0.2, gG = 1.35 where
sr is the radial spacing of shear reinforcement (see Figure 9)
fywd,ef = 250 + 0.25 deff ≤ fywd (see Table 9)
To determine stress in the reinforcement (ss), calculate the ratio Gk/Qk , read
up the graph to the appropriate curve and read across to determine ssu .
Determine the length of the outer perimeter where shear
reinforcement not required from:
ss can be calculated from the expression: ss = ssu
( As,req
As,prov )( )
d
1
uout,ef = b VEd/(vRd,c d)
c2 is the factor for quasi-permanent value of a variable action. For further

explanation refer to How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Determine layout of punching shear reinforcement
Introduction to Eurocodes3. (see ‘Spacing of punching shear reinforcement’
Section and Figure 9).
55
Table 7 Table 9 Figure 7

Values for vRd, max Values for fywd,ef Recommended standard values for b
fck vRd, max deff fywd,ef
20 3.31 150 288 Corner column
25 4.05 175 294
b = 1.5
28 4.48 200 300
30 4.75 225 306
32 5.02 250 313
35 5.42 275 319 Edge column Internal column
40 6.05 300 325
45 6.64 325 331 b = 1.4 b = 1.15
50 7.20 350 338
Figure 7
Table 8 Recommended standard values for b
vRd,c resistance of members without shear reinforcement, MPa Rules for spacing and
rI Effective depth, d (mm)
≤200 225 250 275 300 350 400 450 500 600 750 quantity of reinforcement
File How to Flat Slabs Figure 7
v1 14.03.06
0.25% 0.54 0.52 0.50 0.48 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.40 0.38 0.36 Job No.
0.50% 0.59 0.57 0.56 0.55 0.54 0.52 0.51 0.49 0.48 0.47 0.45 Minimum area of reinforcement
0.75% 0.68 0.66 0.64 0.63 0.62 0.59 0.58 0.56 0.55 0.53 0.51 The minimum area of longitudinal reinforcement in the main direction
1.00% 0.75 0.72 0.71 0.69 0.68 0.65 0.64 0.62 0.61 0.59 0.57 is As,min = 0.26 fctm bt d/fyk but not less than 0.0013b d (see Table 6).
1.25% 0.80 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.73 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.66 0.63 0.61
The minimum area of a link leg for vertical punching shear
1.50% 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.79 0.78 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.70 0.67 0.65
reinforcement is
1.75% 0.90 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.82 0.79 0.77 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.68
1.5Asw,min /(sr.st) ≥ 0.08fck½/fyk
≥ 2.00% 0.94 0.91 0.89 0.87 0.85 0.82 0.80 0.78 0.77 0.74 0.71
which can be rearranged as
k 2.000 1.943 1.894 1.853 1.816 1.756 1.707 1.667 1.632 1.577 1.516
Asw,min ≥ (sr.st)/F
Notes
1 Table derived from: v Rd,c = 0.12 k (100r I fck)1/3 ≥ 0.035 k1.5 fck 0.5 where where
k = 1 + R(200/d) ≤ 2 and r I = R(r ly + r lz) ≤ 0.02, r ly = Asy/(bd) and r lz = Asz/(bd)
sr = the spacing of the links in the radial direction
2 This table has been prepared for fck = 30;
Where r I exceeds 0.40% the following factors may be used: st = the spacing of the links in the tangential direction
fck 25 28 32 35 40 45 50 F can be obtained from Table 10
Factor 0.94 0.98 1.02 1.05 1.10 1.14 1.19
Maximum area of reinforcement
Outside lap locations, the maximum area of tension or compression
reinforcement should not exceed As,max = 0.4 Ac
Figure 8
Typical basic control perimeters around loaded areas
Minimum spacing of reinforcement
The minimum spacing of bars should be the greater of:
■ Bar diameter
u1
■ Aggregate size plus 5 mm
2d
2d u1 ■ 20 mm
bz Maximum spacing of main reinforcement

For slabs less than 200 mm thick the following maximum spacing rules apply:
■ For the principal reinforcement: 3h but not more than 400 mm
■ For the secondary reinforcement: 3.5h but not more than 450 mm
by
The exception is in areas with concentrated loads or areas of maximum
Figure 5
Typical basic control perimeters around loaded areas.
56
How to Foundations
Fi g 5 20.02.06
Job No.
7. Flat slabs
moment where the following applies: Table 10

■ For the principal reinforcement: 2h but not more than 250 mm Factor, F, for determining Asw, min
■ For the secondary reinforcement: 3h but not more than 400 mm fck Factor, F
Where h is the depth of the slab. 25 1875
28 1772
For slabs 200 mm thick or greater, the bar size and spacing should be
30 1712
limited to control the crack width and reference should be made to
32 1657
Section 7.3.3 of the Eurocode or Chapter 2, originally published as
35 1585
Getting started.4
40 1482
45 1398
Spacing of punching shear reinforcement
50 1326
Where punching shear reinforcement is required the following rules
Note
should be observed.
fck has been taken as 500 MPa
■ It should be provided between the face of the column and kd
inside the outer perimeter where shear reinforcement is no longer
required. k is 1.5, unless the perimeter at which reinforcement is no Selected symbols
longer required is less than 3d from the face of the column. In this Symbol Definition Value
case the reinforcement should be placed in the zone 0.3d to 1.5d Ac Cross sectional area of concrete bh
from the face of the column.
As Area of tension steel
■ There should be at least two perimeters of shear links.
As2 Area of compression steel
■ The radial spacing of the links should not exceed 0.75d
As, prov Area of tension steel provided
(see Figure 9).
■ The tangential spacing of the links should not exceed 1.5d within As, req’d Area of tension steel required
2d of the column face. b Width of slab

■ The tangential spacing of the links should not exceed 2d for any d Effective depth
other perimeter.
d2 Effective depth to compression reinforcement
■ The distance between the face of the column and the nearest shear
fcd Design value of concrete compressive strength acc fck /gc
reinforcement should be less than 0.5d.
Figure 9 fctm Mean value of axial tensile strength 0.30 fck2/3 for fck ≤ C50/60
Punching shear layout (from Table 3.1, Eurocode 2)
hs Slab thickness
Outer perimeter of shear K Factor to take account of the different See Table N 7.4 in
Outer control
reinforcement perimeter structural systems UK National Annex
u out
leff Effective span of member See Section 5.3.2.2 (1)
l/d Limiting span-to-depth ratio
M Design moment at the ULS

≤ 0.75d
A A
≤1.5d 0.5 d xmax Limiting value for depth to neutral axis (d – 0.4)d where d ≤1.0
≤1.5 d
(2 d if > 2d z Lever arm
sr
from column)
a cc Coefficient taking account of long term 0.85 for flexure and
st
effects on compressive strength and of axial loads.
unfavourable effects resulting from the 1.0 for other phenomena
way load is applied (From UK National Annex)
d Ratio of the redistributed moment to the

elastic bending moment
sr ≤ 0.75 d
Outer control gm Partial factor for material properties 1.15 for reinforcement (gs )
≤ 0.5 d perimeter 1.5 for concrete (gc )
kd
r0 Reference reinforcement ratio Rfck /1000
r Required tension reinforcement at mid-span As/bd

loads (or at support for cantilevers)
r’ Required compression reinforcement at As2/bd

Section A - A mid-span to resist the moment due to the
design loads (or at support for cantilevers)
Figure 9
Punching shear layout
57
File How to Flat Slabs Fig. 9

v1 14.03.06
7. Flat slabs
References
1 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–1, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures – General rules and rules for buildings. BSI, 2004.
2 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8110–1: The structural use of concrete – Part 1, Code of practice for design and construction. BSI, 1997.
5 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–2, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. General rules – structural fire design. BSI, 2004.
6 DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNITIES AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT. Handbook to BS EN 1992–1–2. DCLG, due 2006.
7 WEBSTER, R & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Deflection calculations. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
8 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. Background paper to the UK National Annex to BS EN 1992–1–1 and BS EN 1992–1–2. BSI, 2006.
9 PALLETT, P. Guide to flat slab formwork and falsework. Construct, 2003.
10 BRITISH CEMENT ASSOCIATION. Prefabricated punching shear reinforcement for reinforced concrete flat slabs. BCA, 2001.
Acknowledgements

0700 4 500 500 or 0700 4 CONCRETE Tel: +44 (0)1276 606800
Fax: +44 (0)1276 606801
First
58 published May 2006, revised December 2006
8. Deflection calculations
R Webster CEng, FIStructE O Brooker BEng, CEng, MICE, MIStructE
Methods for checking deflection

This chapter describes the use of Eurocode 21 to check deflection by
calculation. The alternative method for complying with the code requirements
is to use the deemed-to-satisfy span-to-effective-depth ratios, which are
appropriate and economic for the vast majority of designs. Further guidance
on the span-to-effective-depth method is given in Chapters 3, 4 and 7,
originally published as Beams2, Slabs3 and Flat slabs4. However, there are
situations where direct calculation of deflection is necessary, as listed below:
■ When an estimate of the deflection is required.
■ When deflection limits of span/250 for quasi-permanent actions (see
reference 5 for Eurocode terminology) or span/500 for partition and/or
cladding loads are not appropriate.
■ When the design requires a particularly shallow member, direct calculation
of deflection may provide a more economic solution.
■ To determine the effect on deflection of early striking of formwork or of
temporary loading during construction.
Overview
In the past structures tended to be stiff with relatively short spans. As
technology and practice have advanced, more flexible structures have resulted.
There are a number of reasons for this, including:
■ The increase in reinforcement strength leading to less reinforcement being
required for the ultimate limit state (ULS) and resulting in higher service
stresses in the reinforcement.
■ Increases in concrete strength resulting from the need to improve both
durability and construction time, and leading to concrete that is more stiff
and with higher service stresses.
What affects deflection?

This chapter is taken
There are numerous factors Other factors include:
:cementZg]concretebg]nlmkrin[eb\Zmbhg
from The Concrete

Centre’s publication, that affect deflection. These • Degree of restraint
factors are also often time- • Magnitude of loading
concrete structures
related and interdependent, • Time of loading
using Eurocode 2
(Ref. CCIP–006) which makes the prediction • Duration of loading

of deflection difficult. • Cracking of the concrete
• Shrinkage
The main factors are:
• Ambient conditions
• Concrete tensile strength
• Secondary load-paths
• Creep
• Stiffening by other elements
• Elastic modulus
■ A greater understanding of structural behaviour and the ability to It is often recommended that the design value of the concrete
analyse that behaviour quickly by computer. tensile strength for a low restraint layout is taken as the average
■ The requirement to produce economic designs for slabs whose of fctm,fl and fctm, to allow for unintentional restraint. For high restraint
thicknesses are typically determined by the serviceability limit state fctm should be used.
(SLS) and which constitute 80% to 90% of the superstructure costs.
■ Client requirements for longer spans and greater operational Creep
flexibility from their structures. Creep is the time-dependant increase in compressive strain in a
concrete element under constant compressive stress. Creep is usually
considered in the design by modifying the elastic modulus using a
Factors affecting deflection creep coefficient, h, which depends on the age at loading, size of
the member and ambient conditions, in particular relative humidity.
An accurate assessment of deflection can only be achieved if Eurocode 2 gives advice on the calculation of creep coefficients in
consideration is given to the factors that affect it. The more important detail in Annex B. It also advises on the appropriate relative humidity
factors are discussed in detail below. to use in Figure 3.1.
Tensile strength The cement strength class is required in the assessment of creep,
The tensile strength of concrete is an important property because however, at the design stage it is often not clear which class should
the slab will crack when the tensile stress in the extreme fibre is be used. Generally, Class R should be assumed. Where the ground
exceeded. In Eurocode 2 the concrete tensile strength, fctm, is a mean granulated blastfurnace slag (ggbs) content exceeds 35% of the
value (which is appropriate for deflection calculations) and increases cement combination or where fly ash (pfa) exceeds 20% of the
as the compressive strength increases. This is an advancement when cement combination, Class N may be assumed. Where ggbs exceeds
compared with BS 8110 where the tensile strength is fixed for all 65% or where pfa exceeds 35% Class S may be assumed.
concrete strengths.
Elastic modulus
The degree of restraint to shrinkage movements will influence the The elastic modulus of concrete is influenced by aggregate type,
effective tensile strength of the concrete. A layout of walls with high workmanship and curing conditions. The effective elastic modulus
restraint will decrease the effective tensile strength. Typical examples under sustained loading will be reduced over time due to the effect
of wall layouts are given in Figure 1. For a low restraint layout the of creep. These factors mean that some judgement is required
following expression may be used for the concrete tensile strength: to determine an appropriate elastic modulus. Eurocode 2 gives
fctm,fl = (1.6 – h/1000)fctm > fctm recommended values for the 28-day secant modulus, Ecm, (in Table 3.1)
where and makes recommendations for adjustments to these values to
fctm,fl = Mean flexural tensile strength of reinforced concrete account for different types of aggregate. The long-term elastic modulus
fctm = Mean tensile strength of concrete should be taken as:
Figure 1
Typical floor layouts
a) Favourable layout of restraining walls (low restraint)
b) Unfavourable layout of restraining walls (high restraint)
Figure 1
60
Typical floor layouts
Ec,LT = Ec28/(1 + h) Commercial pressures often lead to a requirement to strike the formwork
where as soon as possible and move on to subsequent floors, with the minimum
Ec28 = 28-day tangent modulus = 1.05 Ecm of propping. Tests on flat slabs have demonstrated that as much as 70%
h = Creep factor. (Note that with Eurocode 2, h relates to a 28-day of the loads from a newly cast floor (formwork, wet concrete, construction
short-term elastic modulus, whereas a ‘true’ creep factor would loads) may be carried by the suspended floor below7. It can generally
be associated with the modulus at the age of loading.) be assumed that early striking of formwork will not greatly affect the
deflection after installing the cladding and/or partitions. This is because the
The assessment of the long-term E-value can be carried out more deflection affecting partitions will be smaller if the slab becomes ‘cracked’
accurately after the contractor has been appointed because they should be before, rather than after, the installation of the cladding and/or partitions.
able to identify the concrete supplier (and hence the type of aggregates)
and also the construction sequence (and hence the age at first loading). Cracking
Deflection of concrete sections is closely linked to the extent of
Loading sequence cracking and the degree to which cracking capacity is exceeded. The
The loading sequence and timing may be critical in determining point at which cracking occurs is determined by the moments induced
the deflection of a suspended slab because it will influence the point in the slab and the tensile strength of the concrete, which increases
at which the slab will crack (if at all) and is used to calculate the creep with age. Often the critical situation is when the slab is struck, or when
factors for the slab. A loading sequence is shown in Figure 2, which the load of the slab above is applied. Once the slab has cracked its
shows that in the early stages relatively high loads are imposed while stiffness is permanently reduced.
casting the slab above. The loading sequence may vary, depending on
the construction method. It is therefore necessary to find the critical loading stage at which
cracking first occurs. This critical loading stage corresponds with the
Smaller loads are imposed when further slabs are cast above. The loads minimum value of K, where:
are then increased permanently by the application of the floor finishes
K = fctm ^W 0.5h
and erection of the partitions. Finally, the variable actions are applied
to the structure and, for the purpose of deflection calculation, the
quasi-permanent combination should be used. (See Chapter 1, where
originally published as Introduction to Eurocodes5 for further W = The serviceability loading applied up to that stage
information on combinations of actions.) However, it is likely that the fctm = The concrete tensile strength at that stage
quasi-permanent combination will be exceeded during the lifetime Where the frequent combination is the critical load stage, then
of the building and, for the purpose of determining whether the slab the degree of cracking (z) calculated for the frequent combination
might have cracked, the frequent combination may be critical. should also be used for the quasi-permanent combination, but not for
Figure 2
Loading history for a slab – an example
14
h
12
b g
10 f
c
e
8 d
a
Load (kN/m)
6 Loading sequence
a Slab struck e Floor finishes applied
4 b 1st slab above cast f Partitions erected
c 2nd slab above cast g Quasi-permanent variable actions
2 d 3rd slab above cast h Frequent variable actions
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Duration (days)
61
any of the earlier load stages. If, however, an earlier stage Figure 3
proves critical, the z value at that stage should be carried Outline of rigorous method for calculating deflection
forward to all subsequent stages.
Collate input data
Further information can be found in the best practice ■ Element dimensions and reinforcement details and arrangements from the
guide Early striking and improved backpropping6. ultimate limit state design
■ Loading sequence e.g.
• Striking the formwork
Shrinkage curvature • Casting the floor above
Shrinkage depends on the water/cement ratio, relative • Erection of the partitions and/or cladding
• Application of finishes
humidity and the size and shape of the member. The effect The sequence will vary from project to project
of shrinkage in an asymmetrically reinforced section is to ■ Concrete properties (see Table 1)
induce a curvature that can lead to significant deflection in • Mean compressive strength (fcm)
shallow members. This effect should be considered in the • Mean tensile strength (fctm or fctm,fl)
• Elastic modulus (Ec28) = 1.05 Ecm
deflection calculations.
■ Critical arrangement of actions
(or repeat the calculations for each arrangement to determine the critical case)
Methods for
Assess whether the element has flexural cracking
calculating deflections ■ Determine the critical load stage at which cracking first occurs.
(See ‘Cracking’ on page 3)
Two methods for calculating deflection are presented ■ Calculate the following properties:
• Creep coefficients, h (Annex B of Eurocode 2 or Figure 4)
below, and these are based on the advice in TR58 • Long term elastic modulus, ELT (see Panel 1)
Deflections in concrete slabs and beams8. • Effective modulus ratio, ae from: ae = Es /ELT
• Neutral axis depth for uncracked condition, xu (see Panel 2)
• Second moment of area for uncracked condition, Iu (see Panel 2)
Rigorous method • Calculate cracking moment, Mcr from:
Mcr = fctm Iu/(h – xu), using appropriate value for fctm.
The rigorous method for calculating deflections is the
■ Does the moment at the critical load stage exceed the cracking moment?
most appropriate method for determining a realistic
• If yes, the element is cracked at all subsequent stages.
estimate of deflection. However, it is only suitable for z = 1 – 0.5(Mcr/M)2 [z = 0 for uncracked situation]
Repeat at 1/20 points for all three loading stages
use with computer software. The Concrete Centre has Use these critical values of fctm and z for subsequent stages.
• If no, the element will not crack at any stage.
produced a number of spreadsheets that use this method
to carry out deflection calculations for a variety of slabs
and beams9. These offer a cost-effective way to carry
Determine the curvature of the slab
out detailed deflection calculations, and they include the
■ When the slab is cracked calculate the following properties at the load stage
ability to consider the effect of early age loading of the being considered, using appropriate values for fctm, z and ELT:
concrete. Figure 3 illustrates the principles of the method • Neutral axis depth for cracked section, xc (see Panel 2)
and shows how the factors affecting deflection are • Second moment of area for cracked condition, Ic (see Panel 2)
considered in the rigorous deflection calculations. ■ Calculate the flexural curvature:
1 MQP MQP
rfl = g E e Ic + ]1 – g g E e Iu
Finite element analysis may also be used to obtain
■ Calculate the curvature due to shrinkage strain 1/rcs (see Panel 2)
estimates of deflection. In this case the principles
■ Calculate the total curvature, 1/rt = 1/rfl + 1/rcs
in Figure 3 should be applied if credible results are to
be obtained.
Repeat the calculations at frequent intervals (say at 1/20 points) and integrate
Panel 1 twice to obtain the overall deflection.
Determining long term elastic modulus of elasticity
Calculate long-term elastic modulus, ELT from: If deflection affecting cladding and/or partitions is required, repeat calculations
for frequent combination and for loading at time of installation of partitions
W1 W2 W3 W4 W5
E LT = RW c + + + + m and/or cladding.
Eeff,1 Eeff, 2 Eeff, 3 Eeff, 4 Eeff, 5
where
Eeff = Ec28/(1+h) Estimate deflections:
■ Overall deflection (quasi-permanent combination)
Wn = Serviceability load at stage n
■ Deflection affecting partitions/cladding (Frequent combination deflection
h = Creep coefficient at relevant loading time
less deflection at time of installation)
and duration
62
Table 1
Concrete properties
fck MPa 320 325 328 330 332 335 340 350
fcm = (fck + 8) MPa 328 333 336 338 340 343 348 358
fctm = (0.3 fck(2/3) ≤ C50/60 or 2.12 ln(1 + (fcm/10)) > C50/60) MPa 332.21 332.56 332.77 332.90 333.02 333.21 333.51 334.07
fctm* = (0.3 fcm(2/3) ≤ C50/60 or 1.08 ln(fcm) + 0.1 > C50/60)a MPa 332.77 333.09 333.27 333.39 333.51 333.68 333.96 334.50
Ecm = (22 [(fcm)/10]0.3 GPa 330.0 331.5 332.3 332.8 333.3 334.1 335.2 337.3
Ec28 = (1.05 Ecm) GPa 331.5 333.0 333.9 334.5 335.0 335.8 337.0 339.1
ecd,0 CEM class R, RH = 50% microstrain 746 706 683 668 653 632 598 536
ecd,0 CEM class R, RH = 80% microstrain 416 394 381 372 364 353 334 299
ecd,0 CEM class N, RH = 50% microstrain 544 512 494 482 471 454 428 379
ecd,0 CEM class N, RH = 80% microstrain 303 286 275 269 263 253 239 212
ecd,0 CEM class S, RH = 50% microstrain 441 413 397 387 377 363 340 298
ecd,0 CEM class S, RH = 80% microstrain 246 230 221 216 210 202 189 166
eca(∞) microstrain 325 338 345 350 355 363 375 100
Key
2
2 + ] ae - 1 g ] Asd + As2 d2 g
bh be used when striking at less than 7 days or where construction overload is taken into account.
a fctm* may
bh2 + ] ae - 1 g ] As + As2 g
xu =
2 2 + ] ae - 1 g ] Asd + As2 d2 g
bh
xu =
Panel
Useful
2 bh ] - a1 grectangular
2bh + aefor ] Assd++AAs2s2gdsection
2g
x u =Expressions
bh 2
]] aaeea-h 11 gg ]] A
Akssd+
g 2g
]As2as2ed- 1 g 6 As ]d - xu g + As2 ] x u - d 2 g @
3 2 +
bhbh + + bh - +A 2 2
I u = 12 2 + 2 - xu
bh + ] a - 1 g ] As2 + As2 g
xu = 2
where
bh23 + ] aeea- h 1 g ] Aksd + As2 d2 g
bh
= 12 3 + bh 2 - xu 2 + ] ae - 1 g 6 As ]d - xu g + As2 ] x u - d 2 g @
2 2
Ixuu = As = a
rea of tension reinforcement
] g ] g
I u = 12 + bh a 2 - xuk + ] ae - 1 g 6 As ]d - xu g + As2 ] x u - d 2 g @
bhbh + ae - h 1 As + As2 2 2
As2 = area of compression reinforcement
xc = #bh7 ^ As ae + Ahs2 ] ae - 1 g h + 2 b ^ As d ae + A s2d22 ] ae - 1 g h A - 2^ As ae + As2 ] ae - 1 g h -
2 0.5
I u = 12 + bh a 2 - xuk + ] ae - 1 g 6 As ]d - xu g + As2 ] x u - d 2 g @
3 2 b = breadth of section
b
d = e ffective depth to tension
Ixuc =
#bh7 ^3 s aebh+aAhs2 -
= 12 A+ ] aexu- k 1+g h] +
2 2
ae - 2 b 1^ Ags 6dAase]d+-Axs2udg22 ]+
ae A- 1 g h A - 2^ A a + As2 ] ae - 1 g h -
s2 ] x u - d 2 g @ s e
0.5
b reinforcement
2
xc = #bx7 c^3 As ae + A s2 ] ae -2 1 g h + 2 b ^ As d ae + A s2d22] ae - 1 g h A - ^ As ae + As2 ] ae - 1 g h -
2 0.5 d2 = d
epth to compression reinforcement
I c = 3 + ae As ^ d - x c g + ^ ae - 1 g As2 ^ d2 - x c g
b
h = overall depth of section
xc = #bx7 ^3 As ae + A s2 ] ae - 1 g h + 2 b ^ As d ae + A s2d2 ] ae - 1 g h A - ^ As ae + As2 ] ae - 1 g h -
2 0.5
b
g g g
ae = modular ratio
c
^
I c = 3 + ae As d - x c + a2 e - 1 As2 d2 - x c
2
^ ^ 2
# 7c3^ As ae + A s2 ] ae -2 1 g h + 2 b ^ As d a^ e + A s2d22] ae - 1 g h A 0.5- ^ As ae + As2 ] ae - 1 g h - Su = As(d – xu) – As2 (xu – d2)

I1c = 3 + aSe uAs ^ d - x c g + ^ aeS- 1 g As2 d2 - x c g
xc = bx b
Sc = As(d – xc) – As2 (xc – d2)
rcs = gbxfccs a e I u +^1 - g h 2fcs ae I c
c
3
I c = 3 + ae As ^ d - x c g + ^ ae - 1 g As2 ^ d2 - x c g
2
1 S S
= gbxfc3cs a e +^1 - g h 2fcs ae
u c
Ir1ccs = 3 + aSeI uuAs ^ d - x c g + ^ aeSI- c 1 g A s2 ^ d 2 - x c g

2
Figure =4g f cs a e +^1- g h fcs ae c
rcs for determining
Method Iu creep coefficient Ic h(∞,t0)
1 Su Sc
^
rcs = g f cs a e I u + 1 - g fcs ae I c h
1 1 S 1
NSu R Sc
rcs =2g f cs a e I u +^1 - g h fcs ae I c
S N R
2
3 3
5 5
t 0 10 t 0 10
20 20
30 30
50 50
100 100
7.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0 100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 7.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0 100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300
h (?, t 0 ) h 0 (mm) h (?, t 0) h o (mm)
a) Inside conditions - RH = 50% b) Outside conditions - RH = 80%
How to use Nonogram
Ke y Notes
C20/25 C40/50 1 t0 = age of concrete at time of loading
A D
C25/30 C45/55 2 h0 = 2A c /u
C30/37 C50/60 3 Intersection point between lines D & E can also be above point A E C
B
C35/45 4 For t0 > 100 it is sufficiently accurate to assume t = 100
Figure 4
63
File How to Deflections Figure 4

29.03.06
Simplified method Figure 5

Simplified method for calculating deflection
A simplified method for calculating deflection is presented in Figure 5.
It is feasible to carry out these calculations by hand, and they could be
START
used to roughly verify deflection results from computer software, or
used where a computer is not available. Calculate the moment, MQP, due to quasi-permanent actions at
the critical section (i.e. mid-span or at support for cantilever)
The major simplification is that the effects of early age loading are not Obtain concrete properties, fctm, and Ec28 from Table 1
considered explicitly; rather an allowance is made for their effect when
calculating the cracking moment. Simplified creep factors are used and Calculate creep coefficient, h(∞,t0), using either Figure 4
or Annex B (in which case look-up fcm in Table 1)
deflection from the curvature of the slab is approximated using a factor.
1 Calculate long term elastic modulus, Eeff from: Eeff = Ec28/[1+h (∞,t0)]
Figure 6 2 Calculate effective modulus ratio, ae from ae = Es/Eeff, where Es is
elastic modulus for reinforcement (200 GPa)
Values for K for various bending moment diagrams
3 Calculate depth to neutral axis for uncracked condition, xu
4 Calculate second moment of area for uncracked condition, Iu
Loading Bending moment diagram K
0.9 fctm I u
0.125 Calculate cracking moment, Mcr from: Mcr =
M h – xu
M M (Note the factor 0.9 has been introduced into this method
because the loading sequence is not considered)
1 MQP MQP
rn
= g E I + ^1 – gh E
eff c eff Iu
al W 3 4a 2 Yes No
48 (1-a)
Is Mcr > MQP? 1 1 1
l M = Wa (1-a ) l If a = 1 , K = 1 rt,QP = rn + rcs
2 12
Section is uncracked Section is cracked
0.0625 z=0 z = 1 – 0.5(M1cr/MQP)2
dQP = KL 2 rt,QP
M Calculate depth 0.9to neutral

fctm I u axis for cracked
condition, xM cr =calculate second moment of area
c and
h – xu
for cracked condition, Ic
W/2 W/2
0.125 a2
al al
6
Wal 1 MQP MQP
M=
2
Calculate flexural curvature
rn
= g
Eeff Ic
+ ^1 – g h E
eff Iu
q 0.104 Calculate total shrinkage strain e1cs from e1cs = ecd1+ eca where: 1
= r + 0.9
ecd = kh ecd,0 = Drying shrinkagert,strain
0.9 f I
fctm I u ctm u from r
QP n Mrcr cs = t,QP
ql 2 kh = Coefficient based on notional size, = Table 2 h – xu
Mcr see
h – xu
8 ecd,0 = Nominal unrestrained drying shrinkage, see Table 1
1
eca = bas(t) eca(∞) = eca(∞) for long-term
dQP = KL 2deflection, see Table 1
rt,QP
1M MQP MQP
q 0.102 1
= gr n
=
QPg + ^1M–QPg h E I
Eeff^1Ic – g h
+
Calculate curvature due to shrinkager n strain 1/r
Eeff Ic Panel 2) Eeff Iu eff u
cs (see
ql 2
15.6 1 1 1
1 1 = 1 +
r +
=rt,QP
Calculate total curvature r r rcs from
t,QP n rcsn
b
q MA MC MB K = 0.104 (1 )
10 1
MA + MB Calculate quasi-permanent deflection from dQP2 = 1KL 2 rt,QP
b= dQP = KL rt,QP
MC where K can be obtained from Figure 6 and L is the span.
al W End deflection
Wal
a (3 a ) Do you need No
= to calculate deflection
6 Finish
load at end K = 0.333 due to cladding and
partitions?
Yes
2 2
al qa l a (4 a )
q 2 12 Calculate the deflection that will occur at the time of application of
the load due to partitions and/or cladding.
if a = l , K = 0.25
1 Calculate the creep coefficient h(t,t0), where t is the age when
partition/cladding loads are applied and t0 is the age of striking.
b h(t,t0) ≈ h(∞,t0) bc(t,t0). For bc(t,t0) refer to Figure 7, alternatively
MA MB K = 0.083 (1 ) refer to Annex B of Eurocode 2.
4
MA + MB 2 Calculate the moment due to self-weight, partitions/cladding and any
MC b= other loads which have been applied prior to the installation of the
MC
cladding/partition, Mpar and use in place of MQP
al al 3 Recalculate the section properties, curvature and hence deflection,
1 (5 4a 2 )
2 dpar, using h(t,t0) or equivalent instead of h(∞,t0)
2
Wl (3 4a 2) 80 3 4a 4 The approximate deflection affecting cladding and partitions is
24 d = dQP – dpar
64
Table 2
Values for Kh
Precamber
h0 kh A slab or beam can be precambered to reduce the effect of deflection
>100 1.0 below the horizontal (see Figure 8). However, in practice too much
precamber is generally used and the slab remains permanently
>200 0.85
cambered. This is because of the difficulty in accurately calculating
>300 0.75
deflection. A precamber of up to half the quasi-permanent
>500 0.70
combination deflection could be used, but a lower figure is
Notes
recommended. Precamber does not reduce the deflections affecting
h0 is the notional size (mm) of the cross-section = 2Ac/u
where partitions or cladding.
Ac = Concrete cross-sectional area
Flat slabs
u = Perimeter of that part of the cross section which is exposed to drying
Figure 7
Coefficient for development of creep with time after loading Flat slabs are very popular and efficient floor systems. However,
because they span in two directions, it can be difficult to calculate their
deflection. TR58 8 gives several suitable methods for assessing flat slab
0.60
deflection. Of these, a popular method is to take the average deflection
of two parallel column strips and to add the deflection of the middle
0.55 strip spanning orthogonally to get an approximation of the maximum
deflection in the centre of the slab.
0.50
The recommended acceptance criteria for a flat slab are shown in Figure 9.
Coefficient, bc (t, t0)
0.45
Accuracy
0.40 The calculation of deflection in Eurocode 2 using the rigorous method
presented here is more advanced than that in BS 811010. It can be
0.35 used to take account of early-age construction loading by considering
reduced early concrete tensile strengths.
0.30 However, the following influences on deflections cannot be accurately

assessed:
0.25 ■ Tensile strength, which determines the cracking moment.
100 300 500 700 900
h 0 (mm) ■ Construction loading.
■ Elastic modulus.
t = 90, t0 = 3 t = 90, t0 = 7
t = 60, t0 = 3 t = 60, t0 = 7 Therefore any calculation of deflection is only an estimate, and even the
t = 28, t0 = 3 t = 28, t0 = 7 most sophisticated analysis can still result in +15% to -30% error. It is
Notes advisable to give a suitable caveat with any estimate of deflection that
t = Age of concrete when partitions/cladding applied others are relying on.
t0 = Age of concrete when struck
Notes
1fck t= 30 (fcm =of38),
= age however the
concrete coefficient
when is not particularly sensitive
partitions/cladding to concrete class
applied
2 t 0 = age of concrete when struck
3 f = 30 (f cm = 38), however the coefficient os not particularly
Figureck8 Figure 9
sensitive to concrete class
Precambering
4 Relative of slabs is 50%(i.e. indoor conditions)
humidity Recommended acceptance criteria for flat slabs
Just before installation

Precamber of partitions Notes
If Ifmaximum
maximumpermitted
permitted d? == L/n
L /nand
andX isXthe
is the of position
position of maximumof d
Figure 7 maximum ?
where
Coefficient for development of creep a where
L L= span
= Span
with time after loading X n n= span-to-effective
= Limiting span-to-depth
depthratio,
limit
then the e.g.deflection
250 at X should not
bethengreater than 2 aat/nX. should not be
the deflection
Deflection due to (maximum
greater thandeflection
2a/n. on gridlines
Deflection
File How to dueFigure
Deflections to 7 frequent combination may be more critical)
(Maximum deflection on gridlines
27.03.06 quasi-permanent may be more critical.)
Job No. combination Deflection affecting partitions
Figure 8
Figure 9
Deflection limits for
65
File How to Deflections Figure 8
29.03.06
Job No. File How to Deflections Figure 9
Cladding tolerances ■ Manufacturers may say that their glazed systems can only
accommodate deflection as low as 5 mm.
Deflection may affect cladding or glazing in the following ways: There should be open discussions between the designers for the various
■ When a slab deflects, the load on the central fixings will be relieved elements to determine the most cost-effective way of dealing with the
and shed to outer fixings. interaction of the structure and cladding.
References
1 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–1, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. General rules and rules for building. BSI, 2004.
3 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Slabs. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
4 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Flat slabs. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
5 NARAYANAN, R S & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Introduction to Eurocodes. The Concrete Centre, 2005
6 BRITISH CEMENT ASSOCIATION. Early striking and improved backpropping. BCA, 2001. (Available from www.concretecentre.com)
7 PALLETT, P. Guide to flat slab formwork and falsework. Construct, 2003
8 THE CONCRETE SOCIETY. Technical report No. 58 Deflections in concrete slabs and beams. The Concrete Society, 2005.
9 GOODCHILD, C H & WEBSTER, R M. Spreadsheets for concrete design to BS 8110 and EC2, version 3. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
10 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8110–1. Structural use of concrete – Code of practice for design and construction. BSI, 1997.
Acknowledgements

0700 4 500 500 or 0700 4 CONCRETE Tel: +44 (0)1276 606800
Fax: +44 (0)1276 606801
First
66 published May 2006, revised December 2006
Errata
Introduction to Eurocodes
Location Original Amendment
Table 5, rows 3,5,7 & 9 1.5 Qk 1.5c Qk
Page 6, Item 13 in left The punching shear checks are carried at The punching shear checks are carried out at 2d
hand column 2d from the face of the column… from the face of the column…
Getting started
Table 6, row 3 0.900 Gl + 0.100 Ql 0.090 Gl + 0.100 Ql
Table 10, notes - Note 2 added:
a is the axis distance (see Figure 4)
Note 3 added:
hs is the slab thickness, including non-
combustible flooring
Table 8, row 9 Car park elements subject to airborne Elements subject to airborne chlorides only
chlorides only
Slabs
Table 3, note 2 F is the total design ultimate load, l, is F is the total design ultimate load, l, is the span
the effective span
Table 3, new note 4 - Based on 20% redistribution at support and no
decrease in span moments
Table 4, values for K’
% redistribution K’ % redistribution K’
0 0.205 0 0.208a
5 0.193 10 0.182a
10 0.180 15 0.168
15 0.166 20 0.153
20 0.151 25 0.137
25 0.136 30 0.120
Table 4, new key - a It is often recommended in the UK that
K’should be limited to 0.168 to ensure ductile
failure
Table 5, 6 0.954 0.950a
Figure 3, box 5 from top σs may assumed to be 310 MPa σs may be assumed to be 310 MPa
of diagram
Figure 5, heading Basic span-to-depth ratios Basic span-to-effective-depth ratios
Figure 5, Note 2 - K = 0.4 for cantilevers
Figure 5, Note 4 ⎡
l 1.5 fck ρ 0 fck ρ' ⎤ l ⎡ 1.5 fck ρ 0 fck ρ' ⎤
= K ⎢11 + + ⎥ = K ⎢11 + + ⎥
d ⎢⎣ (ρ − ρ') 12 ρ0 ⎥
⎦
d ⎢⎣ (ρ − ρ' ) 12 ρ0 ⎥⎦
\\tccdata\tcc\Users\OBrooker\For KMS\How to errors v4.doc Revision 4/23 March 2007 Page 1 of 4

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Errata
Page 5 ‘Design for shear’ It is not usual for a slab to contain shear It is not usual for a slab to contain shear
reinforcement, therefore it is only reinforcement, therefore it is only necessary to
necessary to ensure that the concrete ensure that the concrete shear stress capacity
shear stress capacity without shear without shear reinforcement (vRd,c – see Table
reinforcement (vRd,c – see Table 7) is less 7) is more than applied shear stress (vEd = VEd
than applied shear stress (vEd = VEd /(bd /(bd )).
)).
Page 6 ‘Ribbed or waffle Current practices for determining forces Current practices for determining forces in
slabs’ in ribbed and waffle slabs may also be ribbed and waffle slabs may also be used for
used for designs to Eurocode 2. Where a designs to Eurocode 2. Where a waffle slab is
waffle slab is treated as a two-way slab treated as a two-way slab refer to previous
refer to previous section. Where it is section, but note that their torsional stiffness is
treated as a flat slab reference may be significantly less than for a two-way slab and
made to How to design concrete the bending moment coefficients may not be
structures to Eurocode 2: Flat slabs4 applicable. Where it is treated as a flat slab
reference may be made to How to design
concrete structures to Eurocode 2: Flat slabs4
Page 7 ‘Maximum For slabs 200 mm thick or greater For slabs 200 mm thick or greater the bar size
spacing of reference should be made to section and spacing should be limited to control the
reinforcement’ 7.3.3 of the Code or Chapter 2, crack width and reference should be made to
originally published as Getting started5. section 7.3.3 of the Code or Chapter 2,
originally published as Getting started5.
Beams
Table 2, row 5 bmin in column C = 300 bmin in column C = 200
Table 3, row 3 0.900 Gl + 0.100 Ql 0.090 Gl + 0.100 Ql
0 0.205 0 0.208a
5 0.193 10 0.182a
10 0.180 15 0.168
15 0.166 20 0.153
20 0.151 25 0.137
25 0.136 30 0.120
Table 4, new key - a It is often recommended in the UK that
K’should be limited to 0.168 to ensure ductile
failure
Figure 5, box 2 vEd = shear stress at d from face of vEd = design shear stress
support
Figure 5 ⎛ ⎞
v Ed ⎛ v Ed ⎞
θ = 0.5 sin −1⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ θ = 0.5 sin−1⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0.18fck (1 − fck / 250) ⎠ . f ( − f / ) ⎟
⎝ 0 20 ck 1 ck 250 ⎠
Figure 5 A sw v Ed b w A sw v Ed b w
= =
s 0.9 d fywd cot θ s fywd cot θ
Figure 5, add title to x- - Percentage of tension reinforcement

axis (As,req’d/bd)
Figure 7, heading Basic span-to-depth ratios Basic span-to-effective-depth ratios

Errata
= K ⎢11 + + ⎥ = K ⎢11 + + ⎥
d ⎢⎣ (ρ − ρ') 12 ρ0 ⎥
⎦
d ⎢⎣ (ρ − ρ' ) 12 ρ 0 ⎦⎥
Figure 7, note 1 - Delete note

Figure 14 For flange in tension: For flange in tension:
vRD = 0.16 fck (1- fck/250) vRD = 0.195 fck (1- fck/250)
Figure 14 For flange in compression: For flange in compression:
vRD = 0.195 fck (1- fck/250) vRD = 0.160 fck (1- fck/250)
Table 8
vRd,max (when cot θ = 2.5) vRd,max
Flange in Flange in Flange in Flange in
fck tension compression fck tension compression
20 2.94 3.59 20 3.59 2.94
25 3.60 4.39 25 4.39 3.60
28 3.98 4.85 28 4.85 3.98
30 4.22 5.15 30 5.15 4.22
32 4.46 5.44 32 5.44 4.46
35 4.82 5.87 35 5.87 4.82
40 5.38 6.55 40 6.55 5.38
45 5.90 7.20 45 7.20 5.90
50 6.40 7.80 50 7.80 6.40
Columns
Table 3, heading - Delete:
, using method A
Figure 4 MoE Moe
Page 6 ASN/2 = (NEd - fcd b dc)/[(σsc - σst)γc] ASN/2 = (NEd - fcd b dc)/(σsc - σst)
Page 6 ASN/2 = Area of reinforcement required to ASN = Area of reinforcement required
resist axial load to resist axial load
Page 6 ASM/2 = [M - fcd b dc (h/2 - dc/2)] ASM/2 = [M - fcd b dc (h/2 - dc/2)]
[(h/2 - dc/2)(σsc - σst)γc] [(h/2 - dc/2)(σsc - σst)]
Page 6 ASM/2 = Area of reinforcement required to ASM = Area of reinforcement required
resist axial load to resist axial load
Page 8 ‘spacing requirements for - Add to final paragraph:
columns’ No bar should be further than
150 mm from transverse
reinforcement (links) in the
compression zone
Foundations
Table 4, row 3 1.0 Gk 1.1 Gk

Errata
Flat slabs
Table 3, Note 4 Based on 15% redistribution at supports Based on 20% redistribution at
and no decrease in span moments supports and no decrease in span
moments
0 0.205 0 0.208a
5 0.193 10 0.182a
10 0.180 15 0.168
15 0.166 20 0.153
20 0.151 25 0.137
25 0.136 30 0.120
Table 4, new key - a It is often recommended in the UK
that K’should be limited to 0.168 to
ensure ductile failure
Figure 3, box 4 from top of Determine Factor 2 (F2) Determine Factor 2 (F2)
diagram Where the slab span exceeds 7 m and it Where the slab span exceeds 8.5 m
supports brittle partitions, F2 = 7/leff and it supports brittle partitions, F2
Otherwise F2 = 1.0 = 8.5/leff
Otherwise F2 = 1.0
= K ⎢11 + + ⎥ = K ⎢11 + + ⎥
d ⎢⎣ (ρ − ρ') 12 ρ0 ⎥
⎦
d ⎢⎣ (ρ − ρ' ) 12 ρ0 ⎥⎦
Page 6, ‘Minimum areas of 1.5 Asw,min / (sr st) ≥ 0.08 fck1/2 fyk 1.5 Asw,min / (sr st) ≥ 0.08 fck1/2 /fyk
reinforcement’
Table 7
fck vrd,max fck vrd,max
20 3.31 20 3.68
25 4.05 25 4.50
28 4.48 28 4.97
30 4.75 30 5.28
32 5.02 32 5.58
35 5.42 35 6.02
40 6.05 40 6.72
45 6.64 45 7.38
50 7.20 50 8.00
Deflection calculations
Figure 5, box 5, item 2 (200 MPa) (200 GPa)

11. BS 8500 for building structures
T
TAA Harrison
Harrison BSc,
BSc, PhD,
PhD, CEng,
CEng, MICE, FICT O
MICE, FICT O Brooker
BrookerBEng,
BEng,CEng,
CEng,MICE,
MICE,MIStructE
MIStructE
Introduction
BS 8500 Concrete – Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206–11 was revised
in December 2006 principally to reflect changes to Special Digest 12 and bring it
into line with other standards.
The guidelines given in BS 8500 for durability are based on the latest research
and recommends strength, cover, cement content and water/cement ratios for
various exposure conditions.
Concrete design information

Exposure classification
Initially the relevant exposure condition(s) should be identified. In BS 8500
exposure classification is related to the deterioration processes of carbonation,
ingress of chlorides, chemical attack from aggressive ground and freeze/thaw
(see Table 1). All of these deterioration processes are sub-divided. The
recommendations for XD and XS exposure classes are sufficient for exposure
class XC and it is only necessary to check each face of the concrete element
for either XC, XD or XS exposure class.
Selecting concrete strength and cover

Having identified the relevant exposure condition(s), a recommended strength
class and cover should be chosen. Table 2 indicates the minimum cover and
strengths required to meet common exposure conditions for a 50-year working
life; further explanation is given below. Table 2 is not intended to cover all
concrete exposure situations and reference should be made to BS 8500 for
those cases not included, and where a 100-year working life is required.
Compressive strength
BS 8500 uses ‘compressive strength class’ to define concrete strengths; the
notation used gives the cylinder strength as well as the cube strength (see
from The Concrete Table 3). It is important to quote the compressive strength class in full to
Centre’s publication, avoid confusion.
concrete structures
R S Narayanan?K>g`
using Eurocode 2 Cover to reinforcement
(Ref. CCIP–006) The durability guidance given in BS 8500 is based on the assumption that the
minimum cover for durability is achieved. An allowance should be made in the
design for deviations from the minimum cover (∆cdev). This should be added to
the minimum cover to obtain the nominal cover.
Continues page 4
1
Table 1
Exposure Classes
Class Class description Informative example applicable to the United Kingdom

No risk of corrosion or attack (XO class)
X0 For concrete without reinforcement or Unreinforced concrete surfaces inside structures. Unreinforced concrete completely buried in soil
embedded metal where there is no significant classed as AC-1 and with hydraulic gradiant not greater than 5. Unreinforced concrete permanently
freeze/thaw, abrasion or chemical attack. submerged in non-aggressive water. Unreinforced concrete in cyclic wet and dry conditions not
subject to abrasion, freezing or chemical attack.
NOTE: For reinforced concrete, use at least XC1.
Corrosion induced by carbonation (XC classes) a

(Where concrete containing reinforcement or other embedded metal is exposed to air and moisture.)
XC1 Dry or permanently wet. Reinforced and prestressed concrete surfaces inside enclosed structures except areas of structures
with high humidity. Reinforced and prestressed concrete surfaces permanently submerged in
non-aggressive water.
XC2 Wet, rarely dry. Reinforced and prestressed concrete completely buried in soil classed as AC-1 and with a hydraulic
gradient not greater than 5. For other situations see ‘chemical attack’ section below.
XC3 & Moderate humidity or cyclic wet and dry. External reinforced and prestressed concrete surfaces sheltered from, or exposed to, direct rain.
XC4 Reinforced and prestressed concrete surfaces inside structures with high humidity (e.g. poorly
ventilated, bathrooms, kitchens). Reinforced and prestressed concrete surfaces exposed to alternate
wetting and drying.
Corrosion induced by chlorides other than from sea water (XD classes) a
(Where concrete containing reinforcement or other embedded metal is subject to contact with water containing chlorides, including de-icing salts,
from sources other than from sea water.)
XD1 Moderate humidity. Concrete surfaces exposed to airborne chlorides. Parts of structures exposed to occasional or slight
chloride conditions.
XD2 Wet, rarely dry. Reinforced and prestressed concrete surfaces totally immersed in water containing chlorides b.
XD3 Cyclic wet and dry. Reinforced and prestressed concrete surfaces directly affected by de-icing salts or spray containing
de-icing salts (e.g. walls; abutments and columns within 10 m of the carriageway; parapet edge
beams and buried structures less than 1 m below carriageway level, pavements and car park slabs).
Corrosion induced by chlorides from sea water (XS classes) a
(Where concrete containing reinforcement or other embedded metal is subject to contact with chlorides from sea water or air carrying salt originating from sea water.)
XS1 Exposed to airborne salt but not in direct External reinforced and prestressed concrete surfaces in coastal areas.
contact with sea water.
XS2 Permanently submerged. Reinforced and prestressed concrete completely submerged and remaining saturated,
e.g. concrete below mid-tide level b.
XS3 Tidal, splash and spray zones. Reinforced and prestressed concrete surfaces in the upper tidal zones and the splash and
spray zones c.
Freeze/thaw attack (XF classes)
(Where concrete is exposed to significant attack from freeze/thaw cycles whilst wet.)
XF1 Moderate water saturation without Vertical concrete surfaces such as facades and columns exposed to rain and freezing. Non-vertical
de-icing agent. concrete surfaces not highly saturated, but exposed to freezing and to rain or water.
XF2 Moderate water saturation with de-icing agent. Elements such as parts of bridges, which would otherwise be classified as XF1 but which are
exposed to de-icing salts either directly or as spray or run-off.
XF3 High water saturation without de-icing agent. Horizontal concrete surfaces, such as parts of buildings, where water accumulates and which are
exposed to freezing. Elements subjected to frequent splashing with water and exposed to freezing.
XF4 High water saturation with de-icing agent Horizontal concrete surfaces, such as roads and pavements, exposed to freezing and to de-icing
or sea water d. salts either directly or as spray or run-off. Elements subjected to frequent splashing with water
containing de-icing agents and exposed to freezing.
Chemical attack (ACEC classes)
(Where concrete is exposed to chemical attack.) Note: BS 8500-1 refers to ACEC classes rather than XA classes used in BS EN 206-1
Key
a The moisture condition relates to that in the concrete cover to reinforcement or other embedded develop a specification that is appropriate to the actual conditions likely to be encountered.
metal but, in many cases, conditions in the concrete cover can be taken as being that of the
c Exposure XS3 covers a range of conditions. The most extreme conditions are in the spray zone. The
surrounding environment. This might not be the case if there is a barrier between the concrete and
least extreme is in the tidal zone where conditions can be similar to those in XS2. The
its environment.
recommendations given take into account the most extreme UK conditions within this class.
b Reinforced and prestressed concrete elements, where one surface is immersed in water containing
d It is not normally necessary to classify in the XF4 exposure class those parts of structures located in
chlorides and another is exposed to air, are potentially a more severe condition, especially where the
the United Kingdom which are in frequent contact with the sea.
dry side is at a high ambient temperature. Specialist advice should be sought where necessary, to
2
Table 2
Selected a recommendations for normal-weight reinforced concrete quality for combined exposure classes and cover to reinforcement for at least a
50-year intended working life and 20 mm maximum aggregate size
Exposure conditions Cement/ Strength classc, maximum w/c ratio, minimum cement or combination
combination content (kg/m3), and equivalent designated concrete (where applicable)
designationsb
Typical example Primary Secondary Nominal cover to reinforcementd
15 + D c dev 20 + D c dev 25 + D c dev 30 + D c dev 35 + D c dev 40 + D c dev 45 + D c dev 50 + D c dev
Internal mass
X0
___ All Recommended that this exposure is not applied to reinforced concrete
concrete
Internal elements C20/25,
(except humid XC1
___ All 0.70, 240 or <<< <<< <<< <<< <<< <<< <<<
locations) RC20/25
Buried concrete C25/30,
in AC-1 ground XC2 AC-1 All ___ ___ 0.65, 260 or <<< <<< <<< <<< <<<
conditions e RC25/30
Vertical surface C40/50, C30/37, C28/35, C25/30,
protected from ___ All except ___ 0.45, 340 or 0.55, 300 0.60, 280 or 0.65, 260 or <<< <<< <<<
IVB-V
direct rainfall RC40/50 or RC30/37 RC28/35 RC25/30
C40/50, C30/37, C28/35,
Exposed vertical
XF1
All except ___ 0.45, 340 or 0.55, 300 0.60, 280 or <<< <<< <<< <<<
surfaces IVB-V
XC3 RC40/50 or RC30/37 RC28/35
& C40/50,0.45,
XC4 XF3
All except ___ 340 g or <<< <<< <<< <<< <<< <<<
IVB-V
RC40/50XFg
Exposed horizontal
surfaces C30/37, C28/35, C25/30,
XF3 (air All except ___ ___ 0.55, 300 0.60, 280 0.60, 280
<<< <<< <<<
entrained) IVB-V plus air g,h plus air g,h plus air g, h, j
or PAV2 or PAV1
Elements subject
to airborne XD1f
___ All ___ ___ C40/50, C32/40, C28/35,
<<< <<< <<<
0.45, 360 0.55, 320 0.60, 300
chlorides
IIB-V, IIIA ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ C35/45, C32/40, C28/35,
0.40, 380 0.45, 360 0.50, 340
Car park decks and
areas subject to ___ CEM I, IIA, ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ See C40/50, C35/45,
IIB-S, SRPC BS 8500 0.40, 380 0.45, 360
de-icing spray
IIIB, IVB-V ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ C32/40, C28/35, C25/30,
0.40, 380 0.45, 360 0.50, 340
IIB-V, IIIA ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ C35/45, C32/40, C32/40,
0.40, 380 0.45, 360 0.50, 340
Vertical elements XD3f
subject to de-icing XF2
CEM I, IIA, ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ See C40/50, C35/45,
IIB-S, SRPC BS 8500 0.40, 380 0.45, 360
spray and freezing
IIIB, IVB-V ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ C32/40, C32/40 C32/40,
0.40, 380 0.45, 360 0.50, 340
Car park decks, XF4

CEM I, IIA, ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ See C40/50,
<<<
ramps and external IIB-S, SRPC BS 8500 0.40, 380 g
areas subject to
freezing and XF4 (air ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ C28/35, C28/35 C28/35,
IIB-V, IIIA, IIIB 0.40, 380g, h 0.45, 360g, h 0.50, 340g, h
de-icing salts entrained)
CEM I, IIA, ___ ___ ___ See C35/45, C32/40,
<<< <<<
IIB-S, SRPC BS 8500 0.45, 360 0.50, 340
XF1
Exposed vertical
IIB-V, IIIA ___ ___ ___ See C32/40, C28/35, C28/35,
<<<
surfaces near coast BS 8500 0.45, 360 0.50, 340 0.55, 320
XS1f
___ IIIB ___ ___ ___ C32/40, C25/30, C25/30, C25/30,
<<<
0.40, 380 0.50, 340 0.50, 340 0.55, 320
Exposed horizontal XF3 or CEM I, IIA, ___ ___ ___ See C40/50,
<<< <<< <<<
surfaces near coast XF4 IIB-S, SRPC BS 8500 0.45, 360 g
Key d D c dev is an allowance for deviations. ___ Not recommended
a This table comprises a selection of common exposure class combinations. e For sections less than 140 mm thick refer to BS 8500.
Requirements for other sets of exposure classes, e.g. XD2, XS2 and XS3 should f Also adequate for exposure class XC3/4. <<< Indicates that concrete
be derived from BS 8500-1: 2006, Annex A. g Freeze/thaw resisting aggregates should be specified. quality in cell to the left
b See BS 8500-2,Table 1. (CEM I is Portland cement, IIA to IVB are cement combinations.) h Air entrained concrete is required. should not be reduced
c For prestressed concrete the minimum strength class should be C28/35. j This option may not be suitable for areas subject to
severe abrasion.
3
Table 3
Eurocode 24 recommends that ∆c dev is taken as 10 mm, unless the Compressive strength class for normal and heavyweight concrete
fabrication is subjected to a quality assurance system where it is
Example Compressive Designated Previous Grade
permitted to reduce ∆c dev to 5 mm, or 0 mm if the element can be strength classes concrete of concrete
rejected if it is out of tolerance (e.g. precast elements). (BS 8500) (BS 8500) (BS 53283 & BS 81105)
C20/25 RC20/25 C25
Cement types and minimum cement content C25/30 RC25/30 C30
Table 4 may be used to understand the cement/combination
C28/35 RC28/35 C35
designations. It should be noted from Table 2 that the strength,
water/cement ratio and minimum cement content may vary depending C30/37 RC30/37 –
on the cement type used. In the UK, all cement/combinations are C32/40 RC32/40 C40
available (except SRPC), although in most concrete production plants C35/45 RC35/45 C45
either ground granulated blastfurnace slag or flyash (pfa) is available; not C40/50 RC40/50 C50
both. When using a designated concrete (see section below), it is not
C45/55 – –
necessary to specify the types of cement/combinations.
C50/60 – C60
Explanation of the compressive strength class notation NOTE: Refer to BS 8500-1: 2006, Table A.20 for full list of Compressive strength classes.
C 40 /50
A Includes heavyweight concrete
Table 4
B Minimum characteristic 150 mm Cement and combination typea
diameter by 300 mm cylinder
‘C’ for normal Cylinder Cube
weight strengthB strengthC strength, N/mm2 Broad Composition Cement/combination
concrete A C Minimum characteristic cube
designationb types (BS 8500)
‘LC’ for strength, N/mm2
lightweight
CEM I Portland cement CEM I
concrete
SRPC Sulfate-resisting Portland cement SRPC
IIA Portland cement with 6–20% of fly CEM II/A-L, CEM II/A-LL,
Air content ash, ground granulated blastfurnace CIIA-L, CIIA-LL,
Where air entrainment is required for exposure classes XF3 and XF4 slag, limestone, or 6–10% silica CEM II/A-S, CIIA-S
fumec CEM II/A-V, CIIA-V
the minimum air content by volume of 3.0%, 3.5% or 5.5% should CEM II/A–D
be specified for 40 mm, 20 mm and 10 mm maximum aggregate size
IIB-S Portland cement with 21–35% CEM II/B-S, CIIB-S
respectively. ground granulated blastfurnace slag
IIB-V Portland cement with 25–35% fly ash CEM II/B-V, CIIB-V
Freeze/thaw aggregates
IIB+SR Portland cement with 25–35% fly ash CEM II/B-V+SR,
For exposure conditions XF3 and XF4 freeze/thaw resisting
CIIB-V+SR
aggregates should be specified. The producer is then obliged to
IIIAd, e Portland cement with 36–65% CEM III/A,, CIIIA
conform to the requirements given in BS 8500–2: 2006, Cl.4.3.
ground granulated blastfurnace slag
IIIA+SRe Portland cement with 36–65% CEM III/A+SRf,
Aggressive ground ground granulated blastfurnace slag CIII/A+SRf
Where plain or reinforced concrete is in contact with the ground with additional requirements that
further checks are required to ensure durability. An aggressive enhance sulfate resistance
chemical environment for concrete class (ACEC class) should be IIIBe, g Portland cement with 66–80% CEM III/B, CIIIB
assessed for the site. BRE Special Digest 12 gives guidance on the ground granulated blastfurnace slag
assessment of the ACEC class and this is normally carried out as part IIIB+SRe Portland cement with 66–80% CEM III/B+SRf , CIIIB+SRf
of the interpretive reporting for a ground investigation. Knowing the ground granulated blastfurnace slag
with additional requirements that
ACEC class, a design chemical class (DC class) can be obtained from
enhance sulfate resistance
Table 5.
IVB-V Portland cement with 36–55% fly ash CEM IV/B(V), CIVB
Key
For designated concretes, an appropriate foundation concrete (FND a There are a number of cements and combinations not listed in this table that may be specified for
designation) can be selected using Table 6; the cover should be certain specialist applications. See BRE Special Digest 12. for the sulfate-resisting characteristics of other
cements and combinations.
determined from Table 2 for the applicable exposure classes. A FND b The use of these broad designations is sufficient for most applications. Where a more limited range of
cement or combinations types is required, select from the notations given in BS 8500-2:2006, Table 1.
concrete has the strength class of C25/30, therefore, where a higher c When IIA or IIA-D is specified, CEM I and silica fume may be combined in the concrete mixer using the
strength is required a designed concrete should be specified. For k-value concept; see BS EN 206-1:200, 5.2.5.2.3.
d Where IIIA is specified, IIIA+SR may be used.
designed concretes, the concrete producer should be advised of the e Inclusive of low early strength option (see BS EN 197-4 and the “L” classes in BS 8500-2:2006, Table A.1.).
f “+SR” indicates additional restrictions related to sulfate resistance. See BS 8500-2:2006, Table 1,
DC-class (see section on specification). footnote D.
g Where IIIB is specified, IIIB+SR may be used.
4
Table 5
Selection of the DC-class and the number of Addition Protection Fire design
Measures (APMs) where the hydrostatic head of groundwater is not more Having selected concrete cover and strength to meet the durability
than five times the section width a, b, c, d, e recommendations of BS 8500, the nominal cover should be checked
ACEC-class DC-class in accordance with Eurocode 24, for fire cover.
(Aggressive
Chemical Intended working life
Environment for
Concrete cast against uneven surfaces
At least 50 years At least 100 years The nominal cover (i.e. minimum cover plus fixing tolerance) should
Concrete class)
AC-1s, AC-1 DC-1 DC-1 be a minimum of 75 mm for concrete cast directly against the earth
and 50 mm for concrete cast against blinding.
AC-2s, AC-Z DC-2 DC-2
AC-2z DC-2z DC-2z Abrasion

BS 8500 does not contain abrasion classes; instead reference should be
AC-3s DC-3 DC-3
made to BS 8204-26 or Concrete Society Technical Report 347. Table 7
AC-3z DC-3z DC-3z summarises the factors that affect the abrasion resistance of floors.
AC-3 DC-3 Refer to BS 8500
AC-4s
AC-4z
DC-4
DC-4z
DC-4
DC-4z
Specification
AC-4 DC-4 Refer to BS 8500 Method of specifying
There are various methods of specifying concrete to BS 8500
AC-4ms DC-4m DC4m
(see Table 8). The most popular are designated and designed.
AC-4m DC-4m Refer to BS 8500 BS 8500 also introduces a new method ‘proprietary concrete’.
AC-5 DC-4f DC-4f
The specifier
AC-5z DC-4zf DC-4z/1 f
Figures 1 and 2 show standard specification forms produced by the
AC-5m DC-4mf DC-4mf Quarry Products Association for designated and designed concretes8.
Key Similar tables are included in the National Structural Concrete
a Where the hydrostatic head of groundwater is greater than five times the section width, refer to BS 8500. Specification 9 (NSCS). In BS 8500 the ‘specifier’ is the person or body
b For guidance on precast products see Special Digest 12.
responsible for the final compilation of the technical requirements,
c For structural performance outside these values refer to BS 8500.
called the specification, which is passed to the concrete producer.
d For section widths < 140 mm refer to BS 8500.
This will generally be the contractor, however, the designer will want
e Where any surface attack is not acceptable e.g. with friction piles, refer to BS 8500.
f This should include APM3 (surface protection), where practicable, as one of the APMs; refer to BS 8500.
to ensure their requirements are incorporated and this will normally
be through their own specification for the works (e.g. with the
NSCS). Figures 1 and 2 have been annotated to indicate which
Table 6 information is typically provided by the designer and contractor. The
Guidance on selecting designated concrete for reinforced concrete
foundations designer should require that any reported non-conformities are
passed to them for assessment.
DC-Class Appropriate Designated Concrete
DC-1 RC 25/30 Consistence

DC-2 FND2 The term ‘workability’ has been replaced by the term ‘consistence’ and a
series of consistence classes has been introduced. Table 9 gives the
DC-2z FND2z
slump and flow classes and the likely target slump/flow.
DC-3 FND3
DC-3z FND3z Chloride Class
DC-4 FND4 Concrete that is to be prestressed, pre-tensioned or heat cured
DC-4z FND4z should normally be specified as chloride class Cl0,10. Reinforced
concrete should be specified as class Cl0,40 except for concrete
DC-4m FND4m
made with cement conforming to BS 402710 (SRPC), which should be
NOTE
specified as class Cl0,20. Post-tensioned elements in an internal
Strength class for all FND concrete is C25/30.
building environment may also be specifed as class Cl0,10.
Continues page 8
5
Table 7
Factors affecting the abrasion resistance of concrete floors
Factor Effect
Power floating Power finishing and, in particular, repeated power trowelling is a significant factor in creating abrasion
resistance, however, excessive repetitions of the process do not necessarily further enhance performance.
Curing Prompt and efficient curing is essential in order to retain sufficient water in the surface zone to complete
hydration and the development of concrete strength at and close to the surface.
Cement content Cement content should not be less than 325 kg/m3. Cement contents above 360 kg/m3 are unlikely to
enhance abrasion resistance and excessive cement content can impair the power finishing process.
Water/cement ratio Water/cement ratio is of great importance. It should not exceed 0.55. Reducing to 0.50 is likely to increase
abrasion resistance but lowering further is unlikely to give further enhancement.
Aggregates Coarse aggregate usually has no direct effect on abrasion resistance, except in floors in very aggressive
environments where the surface is expected to be worn away. Coarse and fine aggregates should not contain
soft or friable materials.
Dry shake finishes Dry shake finishes can be used to enhance the surface properties in high abrasion locations.
Figure 1
Example specification of Designated Concrete
Schedule for the specification requirements of designated concretes for use on contract
Contract Title: New Office
Contract period: June - Dec ‘04
BS 8500-1 reference Requirement Schedule

4.2.2a) The concretes below shall be supplied as Designated Concretes in accordance with
this specification and the relevant clauses of BS 8500-2A
4.2.2b) D Concrete designation FND2 z RC25/30 RC32/40 D
4.2.2c) Maximum aggregate size when other –– –– 10
D than 20 mm D
O
4.2.2d) Consistence S1, S2, S3, S4 S1, S2, S3, S4 S1, S2, S3, S4 S1, S2, S3, S4
(Ring the class required when other than F2, F3, F4, F5 F2, F3, F4, F5 F2, F3, F4, F5 F2, F3, F4, F5
the default classes of S3 for the GEN, FND
and RC series and S2 for the PAV series. Use
a separate column for different consistence
with the same designated concrete)
C Other (specify) C
4.2.3 C D Additional requirements –– –– –– C D
Exchange of information
BS EN 206-1, 7.1 Total volume required 48 m 3 12003 m3 72 m3 3
Anticipated peak delivery rate 6 m /day 18 m /hr 6 m /day
3
C Any access limitations C
KEY
5.1a) Intended method of placing, Skip + Pumping Skip + Designer specifies
e.g. pumping, and finishing, e.g. power tamped + float tamped D
concrete designation,
C floating, the concrete C maximum aggregate
5.1b) Where identity testing is routine: N/A N/A N/A size and any
additional
Type of test requirements
Volume of concrete in assessment
Number of tests on this volume Contractor specifies
C consistence, any
Whether a non-accredited laboratory
additional
C will be used C requirements and
5.1 & BS EN 206-1, 7.1 Other information from the specifier –– –– –– completes exchange
C to the producer C of information
section
5.2 & BS EN 206-1, 7.2 Information required from –– –– ––
C the producer C Red text
Example
A There is no need to cite BS EN 206-1 as BS 8500-2 has a clause that requires conformity to BS EN 206-1. specification
6
Table 8
Methods of specifying concrete
BS 8500 BS 5328 (superseded by BS 8500 1 Dec 2003)

Designated concrete Designated mix
Designed concrete Designed mix
Prescribed concrete Prescribed mix
Standardized prescribed concrete Standard mix
Proprietary concrete No equivalent
Figure 2
Example specification of Designed Concrete
Schedule for the specification requirements of designed concretes for use on contract
Contract Title: New Office
Contract period: June - Dec ‘04
BS 8500-1 Requirement Schedule
reference
4.3.2a) The concretes below shall be supplied as designed concretes in accordance with this specification
and the relevant clauses of BS 8500-2A
D Concrete reference, if any Pads Slab Cols D
4.3.2b) D Compressive strength class C28/35 C25/30 C32/40 D
4.3.2c) For sulfate resisting concrete, design chemical class DC-2z DC- DC- DC-
D D
For other concretes, limiting values of composition: 0.70 0.55
Maximum w/c ratio
D Minimum cement/combination content, kg/m3 240 300 D
4.3.2d) & Cement or combination types CEM 1, SRPC, CEM 1, SRPC, CEM 1, SRPC, CEM 1, SRPC,
xx xx
4.3.3a) (delete those not permitted) IIA, IIB IIA, IIB IIA, IIB IIA, IIB
Other special property, e.g. white, low heat, +SR IIIA, IIIB, IVB IIIA, IIIB, IVB IIIA, IIIB, IVB IIIA, IIIB, IVB
D (specify) D
4.3.2e) D Maximum aggregate size, mm 20 20 10 D KEY
4.3.2f) Chloride class (ring the one required) Cl 0,10 Cl 0,10 Cl 0,10 Cl 0,10 D Designer specifies
O
Prestressed or heat cured reinforced concrete RC RC RC RC compressive strength

Reinforced B Cl 1,0 Cl 1,0 Cl 1,0 Cl 1,0 class, design chemical
D Unreinforced with no embedded metal D class, maximum
4.3.2g) & h) For lightweight and heavyweight concrete, water/cement ratio,
D target density D minimum cement
O
O
O
content, cement or
4.3.2i) Consistence (Ring the class required. S1, S2, S3, S4 S1, S2, S3, S4 S1, S2, S3, S4 S1, S2, S3, S4
F2, F3, F4, F5 F2, F3, F4, F5 F2, F3, F4, F5 combination types
Use separate columns for the same basic F2, F3, F4, F5
(unless design
concretes with different consistence)
C D C D chemical class is
Other (specify)
specified), maximum
4.3.2 UKAS or equivalent accredited third party product Yes Yes Yes Yes aggregate size,
Note 2 D conformity certification (delete if not required) D chloride class, target
4.3.3b) Additional requirements density (excluding
to n) C D C D normal weight
Exchange of information concrete),
requirement for
BS EN Volume required 48 m 3 1200 m3 72 m3
6 m3/day 18 m3/hr 6 m3/day
third party product
206-1, 7.1 Anticipated peak delivery rate
C C conformity
Any access limitations
certification
5.1a) Intended method of placing, e.g. pumping, and Skip + Pumping Skip + (recommended)
C finishing, e.g. power floating, the concrete tamped + float tamped C and any additional
5.1b) Where identity testing is routine:
Type of test
N/A N/A N/A requirements
Contractor specifies
Volume of concrete in assessment C
Number of tests on this volume consistence,
C Whether a non-accredited laboratory will be used C any additional
requirements and
5.1 & BS EN Other information from the specifier to the –– –– –– completes exchange
206-1,7.1 C producer C of information
5.2 & BS EN Information required from the producer –– –– –– section
206-1, 7.2 C C
A There is no need to cite BS EN 206-1 as BS 8500-2 has a clause that requires conformity to BS EN 206-1.
Red text
Example
B Where RC is ringed, the chloride class shall be Cl 0.40 except where SRPC is used. In this case the chloride class shall be Cl 0,20. Specification
7
11.11.
BSBS 8500
8500 forfor building
building structures
structures
Table 9a
Consistence slump classes and likely target values Conformity
Under BS 8500, the concrete producer is now required to follow a
Slump class Target slump (mm) formal procedure called ‘conformity’ to verify that the concrete is in
S1 20 accordance with the specification. It is, therefore, recommended
S2 70 that the concrete supplier should have third party certification.
S3 130
Where this is not adopted, the specifier is advised to adopt
adequate identity testing to ensure the concrete is as specified.
S4 190
Identity testing
The specifier is responsible for organising any identity testing, which
Table 9b is in all but in name acceptance testing. Identity testing can include
Consistence flow classes and likely target values strength, consistence and air content. There are a number of
Flow class Target flow (mm) situations where it is recommended:
� where the producer does not hold third party certification
F2 380
� in cases of doubt
F3 450
� for critical elements, e.g. high strength columns
F4 520 � for spot checks on the producer.
F5 590
Exchange of information
To enable the concrete producer to design and produce a suitable
concrete, certain information must be provided in addition to the
specification, e.g. where the concrete needs to be pumped or a high
quality finish is required.
References
1 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8500: Concrete – Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206–1. BS1, 2006.
2 BUILDING RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT. BRE Special Digest 1 – Concrete in aggressive ground (3rd edition). BRE, 2005.
3 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 5328: Concrete, BSI. (Withdrawn by BSI on 1 December 2003).
5 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8110-1: The structural use of concrete – Part 1: Code of practice for design and construction. BSI, 1997.
6 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8204-2: Screeds, bases and in-situ floorings, Part 2: Concrete wearing surfaces – Code of practice. BSI, 1999.
7 THE CONCRETE SOCIETY. Technical report 34: Concrete industrial ground floors. The Concrete Society, 2003.
8 QUARRY PRODUCTS ASSOCIATION. Visit the Webpage www.qpa.org/pro_rea.
9 CONSTRUCT. National structural concrete specification for building construction. Construct, 2004.
10 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 4027: Specification for sulfate–resisting Portland cement. BSI, 1996.
For more information on Eurocode 2 visit Published by The Concrete Centre

www.eurocode2.info. Riverside House, 4 Meadows Business Park,
For further questions relating to Eurocode 2 Station Approach, Blackwater, Camberley,
or the design, use and performance of Surrey GU17 9AB
concrete, contact the free National Helpline
Tel: +44 (0)1276 606800
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ISBN 1-904818-50-1 resulting from such advice or information is accepted by The Concrete Centre or its subcontractors, suppliers or advisors. Readers should
note that publications from The Concrete Centre are subject to revision from time to time and they should therefore ensure that they
Published April 2007. Reprinted December 2007
are in possession of the latest version. This publication has been produced following a contract placed by the Department for Trade
First published as How to use BS 8500 with BS 8110, and Industry (DTI); the views expressed are not necessarily those of the DTI.
March 2005
© The Concrete Centre™
Worked Examples for Eurocode 2
Draft Version
All advice or information from The Concrete Centre is intended for those who will evaluate
the significance and limitations of its contents and take responsibility for its use and
application.
No liability (including that for negligence) for any loss resulting from such advice or
information is accepted by the Concrete Centre or their subcontractors, suppliers or
advisors.
Readers should note that this is a draft version of a document and will be subject to
revision from time to time and should therefore ensure that they are in possession of the
latest version.
1 Introduction
1.1 Aim
The aim of this publication is to illustrate through worked examples how Eurocode 2[1–4] may
be used in practice to design in-situ building structures. It is intended that these worked
examples will explain how calculations to BS EN 1992–1–1[1] may be performed. This will be
carried out within the environment of other relevant publications:
Eurocode 2.
Other Eurocodes.
Material and execution standards.
Publications by The Concrete Centre and others.
There are, therefore, many references to other documents and while it is intended that this
publication, referred to as Worked examples, can stand alone it is anticipated that users
may require several of the other references to hand, in particular, Concise Eurocode 2 [5],
which summarises the rules and principles that will be commonly used it the design of
reinforced concrete framed buildings to Eurocode 2.
Figure 1.1
Worked examples in context
The worked examples relate to in-situ concrete building structures. The designs are in
accordance with Eurocode 2 Part 1–1[1], as modified by the UK National Annex[1a] and explained
in PD 6687[5]. The design of other forms of concrete are covered in other publications[6–9].
Generally, the calculations are cross-referenced to the relevant clauses in Eurocode 2[1–4]
and, where appropriate, to other documents. See Table 1.1 for a guide to presentation and
Section 11 for references. All references in the margins are to Eurocode 2 Part 1–1[1] unless
indicated otherwise. References to BS 8110[10]refer to Part 1 unless otherwise stated.
WE 1 Intro v7c 17 Sep 07.doc 17/09/2007 Page 1 of 6

Generally, the ‘simple’ examples depend on equations and design aids derived from
Eurocode 2. The derived equations are given in Appendix A and the design aids from Concise
Eurocode 2[11] are repeated in Appendix B.
The examples are intended to be appropriate for their purpose, which is to illustrate the
use of Eurocode 2 for in-situ building structures. There are simple examples to illustrate
how typical hand calculations might be done using available charts and tables derived from
the Code. These are followed by more detailed examples illustrating the detailed workings
of the codes. In order to explain the use of Eurocode 2, several of the calculations are
presented in detail far in excess of that necessary in design calculations once users are
familiar with the code. To an extent, the designs are contrived to show valid methods of
designing elements, to give insight and to help in validating computer methods. They are
not necessarily the most appropriate, the most economic or only method of designing the
members illustrated.
Table 1.1
Guide to presentation
<6.4.4> Relevant clauses or figure numbers from Eurocode 2 Part
1–1 (if the reference is to other parts, other Eurocodes or
6.4.4 other documents this will be indicated)
<NA>
From the relevant UK National Annex (generally to
NA Eurocode 2 Part 1–1)
<6.4.4 &NA>
From both Eurocode 2 Part 1–1 and UK National Annex
6.4.4 & NA
<Fig. 2.1>
Relevant parts of this publication
Section 5.2
<SMDSC[22] >
Relevant parts of Standard method of detailing structural
SMDSC[22] concrete – a manual for best practice.
<Concise EC2>
Concise Eurocode 2
Concise EC2
<How to, Floors>

How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2:
How to, Floors Floors
As some of the detailing rules in Eurocode 2 are generally more involved than those to BS
8110, some of the designs presented in this publication have been extended into areas that
have traditionally been the responsibility of detailers. These extended calculations are not
necessarily part of ‘normal’ design but are included at the end of some calculations. It is
assumed that the designer will discuss and agree with the detailer areas of responsibility and
the degree of rationalisation, the extent of designing details, assessment of curtailment and
other aspects, that the detailer should undertake. It is recognised that in the vast majority of
cases, the rules given in detailing manuals[12,13] will be used. However, the examples are
intended to help when curtailment, anchorage and lap lengths need to be determined.

1.2 BS EN 1990 Eurocode: Basis of structural design
In the Eurocode system BS EN 1990, Eurocode: Basis of structural design[14] overarches all
the other Eurocodes, BS EN 1991 to BS EN 1999. BS EN 1990 defines the effects of actions,
including geotechnical and seismic actions, and applies to all structures irrespective of the
material of construction. The material Eurocodes define how the effects of actions are
resisted by giving rules for design and detailing. See Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2
The Eurocode hierachy
BS EN 1990 provides the necessary information for the analysis of structures including
partial and other factors to be applied to the actions from BS EN 1991. It establishes the
principles and requirements for the safety, serviceability and durability of structures. It <BS EN 1990:
describes the basis for design as follows: 2.1>
A structure shall be designed and executed (constructed) in such a way that it will, during its
intended life, with appropriate degrees of reliability and in an economical way:
■ Sustain all actions and influences likely to occur during execution and use.
■ Remain fit for the use for which it is required.
In other words, it shall be designed using limit states principles to have adequate stability,
structural resistance (including structural resistance in fire), serviceability and durability.
For building structures, a design working life of 50 years is implied.
BS EN 1990 states that limit states should be verified in all relevant design situations,
persistent, transient or accidental. No relevant limit state shall be exceeded when design
values for actions and resistances are used in design. The limit states are:
■ Ultimate limit states (ULS), which are associated with collapse or other forms of
structural failure.
■ Serviceability limit states (SLS), which correspond to conditions beyond which specified
service requirements are no longer met.
All actions are assumed to vary in time and space. Statistical principles are applied to arrive
at the magnitude of the partial load factors to be used in design to achieve the required
reliability index (level of safety). There is an underlying assumption that the actions
themselves are described in statistical terms.

1.3 BS EN 1991 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures
Actions are defined in the 10 parts of BS EN 1991 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures[15]
BS EN 1991–1–1: 2002: Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings
BS EN 1991–1–2: 2002: Actions on structures exposed to fire
BS EN 1991–1–3: 2003: Snow loads
BS EN 1991–1–4: 2005: Wind actions
BS EN 1991–1–5: 2003: Thermal actions
BS EN 1991–1–6: 2005: Actions during execution
BS EN 1991–1–7: 2006: Accidental actions
BS EN 1991–2: 2003: Actions on structures. Traffic loads on bridges
BS EN 1991–3: 2006: Cranes and machinery
BS EN 1991–4: 2006: Silos and tanks
This publication is mainly concerned with designing for the actions defined by Part––1
Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings.
Design values of actions and load arrangements are covered in Section 2.
1.4 BS EN 1992 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures

Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures[1–4] operates within an environment of other
European and British standards – see Figure 1.3. It is governed by Eurocode and subject to
the actions defined in Eurocodes 1, 7 and 8. It depends on various materials and execution
standards and is used as the basis of other standards. Part 2, Bridges, and Part 3, Liquid
retaining structures, work by exception to Part 1–1 and 1–2, that is, clauses in Parts 2 and 3
confirm, moderate or replace clauses in Part 1–1.
Note
National Annexes and
explanatory documents
(e.g. PD 6687, and Non-
Contradictory
Complementary
Information – NCCI) are
not shown.
Figure 1.3
Eurocode 2 in context

1.5 National Annexes
It is the prerogative of each member state to control levels of safety in that country. As
a result, some safety factors and other parameters in the Eurocodes, such as climatic
conditions, durability classes and design methods, are subject to confirmation or
selection at a national level. The decisions made by the national bodies become
Nationally Determined Parameters (NDPs) which are published in a National Annex (NA)
for each part of each Eurocode. The National Annex may also include reference to non-
contradictory complementary information (NCCI), such as national standards or guidance
documents.
This publication includes references to the relevant National Annexes as appropriate.
1.6 Basis of the worked examples in this publication
The design calculations in this publication are in accordance with:
BS EN 1990, Eurocode: Basis of structural design[14] and its UK National Annex[14a].

BS EN 1991, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures in 10 parts[15] and their UK National
Annexes[15a].
BS EN 1992–1–1, Eurocode 2 – Part 1–1: Design of concrete structures – General rules and
rules for buildings.[1] and its UK National Annex[1a].
BS EN 1992–1–2, Eurocode 2 – Part 1–2: Design of concrete structures – Part 1–2.
Structural fire design.[2] and its UK National Annex[2a].
PD 6687 Background paper to the UK National Annexes[5].
BS EN 1997, Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design – Part 1. General rules.[16] and its UK
National Annex[16a].
(TBC) BS EN 1992–3, Design of concrete structures – Liquid-retaining and containment
structures[4].
They use materials conforming to:

BS 8500–1: Concrete – Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206–1: Method of
specifying and guidance to the specifier[17].
BS 4449: Steel for the reinforcement of concrete – Weldable reinforcing steel – Bar, coil
and decoiled product – Specification[18].
The execution is assumed to conform to:

PD 6687 Background paper to the UK National Annexes BS EN 1992–1.[5]
NSCS, National structural concrete specification for building construction, 3rd edition[19].
Or, when available
BS ENV 13670: Execution of concrete structures. Due 2008[20].
They refer to several publications, notably:
Concise Eurocode 2 for the design of in-situ concrete framed buildings to BS EN 1992–1–
1: 2004 and its UK National Annex: 2005[11].
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2[21].

Standard method of detailing structural concrete, a manual for best practice
(SMDSC)[22].

1.7 Assumptions
1.7.1 Eurocode 2
Eurocode 2 assumes that: <1.3 >
Design and construction will be undertaken by appropriately qualified and experienced

personnel.
Adequate supervision and quality control will be provided.
Materials and products will be used as specified.
The structure will be adequately maintained and will be used in accordance with the
design brief.
The requirements for execution and workmanship given in ENV 13670 are complied
with. ENV 13670[20] is currently available but without its National Application <PD 6687[5]>
Document. For building structures in the UK, the background document PD 6687[5]
considers the provisions of the National Structural Concrete Specification (NSCS)[19]
to be equivalent to those in ENV 13670 for tolerance class 1. When published, BS EN
13670[20] and the corresponding National Annex will take precedence.
1.7.2 The worked examples

Unless noted otherwise, the calculations in this publication assume:
A design life of 50 years. <BS EN 1990 Table 2.1>

C30/37 concrete. <Table 3.1>
Grade A, B or C reinforcement. <BS 4449>
Exposure class XC1. <Table 4.1, BS 8500 Table??>
1 hour fire resistance. <The Building Regulations>
Generally each calculation is rounded and it is the rounded value that is used in any further
calculation.
1.8 Material properties

Material properties are specified in terms of their characteristic values. This usually
corresponds to the lower 5% fractile of an assumed statistical distribution of the property
considered.
The values of γc and γs, partial factors for materials, are indicated in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2
Partial factors for materials <Table 2.1 & NA>
Design situation γc – concrete γs – reinforcing steel
ULS – persistent and transient 1.50 1.15
Accidental – non-fire 1.20 1.00
Accidental – fire 1.00 1.00
SLS 1.00 1.00

Draft Version
application.
advisors.
latest version.
2 Analysis, actions and load arrangements
2.1 Methods of analysis
At the ultimate limit state (ULS) the type of analysis should be appropriate to <5.1.1(7)>
the problem being considered. The following are commonly used:
Linear elastic analysis.
Linear elastic analysis with limited redistribution.
Plastic analysis.
At the serviceability limit state (SLS) linear elastic analysis may be used.
Linear elastic analysis may be carried out assuming:

Cross-sections are uncracked and remain plane (i.e. may be based on concrete
gross sections).
Linear stress–strain relationships.
The use of mean values of elastic modulus.
For ULS, the moments derived from elastic analysis may be redistributed provided
that the resulting distribution of moments remains in equilibrium with the applied
actions. In continuous beams or slabs with fck ≤ 50 MPa the minimum ratio of the
redistributed moment to the moment in the linear analysis, δ, is 0.70 where Class
B or Class C reinforcement is used or 0.80 where Class A reinforcement is used.
Within the limits set, coefficients for moment and shear derived from elastic
analysis may be used to determine forces in regular structures (see Appendix B).
The design of columns should be based on elastic moments without redistribution. <5.2.7>
Plastic analysis may be used for design at ULS provided that the required ductility <5.6.2>
can be assured, for example, by:
Limiting xu / d (to ≤ 0.25 for concrete strength classes ≤ C50/60).
Using Class B or C reinforcement.
Ensuring the ratio of moments at intermediate supports to moments in spans is
between 0.5 and 2.0.
2.2 Actions
Actions refer to loads applied to the structure as defined below:
Permanent actions refer to actions for which the variation in magnitude with
time is negligible.
Variable actions are actions for which the variation in magnitude with time is
not negligible.
Accidental actions are actions of short duration but of significant magnitude
that are unlikely to occur on a given structure during the design working life.
Imposed deformations are not considered in this publication.
2.3 Characteristic values of actions

The characteristic value of an action is defined by one of the following three alternatives:
Its mean value – generally used for permanent actions.
An upper value with an intended probability of not being exceeded or lower
value with an intended probability of being achieved – normally used for
variable actions with known statistical distributions, such as wind or snow.
WE 2 Basis v7c 17 Sep 07.doc 17-Sep-07 Page 2 of 26

A nominal value – used for some variable and accidental actions.
The values of actions given in the various parts of BS EN 1991: Actions on
structures[14] are taken as characteristic values.
2.4 Variable actions: imposed loads

2.4.1 General
Imposed loads are divided into categories. Those most used in concrete design are
shown in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 <BS 1991-1-1 Tables 6.1,

Variable actions: categories 6.7, 6.9 & NA>
Category Description
A Areas for domestic and residential activities
B Office areas
C Areas of congregation
D Shopping areas
E Storage areas and industrial use (including access areas)
F Traffic and parking areas (vehicles < 30 kN)
G Traffic and parking areas (vehicles > 30 kN)
H Roofs (inaccessible except for maintenance and repair)
I Roofs (accessible with occupancy categories A – D)
K Roofs (accessible for special services, e.g. for helicopter landing areas)
Notes
1 Category J is not used.
2 For forklift loading refer to BS EN 1991–1–1 Cl. 6.2.3.
2.4.2 Characteristic values

Characteristic values for commonly used imposed loads are given in Tables 2.2a to 2.2g
Table 2.2a <BS 1991-1-1 Tables 6.1,

Variable actions, category A: domestic and residential 6.2 & NA.3>
Sub- Example Imposed loads

category qk (kN/m2) Qk (kN)
A Areas for domestic and residential activities

A1 All usages within self-contained dwelling units 1.5 2.0
Communal areas (including kitchens) in smalla blocks of flats
A2 Bedrooms and dormitories, except those in self-contained single family 1.5 2.0
dwelling units and in hotels and motels
A3 Bedrooms in hotels and motels; hospital wards; toilet areas 2.0 2.0
A4 Billiard/snooker rooms 2.0 2.7
A5 Balconies in single-family dwelling units and communal areas in smalla 2.5 2.0
blocks of flats
A6 Balconies in hostels, guest houses, residential clubs. Communal areas in Min.b 3.0 2.0c
largera blocks of flats
A7 Balconies in hotels and motels Min.b 4.0 2.0c
Key
a Small blocks of flats are those with ≤ 3 storeys and ≤ 4 flats per floor/staircase. Otherwise they are considered to
be ‘larger’ blocks of flats
b Same as the rooms to which they give access, but with a minimum of 3.0 kN/m2 or 4.0 kN/m2
c Concentrated at the outer edge

Table 2.2b <BS 1991-1-1 Tables
Variable actions, category B: offices 6.1, 6.2 & NA.3>
category
qk (kN/m2) Qk (kN)
B Office areas
B1 General use other than in B2 2.5 2.7
B2 At or below ground floor level 3.0 2.7
Table 2.2c <BS 1991-1-1 Tables

Variable actions, category C: areas of congregation 6.1, 6.2 & NA.3>
category
qk (kN/m2) Qk (kN)
C Areas of congregation
C1 Areas with tables
C11 Public, institutional and communal dining rooms and lounges, cafes 2.0 3.0
and restaurants (Note: use C4 or C5 if appropriate)
C12 Reading rooms with no book storage 2.5 4.0
C13 Classrooms 3.0 3.0
C2 Areas with fixed seats
a
C21 Assembly areas with fixed seating 4.0 3.6
C22 Places of worship 3.0 2.7
C3 Areas without obstacles for moving people
C31 Corridors, hallways, aisles in institutional type buildings, hostels, 3.0 4.5
guest houses, residential clubs and communal areas in largerb
blocks of flats
C32 Stairs, landings in institutional type buildings, hostels, guest houses, 3.0 4.0
residential clubs and communal areas in largerb blocks of flats
C33 Corridors, hallways, aisles in otherc buildings 4.0 4.5
C34 Corridors, hallways, aisles in otherc buildings subjected to wheeled 5.0 4.5
vehicles, including trolleys.
C35 Stairs, landings in otherc buildings subjected to crowds 4.0 4.0
C36 Walkways – Light duty (access suitable for one person, walkway 3.0 2.0
width approx 600 mm)
C37 Walkways – General duty (regular two-way pedestrian traffic) 5.0 3.6
C38 Walkways – Heavy duty (high-density pedestrian traffic including 7.5 4.5
escape routes)
C39 Museum floors and art galleries for exhibition purposes 4.0 4.5
C4 Areas with possible physical activities
C41 Dance halls and studios, gymnasia, stagesd 5.0 3.6
C42 Drill halls and drill roomsd 5.0 7.0
C5 Areas subjected to large crowds
C51 Assembly areas without fixed seating, concert halls, bars and places 5.0 3.6
of worshipd,e.
C52 Stages in public assembly areasd 7.5 4.5
Key
a Fixed seating is seating where its removal and the use of the space for other purposes is improbable
b Small blocks of flats are those with ≤ 3 storeys and ≤ 4 flats per floor/staircase. Otherwise they are considered to
be ‘larger’ blocks of flats
c Other buildings include those not covered by C31 and C32, and include hotels and motels and institutional
buildings subjected to crowds
d For structures that might be susceptible to resonance effects, reference should be made to NA.2.1
e For grandstands and stadia, reference should be made to the requirements of the appropriate certifying
authority.

Table 2.2d <BS 1991-1-1 Tables
Variable actions, category D: shopping areas 6.1, 6.2 & NA.3>

category
qk (kN/m2) Qk (kN)
D Shopping areas
D1 Areas in general retail shops 4.0 3.6
D2 Areas in department stores 4.0 3.6
Table 2.2e <BS 1991-1-1

Variable actions, category E: storage areas and industrial use (including access areas) Tables 6.3, 6.4,
NA.4 & NA.5>

category
qk (kN/m2) Qk (kN)
E Storage areas (including access areas)

E1 Areas susceptible to accumulation of goods including access areas
E11 General areas for static equipment not specified elsewhere 2.0 1.8
(institutional and public buildings)
E12 Reading rooms with book storage, e.g. libraries 4.0 4.5
E13 General storage other than those specifieda 2.4/m 7.0
E14 File rooms, filing and storage space (offices) 5.0 4.5
E15 Stack rooms (books) 2.4/m 7.0
(min. 6.5)
E16 Paper storage and stationery stores 4.0/m 9.0
E17 Dense mobile stacking (books) on mobile trolleys in public and 4.8/m 7.0
institutional buildings
(min. 9.6)
E18 Dense mobile stacking (books) on mobile trucks in warehouses 4.8/m 7.0
(min. 15.0)
E19 Cold storage 5.0/m 9.0
(min. 15.0)
E2 Industrial use See PD 6688[22]
Forklifts Classes FL1 to FL6 See BS 1991–1–1
Tables 6.5 and 6.6
Key
a Lower bound value given. More specific load values should be agreed with client
Table 2.2f <BS 1991-1-1 Tables

Variable actions, categories F and G: traffic and parking areas 6.7, 6.8 & NA.6>

category
qk (kN/m2) Qk (kN)
F Traffic and parking areas (vehicles < 30 kN)

Traffic and parking areas (vehicles < 30 kN) 2.5 5.0
G Traffic and parking areas (vehicles > 30 kN)
Traffic and parking areas (vehicles > 30 kN) 5.0 To be determined
for specific use

2.4.2.1 Roofs
Roofs are categorized according to their accessibility.. Imposed loads for roofs <BS EN 1991-1-1
that are normally accessible are generally the same as for the specific use and 6.3.4 & NA>
category of the adjacent area. Imposed loads for roofs without access are given
in Table 2.2g.
Table 2.2g <BS 1991-1-1 6.3.4.1(2)

Variable actions, category H, I and J: roofs Tables 6.9, 6.10, 6.11 & NA.7>

category
qk Qk
(kN/m2) (kN)
H Roofs (inaccessible except for maintenance and repair)
Roof slope, α° < 30° 0.6
30° < α < 60° 0.6(60 – α) / 30 0.9
< 60° 0
I Roofs (accessible with occupancy categories A – D)
Categories A – As Tables 2.2a to 2.2d
according to specific use
K Roofs (accessible for special services, e.g. for helicopter
landing areas)
Helicopter class HC1 (< 20 kN) (subject to dynamic factor Φ = 1.4) 20
Helicopter class HC2 (< 60 kN) 60
2.4.2.2 Movable partitions

The self-weight of movable partitions may be taken into account by a uniformly <BS 1991-1-1
distributed load qk which should be added to the imposed loads of floors as follows: 6.3.1.2(8)>
For movable partitions with a self-weight of 1.0 kN/m wall length: qk = 0.5
kN/m2.
kN/m2.
kN/m2.
Heavier partitions should be considered separately.
2.4.3 Reduction factors
2.4.3.1 General
Roofs do not qualify for load reductions. The method given below complies with the < BS EN 1991-1-1,
UK National Annex but differs from that given the Eurocode. 6.3.1.2 (10),
6.3.1.2 (10) & NA>
2.4.3.2 Area
A reduction factor for imposed loads for area αA may be used and should be
determined using
αA = 1.0 – A / 1000 ≥ 0.75 (NA.1) < BS EN 1991-1-1

where 6.3.1.2 (10) &
A is the area (m2) supported with loads qualifying for reduction (i.e. categories NA>
A to E as listed in Table 2.1).

2.4.3.3 Number of storeys
A reduction factor for number of storeys αn, may be used and should be
determined using
αn = 1.1 – n / 10 for 1 ≤ n ≤ 5 < BS EN 1991-
αn = 0.6 for 5 < n ≤ 10 1-1 6.3.1.2
αn = 0.5 for n > 10 (11) & NA>
where
n = number of storeys with loads qualifying for reduction (i.e. categories A to D as
listed in Table 2.1).
2.4.3.4 Use
According to the UK NA, αA and αn may not be used together. < BS EN 1991-1-1
6.3.1.2 (11) & NA>
2.5 Variable actions: snow loads

In persistent or transient situations, snow load on a roof, s, is defined as being: <BS EN 1991-1-3 5.2(3)>
s = μi Ce Cts k
where
μi = snow load shape factor
μ1 = undrifted snow shape factor
μ2 = drifted snow shape factor
For flat roofs, 0° = α (with no higher structures close or abutting),
μ1 = μ2 = 0.8
For shallow monopitch roofs, 0°< α < 30° (with no higher <BS EN 1991-1-3 5.3.1 ,
structures close or abutting), μ1 = 0.8, μ2 = 0.8 (1 + α/ 30) 5.3.2 & NA>
For other forms of roof and local effects refer to BS EN 1991–1–3
Sections 5.3 and 6
Ce = exposure coefficient <BS EN 1991-1-3 5.2(7),
For windswept topography Ce = 0.8 Table 5.1>
For normal topography Ce = 1.0
For sheltered topography Ce = 1.2
Ct = thermal coefficient, Ct = 1.0 other than for some glass-covered <BS EN 1991-1-3 5.2(8)>
roofs, or similar
sk = characteristic ground snow load kN/m2
= 0.15(0.1Z + 0.05) + (A+100) / 525 <BS EN 1991-1-3 NA 2.8>
where
Z = zone number obtained from the map in BS EN 1991–1–3 NA
Figure NA.1
A = site altitude, m
Figure NA.1 of the NA to BS EN 1991–1–3 also gives figures for sk at
100 m a.m.s.l. associated with the zones. For the majority of the
South East, the Midlands, Northern Ireland and the north of England
apart from high ground, sk = 0.50 kN/m2. For the West Country, West
Wales and Ireland the figure is less. For most of Scotland and parts of
the east coast of England, the figure is more. See Figure 2.1
Snow load is classified as a variable fixed action. Exceptional circumstances <BS EN 1991-1-3 2(1)
may be treated as accidental actions in which case reference should be made 5.2(3)>
to BS EN 1991–1–3

<Figure NA.1 NA to BS EN 1991–1–3>
Figure 2.1
Characteristic ground snow load map
(Ground snow load at 100 m a.m.s.l. (kN/m2)
2.6 Variable actions: wind loads

The procedure for determining wind load to BS EN 1991–1–4 is presented below.
This presentation is a very simple interpretation of the Code intended to provide a

basic understanding of the Code with respect to rectangular-plan buildings with flat
roofs. In general maximum values are given: with more information a lower value might
be used. The user should be careful to ensure that any information used is within the
scope of the application envisaged. The user is referred to more specialist guidance [22]
or the Code[23] and UK National Annex[23a]. Note that at the time of writing the UK
National Annex had not been published: the information is taken from the DCLG
document and a 2006 draft of the Annex.
Determine the fundamental value of the basic wind velocity, vb,0, from Expression NA.1.
vb,0 = vb,mapcalt <BS EN 1991-1-4 4.2(1) Note 2

where NA 2.4 Exp. (NA.1)>
vb,map = fundamental basic wind velocity from Figure 2.2 <BS EN 1991-1-4 4.2(1) Note 2
NA 2.4 (Fig. NA.1)>
calt = altitude factor
= conservatively 1 + 0.001A <BS EN 1991-1-4 4.2(1) Note 2,
where NA 2.4, NA 2.5>
A = altitude of the site in metres above mean sea level a.m.s.l.
Calculate basic wind velocity, vb

vb = cdircseasoncprobvb,0
where
cdir = directional factor. Conservatively, cdir = 1.0 (cdir is a minimum
of 0.73 or 0.74 for wind in an easterly direction 30° to 120°)
cseason = season factor
For a 6 month return period, including winter, or greater,
cseason = 1.00
cprob = probability factor <BS EN 1991-1-4 4.2(1) Note 4,
= 1.00 for return period of 50 years Note 5 NA 2.8>

Calculate basic wind pressure, qb
qb = 0.5 ρ vb2
where
ρ = density of air <BS EN 1991-1-4 4.5(1) Note 2,
=1.226 kg/m3 (= 12.0 N/m3) for UK NA 2.18>
Calculate peak wind pressure, qp

qp = ce,flat(z) qb for z ≤ 50 m <BS EN 1991-1-4 4.5(1) Note 1,
where NA 2.17>
ce,flat = exposure factor
ce,flat is obtained directly from Figure NA.7 then <BS EN 1991-1-4 4.5(1) Note 1,
modified by applying a factor from Figure NA.8 for sites NA 2.17, Figs NA.7 & NA.8>
in town terrain. Dependent on distance from shoreline
and town perimeter, respectively, and on z – hdis
where z and hdis are explained below
When orography or dynamic effects are significant (i.e. <BS EN 1991-1-4 4.5(1) Note 1,
the structure is on a hill or at the top of an escarpment) NA 2.17>
refer to BS EN 1991–1–4
<BS EN 1991-1-4 7.2.2(1), Note,
z = reference height
NA 2.26>
For windward wall,
z = ze
when h ≤ b, ze = h <BS EN 1991-1-4 7.2.2(1)( Fig.
7.4), NA.2.26>
Figure 2.2 Map of fundamental Figure 2.3 Exposure factor Figure 2.4 Multiplier for
basic wind velocity, vb,map, (m/s) ce,flat(z) for sites in country or exposure correction for sites in
town terrain town terrain
Note
Subject to altitude correction.
<BS EN 1991-1-4 4.2(1) Note 2, <BS EN 1991-1-4 4.5(1) Note 1, NA <BS EN 1991-1-4 4.5(1) Note 1,
NA 2.4 (Fig. NA.1)> 2.17 (Fig. NA.7)> NA 2.17 (Fig. NA.8)>

when b < h ≤ 2b, ≤ b high ze = b
> b high ze = h
when h > 2b, ≤ b high ze = b
> 2b high ze = h
> b high < 2b high, the area may
be divided into horizontal strips
with ze = height above ground
where
h = height of building
b = breadth of building
For leeward and side walls,
z = height of building
hdis = displacement height
For country sites hdis = 0 <BS EN 1991-1-4 4.3.2 (1) Note,
NA 2.11 (Fig. NA.3)>
For town sites:
If x ≤ 2have hdis = min[0.8 have; 0.6 h] <BS EN 1991-1-4 A.5>
If 2have< x ≤ hdis = min[1.2 have – 0.2 x; 0.6h]
6have
If x >6have hdis = 0
where
x = distance between buildings
have = obstruction height. <BS EN 1991-1-4 (Fig. A.5)>
In the absence of more accurate information the
obstruction height may be taken as have = 15 m for
terrain category IV (town centres)
Calculate peak external wind load, We
We = q p(z) c pe
where
cpe = (external) pressure coefficient dependent on size of area <BS EN 1991-1-4 7.2.1(1) Note 2,
considered and zone. For 1 m2 and above cpe,10 should be used NA. 2.25>
For the walls of rectangular-plan buildings, cpe,10 is <BS EN 1991-1-4 7.2.2(1) Note 1,
determined from Table NA.4a and Table NA.4b. NA.2.27 (Tables NA.4a & NA.4b) >
See Table 2.3.
For flat roofs, cpe,10 is determined from BS EN 1991–1–4
Table 7.2. See Table 2.4.
For other forms of roof refer to BS EN 1991–1–1 and the UK NA.
Table 2.3 <BS EN 1991-1-4 7.2.2(2) Note 1,

External pressure coefficient, cpe,10 ,for walls of rectangular-plan NA 2.27, Tables NA.4a & NA.4b >
buildings
Zone Description cpe,10

max. min.
Zone A For walls parallel to the wind direction, areas –1.6
within 0.2min[b; 2h] of windward edge
Zone B For walls parallel to the wind direction, areas –0.9
within 0.2min[b; 2h] of windward edge
Zone C For walls parallel to the wind direction, areas –0.9
from 0.2min[b; 2h] to min[b; 2h] of windward
edge
Zone D Windward wall + 0.8
Zone E Leeward wall –0.5
Zones D and E Net + 1.3
Notes

Table 2.4
External pressure coefficient, cpe,10 min, for flat roofs <BS EN 1991-1-4 7.2 (Table 7.2) & NA >
Zone Description cpe,10 min

Sharp edge With
at eaves parapet
Zone F Within 0.1min[b; 2h] of windward edge and within –1.8 –1.6
0.2min[b; 2h] of return edge (parallel to wind
direction)
Zone G Within 0.1min[b; 2h] of windward edge and –1.2 –1.1
outwith 0.2min[b; 2h] of return edge (parallel to
wind direction)
Zone H Roof between 0.1min[b; 2h] and 0.5min[b; 2h] –0.7 –0.7
from windward edge
Zone I Remainder between 0.5min[b; 2h] and leeward ± 0.2 ± 0.2
edge
Notes
Where necessary, calculate pressure coefficient, cpi

cpi = internal pressure coefficient dependent on size of <BS EN 1991-1-4 7.2.9(6) Note 2
openings. & NA>
For no dominant openings cpi may be taken as the
more onerous of +0.2 and –0.3
Calculate resultant wind force, Fw

Fw = cscdΣWAref <BS EN 1991-1-4 5.3.2, Exp. (5.4) & NA >
where
cscd= structural factor, conservatively <BS EN 1991-1-4 6.1(1) Note & NA.2.20 >
= 1.0 <BS EN 1991-1-4 6.2(1) a), 6.2(1) c) & NA>
or may be derived <BS EN 1991-1-4 6.2(1) e) & NA.2.20 >
where
cs = size factor
cs may be derived from Exp. (6.2) or Table NA.3. <BS EN 1991-1-4 6.3(1),
Depending on values of (b + h) and (z – hdis) and Exp. (6.2), NA.2.20
dividing into Zone A, B or C, a value of cs (a factor (Table NA3) >
< 1.00) may be found
cd = dynamic factor
cd may be derived from Exp. (6.3) or Figure NA.9.
Dependent on values of δs (logarithmic decrement of <BS EN 1991-1-4 6.3(1),
structural damping) and h / b, a value of cd (a factor > Exp. (6.3), NA.2.20(Fig.
1.00) may be found. NA9) >
cd may be taken as 1.0 for framed buildings with
structural walls and masonry internal walls and for
cladding panels and elements
ΣW = c f q p ( z e )
where
cf = force coefficient for the structure or structural <BS EN 1991-1-4 7, 8 & NA >
element (as described above)
qp(ze) = peak velocity pressure at reference height ze <BS EN 1991-1-4 7, 8 & NA >
(as described above)
Aref = reference area of the structure or structural element <BS EN 1991-1-4 5.3.2, Exp.
(5.4) & NA >

2.7 Permanent actions
The densities and weights of commonly used materials, sheet materials and forms of construction are
given in Table 2.5.
Table 2.5 Typical permanent actions [24]
Table 2.5 a) Bulk densities for soils and materials

Bulk densities kN/m3 Bulk densities kN/m
Soils Concrete – plain 24.0
Clay – stiff 19 ––22 Concrete – reinforced 25.0
Clay – soft 16 – 19 Concrete – wet reinforced 26.0
Granular – loose 16 – 18 Glass 25.6
Granular – dense 19 – 21 Granite 27.3
Silty clay, sandy clay 16 – 20 Hardcore 19.0
Materials Limestone (Portland stone – med. weight) 22.0
Asphalt 22.5 Limestone (Marble – heavyweight) 26.7
Blocks – aerated concrete (min.) 5.0 Macadam paving 21.0
Blocks – aerated concrete (max.) 9.0 MDF 8.0
Blocks – dense aggregate 20.0 Plaster 14.1
Blocks – lightweight 14.0 Plywood 6.3
Books – bulk storage 8 – 11 Sandstone 23.5
Brickwork – blue 24.0 Screed – sand/cement 22.0
Brickwork – engineering 22.0 Steel/iron 77.0
Brickwork – fletton 18.0 Terracotta 20.7
Brickwork – London stock 19.0 Timber – Douglas fir 5.2
Brickwork – sand lime 21.0 Timber – European beech/oak 7.1
Chipboard 6.9 Timber – Grade C16 3.6
Concrete – aerated 10.0 Timber – Grade C24 4.1
Concrete – lightweight 18.0 Timber – Iroko teak 6.4
Table 2.5 b) Typical area loads for concrete slabs and sheet materials
Typical area loads kN/m3 Typical area loads kN/m
Concrete slabs Plasterboard (12.5 mm) 0.09
P. C. solid units (100 mm) 2.50 Plasterboard (19 mm) 0.15
P. C. hollowcore unitsa (150 mm) 2.40 Plywood (12.5 mm) 0.08
P. C. hollowcore unitsa (200 mm) 2.87 Plywood (19 mm) 0.12
P. C. hollowcore unitsa (300 mm) 4.07 Quarry tiles including mortar bedding 0.32
P. C. hollowcore unitsa (400 mm) 4.84 Raised floor – heavy duty 0.50
Ribbed slabb (250 mm) 4.00 Raised floor – medium weight 0.40
Ribbed slabb (300 mm) 4.30 Raised floor – lightweight 0.30
Ribbed slabb (350 mm) 4.70 Render (13 mm) 0.30
Waffle slabc – standard moulds (325 mm) 6.00 Screed – 50 mm 1.15
Waffle slabc – standard moulds (425 mm) 7.30 Screed – lightweight (25 mm) 0.45
Waffle slabc – standard moulds (525 mm) 8.60 Stainless steel roofing (0.4 mm) 0.05
Sheet materials Suspended ceiling – steel 0.10
Asphalt (20 mm) 0.46 Suspended fibreboard tiles 0.05
Carpet and underlay 0.05 T&G boards (15.5 mm) 0.09
Chipboard (18 mm) 0.12 T&G boards (22 mm) 0.12
Dry lining on stud (20 mm) 0.15 Tiles – ceramic floor on bed 1.00
False ceiling – steel framing 0.10 Battens for slating and tiling 0.03
Felt (3 layer) and chippings 0.35 Tiles – clay roof (max) 0.67
Glass – double glazing 0.52 Tiles – natural slate (thick) 0.65
Glass – single glazing 0.30 Tiles – interlocking concrete 0.55
Insulation – glass fibre (150 mm) 0.03 Tiles – plain concrete 0.75
Linoleum (3.2 mm) 0.05 Key
Paving stones (50 mm) 1.20 a Hollowcore figures assume no topping
b Ribbed slabs: 150 web @ 750 centres with 100 mm thick
Plaster – two coat gypsum (12 mm) 0.21 flange/slab. Web slope 1:10
Plaster skim coat 0.05 c Waffle slabs: 150 ribs @ 900 centres with 100 mm thick
flange/slab. Web slope 1:10

Table 2.5 c) Loads for typical forms of construction
Loads for typical forms of kN/m2 x Loads for typical forms of kN/m2
construction construction
Cavity wall Residential floor
102.5 mm brickwork 2.40 Carpet 0.05
50 mm insulation 0.02 Floating floor 0.15
100 mm blockwork 1.40 Self-weight of 250 mm solid slab 6.25
Plaster 0.21 Suspended ceiling 0.20
Total 4.0 Services 0.10
Lightweight cladding Total 6.75
Insulated panel 0.20 School floor
Purlins 0.05 Carpet/flooring 0.05
Dry lining on stud 0.15 Self-weight of 250 mm solid slab 6.25
Total 0.40 Suspended ceiling 0.15
Curtain walling Services 0.20
Allow 1.00 Total 6.60
Precast concrete cladding Hospital floor
Facing 1.00 Flooring 0.05
Precast panel (100 mm) 2.40 Self-weight of 250 mm solid slab 6.25
Insulation 0.05 Screed 2.20
Dry lining on stud 0.15 Suspended ceiling 0.15
Total 3.60 Services (but can be greater) 0.05
Dry lining Total 9.15
Metal studs 0.05
Plasterboard and skim × 2 0.40 Flat roof/ external terrace
Total 0.45 Paving or gravel (allow) 2.20
Timber stud wall Waterproofing 0.50
Timber studs 0.10 Insulation 0.10
Plasterboard and skim × 2 0.40 Self-weight of 250 mm solid slab 6.25
ceiling
Total 0.50 Suspended ceiling 0.15
Office floor Services 0.30
Carpet 0.03 Total 9.50
Raised floor 0.30
Self weight of 250 mm solid slab 6.25 Timber pitched roof
Suspended ceiling 0.15 Tiles (range 0.50–0.75) 0.75
Services 0.30 Battens 0.05
Total 7.03 Felt 0.05
Office core area Rafters 0.15
Tiles and bedding (allow) 1.00 Insulation 0.05
Screed 2.20 Plasterboard & skim 0.15
Self-weight of 250 mm solid slab 6.25 Services 0.10
Suspended ceiling 0.15 Ceiling joists 0.15
Services 0.30 Total perpendicular to roof 1.45
Total 9.90 Total on plan assuming 30° pitch 1.60
Stairs
150 mm waist (≡ 175 @ 25 kN/m3) 4.40 Metal decking roof
Treads 0.15 × 0.25 × 4/2 @ 25 kN/m3 1.88 Insulated panel 0.20
Screed 0.05 @ 22 kN/m3 1.10 Purlins 0.10
Plaster 0.21 Steelwork 0.30
Finish: tiles & bedding 1.00 Services 0.10
Total 8.60 Total 0.70

2.8 Design values of actions
2.8.1 General case
The design value of an action Fd that occurs in a load case is
Fd = γFψFk <BS EN 1990 6.3.1 >
where
γF = partial factor for the action according to the limit state under
consideration. Table 2.6 indicates the partial factors to be used in the
UK for the combinations of representative actions in building structures.
ψFk may be considered as the representative action, Frep, appropriate to the
limit state being considered
where
ψ = a factor that converts the characteristic value of an action into a
representative value. It adjusts the value of the action to account
for the nature of the limit state under consideration and the joint
probability of the actions occurring simultaneously. It can assume
the value of 1.0 for a permanent action or ψ0 or ψ1 or ψ2 for a
variable action. Table 2.7 shows how characteristic values of
variable actions are converted into representative values. This
table is derived from BS EN 1990[13] and its National Annex[13a].
Fk = characteristic value of an action as defined in Sections 2.2 and 2.3.

Table 2.6 <BS EN 1990
Partial factors (γF) for use in verification of limit states in persistent and transient Table A1.4 & NA
design situations >
Limit state Permanent actions Leading variable Accompanying variable

(Gk) action (Qk,1) actions (Qk,i)d
a) Equilibrium (EQU)
1.10 (0.9)a 1.50 (0.0)a ψ0,i 1.50 (0.0)a
b) Strength at ULS (STR/GEO) not involving geotechnical actions
Either
Exp. (6.10) 1.35 (1.0)a 1.5 ψ01.5
or worst case of
Exp. (6.10a) 1.35 (1.0)a ψ0 1.5 ψ01.5
and
Exp. (6.10b) 1.25 (1.0)a 1.5 ψ01.5
c) Strength at ULS with geotechnical actions (STR/GEO)
Worst case of
Set B 1.35 (1.0)a 1.5 (0.0)a
and
Set C 1.0 1.3
d) Serviceability
Characteristic 1.00 1.00 ψ0,i 1.00
Frequent 1.00 ψ1,1 1.00 ψ2,i 1.00
Quasi-permanent 1.00 ψ2,1 1.00 ψ2,i 1.00
e) Accidental design situations
Exp. (6.11a) 1.0 Ad b ψ1.1 (main) ψ2,1 (others)
f) Seismic
Exp. (6.12a/b) 1.0 AEdc ψ2,i
Key
a Value if favourable (shown in brackets)
b Leading accidental action, Ad, is unfactored
c Seismic action, AEd
d Refer to BS EN 1990 A1.2.2 & NA
Notes
1 The values of ψ are given in Table 2.7.
2 Geotechnical actions given in the table are based on Design Approach 1 in Clause A1.3.1(5) of BS EN 1990, which
is recommended in its National Annex.
2.8.2 Design values at ULS

For the ULS of strength (STR), the designer may choose between using Exp. (6.10) or the < BS EN 1990
less favourable of Exp. (6.10a) or Exp. (6.10b). 6.4.3.2(3) >
2.8.2.1 Single variable action

At ULS, the design value of actions is
Either
Exp. 6.10 1.35 Gk + 1.5 Qk,1
or the worst case of:

Exp. 6.10a 1.35 Gk + ψ0,I 1.5 Qk,1
and
Exp. 6.10b 1.25 Gk + 1.5 Qk,1

Table 2.7
Values of ψ factors < BS EN 1990 A1.2.2 & NA>
Action ψ0 ψ1 ψ2
Imposed loads in buildings
Category A: domestic, 0.7 0.5 0.3
residential areas
Category B: office areas 0.7 0.5 0.3
Category C: congregation areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category D: shopping areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category E: storage areas 1.0 0.9 0.8
Category F: traffic (area vehicle 0.7 0.7 0.6
weight ≤ 30 kN)
Category G: traffic area (30 kN < 0.7 0.5 0.3
vehicle weight ≤ 160 kN)
Category H: roofsa 0.7 0.0 0.0
Snow loads where altitude ≤ 0.5 0.2 0.0
1000 m a.m.s.l.a
Wind loadsa 0.5 0.2 0.0
Temperature effects (non-fire)a 0.6 0.5 0.0
Notes
1 The numerical values given above are in accordance with BS EN 1990 and its UK National
Annex.
2 Categories K and L are assumed to be as for Category H
Key
a On roofs, imposed loads, snow loads and wind loads should not be applied together. < BS
EN 1991–1–1–1 3.3.2>
Expression (6.10) leads to the use of γF = γG = 1.35 for permanent actions and γF =
γQ = 1.50 for variable actions (γG for permanent actions is intended to be constant
across all spans).
Expression (6.10) is always equal to or more conservative than the less favourable
of Expressions (6.10a) and (6.10b). Expression (6.10b) will normally apply when
the permanent actions are not greater than 4.5 times the variable actions (except
for storage loads, category E in Table 2.7, where Exp. (6.10a) always applies).
Note
Assuming ψ 0 = 0.7 i.e. applicable to all areas except storage.
Figure 2.5
When to use Exp. (6.10a) or Exp. (6.10b)
Therefore, except in the case of concrete structures supporting storage loads

where ψ0 = 1.0, or for mixed use, Exp. (6.10b) will usually apply. Thus, for

members supporting vertical actions at ULS, 1.25Gk + 1.5Qk will be appropriate
for most situations and applicable to most concrete structures. See Figure 2.5
Compared with the use of Exp. (6.10), the use of either Exp. (6.10a) or (6.10b)
leads to a more consistent reliability index across lightweight and heavyweight
materials.
2.8.2.2 Accompanying variable actions
Again the designer may choose between using Exp. (6.10) or the less favourable of Exp. < BS EN 1990
(6.10a) or (6.10b). 6.4.3.2(3) >
Either:
Exp. (6.10) 1.35 Gk + 1.5 Qk,1 + Σψ0,i 1.5 Qk,i
or the worst case of:
Exp. (6.10a) 1.35 Gk + ψ0,I 1.5 Qk,1 + ψ0,i 1.5 Qk,i
and
Exp. (6.10b) 1.25 Gk – 1.5 Qk,1 + Σψ0,I 1.5 Qk,i
In the above, Qk,1 refers to the leading variable action and Qk,i refers to accompanying
independent variable actions. In general the distinction between the two types of
actions will be obvious (see Figure 2.6); where it is not, each load should in turn be
treated as the leading action. Also the numerical values for partial factors given in the
UK National Annex[13a] are used in the equations above. The value of ψ0 depends on the <BS EN 1990
use of the building and should be obtained from the UK National Annex for BS EN 1990 A1.2.2, A1.3.1
(see Table 2.7). & NA>
Generally the variable actions on a

typical office block would be
considered as being three sets of
independent variable actions:
1. Imposed office loads on the
office floors
2. Roof imposed load
3. Wind load
Figure 2.6 Independent variable actions
The expressions take into account the probability of joint occurrence of loads by
applying the ψ0,i factor to the accompanying variable action. The probability that
these combined actions will be exceeded is deemed to be similar to the
probability of a single action being exceeded.
If the two independent variable actions Qk,1 and Qk,2 are associated with different
spans and the use of Exp. (6.10b) is appropriate, then in one set of analyses
1.25Gk + 1.5Qk,1 should be applied to the ‘Qk,1’ spans with 1.25Gk + ψ0,i 1.5Qk,2
applied to the ‘Qk,2’ spans. In associated analyses, 1.25Gk + ψ0,i 1.5Qk,1 should be
applied to the ‘Qk,1’ spans and 1.25Gk + 1.5Qk,2 to the ‘Qk,2’ spans. See Example
2.11.2 (2 variable actions).

2.8.3 Design values at SLS
There are three combinations of actions at SLS (or Load combination at SLS).
These are given in Table 2.8. The combination and value to be used depends on
the nature of the limit state being checked. Quasi-permanent combinations are <BS EN 1990 6.5, Table
associated with deformation, crack widths and crack control. Frequent A1.4>
combinations may be used to determine whether a section is cracked or not.
The numeric values of ψ 0, ψ 1 and ψ 2 are given in Table 2.7.
Table 2.8
Partial factors to be applied in the verification of the SLS
Combination Permanent actions Gk Variable actions Qk
Unfavourablea Favourablea Leadingb Othersb
Characteristic Gk,sup Gk,inf Qk,1 ψ0,iQk,i
Frequent Gk,sup Gk,inf ψ1,1Qk,1 ψ2,iQk,i
Quasi-permanent Gk,sup Gk,inf ψ2,1Qk,1 ψ2,iQk,i
Key
a Generally Gk,sup and Gk,inf may be taken as Gk. See Section 2.4
b ψ factors are given in Table 2.7
2.8.4 Design values for other limit states

Load combinations are given in Table 2.6 for a) Equilibrium (EQU), b) Strength at
ULS with geotechnical actions (GEO), e) Accidental and f) Seismic design
situations.
2.8.5 Variations in permanent actions
When the variation of a permanent action is not small then the upper (Gkj,sup)
and the (Gkj,inf) characteristic values (the 95 and 5 percentile values <BS EN 1990 4.1.2>
respectively) should be established. This procedure is only necessary when the <BS EN 1990 4.1.2 (3)>
coefficient of variation (= 100 × standard deviation/mean) is greater than 10. In
terms of permanent actions, variations in the self-weight of concrete in
concrete frames are considered small.
At ULS where the variation is not small, γGk,sup should be used with Gkj,sup and
γGk,inf with Gkj,inf. Similarly, where the variation is not small, at SLS Gkj,sup should
be used where actions are unfavourable and Gkj,inf used where favourable.
Where checks, notably checks on static equilibrium (EQU), are very sensitive to <BS EN 1990 6.4.3 (4)>
variation of the magnitude of a permanent action from one place to another the
favourable and unfavourable parts of this action should be considered as
individual actions. γG,sup and γG,inf should be used in such ‘very sensitive’
verifications.
2.9 Load arrangements of actions: introduction
The process of designing concrete structures involves identifying relevant design

situations and limit states. These include persistent, transient or accidental < BS EN 1990 3.2 >
situations. In each design situation the structure should be verified at the
relevant limit states.

In the analysis of the structure at the limit state being considered, the maximum
effect of actions should be obtained using a realistic arrangement of loads.
Generally variable actions should be arranged to produce the most unfavourable
effect, for example to produce maximum overturning moments or maximum
bending moments in spans and supports respectively.
For building structures, design concentrates mainly on the ULS, the ultimate
limit state of strength (STR), and SLS, the serviceability limit state. However, it <BS EN 1990 3.3, 3.4,
is essential that all limit states are considered. The limit states of equilibrium 6.5>.
(EQU), strength at ULS with geotechnical actions (STR/GEO) and accidental <BS EN 1990 6.4>.
situations must be taken into account as appropriate.
2.10 Load arrangements according to the UK National Annex
In building structures, any of the following sets of simplified load arrangements

may be used at ULS and SLS (See Figure 2.7). < 5.1.3 & NA>
The more critical of:

a) alternate spans carrying γGGk + γQQk with other spans loaded with γGGk; and
b) any two adjacent spans carrying γGGk + γQQk with other spans loaded with γGGk.
Or the more critical of:
a) alternate spans carrying γGGk + γQQk; with other spans loaded with γGGk; and
b) all spans carrying γGGk + γQQk.
Or, for slabs only, all spans carrying γGGk + γGGk, provided the following
conditions are met:
• In a one-way spanning slab the area of each bay exceeds 30 m2 (a bay is
defined as a strip across the full width of a structure bonded on the other
sides by lines of support).
• Ratio of the variable action, Qk, to the permanent action, Gk, does not
exceed 1.25.
• Magnitude of the variable action excluding partitions does not exceed 5 kN/m2.
Where analysis is carried out for the single load case of all spans loaded, the
resulting moments, except those at cantilevers, should be reduced by 20%,
with a consequential increase in the span moments.
Note
Whilst the use of Exp. (6.10) is indicated, these arrangements may equally be used with Exp. (6.10a) or
(6.10b).
Figure 2.7
Load arrangements for beams and slabs according to UK NA

2.11 Examples
Example 2.11.1 Continuous beam in a domestic structure
Determine the appropriate load combination for a continuous beam in a domestic
structure supporting a 175 mm slab at 6 m centres. gk = 51 kN/m and gk = 9.0
kN/m.
Figure 2.8
Continuous beam in a domestic structure
Actions: kN/m
Permanent action, gk
Self weight, 175 mm thick slabs = 26.3
E/o self weight downstand 800 × 225 = 4.5
50 mm screed @ 22 kN/m3 = 6.6
Finishes and services = 3.0
Dividing wall 2.40 × 4.42 (200 mm dense blockwork with plaster = 10.6
both sides) = 51.0
Total
Variable action, qk
Imposed, dwelling @ 1.5 kN/m2 = 9.0
Ultimate load, n
Assuming use of Exp. 6.10, n = 1.35 × 51 + 1.5 × 9.0 = = 82.4
Assuming use of worst case of Exp. (6.10a) or Exp. (6.10b)
Exp. (6.10a): n = 1.35 × 51 + 0.7 × 1.5 × 9.0 = = 78.3
Exp. (6.10b): n = 1.25 × 51 + 1.5 × 9.0 = = 77.3
In this case Exp. (6.10a) would be critical1 and ∴n = 78.3
Example 2.11.2 Continuous beam in mixed use structure
Determine the various arrangements of actions and magnitude of actions for ULS
verification of a continuous beam supporting a 175 mm slab @ 6 m centres. Note <BS EN 1991-1-1
that the variable actions are from two sources: 6.3.1.1 & NA>
Office use: 2.5 kN/m2, ψ0 = 0.7;shopping use: 4.0 kN/m2, ψ0 = 0.7 < BS EN 1990
A.1.2.2. & NA>
1
This could also be determined from Figure 2.1 or by determining that gk > 4.5qk

Figure 2.9
Continuous beam in mixed use structure
a) Load combination
Load combination Exp. (6.10a) or Exp. (6.10b) will be used, as either will produce a smaller
total load than Exp. (6.10). It is necessary to decide which expression governs.
Actions: kN/m
Permanent action
As before, Example 2.8.1 = 51.0
Variable action
Office @ 2.5 kN/m2 = 15.0
Shopping @ 4.0 kN/m2 = 24.0
Ultimate load, n
For office use:
Exp. (6.10a): n = 1.35 × 51 + 0.7 × 1.5 × 15.0 = 84.6
Exp. (6.10b): n = 1.25 × 51 + 1.5 × 15.0 = 86.3
For shopping use:
Exp. (6.10a): n = 1.35 × 51 + 1.5 × 0.7 × 24.0 = 94.1
Exp. (6.10b): n = 1.25 × 51 + 1.5 × 24.0 = 99.8
By inspection Exp. (6.10b) governs in both cases♣
b) Arrangement of actions
i) Actions
As the variable actions arise from different sources, one is a leading variable action and
the other is an accompanying variable action. The unit loads to be used in the various
arrangements are:
Actions: kN/m
Permanent
1.25 × 51.0 = 63.8
Variable
Office use
as leading action, γQQk = 1.5 × 15 = = 22.5
as accompanying action, ψ0γQQk = 0.7 × 1.5 × 15 = = 15.75
♣
This could also be determined from Figure 2.1 or by determining that gk < 4.5qk

Shopping use
as leading action, γQQk = 1.5 × 24 = = 36.0
as accompanying action, ψ0γQQk = 0.7 × 1.5 × 24 = = 25.2
Total variable actions =163.25
ii) For maximum bending moment in span AB

The arrangement and magnitude of actions of loads are shown in Figure 2.10. The variable
load in span AB assumes the value as leading action and that in span CD takes the value
as an accompanying action.
Figure 2.10
For maximum bending moment in span AB
iii) For maximum bending moment in span CD

The load arrangement is similar to that in Figure 2.10, but now the variable load in span AB
takes its value as an accompanying action (i.e. 15.75 kN/m) and that in span CD assumes
the value as leading action (36 kN/m).
Figure 2.11
For maximum bending moment in span CD
iv) For maximum bending moment at support B
The arrangement of loads is shown in Figure 2.12. As both spans AB and BC receive load < BS EN 1991 6.3.1.1 (10)
from the same source, no reduction is possible (other than that for large area2). & NA>
Figure 2.12
For maximum bending moment at support B
2
Variable actions may be subjected to reduction factors: αA, according to A area
supported (m2), αA = 1.0 – A / 1000 ≥ 0.75. < BS EN 1991-1-1 6.3.1.2 (10) & NA>

v) For maximum bending moment at support D
The relevant arrangement of loads is shown in Figure 2.13. Comments made in iv) also apply
here.
Figure 2.13
For maximum bending moment at support D
vi) For critical curtailment and hogging in span CD

The relevant arrangement of loads is shown in Figure 2.14.
Figure 2.14
For curtailment and hogging in span CD
Eurocode 2 requires that all spans should be loaded with either γG,supp or γG,inf (as per Table <2.4.3(2)>
2.6). As illustrated in Figure 2.14, using γG,inf, = 1.0 might be critical for curtailment and
hogging in spans.
Example 2.11.3 Propped cantilever

Determine the Equilibrium, ULS and SLS (deformation) load combinations for the
propped cantilever shown in Figure 2.15. The action P at the end of the
cantilever arises from the permanent action of a wall.
Figure 2.15
Propped cantilever beam and loading
For the purposes of this example, the permanent action P is considered to be

from a separate source than the self-weight of the structure so both γG,sup and <BS EN 1990 Table
γG,inf need to be considered. 1.2(B), Note 3>

a) Equilibrium limit state (EQU)
For maximum uplift at A
Figure 2.16
EQU: maximum uplift at A
b) Ultimate limit state (ULS)

i) For maximum moment at B and anchorage of top reinforcement BA.
Note
γGk,inf gk = 1.0 gk may be critical in terms of curtailment of top bars BA.
Figure 2.17
ULS: maximum moment at B
ii) For maximum sagging moment AB
Notes
1 Depending on the magnitude of gk, qk length AB and BC, γGkinf gk (= 1.0 gk) may be more critical
for span moment.
2 The magnitude of the load combination indicated are those for Exp. (6.10) of BS EN 1990. The
worse case of Exp (6.10a) and Exp (6.10b) may also have been used.
3: Presuming supports A and B were columns then the critical load combination for Column A
would be as Figure 2.18. For column B the critical load combination might be either as
Figure 2.17 or 2.18.
Figure 2.18
ULS: maximum span moment AB

c) Serviceability limit state (SLS) of deformation: (quasi-permanent Loads)
i) For maximum deformation at C
Figure 2.19
SLS: maximum deformation at C
ii) For maximum deformation AB
Note
Quasi-permanent load combinations may also be used for calculations of crack widths
or controlling cracking, i.e. the same load combinations as shown in Figures 2.19 and
2.20 may be used to determine SLS moment to determine stress in reinforcement. The
characteristic and/or frequent combinations may be appropriate for other SLS limit
states: for example, it is recommended that the frequent combination is used to
determine whether a member has cracked or not.
Figure 2.20
SLS maximum deformation AB
Example 2.11.4 Overall stability (EQU)

For the frame shown in Figure 2.21 identify the various load arrangements to
check overall stability (EQU) against overturning. Assume that the structure is an
office block and that the loads qk2 and qk3 may be treated as arising from one
source.
Figure 2.21
Frame configuration

Figure 2.22
Frame with floor variable action as leading variable action
b) Treating the roof load as the leading variable action (EQU)
Figure 2.23
Frame with roof variable action as leading variable action
c) Treating wind as the leading variable action (EQU)
Figure 2.24
Frame with wind as lead variable action

Draft Version
application.
advisors.
latest version.
3 Slabs
3.1 General
The calculations in this section are presented in the following Sections:
3.2 A simply supported slab showing what might be deemed typical hand calculations.
3.3 A detailed version of the same simply supported slab but designed, and curtailment
lengths determined, strictly in accordance with the provisions of BS EN 1992–1–1.
3.4 A continuous ribbed slab designed, and curtailment lengths determined, strictly in
accordance with the provisions of BS EN 1992–1–1.
3.5 A bay of a flat slab.
They are intended to be illustrative of the Code and not necessarily best practice.
A general method of designing slabs is shown below.
1. Determine design life. <BS EN 1990 & NA Table

NA.2.1>
2. Assess actions on the slab. <BS EN 1991 & NAs>
3. Assess durability requirements and determine concrete <Table 4.1>
strength. <BS 8500-1: Tables A4 & A5>
4. Check cover requirements for appropriate fire resistance <BS EN 1992-1-2: Tables 5.8,
period. 5.9, 5.10 & 5.11>
5. Calculate minimum cover for durability, fire and bond <4.4.1>
requirements.
6. Determine which combinations of actions apply. <BS EN 1990 & NA Tables
NA.A1.1 & NA.A1.2 (B)>
7. Determine loading arrangements. <5.1.3(1) & NA>
8. Analyse structure to obtain critical moments and shear <5.4, 5.5, 5.6>
forces.
9. Design flexural reinforcement. <6.1>
10. Check deflection. <7.4>
11. Check shear capacity. <6.2>
12. Other design checks:
Check minimum reinforcement. <9.3.1.1(1), 9.2.1.1(1)>
Check cracking (size or spacing of bars). <7.3, Tables 7.2N & 7.3N>
Check effects of partial fixity. <9.3.1.2(2)>
Check secondary reinforcement. <9.3.1.1(2), 9.3.1.4(1)>
13. Check curtailment. <9.3.1.1(4), 9.2.1.3, Fig. 9.2>
14. Check anchorage. <9.3.1.2, 8.4.4, 9.3.1.1(4),
9.2.1.5(1), 9.2.1.5(2)>
15. Check laps. <8.7.3>
3.2 Simply supported one-way slab (simple version)
This calculation is intended to show a typical hand calculation.
A 175 mm thick slab is required to support screed, finishes, an office variable action of 2.5
kN / m2 and demountable partitions (@ 2 kN / m). The slab is supported on load-bearing
block walls. fck = 30, fyk = 500. Assume a 50-year design life and a requirement for 1 hour
resistance to fire.
WE 3 Slabs v7c 17 Sep.doc 17-Sep-07 Page 1 of 30

Figure 3.1
Simply supported slab (simple version)
3.2.1 Actions
kN / m2
Permanent
Self-weight 0.175 × 25 = 4.4 <BS EN 1991-1-1 Table A1>
50 mm screed = 1.0
Finishes, services = 0.5
gk = 5.9
Variable
Offices, general use B1 = 2.5
Movable partitions @ 2.0 kN / m = 0.8 <BS EN 1991-1-1 Tables 6.1, 6.2
& NA>
qk = 3.3 <BS EN 1991-1-1, 6.3.1.2 (8)>
3.2.2 Cover
Nominal cover, cnom
cnom = cmin + Δcdev <Exp. 4.1>

where
cmin = max[cmin,b; cmin,dur]
where
cmin,b = minimum cover due to bond <4.4.1.2(3)>
= diameter of bar
Assume 12 mm main bars
cmin,dur = minimum cover due to environmental conditions
Assuming XCI and using C30 / 37 concrete, <Table 4.1, BS 8500-1
cmin,dur = 15 mm Table A4>
Δcdev = allowance in design for deviation.
Assuming no measurement of cover <4.4.1.2(3)>
Δcdev = 10 mm
∴ cnom = 15 + 10 = 25 mm
Fire
Check adequacy of section for 1 hour fire resistance (i.e. REI 60)
Thickness, hs,min = 80 mm cf. 175 mm proposed ∴ OK <BS EN 1992-1-2
4.1(1), 5.1(1), Table 5.8>
Axis distance, amin = 20 mm cf. 25 + φ / 2 = 31 i.e. not critical
∴ OK
cnom = 25 mm

3.2.3 Load combination (and arrangement)
Ultimate load, n
By inspection, BS EN 1990 Exp. (6.10b) governs <Fig. 2. 5>
∴ n = 1.25 × 5.9 + 1.5 × 3.3 = 12.3 kN / m2 <BS EN 1990 Exp. (6.10b)>
3.2.4 Analysis
Design moment
MEd = 12.3 × 4.82 / 8 = 35.4 kNm
Shear force
V = 12.3 × 4.8 / 2 = 29.5 kN / m
3.2.5 Flexural design

Effective depth
d = 175 − 25 − 12 / 2 = 144 mm
Flexure in span
K = MEd / bd2fck = 35.4 × 106 / (1000 × 1442 × 30) <Fig. 3.5>
=0.057 <Appendix A.1>
<Concise Table 15.5>
z / d = 0.95
z = 0.95 × 144 = 137 mm
As = MEd / fydz = 35.4 × 106 / (137 × 500 / 1.15) = 594 mm2 / m
(ρ = 0.41%)
Try H12 @ 175 B1 (645 mm2 / m)
3.2.6 Deflection
Check span-to-effective-depth ratio
Basic span-to-effective-depth ratio for ρ = 0.41% = 20 <Table 7.4N & NA>
As,prov / As,req = 645 / 599 = 1.08 <Exp. (7.17)>
Max. span = 20 × 1.08 × 144 = 3110 mm i.e. < 4800 mm ∴ no good
Consider in more detail:

Allowable l / d = N × K × F1 × F2 × F3 <7.4.2, Concise Sec. 15.7>
where <Concise Table 15.10>
N = 25.6 (ρ = 0.41%, fck = 30) <Concise Table 15.11>
K = 1.0 (simply supported) <Concise Table 15.12>
F1 = 1.0 (beff / bw = 1.0) <Concise Table 15.13>
F2 = 1.0 (span < 7.0 m)
F3 = 310 / σs
where
σs = σsn (As,req / As,prov) 1 / δ
where
σsn ≈ 242 MPa (From Concise Figure 15.3 and <Concise Fig. 15.3>
gk / qk = 1.79, ψ2 = 0.3, γg = 1.25)
δ = redistribution ratio = 1.0
∴ σs ≈ 242 × 594 / 645 = 222 <Concise Fig. 15.3>
∴ F3 = 310 / 222 = 1.40

∴ Allowable l / d = 25.6 × 1.40 = 35.8
Actual l / d = 4800 / 144 = 33.3 ∴ OK
Use H12 @ 175 B1 (645 mm2 / m)
3.2.7 Shear
By inspection, OK
However, if considered critical
V = 29.5 kN / m as before
VEd= 29.5 ‒ 0.14 × 12.3 = 27.8 kN / m <6.2.1(8)>
vEd = 27.8 × 103 / 144 × 103 = 0.19 MPa
vRd,c =0.53 MPa <6.2.2(1), Concise Table 15.6>
∴ No shear reinforcement required
3.2.8 Summary of design
Figure 3.2
Simply supported slab: summary
Note
It is presumed that the detailer would take this design and detail the slab to normal best
practice, e.g. to SMDSC[21]. This would usually include dimensioning and detailing
curtailment, laps, U-bars and also undertaking the other checks detailed in Section 3.2.9.
3.2.9 Other design/detailing checks

Minimum area of reinforcement
As,min = 0.26 (fctm / fyk) btd ≥ 0.0013 btd <9.3.1.1, 9.2.1.1>
where
bt = width of tension zone
fctm = 0.30 × fck0.666 <Table 3.1>
As,min = 0.26 × 0.30 × 30 0.666
× 1000 × 144 / 500 = 216 mm / m2
( 0.15%)
∴ H12 @ 175 B1 OK
Crack control
OK by inspection <Table 7.2N & NA>
Curtailment main bars
Curtail main bars 50 mm from or at face of support. <SMDSC[21] Fig. 6.4; How to,
Detailing>
At supports
50% of As to be anchored from face of support <9.3.1.2.(1)>
Use H12 @ 350 B1 T1 U-bars
In accordance with SMDSC[21] detail MS3 lap U-bars 500 mm
with main steel, curtail T1 leg of U-bar 0.1l (= say 500 mm) from
face of support.

Maximum spacing of bars
< 3h < 400 mm OK <9.3.1.1.(3)>
Secondary reinforcement
20% As,req = 0.2 × 645 = 129 mm2 / m <9.3.1.1.(2)>
Use H10 @ 350 (224) B2
Edges: effects of assuming partial fixity along edge
Top steel required = 0.25 × 594 = 149 mm2 / m <9.3.1.2.(2)>
Use H10 @ 350 (224) T2 B2 as U bars
extending 960 mm into slab‡
3.3 Continuous one-way solid slab

This calculation is intended to show in detail the provisions of designing a slab to Eurocode
2 using essentially the same slab as used in Example 3.2.
A 175 mm thick continuous slab is required to support screed, finishes, an office variable
action of 2.5 kN / m2 and demountable partitions (@ 2 kN / m). The slab is supported on
200 mm wide load-bearing block walls at 6000 mm centres. fck = 30, fyk = 500 and the design
life is 50 years. A fire resistance of 1 hour is required.
Figure 3.3
Continuous solid slab
3.3.1 Actions
kN / m2
Permanent
As Section 3.2 gk = 5.9
Variable
As Section 3.2 qk = 3.3 <BS EN 1991-1-1
6.3.1.2(8)>
3.3.2 Cover
Nominal cover, cnom
As Section 3.2 cnom = 25 mm
‡
A free unsupported edge is required to use ‘longitudinal and transverse reinforcement’ <9.3.1.4(1)>
generally using U-bars with legs at least 2h long. For slabs 150 mm deep or greater, SMDSC [21]
standard detail recommends U-bars lapping 500 mm with bottom steel and extending 0.1l top into
span.

Ultimate action (load)
As Section 3.2, BS EN 1990 Exp. (6.10b) governs <Fig. 2.5>
∴ n = 1.25 × 5.9 + 1.5 × 3.3 = 12.3 kN / m2 <BS EN 1990 Exp. (6.10b)>
3.3.4 Analysis
Clear span, lk = 5800
a1 = min[h / 2; t / 2] = min[175 / 2; 200 / 2] = 87.5 <5.3.2.2(1)>
a2 = min[h / 2; t / 2] = min[175 / 2; 200 / 2] = 87.5
leff = 5975
Bending moment
End span MEd = 0.086 × 12.3 × 5.9752 = 37.8 kNm / m <5.1.1(7), Concise Table 15.2>
1st internal support MEd = 0.086 × 12.3 × 5.9752 = 37.8 kNm / m <5.1.1(7), Concise Table 15.2>
Internal spans and supports
MEd = 0.063 × 12.3 × 5.9752 = 27.7 kNm / m <5.1.1(7), Concise Table 15.2>
Shear
End support VEd = 0.40 × 12.3 × 5.975 = 29.4 kN / m <5.1.1(7), Concise Table 15.2>
1st interior support VEd = 0.60 × 12.3 × 5.975 = 44.1 kN / m <5.1.1(7), Concise Table 15.2>
3.3.5 Flexural design: span

End span (and 1st internal support)
Effective depth, d
d = h ‒ cnom ‒ φ / 2
= 175 ‒ 25 ‒ 12 / 2 = 144 mm
Relative flexural stress , K
K = MEd / bd2fck = 37.8 × 106 / 1000 × 1442 × 30 = 0.061
K′ = 0.207 <Appendix A1>
or restricting x / d to 0.45
K′ = 0.168
∴ by inspection, section is under-reinforced (i.e. no
compression reinforcement required)
Lever arm, z
z = (d / 2) [1 + (1 − 3.53K)0.5] ≤ 0.95d <Fig. 3.5>
= (144 / 2) [1 + (1 − 3.53 × 0.061)0.5] = 0.945d = 136 mm <Appendix A1>
Area of steel, As
As = MEd / fydz
= 37.8 × 106 / (500 / 1.15 × 136) = 639 mm2 / m
(0.44%)
Try H12 @ 175 B1 (645 mm2 / m)
Internal spans and supports

Lever arm z
By inspection, z = 0.95d = 0.95 × 144 = 137 mm <Fig. 3.5>
<Appendix A1>

Area of steel, As
As = MEd / fydz
= 27.7 × 106 / (500 / 1.15 × 137) = 465 mm2 / m
(0.32%)
Try H12 @ 225 B1 (502 mm2 / m)
3.3.6 Deflection: end span

Check end span-to-effective-depth ratio
Allowable l / d = N × K × F1 × F2 × F3
where
N = basic effective depth to span ratio:
ρ = 0.44%
ρ0 = fck0.5 × 10−3 = 0.55% ∴ use Exp. (7.16a) <7.4.2(2)>
N = 11 + 1.5f ckρ0 / ρ + 3.2f
0.5
(ρ0 / ρ − 1)
ck
0.5 1.5
<Exp. (7.16a)>
= 11 + 1.5 × 300.5× 0.55 / 0.44 + 3.2 × 300.5 (0.55 / 0.44 – 1)1.5
= 11.0 + 10.3 + 2.2 = 23.5
K = structural system factor <7.4.2>

= 1.3 (end span of continuous slab)
F1 = flanged section factor <7.4.2>
= 1.0 (beff / bw = 1.0)
F2 = factor for long spans associated with brittle partitions <7.4.2>
= 1.0 (span < 7.0 m)
F3 = 310 / σs
where <7.4.2>
σs = (fyk / γs) (As,req / As,prov) (SLS loads / ULS loads) (1 / δ) <Exp. (7.17) &
= fyd × (As,req / As,prov) × (gk+ ψ2 qk) / (γGgk + γQqk) (1 / δ) BS EN 1990 A1.2.2>
= (500 / 1.15) × (639 / 645) × [(5.9 + 0.3 × 3.3) / 12.3] × 1.08§ <Concise Table 15.14>
= 434.8 × 0.99 × 0.56 × 1.08 = 260 MPa
F3 = 310 / 260 = 1.19
Note: As,prov / As,req ≤ 1.50 <Table 7.4N & NA>
= 23.5 × 1.3 × 1.0 × 1.19
= 36.4
Max. span = 36.4 × 144 = 5675 mm, i.e. < 5795 mm ∴ No good
Try H12 @ 150 B1 (754 mm2 / m)

σs = 434.8 × 639 / 754 × 0.56 × 1.08 = 223
F3 = 310 / 223 = 1.39
Allowable l / d = 23.5 × 1.3 × 1.0 × 1.39
= 42.5
Max. span = 42.5 × 144 = 6120 mm, i.e. > 5795 mm OK
∴ H12 @ 150 B1 (754 mm2 / m) OK
§
The use of Concise Table 15.2 implies certain amounts of redistribution which are defined in Concise
table 15.14.

3.3.7 Deflection: internal span
Check end span-to-effective-depth ratio
where
N = basic effective depth to span ratio:
ρ = 0.32%
ρ0 = fck0.5 × 10−3 = 0.55% ∴ use Exp. (7.16a) <7.4.2(2)>
N = 11 + 1.5fck0.5 ρ0 / ρ + 3.2fck0.5 (ρ0 / ρ − 1)1.5 <Exp. (7.16a)>
= 11 + 1.5 × 30 × 0.55 / 0.32 + 3.2 × 30 (0.55 / 0.32 – 1)
0.5 0.5 1.5
= 11.0 + 14.1 + 10.7 = 35.8

K = structural system factor <7.4.2>
= 1.5 (interior span of continuous slab)
F1 = flanged section factor <7.4.2>
= 1.0 (beff / bw = 1.0)
F2 = factor for long spans associated with brittle partitions <7.4.2>
= 1.0 (span < 7.0 m)
F3 = 310 / σs
where <7.4.2>
σs = fyd × (As,req / As,prov) × (gk + ψ2 qk) / (γGgk + γQqk) (1 / δ) <Exp. (7.17) &
= (500 / 1.15) × (465 / 502) × [ (5.9 + 0.3 × 3.3) / 12.3] × 1.03 BS EN 1990 A1.2.2>
= 434.8 × 0.93 × 0.56 × 1.03 = 233 MPa <Concise Table 15.14>
∴ F3 = 310 / 233 = 1.33

= 35.8 × 1.5 × 1.0 × 1.33
= 71.4
Max. span = 71.4 × 144 = 10280 mm i.e. > 5795 mm OK
Use H12 @ 225 B1 (502 mm2 / m) in internal spans
3.3.8 Shear
Design shear force, VEd
At d from face of end support
VEd = 29.4 ‒ (0.144 + 0.0875) × 12.3 = 26.6 kN / m <6.2.1(8)>
At d from face of 1st interior support
VEd = 44.1 ‒ (0.144 + 0.0875) × 12.3 = 41.3 kN / m
Shear resistance, VRd,c

VRd,c = (0.18 / γc)k (100ρ l f ck )0.333 bwd ≥ 0.0035k 1.5 f ck 0.5 b w d <6.2.2(1)>
where
k = 1 + (200 / d)0.5 ≤ 2.0 as d < 200 mm
k = 2.0
ρl = Asl / bd
Assuming 50% curtailment (at end support)
= 50% × 754 / (144 × 1000) = 0.26%
VRd,c = (0.18 / 1.5) × 2.0 × (100 × 0.26 / 100 × 30)0.33 × 1000 × 144
= 0.12 × 2 × 1.97 × 1000 × 144
= 0.47 × 1000 × 144 = 68.1 kN / m
But VRd,cmin = 0.035k1.5fck0.5 bwd
where

k = 1 + (200 / d)0.5 ≤ 2.0; as before k = 2.0
VRd,cmin = 0.035 × 21.5 × 300.5 × 1000 × 144
= 0.54 × 1000 × 144 = 77.6 kN / m
∴ VRd,c = 77.6 kN / m
∴ OK; no shear reinforcement required at end or 1st internal supports
∴H12 @ 150 B1 & H12 @ 175 T1 OK
By inspection, shear at other internal supports OK.
Figure 3.4
Continuous solid slab: design summary
Note
It is presumed that the detailer would take this design and detail the slab to normal best practice. This would usually include rationalising,
dimensioning and detailing curtailment, laps, U-bars and also undertaking the other checks detailed in 3.3.10 to 3.3.14. The determination
of curtailment lengths, anchorages and laps is shown in detail using the principles in Eurocode 2. In practice these would be determined
from published tables of data or by using reference texts [12, 21].

a) Minimum area of reinforcement
where
fctm = 0.30 × fck 0.667 <Table 3.1>
2
As,min = 0.26 × 0.30 × 30 0.667
× 1000 × 144 / 500 = 216 mm / m
(0.15%)
∴H12 @ 225 B1 OK
b) Secondary (transverse reinforcement)
Minimum 20% As,req <9.3.1.1(2)>
20% As,req = 0.2 × 502 = 100 mm / m 2
Consider As,min to apply as before. <SMDSC>

2
As,min = 216 mm / m
Try H10 @ 350 B2 (224 mm2 / m)
Check edge
Assuming partial fixity exists at edges, 25% of As is required <9.3.1.2(2)>
to extend 0.2 × the length of the adjacent span. As,req = 25%
× 639 = 160 mm2 / m
As,min as before = 216 mm2 / m <9.3.1.1, 9.2.1.1>
∴ Use H10 @ 350 (224 mm / m) U-bars at edges
2

Curtail 0.2 × 5975 = 1195 mm, say 1200 mm measured from face of support** <9.3.1.2(2)>
c) Maximum spacing of bars, < 3h < 400 mm OK <9.3.1.1.(3)>
d) Crack control
As slab < 200 mm, measures to control cracking are <7.3.3(1)>
unnecessary.
However, as a check on end span: <7.3.3(2), 7.3.1.5>

Loading is the main cause of cracking
∴ use Table 7.2N or Table 7.3N for wmax = 0.4 mm and σ = 241
MPa (see deflection check),
Max. bar size = 20 mm <Table 7.2N & interpolation>
or max. spacing = 250 mm <Table 7.3N & interpolation>
∴ H12 @ 150 B1 OK.
e) End supports: effects of partial fixity

Assuming partial fixity exists at end supports, 15% of As is <9.3.1.2(2)>
required to extend 0.2 × the length of the adjacent span.
As,req = 15% × 639 = 96 mm2 / m
But, As,min as before = 216 mm2 / m <9.3.1.1, 9.2.1.1>
(0.15%)
One option would be to use bob bars, but choose to use U-bars
Try H12 @ 450 (251 mm2 / m) U - bars at supports
Curtail 0.2 × 5975 = say, 1200 mm measured from face of support†† <9.3.1.2(2)>
3.3.11 Curtailment
a) End span, bottom reinforcement
Assuming end support to be simply supported, 50% of As
should extend into the support. <9.3.1.2(1) >
50% × 639 = 320 mm2 / m
Try H12 @ 300 (376 mm2 / m) at supports
In theory, 50% curtailment of reinforcement may take place al <9.3.1.2(1) Note, 9.2.1.3 (2)>
from where the moment of resistance of the section with the
remaining 50% would be adequate to resist the applied
bending moment. In practice, it is usual to determine the
curtailment distance as being al from where MEd = MEd,max / 2.
Thus: for a single simply supported span supporting a UDL of n,
MEd,max = 0.086nl 2 ; RA = 0.4nl
At distance, X, from end support, moment,
MEd@X = RAX – nX 2 / 2
∴ when M@X = MEd,max / 2:
0.086nl 2 / 2 = 0.4nlX – nX 2 / 2
Assuming X = xl
0.043nl 2 = 0.4nlxl – nx 2 l 2 / 2
0.043 = 0.4x – x2 / 2
0 = 0.043 − 0.4x + x2 / 2
**
Detail MS2 of SMDSC[21], suggests 50% of T1 legs of U-bars should extend 0.3l (= say 1800 mm)
from face of support by placing U-bars alternately reversed.
††
Detail MS2 of SMDSC[21], suggests 50% of T1 legs of U-bars should extend 0.3l (= say 1800 mm)
from face of support by placing U-bars alternately reversed.

x = 0.128 or 0.672, say 0.13 and 0.66
∴ at end support 50% moment occurs at 0.13 × span
0.13 × 5975 = 777 mm
Shift rule: for slabs al may be taken as d ( = 144 mm) <9.2.1.3 (2) , 6.2.2(5)>
∴ curtail to 50% of required reinforcement at 777 – 144 = 633 mm
from centreline of support
Say 500 mm from face of support A
∴ in end span at 1st internal support 50% moment occurs at
0.66 × span
0.66 × 5975 = 3944 mm
Shift rule: for slabs al may be taken as d (= 144 mm) <9.2.1.3 (2) , 6.2.2(5)>
∴ curtail to 50% of required reinforcement at 3944 + 144
= 4088 mm from support A or 5975 – 4088 = 987 mm from
centreline of support B Say 850 mm from face of support B
Figure 3.5
Curtailment of bottom reinforcement: actions, bending moments, forces in reinforcement and
curtailment

b) 1st interior support, top reinforcement
Presuming 50% curtailment of reinforcement is required this may take place al <9.3.1.2(1) Note, 9.2.1.3 (2)>
from where the moment of resistance of the section with the remaining 50%
would be adequate. However, it is usual to determine the curtailment distance
as being al from where MEd = MEd,max / 2.
Thus, for the 1st interior support supporting a UDL of n,
MEd,maxT = 0.086nl 2 ; RB = 0.6nl
At distance Y from end support, moment,
MEd@y = MEd,maxT – RAY + nY 2 / 2
∴ when M@y = MEd,maxT / 2
0.086nl 2 / 2 = 0.086nl 2 – 0.6nlY + nY 2 / 2
Assuming Y = yl
0.043nl 2 = 0.086nl 2 – 0.6nlyl + ny 2 l 2 / 2
0 = 0.043 − 0.6y + y2 / 2
y = 0.077 (or 1.122), say 0.08
0.08 × 5975 = 478 mm
Shift rule: for slabs, al may be taken as d 144 mm <9.2.1.3 (2), 6.2.2(5)>
∴ curtail to 50% of required reinforcement at478 + 144
= 622 mm from centreline of support
50% of reinforcement may be curtailed at, say, 600 mm from either face
of support B
100% curtailment may take place al from where there is no
hogging moment. Thus:
when M@y = MEd,maxT / 2 :
0 = 0.086nl 2 – 0.6nlY + nY 2 / 2
Assuming Y = yl
0 = 0.086 – 0.6y + y2 / 2
y = 0.166 (or 1.034), say 0.17
0.17 × 5975 = 1016 mm
Shift rule: for slabs al may be taken as d
∴ curtail to 100% of required reinforcement at 1016 + 144
= 1160 mm from centreline of support
100% of reinforcement may be curtailed at, say 1100 mm from either face of
support B
c) Support B bottom steel at support

At the support 25% of span steel required <9.3.1.1(4), 9.2.1.5(1), 9.2.1.4(1)>
0.25 × 639 = 160 mm2
For convenience use H12 @ 300 B1 (376 mm2 / m)
3.3.12 Anchorage at end support

As simply supported 50% of As should extend into the support. This <9.2.1.2 (1) & Note, 9.2.1.4(2)>
50% of As should be anchored to resist a force of
FE = VEd × al / z <Exp. (9.3)>
‡‡
Maximum z = 0.947 at mid span and greater towards support.

where
VEd = the absolute value of the shear force
al = d, where the slab is not reinforced for shear <9.2.1.3(2)>
z = lever arm of internal forces
FE = 29.4 × d / 0.95‡‡ d = 30.9 kN / m
Anchorage length, lbd <8.4.4>
lbd = αlb,rqd ≥ lb,min <Exp. (8.4)>
where
α = conservatively 1.0
lb,rqd = basic anchorage length required
= (φ / 4) (σsd / fbd) <Exp. (8.3)>
where
φ = diameter of the bar = 12 mm
σsd = design stress in the bar at the ultimate limit state

= FE / As,prov
= 30.9 × 1000 / 376 =81.5 MPa
fbd = ultimate bond stress <8.4.2(2)>
= 2.25 η1 η2 fct,d
where
η1 = 1.0 for ‘good’ bond conditions and 0.7 for all
other conditions = 1.0
η2 = 1.0 for bar diameter ≤ 32 mm
fct,d = design tensile strength
= αct fct,k / γc. For fck = 30 MPa
= 1.0 × 2.0 / 1.5 = 1.33 MPa <3.1.6(2) & NA, Table 3.1 Table
2.1N>
fbd = 2.25 × 1.33 =3.0 MPa
lb,rqd = (12 / 4) (81.5 / 1.33) =183 mm
lb,min = max(10d, 100 mm) = 120 mm <Exp. (8.6)>
lbd = 183 mm measured from face of support <Fig. 9.3>
By inspection, using U-bars, OK.
3.3.13 Laps
Lap H12 @ 300 U-bars with H12 @ 150 straights
Tension lap, l0 = α1 α2 α3 α5 α6 lb,rqd α l0min <Exp. (8.10)>
where
α1 = 1.0 (straight bars) <Table 8.2>
α2 = 1 − 0.15 (cd − φ) / φ
where
cd = min(pitch, side cover or cover) <Fig. 8.4>
= 25 mm
φ = bar diameter
= 12 mm
α2 = 0.84 <Table 8.2>
α3 = 1.0 (no confinement by reinforcement)
α5 = 1.0 (no confinement by pressure)
α6 = 1.5 <Table 8.3>
<Exp. (8.3)>
lb,rqd = (φ / 4) σsd / fbd
where

σsd = the design stress at ULS at the position from where
the anchorage is measured.
Assuming lap starts 500 mm from face of support
(587.5 mm from centreline of support):
MEd = 29.5 × 0.59 − 12.3 × 0.592 / 2
= 15.2 kNm
σsd = MEd / (Asz)
= 15.2 × 106 / (376 × 144 / 0.95) =267 MPa
fbd = ultimate bond stress <8.4.2(2)>
= 2.25 η1η2 fct,d
where
η1 = 1.0 for ‘good’ conditions
η2 = 1.0 for ϕ < 32 mm
fct,d = αct fct,k / γc
where
αct = 1.0 <3.1.6 (2) & NA>
fct,k = 2.0 <Table 3.1>
γc = 1.5 <Table 2.1N & NA>
= 2.25 × 2.0 / 1.5 = 3.0 MPa
lb,rqd = (ϕ / 4) σsd / fbd

= (12 / 4) × (267 / 3) = 267 mm
<Exp. 8.6>
l0min b = max[0.3 α6 lb,rqd; 15ϕ; 200 mm]
= max[0.3 × 1.5 × 229; 15 × 12; 200]
= max[124; 180; 200] = 200 mm
∴ l0 = α1 α2 α3 α5 α6 lb,rqd ≥ l0min
= 1.0 × 0.84 × 1.0 × 1.0 × 1.5 × 329 ≥ 200 = 414 mm
But good practice suggests minimum lap of max[tension lap; 500]
∴ lap with bottom reinforcement = 500 mm starting 500 from <SMDSC[21] MS2>
face of support.
3.3.14 Summary of details
Figure 3.6
Continuous solid slab: reinforcement details

Figure 3.7
Reinforcement details at edge
3.4 Continuous ribbed slabs
Figure 3.8
Continuous ribbed slab example
This 300 mm deep ribbed slab is required for an office to support a variable action of 5 kN / m2.
It is supported on wide beams that are the same depth as the slab, as shown in Figure 3.9.
Figure 3.9
Long section through slab
One hour fire resistance required: internal environment. Ribs are 150 mm wide @ 900 mm
cc. Links are required in span to facilitate prefabrication of reinforcement. Assume that

partitions are liable to be damaged by excessive deflections. In order to reduce
deformations yet maintain a shallow profile use fck = 35 MPa and fyk = 500 MPa.
Notes on ribbed slab design

There are various established methods for analysing ribbed slabs and dealing with the solid
areas:
Using UDLs simplifies the analysis and remains popular. One method is to ignore the
weight of the solid part of the slab in the analysis of the ribbed slab (and the weight of
the solid area added to the supporting beam actions). This ignores the effect the solid
areas have on bending in the ribbed slab.
Alternatively the weight of the solid part of the slab is spread as a UDL over the whole
span. This is conservative both in terms of moment and shears at solid/shear interfaces
but underestimates hogging in internal spans.
The advent of computer analysis has made analysis using patch loads more viable and
the resulting analysis more accurate.
The ribbed part of the slab may be designed to span between solid areas. (The ribs span
d / 2 into the solid areas which are assumed to act as beams in the orthogonal
direction.) However, having to accommodate torsions induced in supporting beams and
columns usually makes it simpler to design from centreline of support to centreline of
support.
Analysis programs can cope with the change of section and therefore change of stiffness
along the length of the slab. Moments would be attracted to the stiffer, solid parts at
supports. However, the difference in stiffnesses between the ribbed and the solid parts
is generally ignored.
In line with good practice analysis, this example is carried out using centreline of support to
centreline of support and patch loads§§. Constant stiffness along the length of the slab has
been assumed.
3.4.1 Actions
Permanent: UDL kN / m2
Self-weight:
Rib 0.15 × 0.2 × 25 / 0.9 = 0.833
Slope 2 × (1 / 2) × 0.2 / 10 × 0.2 × 25 / 0.9 = 0.112
Slab 0.1 × 2.5 = 2.500
Cross rib 0.19 × 0.71 × 0.2 × 25 / (0.9 × 7.5) = 0.100
Total self-weight = 3.545 3.55
Ceiling 0.15
Services 0.30
Raised floor 0.30
Total permanent actions = 4.30
Permanent: Patch load

Extra over solid in beam area as patch load
(0.2 × 25 – 0.833) = 4.167 = 4.17
§§
In this case, assuming the patch load analysis is accurate, assuming the weight of solid area is
spread over the whole span would overestimate span and support moments by 6 – 8% and shears at
the solid/rib interface by 8 – 9%. Ignoring the weight of the solid area in the analysis of this ribbed slab
would lead to underestimates of span moments by 1%, support moments by 3% and no difference in
the estimation of shear at the solid shear interface. This may have been the preferred option!

Variable
Imposed = 4.00 <Client requirement>
Allowance for partitions = 1.00 <Client requirement>
Total variable load = = 5.00
3.4.2 Cover
Nominal cover, cnom
cnom = cmin + Δcdev <Exp. (4.1)>

where
cmin = max(cmin,b, cmin,dur)
where
cmin,b = minimum cover due to bond <4.4.1.2(3)>
= diameter of bar.
Assume 20 mm main bars and 8 mm links
cmin,dur = minimum cover due to environmental conditions.
Assuming XC1 and C30/37 concrete , cmin,dur = 15 mm <Table 4.1 BS 8500-1
Table A4>
Δcdev = allowance in design for deviation. Assuming no
measurement of cover Δcdev = 10 mm < 4.4.1.2(3)>
∴ cnom = 20 + 10 to main bars or

= 15 + 10 to links – critical
Fire
Check adequacy of section for REI 60 <BS EN 1992-1-2 5.7.5(1)>
Minimum slab thickness, ηs = 80 mm OK <BS EN 1992-1-2 Table 5.8>
Axis distance required
Minimum rib width bmin = 120 mm with a = 25 mm <BS EN 1992-1-2
or bmin = 200 mm with a = 12 mm Table 5.6>
∴ at 150 mm wide (min.) a = 20 mm
By inspection, not critical
Use 25 mm nominal cover to links
Figure 3.10
Section AA: section through ribbed slab
3.4.3 Load combination and arrangement

Ultimate load, n
By inspection, Exp. (6.10b) is critical. <Fig. 2.5>
nslab = 1.25 × 4.30 + 1.5 × 5.0 = 13.38 kN / m2 <BS EN 1990 Exp. (6.10b)>

nsolid areas = 1.25 × (4.30 + 4.17) + 1.5 × 5.0 = 18.59 kN / m2
Arrangement
Choose to use all-and-alternate-spans-loaded <5.1.3(1) & NA option b>
3.4.4 Analysis
Analysis by computer, includes 15% redistribution at support and <BS EN 1990 A1.2.2
none in the span.*** & NA, 5.3.1 (6)>
a) Elastic moments b) Redistributed envelope
Figure 3.11
Bending moment diagrams
Figure 3.12
Redistributed shears, kN / m
At solid/rib interface
AB @ 550 mm from A
MEd (sagging) = 20.4 kNm / m ≡ 18.3 kNm / rib
VEd = 32.5 kN / m ≡ 29.3 kN / rib
***
Note 1: A ribbed slab need not be treated as discrete elements provided rib spacing ≤ 1500 mm, depth of
the rib ≤ 4 × its width, the flange is > 0.1 × distance between ribs and transverse ribs are provided at
a clear spacing not exceeding 10 × overall depth of the slab.
Note 2: As 7.5 m < 85% of 9.0 m, coefficients presented in Concise Eurocode 2[10] are not applicable.

BA @1000 mm from B
MEd (hogging) = 47.1 kNm / m ≡ 42.4 kNm / rib
VEd = 45.4 kN / m ≡ 40.9 kN / rib
BC @ 1000 mm from B
MEd (hogging) = 43.0 kNm / m ≡ 38.7 kNm / rib
VEd = 45.1 kN / m ≡ 40.6 kN / rib
Symmetrical about centreline of BC.
3.4.5 Flexural design, span AB

Span AB – Flexure
MEd = 61.7 kNm / m
= 55.5 kNm / rib
K = MEd / bd2fck
where
b = 900 mm
d = 300 − 25 – 8 – 20 / 2 = 257
assuming 8 mm link at H20 in span
fck = 35
= 55.5 × 106 / (900 × 2572 × 35) = 0.027
K′ = 0.168
K ≤ K′ ∴ section under-reinforced and no compression
reinforcement required.
z = (d / 2) [1 + (1 − 3.53K)0.5] ≤ 0.95d <Appendix A1>
= (257 / 2) (1 + 0.951) ≤ 0.95 × 257
= 251 ≤ 244 ∴ z = 244 mm
But z = d – 0.4x <Appendix A1>
∴ x = 2.5(d − z) = 2.5(257 − 244) = 33 mm
∴ By inspection, neutral axis is in flange
As = MEd / fydz
where
fyd = 500 / 1.15 = 434.8 MPa
= 55.5 × 106 / (434.8 × 244) = 523 mm2 / rib
Try 2 no.H20 / rib (628 mm2 / rib)
Span AB - Deflection
Allowable l / d = N × K × F1 × F2 × F3 <Concise Sec. 15.7>
where
N = Basic l / d: check whether ρ > ρ0 and whether to <7.4.2(2)>
use Exp. (7.16a) or Exp. (7.16b)
ρ0 = fck0.5 / 1000 = 350.5 / 1000 = 0.59%
ρ = As / Ac††† = As,req / [bwd + (beff − bw)hf] <PD 6687>
where
bw = min. width between tension and compression
chords. At bottom assuming 1 / 10 slope to rib:
= 150 + 2 × (25 + 8 + 20 / 2) / 10
= 159 mm
Section 2.18 of PD 6687 [5] suggests that ρ in T-beams should be based on the area of concrete
†††
above the centroid of the tension steel.

ρ = 523 / (159 ( 257 + (900 − 159) × 100)
= 523 / 114963
= 0.45%
ρ < ρ0 ∴ use Exp. (7.16a)
N = 11 + 1.5 fck0.5 ρ0 / ρ + 3.2fck0.5 (ρ0 / ρ − 1)1.5] <Exp. (7.16a)>
= 11 + 1.5 × 350.5 × 0.055 / 0.045 + 3.2 × 350.5 (0.055 /
0.045 − 1)1.5
= [11 + 10.8 + 2.0] = 22.8
K = (end span) 1.3 <Table 7.4N & NA>
F1 = (beff / bw = 5.66) 0.8 <7.4.2(2)>
F2 = 7.0 / leff = 7.0 / 7.5 = (span > 7.0 m) 0.93 <7.4.2(2)>
F3 = 310 / σs
where
σs = (fyk / γs) (As,req / As,prov) (SLS loads / ULS loads) (1 / δ)
= 434.8(523 / 628) [ (4.30 + 0.3 × 5.0) / 13.38] (65.3 / 61.7‡‡‡)
= 434.8 × 0.83 × 0.43 × 1.06
= 164 MPa
F3 = 310 / σs
= 310 / 164 = 1.89§§§ = say 1.50
∴ Permissible l / d = 22.8 × 1.3 × 0.8 × 0.93 × 1.50 = 33.0
Actual l / d = 7500 / 257 = 29.2 ∴ OK
Use 2 no.H20 / rib (628 mm2 / rib)
Support A (and D): flexure (sagging) at solid/rib interface

Reinforcement at solid/rib interface needs to be designed for <9.2.1.3.(2)>
both moment and for additional tensile force due to shear
(shift rule)
MEd,max = 18.3 kNm / rib
VEd,max = 29.3 kNm / rib
At solid/rib interface
As = MEd / fydz + ΔFtd / fyd <9.2.1.3.(2), Fig. 9.2>
where
z = (d / 2) [1 + (1 − 3.53K)0.5] ≤ 0.95d
where
K = MEd / bd2fck
where
b = 900 mm
d = 300 − 25 – 8 – 25 − 20 / 2 = 232
assuming 8 mm links and H25 B in edge beam
fck = 30
= 18.3 × 106 / (900 × 2322 × 35) = 0.011
‡‡‡
In analysis, 15% redistribution of support moments led to redistribution of span moments:
δ = 61.7 / 65.3 = 0.94
§§§
Both As,prov / As,req and any adjustment to N obtained from Exp. (7.16a) or Exp. (7.16b) is restricted
to 1.5 by Note 5 to Table NA.5 in the UK NA. Therefore, 310 / σs is restricted to 1.5.

Figure 3.13
Section at solid/rib intersection
∴ z = (232 / 2) (1 + 0.980) ≤ 0.95 × 232 <Appendix A1>

= 230 ≤ 220 ∴ z = 220 mm
fyd = 434.8 MPa

ΔFtd = 0.5VEd (cot θ – cot α) <6.2.3(7), Exp. (6.18)>
where
θ = angle between the concrete compression strut and the <6.2.3(1)>
beam axis. Assume cot θ = 2.5 (as a maximum) <Appendix A2, Concise Table
α = angle between shear reinforcement and the beam axis. 15.6>
For vertical links, cot α = 0 <6.2.3(1)>
ΔFtd = 1.25VEd = 1.25 × 29.3 = 36.6 kN
As = 18.3 × 106 / (434.8 × 220) + 36.6 × 103 / 434.8

= 191 + 84 mm2 = 275 mm2
∴Try 1 no. H20 B in end supports****
Support B (and C) (at centreline of support)

MEd = 77.1 kNm / m
= 69.4 kNm / rib
K = MEd / bd2fck
where
d = 300 − 25 cover − 12 fabric − 8 link − 20 / 2
= 245
K = 69.4 × 106 / (900 × 2452 × 35) = 0.037
By inspection, K ≤ K′
z = (245 / 2) [1 + (1 − 3.53 K)0.5] ≤ 0∙95d
= (245 / 2) (1 + 0.932) < 0.95d
= 237 mm
As = MEd / fydz
= 69.4 × 106 / 434.8 × 237 = 673 mm2 / rib
Support B (and C): flexure (hogging) at solid/rib interface

Reinforcement at solid/rib interface needs to be designed for <9.2.1.3.(2)>
both moment and for additional tensile force due to shear
(shift rule)
****
An alternative method would have been to calculate the reinforcement required to resist MEd at the
shift distance, al, from the interface

MEd,max = 42.4 kNm / rib max.
VEd,max = 40.9 kNm / rib max.
As = MEd / fydz + ΔFtd / fyd <9.2.1.3.(2)>
where
z = (245 / 2) [1 + (1 − 3.53 K)0.5] ≤ 0∙95d
where
K = MEd / bd2fck
= 42.4 × 106 / (150 × 2452 × 35)
= 0.135
K′’ for δ = 0.85 (i.e. 15% redistribution) = 0.168 <Concise Table 15.4,
Appendix A>
∴ Section under-reinforced: no compression reinforcement required
∴z = (245 / 2) (1 + 0.723) ≤ 232 = 211 mm
fyd = 434.8 MPa

<6.2.3(7), Exp. (6.18)>
ΔFtd = 0.5VEd (cot θ – cot α)
where
θ = angle between the concrete compression strut and the <6.2.3(1)>
beam axis. Assume cot θ = 2.5 (as a maximum) <Appendix A2, Concise Table
α = angle between shear reinforcement and the beam axis. 15.6>
For vertical links, cot α = 0 <6.2.3(1)>
ΔFtd = 1.25VEd = 1.25 × 40.9 = 51.1 kN
As = 42.4 × 106 / (434.8 × 211) + 51.1 × 103 / 434.8
= 462 + 117 mm2 = 579 mm2 / rib
To be spread over beff where by inspection, beff = 900. <9.2.1.2(2)>
∴Centre of support more critical (679 mm2 / rib required). <5.3.2.1(3)>
Top steel may be spread across beff where <9.2.1.2(2), 5.3.2>
beff = bw + beff1 + beff2 ≤ b
= bw + 2 × 0.1 × 0.15 × (l1 + l2)
= 150 + 0.03 × (7500 + 9000) ≤ 900
= 645 mm
∴ Use 2 no.H16 above rib and 3 no.H12 between (741 mm2 / rib)
where 2 no.H16 and 2 no.H12 are within beff
3.4.6 Flexural design, span BC

Span BC – Flexure
MEd = 55.9 kNm / m
= 50.3 kNm / rib
K = MEd / bd2fck
= 50.3 × 106 / 900 × 2572 × 35
= 0.02 i.e. ≤ K′ (as before K′ = 0.168)
By inspection,
z = 0.95d = 0.95 × 257 = 244 mm
By inspection, neutral axis is in flange.
As = MEd / fydz
= 50.3 × 106 / 434.8 × 244 = 474 mm2
Try 2 no. H20 / rib (628 mm2 / rib)
Span BC – Deflection
Allowable l / d = N × K × F1 × F2 × F3 <Concise Sec. 15.7>
where

N = Basic l / d <7.4.2(2)>
ρ = 474 / (159 (× 257 + (900 − 159) × 100)
= 474 / 114963
= 0.41%
ρ0 = 0.59% (for fck = 30)
∴ ρ < ρ0 use Exp. (7.16a)
N = 11 + 1.5 fck ρ0 / ρ + 3.2fck (ρ0 /ρ − 1)
0.5 0.5 1.5
<Exp. (7.16a)>
= 11 + 1.5 × 35 × 0.055 / 0.041 + 3.2 × 350.5 (0.055 / 0.041 − 1)1.5
0.5
= 11 + 11.9 + 3.8 = 26.7

K = (internal span) 1.5 <Table 7.4N & NA>
F1 = (beff / bw = 6.0) 0.8 <7.4.2(2)>
F2 = 7.0 / leff = 7.0 / 9.0 = (span > 7.0 m) 0.77 <7.4.2(2)>
F3 = 310 / σs
where
= 434.8 × (474 / 628) [(4.30 + 0.3 × 5.0) / 13.38](61.1 / 55.9)
= 434.8 × 0.75 × 0.43 × 1.09
= 153 MPa
F3 = 310 / σs
= 310 / 153 = 2.03, say = 1.50††††
∴ Permissible l / d = 26.8 × 1.5 × 0.8 × 0.77 × 1.50 = 37.1
Actual l / d = 9000 / 257 = 35 ∴ OK
∴Use 2 H20 / rib (628 mm2 / rib)
3.4.7 Design for shear
Figure 3.14
Section through rib
Support A (and D) at solid/rib interface

Shear at solid/rib interface = 29.3 kN / rib
Taking solid area as the support, at d from face of support <6.2.1(8)>
VEd = 29.3 − 0.232 × 0.90 × 13.38 = 26.5 kN / rib
Resistance <6.2.2(1) & NA>
VRdc = (0.18 / γc)k (100ρl fck)0.333 bwd
where
γc = 1.5
††††
to 1.5 by Note 5 to Table NA.5 in the UK NA.

k = 1 + (200 / d)0.5 ≤ 2
= 1 + (200 / 257)0.5
= 1.88
ρl = Asl / bwd
where
Asl = assume only 1 H20 anchored = 314 mm2
bw = min. width between tension and compression chords.
At bottom assuming 1 / 10 slope to rib:
= 150 + 2 × (25 + 8 + 20 / 2) / 10
= 159 mm
d = 257 mm as before
ρl = 314 / (159 × 257) = 0.0077
fck = 35
∴ VRdc = (0.18 / 1.5) 1.88 (100 × 0.0077 × 35)0.333 × 159 × 257
= 0.68 × 159 × 257 = 27.8 kN / rib
∴ No shear links required <6.2.1(5)>
But use nominal links to allow prefabrication.
Support B (and C) at solid/rib interface
Shear at solid/rib interface = 40.9 kN / rib [max(BA, BC)]
At d from face of support <6.2.1(8)>
VEd = 40.9 − 0.245 × 13.38 × 0.9 = 37.9 kN/rib
Resistance <6.2.2(1) & NA>
VRdc = (0.18 / γc)k (100ρl fck)0.333 bwd
where
γc = 1.5
k = 1 + (200 / d)0.5 ≤ 2
= 1 + (200 / 245)0.5
= 1.90
ρl = Asc / bwd
where
Asl = 2 H16 = 402 mm2
bw = 159 mm as before
ρl = 0.0103
fck = 35
∴ VRdc = (0.18 / 1.5) 1.9 (100 × 0.0103 × 35)0.333 × 159 × 245
= 0.75 × 159 × 245 = 29.2 kN / rib
∴ Shear links required
Shear links required for a distance:
(37.9 − 29.2) / (13.38 × 0.9) + 245 = 722 + 245 = 967 mm from interface
Check shear capacity
VRd,max = αcw bw zνfcd / (cot θ + tan θ) <Exp. (6.9) & NA>
where
αcw = 1.0
z = 0.9d
ν = 0.6 (1 − fck / 250) = 0.528
fcd = 35 / 1.5 = 23.3 MPa
θ = angle of inclination of strut.
Rearranging formula above:
(cot θ + tan θ) = αcwbwzνfcd / VEd
= (1.0 × 159 × 0.9 × 245 × 0.528 × 23.3)

41.6 × 103
= 10.4
By inspection, cot−1θ << 21.8. But cot θ restricted to 2.5 and <6.2.3(2) & NA>
∴ tan θ = 0.4.
VRd,max= 1.0 × 159 × 0.9 × 245 × 0.528 × 20 / (2.5 + 0.4) = 127.6 kN
∴ OK
Shear links: shear resistance with links
VRd,s = (Asw / s) z fywd cot θ ≤ VRd,max <Exp. (6.8)>
where
Asw / s = area of legs of links/link spacing
z = 0.9d as before
fywd = 500 / 1.15 = 434.8
cot θ = 2.5 as before
∴ for VEd ≤ VRd,s
Asw / s ≥ VEd / z fywd cot θ
≥ 37.9 × 103 / (0.9 × 245 × 434.8 × 2.5) ≥ 0.158
Maximum spacing of links = 0.75d = 183 mm <9.2.2(6)>
∴ Use H8 @ 175 cc in 2 legs (Asw / s = 0.57) for min. 967 mm into rib
3.4.8 Indirect supports

As the ribs of the slab are not supported at the top of the supporting beam <9.2.5, Fig. 9.7>
sections (A, B, C, D), additional vertical reinforcement should be provided in
these supporting beams and designed to resist the reactions. This additional
reinforcement should consist of links within the supporting beams (see Beams
design, Section 4. 4.9).
Support A (and D) at solid/rib interface:
VEd = 26.5 kN / rib
As,req = 26.3 × 1000 / (500 / 1.15) = 60 mm2 <Fig. 9.7>
This area is required in links within h / 6 = 300 / 6 = 50 mm of the
ribbed/solid interface and within h / 2 = 300 / 2 = 150 mm of the
centreline of the rib.
Support B (and C) at solid/rib interface,
VEd = 37.9 kN / rib
As,req = 37.9 × 1000 / (500 / 1.15) = 87 mm2 placed similarly
Figure 3.15
Summary of design

a) Minimum area of reinforcement in flange
As,min = 0.26 (fctm/ fyk) btd ≥ 0.0013 btd <9.3.1.1
where 9.2.1.1, Exp. (9.1N)>
fctm = 0.30 × fck 0.666 <Table 3.1>
As,min = 0.26 × 0.30 × 35 0.666
× 1000 × 100 / 500 = 166 mm / m
2
(0.17%)
∴ Use A142 in flange (say OK) <BS 8666[28]>
b) Secondary reinforcement
Not applicable
c) Maximum spacing of bars, < 3 h < 400 mm

By inspection OK <9.3.1.1.(3)>
d) Crack control
Loading is the main cause of cracking ∴ use Table 7.2N or <7.3.3(2)
Table 7.3N for wmax = 0.3 mm and max. σs = 200 MPa (see 7.3.1.5>
deflection check)
Max. bar size = 25 mm <Table 7.2N>
or max. spacing = 250 mm <Table 7.3N>
OK by inspection.
e) Effects of partial fixity
Assuming partial fixity exists at end supports, 15% of As is <9.3.1.2(2)>
required to extend 0.2 × the length of the adjacent span.
As,req = 15% × 525 = 79 mm2 / rib
For the rib in tension:
As,min = 0.26 × 0.30 × 300.666 × 159 × 257 / 500 = 55 mm2 / rib
3.4.11 Curtailment
Wherever possible simplified methods of curtailing reinforcement would be followed. The
following is intended to show how a rigorous assessment of curtailment of
reinforcement might be undertaken.
End support A: bottom steel at support
Check anchorage
As simply supported, 25% of As should be anchored in support. <9.3.1.1(4), 9.3.1.2(1) & Note,
25% × 595 = 148 mm2 9.2.1.4(1) & NA>
Use 1 no.H20 / rib (314 mm2 / rib)
Check anchorage length
Envelope of tensile force:
To resist envelope of tensile force, provide reinforcement to al <9.3.1.1(4), 9.2.1.3(1), 9.2.1.3(2),
or lbd beyond centreline of support. 9.2.1.3(3) Fig. 9.2>
For members without shear reinforcement, al = d = 232 <9.2.1.3>
By inspection, σsd = 0, lbd = lbd,min = max(10φ, 100 mm)
Indirect support:
As anchorage may be measured from face of indirect support, <9.3.1.1(4), 9.2.1.4(2), 9.2.1.4(3),
check, force to be resisted at solid/rib interface: Fig. 9.3b>
Fs = MEd / z + FE

where
MEd = 18.3 kNm / rib <Exp. (9.3)>
z = 220 as before
FE = VEd × al / z
where <9.2.1.3, Exp (9.2)>
VEd= 29.3 kN / rib
al = z cot θ / 2
∴ FE = VEd cot θ / 2
= 29.3 × 1.25 = 36.6 kN / rib
Fs = 18.6 × 106 / (220 × 103) + 36.6 = 121.1 kN
Anchorage length
lbd = αlb,rqd ≥ lb,min <8.4.4, Exp. (8.4)>
where:
lb,rqd = (ϕ / 4) (σsd / fbd) <Exp. (8.3)>
where
ϕ = 20
σsd = design stress in the bar at the ULS
= 121.1 × 1000 / 314 = 385 MPa
fbd = ultimate bond stress
= 2.25 η1 η2 fct,d <8.4.2 (2)>
where
η1 = 1.0 for good bond conditions
η2 = 1.0 for bar diameter ≤ 32 mm
<3.1.6 (2),Tables 3.1 and 2.1 and
fct,d = αct fct,k / γc
NA>
= 1.0 × 2.2 / 1.5
= 1.47 MPa
fbd = 2.25 × 1.47 = 3.31 MPa
∴ lb,rqd = (20 / 4) (385 / 3.31) = 581 mm <Fig. 9.3>
lb,min = max[10ϕ; 100 mm] = 200 mm
∴ lbd= 581 mm measured from solid/rib intersection.
i.e. 31 mm beyond centreline of support‡‡‡‡.
End support A: top steel
Assuming partial fixity exists at end supports, 15% of As is required <9.3.1.2(2)>
to extend at least 0.2 × the length of the adjacent span§§§§.
As,req = 15% × 525 = 79 mm2 / rib
As,min = 0.26 × 0.30 × 350.666 × 159 × 257 / 500 = 68 mm2 / rib <9.3.1.1
9.2.1.1(1), Exp. (9.1N)>
Use 2 no. H12 T1 / rib in rib and 2 H10 T1 / rib between ribs
(383 mm2 / rib)
Support B (and C): top steel
At the centreline of support (2 H16 T + 3 H12 T) / rib are
required. The intention is to curtail in two stages, firstly to 2
H16 T / rib then to 2 H12 T / rib.
Curtailment of 2 H16 T / rib at support (capacity of 2 H12 T / rib + shift rule)
‡‡‡‡
Whilst this would comply with the requirements of Eurocode 2, it is common practice to take
bottom bars 0.5 × a tension lap beyond the centreline of support (= 250 mm beyond the centreline of
support; see MS1 in SMDSC[21]).
§§§§
It is usual to curtail 50% of the required reinforcement at 0.2l and to curtail the remaining 50%
at 0.3l or line of zero moment (see MS2 in SMDSC[21]).

Assume use of 2 H12 T throughout in midspan:
Assuming z = 211 mm as before,
MR2H12T = 2 × 113 × 434.8 × 211
= 20.7 kNm / rib (23.0 kNm / m)
(Note: section remains under-reinforced)
From analysis MEd = 23.0 kNm / m occurs at 2250 mm
(towards A) and 2575 mm (towards B).
Shift rule: αl = z cot θ / 2
Assuming z = 211 as before
αl = 1.25 × 211 = 264 mm
∴ 2 no.H12 T are adequate from 2250 + 264 = 2513 mm from B
towards A and 2575 + 263 = 2838 mm from B towards C.
∴ Curtail 2 no.H16 T @ say 2600 from BA and 2850 from BC
Curtailment of 3 no.H12 T / rib at support (capacity of 2 H16 T / rib + shift rule)
MR2H16T = 2 × 201 × 434.8 × 211
= 36.9 kNm / rib (41.0 kNm / m)
(Note: section remains under-reinforced)
From analysis MEd = 41.0 kNm / m occurs at 1310 mm (towards A)
and 1180 mm (towards C).
Shift rule: αl = 263 mm as before
∴ 2 no.H16 T are adequate from 1310 + 263 = 1573 mm from B
towards A and 1180 + 263 = 1443 mm from B towards C.
∴Curtail 3 no. H12 at say 1600 from B (or C).
Figure 3.16
Curtailment of top reinforcement at B per rib

Support B (and C) bottom steel at support
At the support 25% of span steel required <9.3.1.1(4), 9.2.1.5(1),
9.2.1.4(1)>
0.25 × 628 = 157 mm2
Try 1 no.H16 B / rib (201)
This reinforcement may be anchored into indirect support or <Fig. 9.4>
carried through.
Support B (and C): bottom steel curtailment BA and BC

To suit prefabrication 2 no.H20 / rib will be curtailed at
solid/rib interface, 1000 mm from BA (B towards A) and BC.
From analysis, at solid/rib interface sagging moment = 0.
From analysis, at solid/rib interface + al, i.e. at 1000 + 1.25 × 244
= 1303 mm
at 1305 mm from BA sagging moment = say 5 kNm / rib
at 1305 mm from BC sagging moment = 0
Use 1 no.H16 B / rib (201)
3.4.12 Laps
At AB, check lap 1 no.H20 B to 2 no.H20 B in rib full tension lap
l0 = α1 α6 lb,rqd > l0,min <Exp. (8.10)>
where
α1 = 1.0 (cd = 45 mm, i.e. < 3ϕ) <Table 8.2>
α6 = 1.5 (as > 50% being lapped)
lb,rqd = (ϕ / 4) (σsd / fbd)
where
ϕ = 20
σsd = 434.8
fbd = 3.0 MPa as before
l0,min = max. 10ϕ or 100 = 200 Exp. (8.6)
l0 = 1.0 × 1.5 × (20 / 4) × 434.8 / 3.0
= 1087 mm, say = 1200 mm <SMDSC[21]>
At BA and BC, check lap 2 no. H12 T to 2 no. H16 T in rib – full tension lap
l0 = α1 α6 lb,rqd > l0,min <Exp. (8.10)>
where
α1 = 0.7 (cd = 45 mm, i.e. > 3ϕ) <Table 8.2>
α6 = 1.5 (as > 50% being lapped)
lb,rqd = (ϕ / 4) (σsd / fbd)
where
ϕ = 12
σsd = 434.8
fbd = 2.1 (3.0 MPa as before but η1 = 0.7 for not <8.4.2 (2)>
good bond conditions)
l0,min = max. 10ϕ or 100 = 120 Exp. (8.6)
l0 = 0.7 × 1.5 × (12 / 4) × 434.8 / 2.1

= 651 mm, say = 700 mm <SMDSC[21]>
But to aid prefabrication take to solid/rib intersection 1000 mm
from centre of support.

At BA and BC, check lap 1 H16 B to 2 H20 B in rib
By inspection, nominal say, 500 mm <SMDSC[21]>
3.4.13 Other checks

Check shear between web and flange
By inspection, VEd ≤ 0.4 fct,d ∴ OK <6.4.2 (6) & NA>
3.4.14 RC detail of ribbed slab
Figure 3.17
Curtailment of flexural reinforcement in ribbed slab

Draft Version
application.
advisors.
latest version.
3.5 Flat slabs
This example is for the design of a reinforced concrete flat slab without column heads. The slab is part of
a larger floor plate and is taken from Guide to the design and construction of reinforced concrete flat
slabs[29], where finite element analysis and design to Eurocode 2 is illustrated. As with the Guide, grid line
C will be designed but, for the sake of illustration, coefficients will be used to establish design moments
and shears in this critical area of the slab.
The slab is for an office where the specified load is 1.0 kN / m2 for finishes and 4.0 kN / m2 imposed (no
partitions). Perimeter load is assumed to be 10 kN / m. Concrete is C30 / 37. The slab is 300 mm thick
and columns are 400 mm square and extend 4.5 m above and below. A 2 hour fire rating is required.
Figure 3.18
Part plan of flat slab
3.5.1 Actions
kN / m2
Permanent
Self-weight 0.30 × 25 7.5 <BS EN 1991-1-1 Table A1>
Finishes 1.0 <specified>
gk = 8.5
Variable
Offices
qk = 4.0 <specified & BS EN 1991-1-1 6.3.1.2(8)>
WE 3 Flat Slabs v8b 17 Sep 07.doc 17-Sep-07 Page 1 of 20

3.5.2 Cover
cnom
where
cmin = max[cmin,b; cmin,dur; 10 mm] <4.4.1.2(3)>
where
cmin,b = 20 mm, assuming 20 mm diam. reinf.
cmin,dur = 15 mm for XC1 and using C30/37 <Table 4.1 BS 8500-1
Δcdev = 10 mm Table A4>
Fire For 2 hours resistance, amin = 35 mm – not critical <BS EN 1992-1-2, Table 5.9>
∴ cnom = 20 + 10 = 30 mm
3.5.3 Load combination and arrangement
Figure 3.19
Panel centred on grid C
Ultimate load, n
n = 1.25 × 8.50 + 1.5 × 4.0 = 16.6 kN / m2 <BS EN 1990 Exp. (6.10b)>
Arrangement
Choose to use all-and-alternate-spans-loaded load cases and coefficients ‡‡. <5.1.3(1) & NA option b>
3.5.4 Analysis grid line C

Consider grid line C as a bay 6.0 m wide. (This may be
conservative for grid line C but is correct for grid line D etc.)
MEd
Effective spans:
9600 – 2 × 400 / 2 + 2 × 300 / 2 = 9500 mm <5.3.2.2(1)>
8600 – 2 × 400 / 2 + 2 × 300 / 2 = 8500 mm
Check applicability of moment coefficients:
8500 / 9500 = 0.89 ∴ as spans differ by less than 15% of <Concise EC2 Tables 15.2, 15.3>
larger span, coefficients are applicable.
As two span, use table applicable to beams and slabs noting <Concise EC2 Table 15.3>
increased coefficients for central support moment and shear.
‡‡
The all-spans-loaded case with 20% redistribution of support moments would also have <5.3.1 & NA> been
acceptable but would have involved some analysis. The use of Table 5.9 in BS EN 1992–1–2 (Fire resistance of solid
flat slabs) is restricted to where redistribution does not exceed 15%: The coefficients presume 15% redistribution at
supports. <Concise Table 15.3>

Design moments in bay
Spans
MEd = (1.25 × 8.5 × 0.090 + 1.5 × 4.0 × 0.100)× 6.0 × 9.52 = 842.7 kNm <Concise EC2Table 15.3>
Support
MEd = 16.6 × 0.106 × 6.0 × 9.52 = 952.8 kNm <Concise EC2 Table 15.3>
Figure 3.20
Column and middle strips
Apportionment of moments between column strips and middle strips:
Percentages
Column strip Middle strip
-ve (hogging) Long span = 70%§§ Long span = 30% <Table I.1, CS Flat slab
Short span = 75% Short span = 25% guide[29]>
+ve (sagging) 50% 50% <Table I.1>
Parallel to grid C, column strip is ly / 2 = 3 m wide. The middle strip is also 3 m wide. <NA.3[1a], Fig. I.1>
Long span moments:
MEd
Column strip, 3 m wide Middle strip, 3 m wide
-ve (hogging) 0.70 × 952.8 / 3.0 = 222.3 kNm / m 0.30 × 952.8 / 3.0 = 95.3 kNm / m
+ve (sagging) 0.50 × 842.7 / 3.0 = 140.5 kNm / m 0. 50 × 842.7 / 3.0 = 140.5 kNm / m
§§
The Concrete Society Guide[29] recommends a percentage, k1, based on Lx / Ly Assuming Lx / Ly = 1.5 the distribution
of moments in the long span between column strips and middle strips is given as 70% and 30%.

Punching shear force, VEd
At C2,
VEd = 16.6 × 6.0 × 9.6♣ × 0.63 × 2 = 1204.8 kN <Concise EC2 Table 15.3>
At C1 (and C3)
VEd = 16.6 × 6.0 × 9.6 × 0.45 + (10 + 0.2 × 0.3 × 25)*** × 1.25 × 6.0 = 516.5 kN <Concise EC2 Table 15.3>
3.5.5 Design grid line C

Effective depth, d
d = 300 − 30 − 20 / 2 = 260 mm
Flexure: column strip and middle strip, sagging
MEd = 140.5 kNm / m
K = MEd / bd2fck = 140.5 × 106 / (1000 × 2602 × 30) = 0.069
z / d = 0.94 <Concise EC2 Table 15.5>
z = 0.94 × 260 =244 mm
As = MEd / fydz = 140.5 × 106 / (244 × 500 / 1.15) = 1324 mm2 / m
(ρ = 0.51%)
Try H20 @ 200 B1 (1570 mm2 / m)
Deflection: column strip and middle strip,
Allowable l / d = N × K × F1 × F2 × F3 <7.4.2(2), Concise EC2 Sec. 15.7>
where
N = 20.3 (ρ = 0.51%, fck = 30) <Concise EC2 Table 15.10>
K = 1.2 (flat slab) <Concise EC2 Table 15.11>
F1 = 1.0 (beff / bw = 1.0) <Concise EC2 Table 15.12>
F2 = 1.0 (no brittle partitions†††) <Concise EC2 Table 15.13>
F3 = 310 / σs
where
where
σsn = (500 / 1.15) × (8.5 + 0.3 × 4.0) / 16.6 = 254 MPa
(or ≈ 253 MPa (From Concise EC2 Figure <Concise EC2 Fig. 15.3>
15.3 for Gk / Qk = 2.1, ψ2 = 0.3 and γg =
1.25) <Concise EC2 Table 15.14>
δ = redistribution ratio = 1.03
∴ σs ≈ 253 × (1324 / 1570) / 1.03 = 207 <Concise EC2 Fig. 15.3>
∴ F3 = 310 / 207 = 1.50‡‡‡
∴ Allowable l / d = 20.3 × 1.2 × 1.50 = 36.5
Actual l / d = 9500 / 260 = 36.5 ∴ OK§§§
Use H20 @ 200 B1 (1570)****
♣
As punching shear force (rather than a beam shear force) ‘effective’ span is not appropriate.
***
Cladding and strip of slab beyond centre of support.
†††
Otherwise for flat slabs 8.5 / 9.5 = 0.89 as span > 8.5 m. <7.4.2(2)>
‡‡‡
In line with Note 5 to Table NA.5, 1.50 is considered to be a maximum for 310 / σs.
§§§
Note: Continuity into columns will reduce sagging moments and criticality of deflection check (see Section 3.5.14).
****
Note requirement for at least 2 bars in bottom layer to carry through column <9.4.1(3)>

Flexure: column strip, hogging:
MEd = 222.3 kNm / m
K = MEd / bd2fck = 222.3 × 106 / (1000 × 2602 × 30) = 0.109
z = 0.89 × 260 = 231 mm
As = MEd / fydz = 222.3 × 106 / (231 × 500 / 1.15) = 2213 mm2 / m
(ρ = 0.85%)
Try H20 @ 125 T1 (2512 mm2 / m)††††
Flexure: middle strip, hogging:
MEd = 95.3 kNm / m
K = MEd / bd2fck = 95.3 × 106 / (1000 × 2602 × 30) = 0.069
z = 0.95 × 260 = 247 mm
As = MEd / fydz = 95.3 × 106 / (247 × 500 / 1.15) = 887 mm2 / m
(ρ = 0.34%)
Try H16 @ 200 T1 (1005 mm2 / m)
Requirements:
There is a requirement to place 50% of At within a width equal to <9.4.1(2)>
0.125 of the panel width on either side of the column.
Area required = (3 × 2213 + 3 × 887) / 2 mm2
= 4650 mm2
Within = 2 × 0.125 × 6.0 m = 1500 mm
i.e. require 4650 / 1.5 = 3100 mm2 / m for 750 mm either side of
the column centreline.
Use H20 @ 100 T2 (3140 mm2 / m)
750 mm either side of centre of support
(ρ = 0.60%)
In column strip, outside middle 1500 mm, requirement is for
Area required = 3.0 × 2213 – 16 × 314 mm2
= 1615 mm2
Within = in 3000 – 2 × 750 mm = 1500 mm
i.e. 1077 mm2 / m
Use H20 @ 250 T1 (1256 mm2 / m)
in remainder of column strip
In middle strip Use H16 @ 200 T1 (1005 mm2 / m)
Perpendicular to edge of slab at edge column:

Design transfer moment to column Mt = 0.17 bed2fck <9.4.2(1), I.1.2(5)>
where
be = cz + y = 400 + 400 = 800 mm <Fig. 9.9>
−6
Mt = 0.17 × 800 × 260 × 30 × 10 = 275.8 kNm
2
K = MEd / bd2fck = 275.8 × 106 / (800 × 2602 × 30) = 0.170

z / d = 0.82
z = 0.82 × 260 = 213 mm
As = MEd / fydz = 275.8 × 106 / (213 × 500 / 1.15) = 2978 mm2 / m
††††
The hogging moment could have been considered at face of support to reduce the amount of reinforcement
required.

This reinforcement to be placed within cx + 2cy = 1100 mm <SMDSC>
2
Try 10 no. H20 T1 U-bars in pairs @ 200 (3140 mm ) local to column
(max. 200 mm from column)
Note:
Where a 200 × 200 hole occurs on face of column, be becomes 600 mm and pro rata,
As required becomes 2233 mm2 i.e. use 4 no. H20 each side of hole (2512 mm2).
Perpendicular to edge of slab generally

Assuming that there is partial fixity along the edge of the <9.3.1.2(2), 9.2.1.4(1) & NA>
slab, top reinforcement capable of resisting 25% of the
moment in the adjacent span should be provided OK
0.25 × 2213 = 553 mm / m 2
Check minimum area of reinforcement

As,min = 0.26 (fctm / fyk) btd ≥ 0.0013 btd <9.3.1.1 9.2.1.1>
where
bt = width of tension zone < Table 3.1>
fctm = 0.30 × fck0.666
As,min = 0.26 × 0.30 × 300.666 × 1000 × 260 / 500 = 390 mm2 / m
(ρ = 0.15%)
Use H12 @ 200 (565 mm2 / m)
The reinforcement should extend 0.2h from edge = 600 mm <9.3.1.4(2)>
3.5.6 Analysis grid line 1 (grid 3 similar)

Consider grid line 1 as being 9.6 / 2 + 0.4 / 2 = 5.0 m wide with continuous spans of
6.0 m. Column strip is 6.0 / 4 + 0.4 / 2 = 1.7 m wide. Consider perimeter load is
carried by column strip only. <5.1.1(4)>
Figure 3.21
Edge panel on grid 1 (grid 3 similar)
Actions
Permanent from slab gk = 5 × 8.5 kN / m2 = 42.5 kN / m
Variable from slab qk = 5 × 4.0 kN / m2 = 20.0 kN / m
Permanent perimeter load gk = 10.0 kN/m
Load combination and arrangement

As before, choose to use all-spans-loaded case and coefficients <5.1.3(1) & NA option c>
Ultimate load, n
n = 1.25 × (42.5 +10) + 1.5 × 20 = 95.6 kN / m <BS EN 1990 Exp. (6.10b)>

Perimeter load, 10 × 1.25 = 12.5 kN / m <BS EN 1990 Exp. (6.10b)>
Effective span, leff

Effective span = 6000 – 2 × 400 / 2 + 2 × 300 / 2 = 5900 <5.3.2.2(1)>
Design moments in bay, MEd:

In spans (worst case, end span assuming pinned support)
MEd = 0.086 × 83.0 × 5.92 = 248.5 kNm <Concise EC2 Table 15.2>
At supports (worst case 1st support)
Additional moment in column strip only due to perimeter
load, spans (and supports, worst case)
MEd = 0.086 × 12.5 × 5.92 = 37.4 kNm
Apportionment to column strips and middle strips: <NA.3[1a], Fig. I.1>
Percentages
Column strip, 1.7 m wide Middle strip <Table I.1, CS Flat slab guide [29]>
-ve (hogging) Short span = 75% Short span = 25%
+ve (sagging) 50% 50%
Short span moments:
MEd
Column strip, 1.7 m wide Middle strip, 3.3 m wide
-ve (hogging) (0.75 × 248.5 + 37.4) / 1.70 0.25 × 248.5 / 3.3
= 131.6 kNm / m = 18.8 kNm / m
+ve (sagging) (0.50 × 248.5 + 37.4) / 1.70 0.50 × 248.5 / 3.3
= 95.1 kNm / m = 37.6 kNm / m
Punching shear force, VEd

For internal supports, as before = 516.5 kN
For penultimate support, 516.5 × 1.18 = 609.5 kN <Concise EC2 Table 15.3>
3.5.7 Design grid line 1 (grid 3 similar)

Cover:
cnom = 30 mm as before
d = 300 − 30 − 20 − 20 / 2 = 240 mm
Flexure: column strip, sagging:

MEd = 95.1 kNm / m
K = MEd / bd2fck = 95.1 × 106 / (1000 × 2402 × 30) = 0.055 <Concise EC2Table 15.5>
z/d = 0.95
z = 0.95 × 240 = 228 mm
As = MEd / fydz = 95.1 × 106 / (228 × 500 / 1.15) = 959 mm2 / m
(ρ = 0.40%)
Try H16 @ 200 (1005 mm2 / m)
Deflection: column strip :

Allowable l / d = N × K × F1 × F2 × F3 <Concise EC2 Sec. 15.7>
where
N = 26.2 (ρ = 0.40%, fck = 30) <Concise EC2 Table 15.10>
K = 1.2 (flat slab) <Concise EC2 Table 15.11>

F1 = 1.0 (beff / bw = 1.0) <Concise EC2 Table 15.12>
F2 = 1.0 (no brittle partitions) <Concise EC2 Table 15.13>
F3 = 310 / σs
where
where
σsn ≈ 283 MPa (from Concise EC2 Figure 15.3 and <Concise EC2 Fig. 15.3>
Gk / Qk = 3.6, ψ2 = 0.3, γg = 1.25)
δ = redistribution ratio = 1.08 <Concise EC2 Table 15.14>
∴ σs ≈ 283 × (959 / 1005) / 1.08 = 250
∴ F3 = 310 / 250 = 1.24 <Concise EC2 Fig. 15.3>
∴ Allowable l / d = 26.2 × 1.2 × 1.24 = 39.0
Actual l / d = 5900 / 240 = 24.5 ∴ OK
Use H16 @ 200 B2 (1005 mm2 / m)
Flexure: middle strip, sagging

MEd = 37.6 kNm / m
By inspection, z = 228 mm
As = MEd / fydz = 37.6 × 106 / (228 × 500 / 1.15) = 379 mm2 / m
(ρ = 0.56%)
By inspection, deflection OK
Check minimum area of reinforcement
where
fctm = 0.30 × fck0.666 <Table 3.1>
As,min = 0.26 × 0.30 × 30 0.666
× 1000 × 240 / 500 = 361 mm / m
2
(ρ = 0.15%)
Use H12 @ 300 T2 (376 mm2 / m)

MEd = 131.6 kNm / m
K = MEd / bd2fck = 131.6 × 106 / (1000 × 2402 × 30) = 0.076 <Concise EC2 Table 15.5>
z / d = 0.928
z = 0.928 × 240 = 223 mm
As = MEd / fydz = 131.6 × 106 / (223 × 500 / 1.15) = 1357 mm2 / m
(ρ = 0.56%)
Try H20 @ 200 T2 (1570 mm2 / m)‡‡‡‡

MEd = 18.8 kNm / m
By inspection, z = 228 mm <Concise EC2 Table 15.5>
As = MEd / fydz = 18.8 × 106 / (228 × 500 / 1.15) = 190 mm2 / m
(ρ = 0.08%)
(ρ = 0.15%)
Try H12 @ 300 T2 (376 mm2 / m)
‡‡‡‡
The hogging moment could have been considered at face of support to reduce the amount of reinforcement required. This
should be balanced against the effect of the presence of a 200 × 200 hole at some supports which would have the effect of
increasing K but not unduly increasing the total amount of reinforcement required in the column strip (a 1.5% increase in
total area would been required).

Requirements:
There is a requirement to place 50% of At within a width equal to 0.125 of the <9.4.1(2)>
panel width on either side of the column. As this column strip is adjacent to the
edge of the slab, consider one side only:
Area required = (1.5 × 1357 + 3.3 × 192) / 2 mm2
= 1334 m2
Within = 0.125 × 6.0 m = 750 mm of the column centreline.
i.e. require 1334 / 0.75 = 1779 mm2 / m for 750 mm from the column centreline
Allowing for similar from centreline of column to edge of slab:
Use 6 no. H20 @ 175T2(1794 mm2 / m)
(ρ = 0.68%)
between edge and to 750 mm from centre of support
1.7 × 1357 – 6 × 314 = 422 mm2 in 750 mm, i.e. 563 mm2 / m
Use H12 @ 175 T2 (646 mm2 / m) in remainder of column strip
In middle strip Use H12 @ 300 T2 (376 mm2 / m)
3.5.8 Analysis grid line 2

Consider panel on grid line 2 as being 9.6 / 2 + 8.6 / 2 = 9.1 m wide and continuous
spans of 6.0 m. Column strip is 6.0 / 3 = 3.0 m wide.
Figure 3.22
Internal panel on grid 2
Slab gk = 9.1 × 8.5 kN / m2 = 77.4 kN / m

Slab qk = 9.1 × 4.0 kN / m2 = 36.4 kN / m
Actions, load combination and arrangement:

Choose to use all-spans-loaded case <5.1.3(1) & NA option c>
Ultimate load, n
n = 1.25 × 77.4 + 1.5 × 36.4 = 151.4 kN / m <BS EN 1990 Exp. (6.10b)>
Effective span, leff

Effective span = 5900 mm as before <5.3.2.2(1)>
Design moments in bay, MEd:

Spans (worst case, end span assuming pinned support)
Support (worst case 1st support)
Additional moment in column strip only due to perimeter load

Apportionment to column strips and middle strips:
MEd
Column strip, 3.0 m wide Middle strip, 6.1 m wide
-ve (hogging) 0.75 × 453.2 / 3.0 0.25 × 453.2 / 6.1
= 113.3 kNm / m = 18.5 kNm / m
+ve (sagging) 0.50 × 453.2 / 3.0 0.50 × 453.2 / 6.1
= 75.5 kNm / m = 37.1 kNm / m
Punching shear force, VEd, as before
3.5.9 Design grid line 2

Effective depth, d
d = 300 − 30 − 20 − 20 / 2 = 240 mm
Flexure: column strip, sagging:
MEd = 75.5 kNm / m
By inspection, z = 228 mm <Concise EC2 Table 15.5>
As = MEd / fydz = 75.5 × 106 / (228 × 500 / 1.15) = 761 mm2 / m
(ρ = 0.32%)
Try H16 @ 250 (804 mm2 / m)
Deflection: column strip:
By inspection, OK.
Flexure: middle strip, sagging:
MEd = 37.1 kNm / m
As = MEd / fydz = 37.1 × 106 / (228 × 500 / 1.15) = 374 mm2 / m
(ρ = 0.55%)
By inspection, deflection OK. Try H10 @ 200 B2 (393 mm2 / m)
MEd = 113.3 kNm / m
K = MEd / bd2fck = 113.3 × 106 / (1000 × 2402 × 30) = 0.065 <Concise EC2 Table 15.5>
z / d = 0.94
z = 0.928 × 240 = 225 mm
As = MEd / fydz = 113.3 × 106 / (225 × 500 / 1.15) = 1158 mm2 / m
(ρ = 0.48%)
Try H20 @ 250 T2 (1256 mm2 / m)§§§§
MEd = 18.5 kNm / m
As = MEd / fydz = 18.5 × 106 / (228 × 500 / 1.15) = 187 mm2 / m <Concise EC2 Table 15.5>
(ρ = 0.08%)
As before minimum area of reinforcement governs
As,min = 0.26 × 0.30 × 300.666 × 1000 × 240 / 500 = 361 mm2 / m <9.3.1.1, 9.2.1.1>
(ρ = 0.15%)
Try H12 @ 300 B2 (376 mm2 / m)
Requirements:
Regarding the requirement to place 50% of At within a width equal to 0.125 of <9.4.1(2)>
§§§§
The hogging moment could have been considered at face of support to reduce the amount of reinforcement
required.

the panel width on either side of the column.
Area required = (3.0 × 1158 + 6.1 × 187) / 2 mm2
= 2307 mm2
Within = 2 × 0.125 × 6.0 m = 1500 mm centred on the column centreline.
i.e. require 2307 / 1.5 = 1538 mm2 / m for 750 mm either side of the column centreline.
Use H20 @ 200T2 (1570 mm2 / m)
750 mm either side of centre of support
(ρ = 0.60%)
3.0 × 1158 – 1.5 × 1570 = 1119 mm2 in 1500 mm, i.e. 764 mm2 / m
Use H16 @ 250 T2 (804 mm2 / m) in remainder of column strip
In middle strip se H12 @ 300 T2 (376 mm2 / m)
3.5.10 Punching shear, central column, C2

At C2, applied shear force, VEd = 1204.8 kN*****
Check at perimeter of column:
vEd = βVEd / uid < vRd,max <6.4.3(2), 6.4.5(3)>
where
β = factor dealing with eccentricity; recommended
value 1.15 <Fig. 6.21N & NA>
VEd = applied shear force
ui = control perimeter under consideration. <6.4.5(3)>
For punching shear adjacent to interior columns
u0 = 2(cx + cy) = 1600 mm
d = mean effective depth = (260 + 240) / 2 = 250 mm <Exp. (6.32)>
vEd = 1.15 × 1204.8 × 10 / 1600 × 250 = 3.46 MPa
3
vRd,max = 0.5νfcd <6.4.5(3) Note>

where
ν = 0.6(1 − fck / 250) = 0.528 <Exp. (6.6) & NA>
fcd = αccλfck / γc = 1.0 × 1.0 × 30 / 1.5 = 20
= 0.5 × 0.528 × 20 = 5.28 MPa ∴ OK <Concise EC2 Table 15.7†††††>
Check shear stress at basic perimeter u1 (2d from face of column): <6.4.2>
vEd = βVEd / u1d < vRd,c
where
β, VEd, d as before
u1 = control perimeter under consideration. <Fig. 6.13>
For punching shear at 2d from interior columns u1
= 2(cx + cy) + 2π × 2d = 4741 mm
vEd = 1.15 × 1204.8 × 103 / 4741 × 250 = 1.17 MPa
vRd,c = 0.18 / γc × k × (100ρlfck)0.333 <Exp. (6.47) & NA>
where
γc = 1.5
k = 1 + (200 / d)0.5 ≤ 2 k = 1 + (200 / 250)0.5 = 1.89
<6.4.4.1(1)>
*****
Column C2 is taken to be an internal column. In the case of a penultimate column, an additional elastic reaction factor
should have been considered.
†††††
At the perimeter of the column, vRd,max assumes the strut angle is 45°, i.e, that cot θ = 1.0.
Where cot θ = < 1.0, vRd,max is available from Concise EC2[10] Table 15.7.

ρl = (ρlxρly)0.5 = (0.0085 × 0.0048)0.5 = 0.0064
where
ρlx, ρly = areas of bonded steel in a width of the
column plus 3d each side of column‡‡‡‡‡
fck = 30
vRd,c = 0.18 / 1.5 × 1.89 × (100 × 0.0064 × 30)0.333 = 0.61 MPa <Concise EC2 Table 15.6§§§§§>
∴ Punching shear reinforcement required
Perimeter required such that punching shear links are no longer required: <Exp. (6.54)>
uout = VEd × β / (d × vRd,c)
uout = 1204.8 × 1.15 × 103 / (250 × 0.61) = 9085 mm
Length of column faces = 4 × 400 = 1600 mm

Radius to uout = (9085 – 1600) / 2π = 1191 mm from face of column
Perimeters of shear reinforcement may stop 1191 – 1.5 × 250 = 816 m
from face of column <6.4.5(4) & NA>
Shear reinforcement (assuming rectangular arrangement of links)

sr,max = 250 × 0.75 = 187, say = 175 mm <9.4.3(1)>
Inside 2d control perimeter, st,max = 250 × 1.5 = 375, say 350 mm <9.4.3(2)>
Outside basic perimeter st,max = 250 × 2.0 = 500 mm
Assuming vertical reinforcement
at the basic control perimeter, u1, 2d from the column:
Asw ≥ (vEd – 0.75vRd,c) sr u1 / 1.5fywd,ef) <Exp. (6.52)>
Where
fywd,ef = effective design strength of reinforcement
= (250 + 0.25d) < fyd = 312 MPa <6.4.5(1)>
For perimeter u1
Asw = (1.17 – 0.75 × 0.61) × 175 × 4741 / (1.5 × 312) = 1263 mm2 per perimeter
Asw,min ≥ 0.08fck0.5(sr × st) / (1.5 fyk sin α + cos α) <Exp. (9.11)>
Where
Asw,min = area of a link leg
α = angle between main reinforcement and shear
reinforcement;
for vertical reinforcement sin α = 1.0
Asw,min ≥ 0.08 × 300.5 (175 × 350) / (1.5 × 500) = 36 mm2
∴ Try H8 legs of links in perimeters at 175 mm cc
Asw / u1 ≥ 1250 / 4741 = 0.26 mm2 / mm
Using H8 max. spacing = min[50 / 0.2; 1.5d] <9.4.3>
= min[192; 375] = 192 mm cc
∴ Use H8 legs of links at 175 mm cc around perimeters******
The values used here for ρlx, ρly ignore the fact that the reinforcement is concentrated over the support.
‡‡‡‡‡
Considering the concentration would have given a higher value of VRdc at the expense of further calculation to
determine ρlx, ρly at 3d from the side of the column.
§§§§§
vRd,c for various values of d and ρl is available from Concise EC2[10] Table 15.6.
******
Clause 6.4.5 provides Expression (6.52), which by substituting vEd for vRd,c, allows calculation of the area of required shear
reinforcement, Asw, for the basic control perimeter, u1. This should be considered as the required density of shear reinforcement. The

which are also at 175 mm centres
2
Check 26 H8 legs of links (1250 mm ) in perimeter u1, 2d from column face
1st perimeter
1st perimeter to be > 0.3d but < 0.5d from face of column. <Fig. 9.10, 9.4.3(4)>
Say 0.4d = 100 mm from face of column
3.5.11 Punching shear, edge column

Assuming penultimate support,
VEd = 1.18 × 516.5 = 609.5 kN <Concise EC2 Table 15.3>
Check at perimeter of column

where
β = factor dealing with eccentricity; recommended value 1.4
VEd = applied shear force <Fig. 6.21N & NA>
ui = control perimeter under consideration.
For punching shear adjacent to edge columns u0 = c2 +
3d < c2 + 2c1 <6.4.5(3)>
= 400 + 750 < 3 × 400 mm
= 1150 mm
d = as before 250 mm <Exp. (6.32)>
vEd = 1.4 × 609.5 × 10 / 1150 × 250 = 2.97 MPa
3
vRd,max as before = 5.28 MPa ∴ OK <6.4.5(3) Note>
Check shear stress at basic perimeter u1 (2.0d from face of column) <6.4.2>
vEd = βVEd / u1d < vRd,c
where
β, VEd and d as before
u1 = control perimeter under consideration. <Fig. 6.15>
For punching shear at 2d from edge column
columns u1 = c2 + 2c1+ π × 2d = 2771 mm
vEd = 1.4 × 609.5 × 103 / 2771 × 250 = 1.23 MPa
vRd,c = 0.18 / γc × k × (100 ρlfck)0.333 <Exp. (6.47) & NA>
where
γc = 1.5
k = as before = 1 +(200 / 250)0.5 = 1.89
ρl = (ρlxρly)0.5
where <6.4.4.1(1)
ρlx, ρly = areas of bonded steel in a width of the column
plus 3d each side of column.
ρlx = (perpendicular to edge) 10 no.H20 T2 + 6 no. H12
T2 in 2 × 750 + 400, i.e. 3818 mm2 in 1900 mm.
ρlx = 3818 / (250 × 1900) = 0.0080
ρly = (parallel to edge) 6 no. H20 T1 + 1 no. T12 T1 in
400 + 750 i.e. 1997 mm2 in 1150 mm. ρlY = 1997 /
(250 × 1150) = 0.0069
ρl = (0.0080 × 0.0069)0.5 = 0.0074
area of shear reinforcement required for any other perimeter should be based on this value, Asw / u1 together with the
requirements for minimum reinforcement and spacing of shear reinforcement (see Clause 9.4.3).

fck = 30
vRd,c = 0.18 / 1.5 × 1.89 × (100 × 0.0074 × 30)0.333 = 0.64 MPa <See also Concise EC2 Table
15.6††††††>
∴ punching shear reinforcement required
Figure 3.23
Flexural tensile reinforcement adjacent to columns C1 (and C3)
Perimeter required where punching shear links no longer required

uout = 609.5 × 1.4 × 103 / (250 × 0.64) = 5333 mm <(Exp. 6.54)>
Length attributable to column faces = 3 × 400 = 1200 mm

∴ radius to uout from face of column
= say (5333 − 1200) / π = 1315 mm from face of column
Perimeters of shear reinforcement may stop 1370 – 1.5 × 250 = 940 mm
Shear reinforcement
As before, sr max. = 175 mm; st max. = 350 mm and <9.4.3(1) 9.4.3(2)>
fywd,ef = 312 MPa
For perimeter u1
Asw ≥ (vEd – 0.75vRd,c) sr u1 / 1.5fywd,ef <Exp. (6.52)
= (1.23 – 0.75 × 0.64) × 175 × 2771 / (1.5 × 312) = 777 mm2per perimeter
Asw,min ≥ 0.08 × 300.5 (175 × 350) / (1.5 × 500) = 36 mm2 <Exp. (9.11)>
Asw / u1 ≥ 777 / 2771 = 0.28 mm / mm
2
Using H8 max. spacing = 50 / 0.28 = 178 mm cc

∴Use H8 (50 mm2) legs of links at 175 mm cc around perimeters
perimeters at 175 mm centres
Check min. 16 H8 legs of links (800 mm2) in perimeter u1, 2d from column face
3.5.12 Punching shear, edge column with hole

Check columns D1 and D3 for 200 × 200 mm hole adjacent to
column.
††††††
vRd,c for various values of d and ρl is available from Concise EC2[10] Table 15.6.

As previously described use 4 H20 U-bars each side of column for
transfer moment.
Assuming internal support, VEd = 516.5 kN
Check at perimeter of column:
where
β = factor dealing with eccentricity; recommended value 1.4 <Fig. 6.21N & NA>
ui = control perimeter under consideration. For punching shear
adjacent to edge columns u0 = c2 + 3d < c2 + 2c1 <6.4.5(3)>
= 400 + 750 < 3 × 400 mm
= 1150 mm
Allowing for hole, u0 = 1150 – 200 = 950 mm
d as before = 250 mm <Exp. 6.32>
vEd = 1.4 × 516.5 × 10 / 950 × 250 = 3.06 MPa
3
vRd,max as before = 5.28 MPa ∴ OK <6.4.5(3) Note>
vEd = βVEd / u1d < vRdc
where
β, VEd and d as before
u1 = control perimeter under consideration. For <Fig. 6.15>
punching shear at 2d from edge column columns u1
= c2 + 2c1+ π × 2d = 2771 mm
Allowing for hole
200 / (c1 / 2): x / ( c1 / 2 + 2d) <Fig. 6.14>
200 / 200: x / ( 200 + 500)
∴ x = 700 mm
u1 = 2771 – 700 = 2071 mm
vEd = 1.4 × 516.5 × 103 / 2071 × 250 = 1.40 MPa
vRd,c = 0.18 / γc × k × (100 ρlfck)0.333 <Exp. (6.47) & NA>
where
γc = 1.5
k = as before = 1 + (200 / 250)0.5 = 1.89
ρl = (ρlxρly)0.5
where
ρlx, ρly = areas of bonded steel in a width of the column plus 3d <6.4.4.1(1)
each side of column.
ρlx = (perpendicular to edge) 8 no.H20 T2 + 6 no.H12 T2 in
2 × 720 + 400 − 200, i.e. 3190 mm2 in 1640 mm.
ρlx = 3190 / (240 × 1640) = 0.0081
ρly = (parallel to edge) 6 no.H20 T1 (5 no. are effective)
+ 1 no. T12 T1 in 400 + 750 – 200, i.e. 1683 mm2 in 950 mm.
ρlY = 1683 / (260 × 950) = 0.0068
ρl = (0.0081 × 0.0068)0.5 = 0.0074
fck = 30
vRd,c = 0.18 / 1.5 × 1.89 × (100 × 0.0074 × 30)0.333 = 0.64 MPa <Concise EC2 Table 15.6‡‡‡‡‡‡>
‡‡‡‡‡‡
vRd,c for various values of d and ρl is available from Concise EC2 [10] Table 15.6

Figure 3.24
Flexural tensile reinforcement adjacent to columns D1 and D3
Perimeter required where punching shear links no longer required <Exp. (6.54)>
uout = 516.5 × 1.4 × 10 / (250 × 0.64) = 4519 mm
3
Length attributable to column faces = 3 × 400 = 1200 mm

Angle subtended by hole from centre of column D1 (See Figures 3.24 & 3.27) =
2 tan−1(100 / 200) = 2 × 26.5° = 0.927 rads.
∴ radius to uout from face of column
= say (4519 − 1200) / (π − 0.927) = 1498 mm from face of column
Perimeters of shear reinforcement may stop 1498 – 1.5 × 250 = 1123 mm
Shear reinforcement:
As before, sr max. = 175 mm; st max. = 350 mm and fywd,ef = 312 MPa <9.4.3(1) 9.4.3(2)>
For perimeter u1
Asw ≥ (vEd – 0.75vRd,c) sr u1 / 1.5fywd,ef) per perimeter <Exp. (6.52)>
= (1.40 – 0.75 × 0.64) × 175 × 2071 / (1.5 × 312) = 712 mm2 per perimeter
Asw,min ≥ 0.08 × 300.5 (175 × 350) / (1.5 × 500) = 36 mm2
Asw / u1 ≥ 712 / 2071 = 0.34 mm2 / mm
Using H8 (50 mm2) max. spacing = min[50 / 0.3; 1.5d]
= min[147; 375] = 147 mm cc No good
Try using H10, max. spacing = 78.5 / 0.34 = 231 mm cc, say 175 cc
∴ Use min. H10 (78.5 mm2) legs of links at 175 mm cc around perimeters
perimeters at 175 mm centres
Check min. 9 H10 legs of links (750 mm2) in perimeter u1, 2d from column face.
Note: As the requirement for these columns is for H10 links
change ALL links to H10 to avoid potential problems on site
3.5.13 Summary of design requirements

Grid C flexure
End supports:

Column strip: 10 no. H20 U-bars
(max. 200 mm from column) in pairs
(where 200 × 200 hole use 8 H20 T1 in U-bars in pairs)
Middle strip: H12 @ 200 T1
Spans 1–2 and 2–3:
Column strip and middle strip: H20 @ 200 B
Central support:
Column strip centre: for 750 mm either side of support: H20 @ 100 T1
Column strip outer: H20 @ 250 T1
Grid 1 (and 3) flexure:
Spans:
Column strip: H16 @ 200 B2*
Middle strip: H12 @ 300 B2
Interior support:
Column strip centre: 6 no. H20 @ 175 T2
Column strip outer: H12 @ 175 T2
Grid 2 flexure:
Spans:
Column strip: H16 @ 250 B2*
Middle strip: H10 @ 200 B2
Interior support:
Column strip centre: H20 @ 200 T2* H16
Column strip outer: @ 250 T2
Punching shear
Internal (e.g. at C2):
Use H10 legs of links in perimeters at max. 175 mm centres.
Max. tangential spacing of legs of links, st max. = 270 mm
Last perimeter, from column face, min. 767 mm
Edge (e.g. at C1, C3 assuming no holes):
Edge (e.g. at D1, D3 assuming 200 × 200 hole on face of column):
Note
* rationalise centre of bars in column strips T2 and B2 to 175 mm centres to suit punching shear links.

Figure 3.25
Reinforcement details bay C–D, 1–2
Note
* Spacing rationalised to suit punching shear links.
Figure 3.26
Punching shear links at column C2 (102 no links) (column D2 similar)

Figure 3.27
Punching shear links at column D1 (and D3) (penultimate support without hole similar)
3.5.14 Commentary on design
Method of analysis
The use of coefficients in the analysis would not usually be advocated in the design of such a
slab. Nonetheless, coefficients may be used and unsurprisingly, their use leads to higher
design moments and shears, as shown below.
Method Moment in 9.6 m Centre support Centre support

span per 6 m bay moment per 6 m bay reaction VEd
(kNm) (kNm) (kN)
Coefficients 842.7 952.8 1205
Continuous beam 747.0 885.6 1103
Plane frame columns 664.8 834.0 1060
below
Plane frame columns 616.8 798 1031
above and below
These higher moments and shears result in rather more reinforcement than when using other
more refined methods. For instance, the finite element analysis used in Guide to the design
and construction of reinforced concrete flat slabs[29] for this bay, leads to:
H16 @ 200 B1 in spans 1-2 (cf. H20 @ 200 B1 using coefficients),
H20 @ 125 T1 at support 2 (cf. H20 @ 100 T1 using coefficients) and
3 perimeters of shear links at C2 for VEd = 1065 kN (cf. 5 perimeters using coefficients)
2 perimeters of shear links at C3 (cf. 7 perimeters using coefficients)
Effective spans and face of support

<5.3.2.2(1)>
In the analysis using coefficients, advantage was taken of using effective spans to calculate
design moments. This had the effect of reducing span moments.

<5.3.2.2(3)>
At supports, one may base the design on the moment at the face of support. This is borne
out by Guide to the design and construction of reinforced concrete flat slabs[29] that states
that hogging moments greater than those at a distance hc / 3 may be ignored (where hc is
the effective diameter of a column or column head). This is in line with BS 8110[30] and could
have been used to reduce support moments.
Shear reinforcement
H10 punching shear links are required for columns D1 and D3. Whilst the other columns were
found to require only H8s, H10s have been adopted throughout to avoid confusion in
detailing or on site. The cost differential would have been marginal.
With added area, the numbers of links could have been reduced on the other columns. A
rectangular arrangement (300 × 175 grid) of H10 links would have been possible. However,
as the grid would need to change orientation around the columns and as the reinforcement
in B2 and T2 is essentially at 175 centres, it is considered better to leave the regular square
grid arrangement.
Use of shear reinforcement in a radial arrangement, e.g. using stud rails, would have
simplified the shear reinforcement requirements.
Curtailment of reinforcement
In this design, the reinforcement would be curtailed and this would be done either in line
with previous examples or more practically in line with other guidance [20, 21].

Draft Version
application.
advisors.
latest version.
6 Walls
6.1 General
Walls are defined as being vertical elements whose lengths are four times greater than
their thicknesses. Their design does not differ significantly from the design of columns in
that axial loads and moments about each axis are assessed and designed for.
Generally, the method of designing walls is as follows:
1. Determine design life. <BS EN 1990 & NA Table NA 2.1>
2. Assess actions on the column. <BS EN 1991 (10 parts) & UK
NAs>
3. Determine which combinations of actions <BS EN 1990 & NA Tables NA
apply. A1.1 & NA A1.2(B)>
4. Assess durability requirements and determine <BS 8500–1>
concrete strength.
5. Check cover requirements for appropriate fire <Approved Document B
resistance period. BS 1992–1–2>
6. Determine cover for fire, durability and bond. <BS EN 1992–1–1 Cl. 4.4.1>
7. Analyse structure for critical combination <BS EN 1992–1–1 Section 5>
moments and axial forces.
8. Check slenderness and determine design <BS EN 1992–1–1 Section 5.8>
moments.
9. Determine area of reinforcement required. <BS EN 1992–1–1 Section 6.1>
10. Check spacing of bars <BS EN 1992–1–1 Sections 8 & 9>
Example 6.2 shows the design of a simple linear shear wall as typically used in medium rise
buildings. Similar principals may be applied to walls that are shaped as C, L, T, Z and rectangles
in-plan but issues of limiting flange dimensions and shear at corners need be addressed. The
example shows only ULS design as, apart from minimum areas of steel to control cracking, SLS
issues are generally non-critical in medium-rise structures. For shear walls in high-rise
structures, reference should be made to specialist literature (ref to CIRIA R102 Design of shear
wall buildings).
6.2 Shear wall (Wall A)

Wall ‘A’ is 200 mm thick and in addition to providing vertical support to 200 mm flat slabs at
roof level and floors 1 to 3, it helps to provide lateral stability to the four storey office block.
Assuming the stair itself provides no lateral stability, the wall is to be designed for the critical
section at ground and first floor level using BS EN 1990 Exp. (6.10). The concrete is C30 / 37.
The wall is supported on pad foundations and the ground floor is ground bearing.
Figure 6.1
Typical floor plan
WE 6 Walls v7a chg 17 Sep 07.doc 17 Sep. 07 Page 2 of 15

Figure 6.2
Section X–X
The example is intended to show how a shear wall providing part of the lateral stability in
one direction in a medium rise structure might be designed by hand.
Axial loads and first order moments are determined. The designs consider slenderness in
order to determine design moments, MEd in the plane perpendicular to the wall. The effects
of allowing for imperfections are also illustrated.
6.2.1 Actions
kN / m2
gk qk
Roof
Paving 40 mm 1.00 <Section 2.3.2>
Waterproofing 0.50
Insulation 0.10
Suspended ceiling 0.15
Services 0.30
Self-weight 200 mm slab 5.00
7.05
Variable action 0.60
Floor slabs
Carpet 0.03
Raised floor 0.30
Suspended ceiling 0.15
Services 0.30
5.78
Ground floor slab (ground bearing)
Carpet 0.03
Raised floor 0.30
Services 0.15
5.48

Stairs
150 waist @ 30 4.40
Treads 0.15 × 0.25 × 25 × 4 / 2 = 1.88
Screed 0.05 × 22 = 1.10
Plaster 0.21
Tiles and bedding 1.00
8.59
Variable 2.50
Cavity wall
102 mm brickwork 2.37
50 mm insulation 0.02
100 mm blockwork 1.40
Plaster 0.21
4.00
RC wall
200 mm wall 5.00
Plaster both sides 0.42
5.42
Wind Wk = 1.10 <BS EN 1991–1–4 & NA>
6.2.2 Load take down

Consider whole wall
Gk Qk
@ level Σ @ level Σ
Roof (6.0 / 2 + 2.5 / 2) × (4.4 + 1.5 / 2) × (7.05 + 0.6) = 154.3 13.1
Roof (6.0 / 2) × (1.3 / 2) × (7.05 + 0.6) = 13.7 1.2
Wall 3.3 × 4.4 × 5.42 = 78.7
246.7 14.3
@ above 3rd floor 246.7 14.3
rd
3 (6.0 / 2) × (1.3 / 2 + 4.4 + 1.5 / 2) × (5.78 + 2.5) = 100.6 43.5
floor
Landing (2.5 / 2 × 1.5 / 2) × (5.78 + 2.5) 11.6 5.0
Wall a. b. 78.7
Stair say 1.1 × 4.4 (8.59 + 2.5) 41.6 12.1
232.5 60.6
@ above 2nd floor 479.2 74.9
2nd floor, landing, wall and stair a. b. 232.5 60.6
@ above 1st floor 711.7 135.5
1st floor, landing, wall and stair a. b. 232.5 60.6
@ above ground floor 944.2 196.1
Ground floor assume 1 m all round =
2 × (1.3 / 2 + 4.40 + 1.5 / 2) × (5.48 + 2.5) = 63.6 29.0
250 mm wall to foundation 4.4 × 0.2 × 0.6 × 25 = 13.2
76.8 29.0
@ above foundation 1021.0 225.1

6.2.3 Design actions due to vertical load at ground – 1st
Gk = 944.2 Gk /m = 944.2 / 4.4 = 214.6 kN / m
Qk = αn × 196.1
where
αn = 1.1 – n / 10
where
n =no. of storeys qualifying for reduction* <BS EN 1991-1-1 6.3.1.2(11) & NA>
=3
= 1.1 – 3 / 10 = 0.8
∴Qk = 0.8 × 196.1 = 156.9 kN Qk /m = 156.9 / 4.4 = 35.7 kN /m
6.2.4 Vertical loads from wind action: moments in plane

Consider wind loads, N–S
Figure 6.3 Lateral stability against wind loads N–S
Check relative stiffness of lift shaft and wall A to determine share of load on wall A.
Lift shaft: ILS = 2.44 / 12 – 2.04 / 12 – 0.2 × 1.63 / 12
= 1.36 m4
Wall A: IWallA = 0.2 × 4.43 / 12
= 1.41 m4
∴ Wall A takes = 1.41 / (1.41 + 1.36) = 51% of wind load.
Check shear centre to resolve the effects of torsion.
Determine centre of reaction of lift shaft
Area x Ax
2.4 × 2.4 = 5.76 1.2 6.912
–2.0 × 2.0 = –4.00 1.2 –4.800
–1.6 × 0.2 = –0.32 2.3 –0.732
1.44 1.38
*
Includes storeys supporting Categories A (residential & domestic), B (office), C (areas of
congregation) and D (shopping) but excludes E (storage and industrial), F (traffic), G (traffic) and H
(roofs).

x
Figure 6.4 Lift shaft

x = Ax / A = 1.38 / 1.44 = 0.956 m
i.e. from face of lift shaft to CoG of shaft
= 2.40 – 0.956 = 1.444 m
Shear centre, Cw of walls, from centreline of wall A

ILS × (1.44 + 24.00 + 0.05†) 1.36 × 25.49
= = = 12.56 m from wall A
ILS + IWallA 1.36 + 1.41
or = 12.56 + 2.80 – 0.05 = 15.31 from east end of building
Figure 6.5 Shear centres

Note: centre of action and shear centre (almost) coincide. ∴ There is no torsion to resolve in the stability
system for wind in a N–S direction. (Had there been significant torsion this would have been resolved into
+/– forces in a couple based on the shear walls.)
†
Assuming centreline of wall A is 50 mm to right hand side of grid.

∴ Wall A takes 51% of wind load
so characteristic wind load on wall A,
Wk = 51% × wk × Lx = 51% × 1.1 × 30.7 = 17.2 kN / m
∴ at just above ground floor, characteristic in-

plane moment in wall A, Mk
= 17.2 × 1412 / 2 = 1709.8 kNm
Resolving into couple using 1 m either end of wall‡,

characteristic wind load in each end, Wk
= 1709.8 / 3.4 = ± 502.9 kN
Figure 6.6 Wall A – wind loads N–S
6.2.5 Effects of global imperfections in plane of wall A
Figure 6.7 Global imperfections
‡
For medium rise shear walls there are a number of methods of design. Cl. 9.6.1 suggests strut-and-
tie (see Section xx). Another method [ref to Concrete Buildings Design manual] is to determine elastic
tensile and compression stresses from NEd/bL +/– 6MEd/bL2 and determine reinforcement
requirements based on those maxima. The method used here assumes a couple, consisting of 1.0 m of
wall either end of the wall. The reinforcement in tension is assumed to act at the centre of one end and
the concrete in compression (with a rectangular stress distribution) acts at the centre of the other
end. The forces generated by the couple add or subtract from the axial load in the 1 m ends of the
walls. The method is useful for typical straight shear walls of say 2.5 to 5.0 m in length.

Global imperfections can be represented by forces Hi at floor level where
Hi = θi(Nb – Na) <Exp. (5.4)>
where
θi = (1 / 200)αhαm <5.2(1),
5.2(5), 5.2(8)
where
& NA>
αh = 0.67 ≤ 2 / l0.5 ≤ 1.0
= 0.67 ≤ 2 / 14.70.5 ≤ 1.0
= 0.67 ≤ 0.52 ≤ 1.0
= 0.67
αm = [0.5(1 + 1 / m)]0.5
where
m = no. of members contributing to the total effect
= 25 vertical elements on 4 floors
= 100
αm = 0.71
∴ θi = 0.67 × 0.71 / 200
= 0.0024
Nb, Na = axial forces in members below and above
(Nb – Na) = axial load from each level
At roof level
Area = 30.4 × 14.5 – 1.3 × 2.5 – 3.6 × 4.8 = 420.3 m3
Perimeter = 2 × (30.4 + 14.5) = 89.8 m
(Na – Nb) = axial load from roof level
= 420.3 × (7.05 + 0.6) + 89.8 × 0.9 × 4.0 = 3286.4 + 252.2 kN
At 3rd floor
(Na – Nb) = 420.3 × (5.78 + 2.5) + 89.8 × 3.3 × 4.0 = 3615.7 + 1050.8 kN
At 2nd floor
(Na – Nb) = 3615.7 + 1050.8 kN
At 1st floor
(Na – Nb) = 3615.7 + 1050.8 kN
HiR = 0.0024 × (3286.4 + 252.2) = 7.9 + 0.6 = 8.5 kN

Hi3 = Hi2 = Hi1 = 0.0024 × (3615.7 + 1050.8) = 8.7 + 2.5 = 11.2 kN
Characteristic design moment at ground floor
Mk = 8.5 × 13.2 + 11.2 × (9.90 + 6.60 + 3.30)
= 112.2 + 221.8 = 334.0 kNm
As before, wall A resists 51% of this moment. Resolving into couple using 1 m either end of wall,
∴ GkH§ = 0.51 × 334.0 / 3.4 = ± 50.1 kN
i.e. GkH = ± 50.1 kN / m
§
As Hi derives mainly from permanent actions its resulting effects are considered as being a
permanent action too.

6.2.6 Design moments – perpendicular to plane of wall
Figure 6.8 Plan of wall A and location of sections Figure 6.9 Section A – A
A – A and B – B
Section A – A @ 1st floor.
The slab frames into the wall. For the purposes of assessing fixed end moments, the width of slab
contributing to the moments in the wall is assumed to be the length of the wall plus distances half
way to adjacent supports either end. Therefore, consider the fixed end moment for 1.50/2 + 4.40 +
1.30/ 2 = 5.8 m width of adjoining slab framing into the 4.4 m long shear wall (see Figure 6.8).
Figure 6.10 Subframe section A – A @ 1st floor
FEM ** Assuming variable action is a leading action: <BS EN 1990 Exp.

= nl2/8 (6.10) & NA>
= 5.8 (1.35 × 5.78 + 1.5 × 2.5) × 6.02 / 8
= 5.8 × 11.6 × 62 / 8 = 302.8 kNm
kw = EI / l = E × 4400 × 2003 / (12 × 3300)
= E × 8.88 × 105
**
FEM Fixed End Moment for 1 m width of adjoining slab.

ks = EI / 2l = E × 5800 × 2003 / (2 × 12 × 6000)
= E × 3.22 × 105
M = 302.8 × 8.88 / (2 × 8.8 + 3.22)
= 302.8 × 0.42 = 121.2 kNm
i.e. 121.2 / 4.40 = 27.5 kNm / m @ ULS
Similarly, assuming variable action is an accompanying action:
M = 5.8 (1.35 × 5.78 + 0.7 × 1.5 × 2.5) × 62 / 8
= 5.8 × 10.4 × 62 / 8 = 271.4 kNm
271.4 × 0.42 / 4.40 = 25.9 kNm / m @ ULS
Section A – A @ ground floor. By inspection not critical – nominal moment.

Section B – B @ 1st. Consider the landing influences half of wall (2.2 m long) and that this section of
wall is subject to supporting half the slab considered before at 1st floor level at Section A–A.
Figure 6.11 Section B – B
FEM
Assuming variable action is a leading action:
= 302.8 / 2 = 151.4 kNm
kw =I/l
= 2200 × 2003 / (12 × 1650) = 8.88 × 105
ks = 3.22 × 105 / 2 = 1.61 × 105

M = 151.4 × 8.88 / (2 × 8.88 + 1.61)
= 151.4 × 0.46
= 69.6 kNm
i.e. 63.8 / 2.2 = 31.6 kNm / m @ ULS
Similarly, assuming variable action is an accompanying action:
M = 5.8 (1.35 × 5.78 + 0.7 × 1.5 × 2.5) × 62 / 8
= 5.8 × 10.4 × 62 / 8 = 271.4 kNm
271.4 × 0.46 / (2 × 2.2) = 28.4 kNm / m @ ULS
Section B – B at landing level and ground floor. By inspection not critical.

6.2.7 Consider slenderness of wall at ground floor (max.)††
Effective length, l0 = 0.75 × (3300 – 200) = 2325 <Concise Table 5.1>
λ = 3.46 × l0 / h = 3.46 × 2325 / 200 = 40.2 <5.8.3.2(1)>
Limiting slenderness, λlim = 20 ABC / n0.5 <5.8.3.1(1),
where Exp. (5.13N)>
A = 0.7
B = 1.1
C = 1.7 – rm
where
rm = M01 / M02
= say = –0.25
= 1.95
n = NEd / Acfd
where
NEd = 214.6 × 1.25 + 31.2 × 1.5 × 0.7 + 502.9 × 1.5 + 98.2 × 1.5 × 0.7 ‡‡
= 268.3 + 32.8 + 754.4 + 103.1
= 1158.6 kN
Acfd = 200 × 1000 × 0.85 × 30 / 1.5 = 3400 kN
∴ n = 0.34
∴ λlim = 20 × 0.7 × 1.1 × 1.95 / 0.340.5 = 51.5
∴ As λ < λlim wall is not slender and ∴ no secondary moments
6.2.8 Summary: design forces on wall, ground – 1st floor

At ground to 1st consider maxima.
Vertical loads Gk = 214.6 kN / m
Qk = 35.7 kN / m
Vertical load due to in-plane bending and wind
Wk = ± 502.9 kN / m
Vertical load due to in-plane bending and imperfections
GkH = ± 50.1 kN / m
Maximum moment out of plane, floor imposed load as leading action
M = 31.6 kN / m @ ULS
Maximum moment out of plane, floor imposed load as accompanying action
M = 28.4 kN / m @ ULS
6.2.9 Combinations of actions at ground – 1st floor

a) At ULS, for maximum axial load, Wk is leading variable action.
NEd = 1.35Gk + 1.5Qk1 + 1.5ψ0Qki
= 1.35 (214.6 + 50.1) + 1.5 × 502.9 + 1.5 × 0.7 × 35.7
= 357.3 + 754.4 + 37.5
= 1149.2 kN / m
MEd = M + eiNEd ≥ e0NEd <5.8.8.2(1)
where 6.1.4>
M = moment from 1st order analysis
= 28.4 kNm / m
ei = l0 / 400 = 2325 / 400 = 5.8 mm <5.2(7), 5.2(9)>
e0 = h / 30 ≥ 20 mm = 20 mm <6.1.4>
MEd = 28.4 + 0.0058 × 1149.2.1 ≥ 0.020 × 1149.2
= 28.4 + 6.7 ≥ 23.0 = 35.1 kNm/m …
††
Ignoring effect of landing.
‡‡
Assuming wind load is lead variable action.

b) At ULS, for minimum axial load, Wk is leading variable action.
NEd = 1.0 × 214.6 – 1.35 × 50.1 – 1.5 × 502.9 + 0 × 35.7
= –607.4 kN / m (tension)
MEd = 28.4§§ + 0.0058 × 607.4 ≥ 0.020 × 602.4
= 28.4 + 3.5 ≥ 23.0
= 31.9 kNm / m
c) At ULS, for maximum out of plane bending assuming Qk is leading variable action.
NEd = 1.35 (214.6 + 50.1) + 1.5 × 35.7 + 1.5 × 0.5 × 502.9
= 357.3 + 53.6 + 377.2
= 788.1 kN / m
MEd = 31.6 + 0.0058 × 788.1 ≥ 0.020 × 788.1
= 31.6 + 4.6 ≥ 15.8
= 36.2 kNm / m
or NEd = 1.0 × 214.6 – 1.35 × 50.1 – 0 × 31.2 – 1.5 × 0.5 × 502.9
= 214.6 – 67.6 – 0 – 377.2
= –230.2 kN / m (tension)
MEd = 31.6 + 0.0058 × 230.2
= 33.0 kNm / m
Consolidate c) into a) and b) to consider two load cases:
NEd = 1149.4 kN / m,
MEd = 36.2 kN / m (out of plane)
and NEd = –607.4 kN / m,
MEd = 36.2 kN / m (out of plane)
6.2.10 Design: for cover

cnom = cmin + Δcdev
where
cmin = max[cmin,b ; cmin,dur]] <Exp. (4.1)>
where
cmin,b = diameter of bar = 20 mm vertical or 10 mm lacers
cmin,dur = for XC1 = 15 mm
Δcdev = 10 mm
cnom = 15 + 10 = 25 mm to lacers
(35 mm to vertical bars)
6.2.11 Fire resistance

Assuming 1 hour fire resistance required for, as a worst case, μfi = 0.7
and fire on both sides.
Min. thickness = 140 mm, min. axis distance = 10 mm i.e. not critical <BS EN 1992–1–2:
Table 5.4>
6.2.12 Design using charts

For compressive load:
d2 / h = (25 + 10 + 16 / 2) / 200 = 0.215
∴ interpolate between charts 15.5d and 15.5e for <Concise EC2 Figs
15.5d, 15.5e>
NEd / bhfck = 1149.4 × 103 / (200 × 1000 × 30) = 0.192
MEd / bh2fck = 36.2 × 106 / (2002 × 1000 × 30) = 0.030
§§
Strictly incompatible with Qk = 0. However, allow Qk= 0.

Gives:
Asfyk / bhfck = 0 ∴ minimum area of reinforcement required
= 0.002 Ac <9.6.2 & NA>
= 0.002 × 200 × 1000
= 400 mm2 / m
= 200 mm2 / m each face
max. 400 mm cc, min. 12 mm diameter <9.6.2(3),SMDSC>
Try T12 @ 400
Figure 6.12 Stresses and strains in wall subject to tension and out of plane moment
For tensile load and moment:

Working from first principles, referring to Figure 6.12 and ignoring contribution from concrete in tension
NEd = (σst1 + σst2) × As / 2
and MEd = (σst1 – σst2) × As / 2 × (d – d2)
so σst1 + σst2 = 2NEd / As
and σst1 – σst2 = 2MEd / [(d – d2)As]
∴ 2σst1 = 2NEd / As + 2MEd / [(d – d2)As]
∴ A s = (NEd / σst1) + MEd / (d – d2)σst1
σst1 = fyk / γm = 500 / 1.15 = 434.8
∴ As = 607.4 × 103 / 434.8 + 36.2 × 106 / [(157 – 43) × 434.8]
= 1397 + 730
= 2127 mm2
σst2 = 2NEd / As – σst1 = 571.7 – 434.8 = 136 MPa
By inspection all concrete is in tension zone and may be ignored.
Use 6 no. H16 @ 200 cc both sides for at least 1 m each end of wall (2412 mm2)
6.2.13 Horizontal reinforcement

As, hmin = 0.001As or 25% As vert <9.6.3(1) & NA>
= 200 mm2 or 0.25 × 2036 = 509 mm2 / m
∴ requires 254 mm2 / m each side
Spacing ≤ 400 mm <9.6.3(2)>
Links not required <9.6.4(1)>
Use H10 @ 300 (262 mm2 / m) both sides.

6.2.14 Check for tension at top of foundation
Permanent and variable (see Section6.2.2) <Section 6.2.2>
Gk = 1021.0 / 4.4 = 232.0 kN / m
Qk = 225.1 / 4.4 = 51.2 kN / m
Wind <Section 6.2.4>
Mk = 17.2 × 14.1 × [14.1 / 2 + 0.6] = 1855.3 kN / m
Resolved into couple 1 m either end of wall
Wkw = 1855.3 / 3.4 = +/- 545.7 kN / m
Global imperfections(see Section 6.2.5) <Section 6.2.5>
Mk = 8.5 × 13.8 + 11.2 × (10.5 + 7.2 + 3.9 + 0.6)
= 365.9 kNm
GkH = 365.9 × 0.51 / 3.4 = 54.9 kN / m
At ULS for maximum axial tension Wk is lead variable action:
NEd = 1.0 × 232.0 – 1.35 × 54.9 – 1.5 × 545.7 + 0 × 51.2
= –660.7 kN / m
MEd = nominal = e2NEd = 0.02 × 660.7 <6.1.4>
= 13.2 kNm / m
As before
NEd MEd
As = +
fyk / γm (d – d2)fyk / γm
= 660.7 × 103 / 434.8 + 13.2 × 106 / [(157 – 43) × 434.8]
= 1520 + 266
= 1786 mm2 i.e. not critical
∴ Use 6 no. H16 @ 200 cc b.s. for at least 1 m either end of wall.
6.2.15 Check stability

Assume base extends 0.3 m beyond either end of wall A, i.e. is 5.0 m long
and is 1.2 m wide by 0.9 m deep
Overturning moments <BS EN 1990 Table
A1.2(A) & NA>
Wind (see Figure 6.6)
Mk = 0.51 x 17.2 × 14.1 × [14.1 / 2 + 1.5] = 1057.5
Global imperfections (see Figure 6.7)
Mk = 0.51 x [8.5 × 14.7 + 11.2 × (11.4 + 8.1 + 4.8 + 1.5)]
= 0.51 x [125.0 + 11.2 × 25.8]
= 0.51 x 414.0
= 211 kNm
Restoring moment
Mk = (1021.0 + 5.0 x 1.2 x 0.9 x 25 + 0 x 225.1 ) x (0.3 + 2.2)
= 2890 kNm
At ULS of EQU,
Overturning moment
= fn(γQ,1Qk1 + γG,supGk) <BS EN 1990 Table
= 1.5 x 1057.5 + 1.1 x 211.0 = 1818.4 kNm A1.2(A) & NA>
Restoring moment
= fn(γG,infGk) <BS EN 1990 Table
= 0.9 x 2890 = 2601 kNm i.e. > 1818.4 kNm A1.2(A) & NA>
∴ OK

6.2.16 Design summary
Figure 6.13 Wall design summary

Draft Version
application.
advisors.
latest version.
5 Columns
5.1 General
The calculations in this section illustrate:
5.2 Design of a non-slender column using design charts.
5.3 Design of a perimeter column using iteration of equations to determine reinforcement
requirements.
5.4 Design of an internal column with high axial load.
5.5 Design of a slender column requiring a two hour fire resistance.
In general axial loads and first order moments are assumed to be available. The designs
consider slenderness in order to determine design moments, MEd. The columns are designed
and checked for biaxial bending. The effects of allowing for imperfections are illustrated.
A general method of designing columns is as follows:
1. Determine design life. <BS EN 1990 & NA Table NA

2.1>
2. Assess actions on the column. <BS EN 1991 (10 parts) & UK
NAs>
3. Determine which combinations of actions apply. <BS EN 1990 & NA Tables NA
A1.1 & NA A1.2(B)>
4. Assess durability requirements and determine <BS 8500–1>
concrete strength.
5. Check cover requirements for appropriate fire <Approved Document B
resistance period. BS EN 1992–1–2>
6. Determine cover for fire, durability and bond. <BS EN 1992–1–1 Cl. 4.4.1>
7. Analyse structure for critical combination moments <BS EN 1992–1–1 Section 5>
and axial forces.
8. Check slenderness and determine design moments. <BS EN 1992–1–1 Section 5.8>
9. Determine area of reinforcement required. <BS EN 1992–1–1 Section 6.1>
10. Check spacing of bars and links. <BS EN 1992–1–1 Sections 8 & 9>
5.2 Edge column

The intention of this calculation is to show a typical hand calculation.
A 300 mm square column on the edge of a flat slab structure supports an axial load of 1620 kN
and first order moments of 38.5 kNm top and −38.5 kNm bottom in one direction only. Using
fck = 30 MPa and cnom = 25 mm. The 250 mm thick flat slabs are at 4000 mm vertical centres.
Figure 5.1
Forces in edge column
WE 5 Columns v7b chg 13 Sep 07.doc 17 Sep. 07 Page 2 of 25

5.2.1 Check slenderness, λ
* <5.8.3.2>
Effective length , l0 = factor × l
where
factor = from Concise EC2 Table 5.1, condition 2 each end <Concise EC2 Table
= 0.85 5.1, PD 6687: 2.10>
l = clear height = 3750 mm
l0 = 0.85 × 3750 = 3187 mm
Slenderness λ = l0 / i <Exp. (5.14)>
where
i = radius of gyration
= h / 120.5 for rectangular sections
λ = 3187 × 3.46 / 300 = 36.8
5.2.2 Limiting slenderness, λlim

λlim = 20 ABC / n0.5 <Exp. (5.13N)>
where
A = 0.7 (default) <5.8.3.1(1)>
B = 1.1 (default) <5.8.3.1(1)>
C = 1.7 − rm = 1.7 − M01/M02 <5.8.3.1(1)>
= 1.7 − 38.5 / (− 38.5) = 2.7
n = NEd / Acfcd = 1620 × 103 / (3002 × 0.85 × 30 / 1.5)
= 0.81
λlim = 20 ABC / n0.5
= 20 × 0.7 × 1.1 × 2.7 / 0.810.5
In this example λlim = 46.2 i.e. > 36.8 ∴ column not slender.
5.2.3 Design moments

MEd = max[M02, M0Ed + M2, M01 + 0.5M2] <5.8.8.2(1)>
where
M02 = M + eiNEd ≥ e0NEd <5.8.8.2
where 6.1.4>
M = 38.5 kNm
ei = l0 / 400 <5.2.7, 5.2.9>
e0 = max[h/30; 20] = max[300/30; 20] = 20 mm <6.1.4>
M02 = 38.5 + 1620 × 3.187 / 400 ≥ 0.02 × 1620
= 38.5 + 12.9 ≥ 32.4 kNm
= 51.4 kNm
M0Ed = (0.6M02 + 0.4M01) ≥ 0.4M02
= 0.6 × 51.4 + 0.4 × (− 38.5 + 12.9) ≥ 0.4 × 51.4
= 20.6 ≥ 20.6
= 20.6
M2 = 0 (column is not slender)
M01 = M02
∴ max[M02, M0Ed + M2, M01 + 0.5M2] = 51.4 kNm ∴ MEd = 51.4 kNm
*
Effective lengths are covered in Eurocode 2 Section 5.8.3.2 and Exp (5.15). The effective length of most columns
will be l/2< l0 < l < Figure 5.7f)>. PD 6686[ref to] Cl 2.10 suggests that using the procedure outlined in
Eurocode 2 and <5.8.3.2(3) 5.8.3.2(5)> leads to similar effective lengths to those tabulated in BS 8110[ref
to] and reproduced in Table 5.1 of Concise EC2. For simplicity tabular values are used in this example. However,
experience suggests that these tabulated values are conservative.

5.2.4 Design using charts
d2 = cnom + link + φ / 2 = 25 + 8 + 16 = 49
d2 / h = 49 / 300 = 0.163
∴ interpolating between d2 / h = 0.15 (Figure 15.5c) and 0.20 (Figure 15.5d)
for:- <Concise EC2 Figs
NEd / bhfck = 1620 × 103 / (3002 × 30) = 0.60 15.5c, 15.5d>
2
MEd / bh fck = 51.4 × 106 / (3003 × 30) = 0.063
Asfyk / bhfck = 0.24
As = 0.24 × 3002 × 30 / 500 = 1296 mm2
Try 4 no. H25 (1964 mm2)
5.2.5 Check for biaxial bending

<5.8.9
λy / λz ≈ 1.0
Exp. (5.38a)>
i.e. λy / λz ≤ 2.0 ∴ OK but check Exp. (5.38b)
As a worst case MEDy may coexist with e0NEd about the orthogonal axis: <6.1(4)>
ey / heq (MEdz / NEd) / h 38.5 <Exp. (5.38b)>
= = = 1.19 i.e > 0.2 and <5.0
ez / beq (MEdy / NEd) / b 32.4
∴ biaxial check required <5.8.9(4)>
Check whether
(MEdz / MRdz)a + (MEdy / MRdy)a ≤ 1.0 <Exp. (5.39)>
where
MEdz = 38.5 kNm
MEdy = 32.4 kNm
MRdz = MRdy
To determine MRdz, find MEd / bh2fck (and therefore moment capacity) by
interpolating between d2 / h = 0.15 (Concise EC2 Figure 15.5c) and 0.20
(Concise EC2 Figure 15.5d) for the proposed arrangement and coexistant
axial load
Assuming 4 no. H25,
Asfyk / bhfck = 1964 × 500 / (3002× 30) = 0.36
Interpolating for NEd / bhfck = 0.6, <Concise EC2 Figs
MEd / bh2fck = 0.094 15.5c, 15.5d>
∴ MRdz = MRdy = 0.094 × 3003 × 30 = 76.1 kNm
A is dependent on NEd / NRd
where
NRd = Acfcd + Asfyd
= 3002 × 0.85 × 30 / 1.5 + 1964 × 500 / 1.15
= 1530.0 + 853.9
= 2383.9 kN
NEd / NRd = 1620 / 2383.9 = 0.68
a = 1.48 by interpolating between values given for NEd / NRd= 0.1 ,(1.0) and NEd / <5.8.9(4), Notes to
NRd = 0.7, (1.5) Exp. (5.39)>
(MEdz / MRdz)a + (MEdy / MRdy)a = (38.5 / 76.1)1.48 + (32.4 / 76.1)1.48 <Exp. (5.39)>
= 0.36 + 0.28
= 0.64 ∴ OK.
∴ 4 no. H25 OK.

5.2.6 Links
Diameter min. φ / 4 = 25 / 4 = 8 mm <9.5.3 & NA>
Max. spacing = 0.6 × 300 = 180 mm <9.5.3(3)
Links at say 175 mm cc 9.5.3(4)>
Figure 5.2
Design summary: edge column
5.3 Perimeter column (internal environment)

This example is intended to show a hand calculation for a non-slender internal column using
iteration (of x) to determine the reinforcement required.
This 300 × 300 mm perimeter column supports three suspended floors and the roof of an
office block. It is to be designed at ground floor level where the storey height is 3.45 m and
the clear height in the N–S direction (z direction) is 3.0 m and 3.325 m in the E–W direction
(y direction). One hour fire resistance is required and fck = 30 MPa.
From first order analysis, load case 1:
NEd = 1129.6 kN; M02yy = 89.6 kNm; M02zz = 0
Load case 2:
NEd = 1072.1 kN; M02yy = 68.7 kNm; M02zz = 6.0 kNm
5.3.1 Cover
where
cmin = max[cmin,b, cmin,dur]
where
cmin,b = diameter of bar. Assume 32 mm bars and 8 mm links <4.4.1.2(3)>
= 32 mm to main bars, 32 − 8 = 24 mm to links
= say 25 mm
cmin,dur = minimum cover due to environmental conditions. Assume XC1.
cmin,dur = 15 mm
cmin = 25 mm
Δcdev = 10 mm <4.4.1.3(3)>
Therefore cnom = 25 + 10 = 35 mm to links cnom= 35 mm to links

Figure 5.3
Perimeter column (internal environment)

Check validity of using Method A and Table 5.2a: <BS EN 1992–1–2: 5.3.2,
Table 5.2a>
l0,fi ≈ 0.7 × 3.325 i.e. < 3.0 m ∴ OK. <BS EN 1992–1–2: 5.3.3(3)>
e = M02yy / NEd = 89.6 × 106 / 1129.6 × 103 = 79 mm <BS EN 1992–1–2: 5.3.2 &
emax = 0.15h = 0.15 × 300 = 45 mm ∴ no good. NA>
Check validity of using Method B and Table 5.2b: <BS EN 1992–1–2: 5.3.3>
emax = 0.25b = 75 mm ∴ no good.
Use BS EN 1992–1–2 Annex C Tables C1 – C9. <BS EN 1992–1–2: Annex C>
2 †
Assume min. 4 no. H25 = 1964 mm (≡ 2.2%)
ω = Asfyd / Acfcd = 0.022 × (500 / 1.15) / (0.85 × 30 / 1.5) <BS EN 1992–1–2: 5.3.3(2)>
= 0.56
e ≈ 0.25b and ≤ 100 mm
λ = l0 / i <BS EN 1992–1–2: 5.3.3(2),
where 5.3.3(3)>
l0 = 0.7 × 3.325 = 2327 mm
i = radius of gyration = (I / A)0.5 = h / 120.5
= 300 / 120.5 = 87 mm
λ = 2327 / 87 = 276
n = N0Ed,fi / 0.7(Acfcd + Asfyd) <BS EN 1992–1–2: 5.3.3(2)>
= 0.7 × 1129.6 / 0.7(3002 × 0.85 × 30 / 1.5 + 1964 × 500 / 1.15)
= 1129.6 / 2383.9
= 0.47
∴ interpolate for λ = 30 and n = 0.47 between
Table C5 (ω = 0.5, e = 0.25b) ⇒ bmin = 235, a = 35 mm
†
Using 4 no. H20 gives ω = 0.34, n = 0.54 and bmin = 310 mm ∴ no good!

and
Table C8 (ω = 1.0, e = 0.25b) ⇒ bmin = 185, a = 30 mm
∴ for ω = 0.56: bmin = 228, a = 35 mm
OK to use Method B but use min. 4 no. H25.
5.3.3 Structural design: check slenderness

Effective length, l0
l0 = 0.5l [1 + k1 / (0.45 + k1) ]0.5 [1 + k2 / (0.45 + k2) ]0.5 <Exp. (5.15)>
where
k1, k2 = relative stiffnesses top and bottom
But conservatively, choose to use tabular method‡. For critical direction condition 2 <Concise EC2 Table
at top and condition 3 at bottom (pinned support). 5.1>
l0 = 0.95 × 3325 = 3158 mm
Slenderness ratio, λ <5.8.3.2(1)>
λ = l0 / i
where
λ = 3158 × 120.5 / 300 = 36.5 λ = 36.5
Limiting slenderness ratio, λlim <5.8.3.1(1) & NA>
where
A = 1 / (1 + 0.2φef). Assume 0.7 <5.8.4>
B = (1 + 2 Asfyd / Acfcd)0.5 <5.8.3.1(1)>
= (1 + 2ω)0.5
Assuming min. 4 no. H25 (for fire)
ω = 0.56 as before
B = (1 + 2 × 0.56)0.5 = 1.46
C = 1.7 – rm <5.8.3.1(1)>
where
rm = M01 / M2
Assuming conservatively that M01 = 0
rm = 0
C = 1.7
n = NEd / Acfcd
= 1129.6 × 103 / (3002 × 0.85 × 30 / 1.5)
= 0.74
λlim = 20 × 0.7 × 1.46 × 1.7 / 0.740.5
= 40.4 λlim = 40.4
∴ as λ < λlim column is not slender and 2nd order moments are not required.
Column is not slender
5.3.4 Design moments, MEd

MEd = MOEd + M2 ≥ e0NEd <5.8.8.2(1), 5.8.8.2(3)
= M + eiNEd ≥ e0NEd 6.1.4>
where
eiNEd = effect of imperfections§
‡
See Section 5.2.1
§
The effects of imperfections need only be taken into account in the most unfavourable direction.
<5.8.9(2)>

where
ei = l0 / 400 <5.2(7), 5.2.9, 5.8.8.2(1)>
e0 = h / 30 > 20 mm <6.1.4>
Load case 1:
MEdy = 89.6 + (3158 / 400) × 1129.6 × 10−3 > 0.02 × 1129.6
= 89.6 + 8.9 > 22.6 = 98.5 kNm
Load case 2:
MEdy = 68.7 kNm
MEdz = 6.0 + (l0 / 400) × 1072.1 × 10−3 > 0.02 × 1072.1
where l0 = 0.9 × 3000 <Concise EC2 Table 5.1>
= 13.2 > 21.4 = 21.4 kNm
5.3.5 Design using iteration of x

For axial load <Concise EC2 Sec.
AsN / 2 = (NEd – αccηfckbdc / γC) / (σsc – σst) 6.2.2, Appendix A3>
For moment
AsM / 2 = [MEd – αccηfckbdc(h / 2 – dc / 2) /γC] <Concise EC2 Sec.
(h / 2 – d2) (σsc + σst) 6.2.2, Appendix A3>
where
MEd = 98.5 × 106
NEd = 1129.6 × 103
αcc = 0.85 <3.1.6(1) & NA>
η = 1.0 for fck ≤ 50 MPa <Exp. (3.21)>
fck = 30
b = 300
h = 300
dc = depth of compression zone
= λx <Exp. (3.19)>
= 0.8x < h
where
x = depth to neutral axis
d2 = 35 + 8 + 25 / 2 = 55 mm assuming H25
γC = 1.5 <Table 2.1N>
σsc, (σst) = stress in reinforcement in compression (tension)
Figure 5.4
Section in axial compression and bending <Fig. 6.1>

Try x = 200 mm.
εcu = εcu2 = 0.0035
0.0035 × (x – d2) 0.0035 × (200 – 55)
εsc = =
x 200
= 0.0025
σsc = 0.0025 × 200000 ≤ fyk / γS
= 500 ≤ 500 / 1.15
= 434.8 MPa
εst = 0.0035(h – x – d2) / x = 0.0035(300 – 200 – 55) / 200
= 0.0008
σst = 0.0008 × 200000 ≤ 500 / 1.15
= 160 MPa
1129.6 × 103 – 0.85 × 1.0 × 30 × 300 × 200 × 0.8 / (1.5 × 103)
AsN / 2 =
434.8 – 160
(1129.6 – 816.0) × 103
= = 1141 mm2
274.8
98.5 × 106 – 0.85 × 1.0 × 30 × 300 × 200 × 0.8 (300 / 2 – 200 × 0.8 / 2) / (1.5 × 103)
AsM / 2 =
(300 / 2 – 55) (434.8 + 160)
(98.5 – 57.1) × 106
= = 733 mm2
95 × 594.8
Similarly for x = 210 mm
εcu = 0.0035
εsc = 0.0026; ∴ σsc = 434.8
εst = 0.0006; ∴ σst = 120 MPa
(1129.6 – 856.8) × 103
AsN / 2 = = 866 mm2
434.8 – 120
(98.5 – 56.5) × 106
AsM / 2 = = 796 mm2
95 × 554.8
Similarly for x = 212 mm
σsc = 434.8
εst = 0.00054; ∴σst = 109.MPa
(1129.6 – 865.0) × 103
AsN / 2 = = 812 mm2
434.8 – 109
(98.5 – 56.3) × 106
AsM / 2 = = 816 mm2
95 × 543.8
∴ as AsN/2 ≈ AsM/2,, x = 212 mm is approximately correct and AsN ≈ AsM, ≈ 1628 mm2
∴ Try 4 no. H25 (1964 mm2).
5.3.6 Check for biaxial bending

By inspection,, not critical. <5.8.9(3)>
[Proof: Section is symmetrical and MRdz > 98.5 kNm.
Assuming ey / ez > 0.2 and biaxial bending is critical, and assuming
exponent a = 1 as a worst case for load case 2:
(MEdz/MRdz)a + (MEdy/MRdy)a = (21.4/98.5)1 + (68.7/98.5)1 <Exp. (5.39)>
= 0.91 i.e. < 1.0 ∴ OK.]

5.3.7 Links
Minimum size links = 25 / 4 = 6.25, say 8 mm
Spacing: minimum of
a) 0.6 × 20 × 25 = 300 mm <9.5.3(3), 9.5.3(4)>
b) 0.6 × 300 = 180 mm
c) 0.6 × 400 = 240 mm
Use H8 @ 175 mm centres
Figure 5.5
Design summary: perimeter column
5.4 Internal column

The flat slab shown in Example 3.5 (reproduced as Figure 5.6) is part of an eight-storey
structure above ground with a basement below ground. The problem is to design column C2
between ground floor and 1st floor. The design forces need to be determined. This will
include the judgement of whether to use Exp. (6.10) or the worse case of Exp. (6.10a) and
Exp. (6.10b) for the design of this column.
The suspended slabs (including the ground floor slab) are 300 mm thick flat slabs at 4500
mm vertical centres. Between ground and 5th floors the columns at C2 are 500 mm square;
above 5th floor they are 465 mm circular. Assume an internal environment, 1 hour fire
resistance and fck = 50 MPa.
Figure 5.6 Part plan of flat slab

5.4.1 Design forces
In order to determine design forces for this column it is first necessary to determine vertical loads
and 1st order moments.
5.4.2 Load take-down

Actions:
Roof: gk = 8.5, qk = 0.6 <BS EN 1991-1-1 6.3.4,
NA & Table NA.7>
Floors: gk = 8.5, qk = 4.0 <Sec. 3.4>
In keeping with Section 3.5 use coefficients to determine loads in take down. <Sec. 3.4>
Consider spans adjacent to column C2: <Concise EC2 EC2 Table
Along grid C to be 9.6 m and 8.6 m and internal of 2-span 15.3>
elastic reaction factor = 0.63 + 0.63 = 1.26
Along grid 2 to be 6.0 m and 6.2 m and internal
elastic reaction factor = 0.5 + 0.5 = 1.00
Load take-down for column C2.

Gk Qk
@ level Σ @ level Σ
Roof [1.0 × (6.0 + 6.2) / 2 ] × [1.26 × (9.6 + 8.6) / 2 ] × (8.5 + 0.6) =
= 69.9 × (8.5 + 0.6) = 594.5 42.0
Col 8 – R π ( 0.465 / 2) 2 × (4.5 − 0.3) × 25 17.9 612.4 42.0
8th 1.0 × (6.0 + 6.2) / 2 × 1.26 × (9.6 + 8.6) / 2 × (8.5 + 4.0) = 594.5 279.7
Col 7 – 8 As before 17.9 1224.8 321.7
7th a.b. 594.5 279.7
Col 6 – 7 a.b. 17.9 1837.2 601.4
6th a.b. 594.5 279.7
Col 5 – 6 a.b. 17.9 2449.6 881.1
5th a.b. 594.5 279.7
Col 4 – 5 0.5 × 0.5 × (4.5 − 0.3) × 25 26.3 3070.4 1160.8
4th a.b. 594.5 279.7
Col 3 – 4 a.b. 26.3 3691.2 1440.5
3rd a.b. 594.5 279.7
Col 2 – 3 a.b. 26.3 4312.0 1720.2
2nd a.b. 594.5 279.7
Col 1 – 2 a.b. 26.3 4932.8 1999.7
1st a.b. 594.5 279.8
Col G – 1 a.b. 26.3 5553.6 2279.5
At above ground floor – 5553.6 – 2279.5
5.4.3 Design axial load, ground – 1st floor, NEd

Axial load to Exp. (6.10) <BS EN 1990 Exp. (6.10) & NA>
NEd = γGGk + γQQk1 + ψ0γQQki
where
γG = 1.35
γQ = 1.50 <Table 2.5, BS EN 1990:
ψ0,1 = 0.7 (offices) A1.2.2 & NA>
Qk1 = leading variable action (subject to reduction factor αA or αn) <BS EN 1991-1-1, 6.3.1.2
Qki = accompanying action (subject to αA or αn) (10), 6.3.1.2 (11), & NA>
where
αA = 1 – A / 1000 ≥ 0.75

= 1 – 9 × 69.9 / 1000 = 0.37 ≥ 0.75
= 0.75
αn = 1.1 – n / 10 for 1 ≤ n ≤ 5
= 0.6 for 5 ≤ n ≤ 10 and
= 0.5 for n > 10
where
n = number of storeys supported
**
αn = 0.6 for 8 storeys supported
∴ as αn < αA, use αn = 0.6
Assuming the variable action of the roof is an independent variable action:
NEd = 1.35 × 5553.6 + 1.5 × (2279.5 − 42.0) × 0.6 + 0.7 × 1.5 × 42.0
= 1.35 × 5553.6 + 1.5 × 2237.5 + 0.7 × 1.5 × 42.0
= 7497.4 + 2013.8 + 44.1
= 9555.3 kN
To Exp. (6.10), NEd= 9555.3 kN
Axial load to Exp. (6.10a)
NEd = γGGk + ψ0,1γQQk1 + ψ0,1γQQki <BS EN 1990 Exp.
(6.10a) & NA>
= 1.35 × 5553.6 + 0.7 × 1.5 × 0.6 ( 279.8 + 1999.7)
= 7497.4 + 1436.1
= 8933.4 kN
To Exp. (6.10a), NEd= 8933.4 kN
Axial load to Exp. (6.10b) <BS EN 1990 Exp. (6.10) & NA>
NEd = ξγGGk + γQQk1 + ψ0,1γQQki
assuming the variable action of the roof is an independent variable action:
= 0.925 × 1.35 × 5553.6 + 1.5 × (2279.5 − 42.0) × 0.6 + 0.7 × 1.5 × 42.0
= 1.25 × 5553.6 + 1.5 × 2237.5 × 0.6 + 0.7 × 1.5 × 42.0
= 6942.1 + 2013.8+ 44.1
= 9000.0 kN
To Exp. (6.10b), NEd= 9000.0 kN
5.4.4 First order design moments, M

Consider grid C to determine Myy in column
Modified
diagram
3 2 1 required
Figure 5.7
Subframe on column C2 along grid C
**
According to BS EN 1991–1–1 6.3.1.2(11) the imposed load on the roof is category H and therefore
does not qualify for reduction factor αn.

Actions:
gk = (6.0 + 6.2) / 2 × 8.5 = 51.9 kN / m
qk = (6.0 + 6.2) / 2 × 8.5 = 24.4 kN / m
Relative stiffness of lower column:
Assuming remote ends of slabs are pinned, relative stiffness
blcdlc3/Llc
=
blcdlc /Llc + bucduc /Luc + 0.75 b23d233/L23 + 0.75 b 21 d 21 3/L 21
3 3
where
b = breadth d = depth L = length
lc = lower column uc = upper column
23 = beam 23 21 = beam 21
0.54 / 4.5
=
2 × 0.5 / 4.5 + 0.75 × 6.1 × 0.33 / 8.6 + 0.75 × 6.1 × 0.33 / 9.6
4
= 0.0139 / (0.0278 + 0.0144 + 0.0129) = 0.252

1st order moment using Exp. (6.10)
FEM 23†† = 1.35 × 51.9 × 8.62 / 12 = 431.8 kNm
FEM 21 = (1.35 × 51.9 + 1.5 × 24.4) × 9.62 / 12
= 106.7 × 9.62 / 12 = 819.5 kNm
Mlower,yy = 0.252 × [819.5 – 431.8] = 97.7 kNm
1st order moment using Exp. (6.10a)
FEM 23 = 1.25 × 51.9 × 8.62 / 12 = 399.8 kNm
FEM 21 = (1.25 × 51.9 + 1.5 × 24.4) × 9.62 / 12
= 101.5 × 9.62 / 12 = 779.5 kNm
Mlower,yy = 0.252 × (779.5 – 399.8) = 95.7 kNm
1st order moment using Exp (6.10b)
FEM 23 = 1.35 × 51.9 × 8.62 / 12 = 431.8 kNm
FEM 21 = (1.35 × 51.9 + 0.7 × 1.5 × 24.4 ) × 9.62 / 12
= 95.7 × 9.62 / 12 = 735.0 kNm
Mlower,yy = 0.252 × (735.0 – 431.8) = 76.4 kNm
∴ Exp. (6.10a) critical
Consider grid 2 to determine Mzz in column.
Modified
diagram
required
B C D
6200
Figure 5.8
Subframe on column C2 along grid 2
††
FEM 23 = Fixed end moment in span 23 at 2

Actions:
gk = 0.63 × (8.6 + 9.6) × 8.5
= 11.47 × 8.5 = 97.5 kN/m
qk = 11.47 × 4.0 = 45.9 kN/m
Relative stiffness of lower column:
Assuming remote ends of slabs are fixed, relative stiffness
0.54 / 4.5
=
2 × 0.5 / 4.5 + 11.47 × 0.33 / 6.2 +11.47 × 0.33 / 6.0
4
= 0.0139 / (0.0278 + 0.0500 + 0.0516) = 0.107

1st order moment using Exp. (6.10)
FEM CB = (1.35 × 97.5 + 1.5 × 45.9) × 6.22 / 12
= 200.5 × 6.22 / 12 = 642.3 kNm
FEM CD = 1.35 × 97.5 × 6.02 / 12 = 394.9 kNm
Mlower,zz = 0.107 × (642.3 – 394.9) = 26.5 kNm
1st order moment using Exp. (6.10a)

FEM CB = 1.25 × 97.5 × 6.02 / 12 = 365.6 kNm
FEM CD = (1.25 × 97.5 + 1.5 × 45.9) × 6.22 / 12
= 190.7 × 6.22 / 12 = 611.0 kNm
Mlower,zz = 0.107 × (611.0 – 365.6) = 26.3 kNm
1st order moment using Exp. (6.10b)
FEM CB = (1.35 × 97.5 + 0.7 × 1.5 × 45.9) × 6.22 / 12
= 190.7 × 6.22 / 12 = 576.0 kNm
FEM CD = 1.35 × 97.5 × 6.02 / 12 = 394.9 kNm
Mlower,zz = 0.107 × (576.0 – 394.9) = 19.4 kNm
∴ Exp. (6.10a) critical again.
5.4.5 Summary of design forces in column C2 ground – 1st

Design forces.
Method NEd Myy Mzz
Using Exp. (6.10) 9555.3 kN 97.7 kNm 26.5 kNm
Using Exp. (6.10a) 8933.4 kN 95.7 kNm 26.3 kNm
Using Exp. (6.10b) 9000.0 kN 76.4 kNm 19.4 kNm
Note: To determine maximum 1st order moments in the column, maximum out-of-balance moments
have been determined using variable actions to one side of the column only. The effect on axial load
has, conservatively, been ignored.
It may be argued that using coefficients for the design of the slab and reactions to the columns does
not warrant the sophistication of using Exp. (6.10a) and Exp. (6.10b). Nevertheless, there would
appear to be some economy in designing the column to Exp. (6.10a) or Exp. (6.10b) rather than Exp.
(6.10). The use of Exp. (6.10a) or Exp. (6.10b) is perfectly valid and will be followed here.
However, to avoid duplicate designs for both Exp. (6.10a) and Exp. (6.10b), a worse case of their
design forces will be used, thus: NEd = 9000 kN, Myy = 95.7 kNm, Mzz = 26.3 kNm
5.4.6 Design: cover

where
cmin = max[cmin,b , cmin,dur]
where

cmin,b = diameter of bar. Assume 32 mm bars and 8 mm links <4.4.1.2(3)>
cmin,dur = minimum cover due to environmental conditions. Assume XC1.
cmin,dur = 15 mm <BS 8500–1 Table
A4>
cmin = 32 mm to main bars, − 8 link
= 24 mm, say 25 mm to link
Δcdev = 10 mm <4.4.1.3 & NA>
∴ cnom = 25 + 10 = 35 mm
5.4.7 Design: fire resistance

Check validity of using Method A and Table 5.2a <BS EN 1992–1–2
5.3.2, Table 5.2a>
a) Check l0,fi ≤ 3.0 m
where
l0 = effective length of column in fire
= 0.5 × clear height
= 0.5 × (4500 – 300)
= 2100 mm OK.
b) Check e ≤ emax = 0.15h = 0.15 × 500 = 75 mm
e = M0Ed,fi / N0Ed,fi
= M0 / NEd
= 99.5 × 106 / 8933 × 103 = 11 mm OK.
c) Check amount of reinforcement ≤ 4% OK.
Assuming μfi = 0.7
bmin = 350 with <BS EN 1992–1–2
ami n = 40 mm OK. Table 5.2a>
For fire using Method A and Table 5.2a is valid
5.4.8 Structural design: check slenderness

Effective length, l0
l0 = 0.5l [1 + k1 / (0.45 + k1)]0.5 [1 + k2 / (0.45 + k2)]0.5 <Exp. (5.15)>
where
k1 and k2 are relative stiffnesses top and bottom of the column as before
(See Section 5.4.4)
Critical direction is where k1 and k2 are greater i.e. on grid C where k1 = k2 = 0.252
l0 = 0.5 (4500-300) [1 + 0.252 / (0.45 + 0.252)]0.5 [1 + 0.252 / (0.45 + 0.252)]0.5
l0 = 0.5 × 4200 × 1.36
= 0.68 × 4200 = 2856 mm
Slenderness ratio, λ <5.8.3.2(1)>
λ = l0 / i
where
λ = 3570 × 120.5 / 500 = 24.7
Limiting slenderness ratio, λlim <5.8.3.1(1) & NA>
where
A = 1 / (1 + 0.2φef). Assume 0.7 as per default
B = (1 + 200)0.5. Assume 1.1 as per default
C = 1.7 – rm
where

rm = M01 / M2 = –84.9 / 109.3 = –0.78
C = 1.7 + 0.78 = 2.48
n = NEd / Acfcd
= 8933 × 103 / (5002 × 0.85 × 50 / 1.5)
= 1.26
∴ λlim = 20 × 0.7 × 1.1 × 2.48 / 1.260.5 = 34.0
∴ as λ < λlim column is not slender
and 2nd order moments are not required.
5.4.9 Design moments, MEd

MEd = M + eiNEd ≥ e0NEd <5.8.8.2(1), 6.1(4)>
where
eiNEd = effect of imperfections <5.8.8.2(1)>
where
ei = l0 / 400 <5.2.7>
e0NEd = minimum eccentricity <6.1(4)>
where
e0 = h / 30 ≥ 20 mm
MEdyy = 95.7 + (3570 / 400) × 8933 × 10−3 ≥ 0.02 × 8933
= 95.7 + 79.7 ≥ 178.7
= 175.4 < 178.7 kNm
MEdzz = 18.8 + 79.7 ≥ 178.7
= 178.7 kNm ∴ Both critical.
However, imperfections need only be taken in one direction – where they have the <5.8.9(2)>
most unfavourable effect ∴ use MEdzz = 178.7 with MEdyy = 95.7 kNm.
5.4.10 Design using charts <Concise EC2 Figs 15.5a to 15.5e>
MEdyy / bh2fck = 178.9 × 106 / (5003 × 50) = 0.03

NEd / bhfck = 9000 × 103 / (5002 × 50) = 0.72
Choice of chart based on d2 / h
where
d2 = depth to centroid of reinforcement in half section
assuming 12 bar arrangement with H32s
d2 = 35 + 8 + (32 / 2) + (2 / 6) [500 + 2 × (35 + 8 + 32 / 2 ) / 3]
= 59 + (1 / 3) × 127
= 101
∴ d2 / h = 101 / 500 = 0.2 Use Concise EC2 Figure 15.5d
Figure 5.9 Depth, d2, to centroid of reinforcement in half section

From chart in Concise EC2Figure 15.5d) <Concise EC2 Fig. 15.5d>
As = 0.29 × 500 × 500 × 50 / 500
= 7500 mm2
‡‡
Try 12 no. H32 (9648 mm2) .
5.4.11 Check biaxial bending <5.8.9>

Slenderness: λy ≈ λz ∴ OK. <5.8.9(3)>
Eccentricities: as h = b check ey / ez
MEdz critical. (Imperfections act in z direction.)
95.7 × 106 / 9000 × 103
ey / ez =
178.7 × 106 / 9000 × 103
= 0.54 i.e. > 0.2 and < 5 <5.9.3(3), Exp. (5.38b)>
∴ design for biaxial bending.
Figure 5.10 Eccentricities
5.4.12 Design for biaxial bending

Check (MEdz / MRdz)a + (MEdy / MRdy)a ≤ 1.0 <5.9.3(4)Exp. (5.39)>
For load case 2 where:
MEdz = 178.7 kNm
MEdy = 95.7 kNm
MRdz = MRdy = moment resistance. Using charts:
From chart 15.5d, for d2 / h = 0.20 and
Asfyk / bhfck = 9648 × 500 / 500 × 500 × 50
= 0.39
NEd / bhfck = 9000 x 103 / (5002 x 50)
= 0.72
MRd / bh2fck = 0.057 <Concise EC2 Fig. 15.5d>
∴ MRd ≈ 0.057 × 5003 × 50
= 356.3 kNm
<5.8.3(4)>
a = exponent dependent upon NEd / NRd
where
‡‡
Using design actions to Exp (6.10) would have resulted in a requirement for 8500 mm2.

NRd = Acfcd + Asfyd
= 500 × 500 × 0.85 × 50 / 1.5 + 9648 × 500 / 1.15
= 7083 + 3216
= 10299 kN
NEd / NRd = 9000 / 10299 = 0.87.
Interpolating between values given for NEd / NRd= 0.7 (1.5) and <Notes toExp. (5.39)>
for NEd / NRd= 1.0, (2.0)
a = 1.67
Check (MEdz / MRdz)a + (MEdy / MRdy)a ≤ 1.0
(178.7 / 356.3)1.67 + (95.7 / 356.3)1.67 = 0.32 + 0.11
= 0.43 i.e. < 1.0 ∴ OK
Use 12 no. H32
5.4.13 Links
Minimum diameter of links: = φ / 4 = 32 / 4 <9.5.3 & NA>
= 8 mm
Spacing: either
a) 0.6 × 20 × φ = 12 × 32 = 384 mm <9.5.3(3), 9.5.3(4)>
b) 0.6 × h = 0.6 × 500 = 300 mm or
c) 0.6 × 400 = 240 mm
∴ use H8 links at 225 mm cc.
Number of legs:
Bars at 127 mm cc i.e. < 150 mm ∴ no need to restrain bars in face but good <9.5.3(6)
practice suggests alternate bars should be restrained SMDSC 6.4.2>
∴ use single leg on face bars both ways @ 225 mm centres.
Figure 5.11 Design summary: internal column
5.5 Small perimeter column subject to two hour fire requirement

This calculation is intended to show a small slender column subject to a requirement for 2
hours fire resistance.
§§
The middle column, B, in Figure 4.5, is subject to an axial load of 1722.7 kN and from
analysis moments of 114.5 kNm in the plane at the beam and 146.1 kNm perpendicular to
the beam (i.e. about the z axis).
The column is 350 mm square, 4000 mm long, measured from top of foundation to centre of
slab. It is supporting storage loads, in an external environment (but not subject to de-icing
salts) and is subject to a 2 hour fire resistance requirement on three exposed sides. Assume
the base is pinned.
§§
Gk = 562.1; Qk = 755.6 × αn = 755.6 × 0.9; NEd = 562.1 × 1.25 + 755.6 × 0.9 × 1.5 = 1722.7 kN

Figure 5.12
Perimeter column
5.5.1 Cover
Nominal cover, cnom
where
where
cmin,b = diameter of bar. Assume 32 mm main bars and 10 mm links <4.4.1.2(3)>
cmin,dur = minimum cover due to environmental conditions. Assuming <BS 8500–1 Table
primarily XC3 / XC4, secondarily XF1, cmin,dur = 25 mm A4>
Δcdev = allowance in design for deviation
= 10 mm
∴ try cnom = 32 + 10 = 42 mm to main bars
or = 25 + 10 = 35 mm to 8 mm links
Try cnom = 35 mm to 8 mm links

a) Check adequacy of section for R120 to Method A.
Axis distance available = 43 mm + φ / 2
Required axis distance to main bars, a for 350 mm square column <BS EN 1991–1–2:
For μfi = 0.5, a = 45 mm; and 5.3.1(1) & NA
for μfi = 0.7, a = 57 mm, providing: 5.3.2, Table 5.2a>
8 bars used – OK but check later
l0,fi ≤ 3 m – OK but check
e ≤ emax = 0.15h = 0.15 × 350 = 52 mm
but e = 146.1 × 106 / 1722.7 × 103
= 85 mm ∴ no good.
Try Method B.
b) Check adequacy of section for R120 to Method B. <BS EN 1992–1–2:
Determine parameters n, ω, e and check λfi. 5.3.3, Table 5.2b>

Assume 4 no. H32 + 4 no. H25 = (5180 mm2 : 4.2%)
(say 4.2% OK – integrity OK) <9.5.2(3)>
n = N0Ed,fi / 0.7(Acfcd + Asfyd) <BS EN 1992–1–2:
Exp. (5.8a)>
= 0.7 × 1722.7 × 103 / 0.7 (350 × 350 × αcc × fck / γC + 5180 × 500 / γS)
= 1205.9 × 103 / 0.7 (350 × 350 × 0.85 × 30 / 1.5 + 5180 × 500 / 1.15)
= 1205.9 × 103 / 0.7 (2082.5 + 2252.0)
= 0.40 OK
ω = Asfyd / Acfcd ≤ 1.0 <BS EN 1992–1–2:
= 2252 / 2082 5.3.3(2)>
= 1.08 ≥ 1
But say within acceptable engineering tolerance ∴use ω = 1.0 OK
e = M0Ed,fi / N0Ed,fi <BS EN 1992–1–2:

Exp. (5.8b)>
= 0.7 × 146.1 / 0.70 × 1722.7 <BS EN 1992–1–2:
= 85 mm ≡ 0.24h. OK 2.4.2(3)>
λfi = l0,fi / i
where
l0,fi = 0.7l = 0.7 × 4000 = 2800 mm
i = radius of gyration
= h / 3.46 for a rectangular section
∴ λfi = 2800 / (350 / 3.46)
= 27.7 < 30 ∴ OK.
Table 5.2b valid for use in this case
Interpolating from BS EN 1992–1–2 Table 5.2b for n = 0.40 and ω = 1.0, column
width = 350 mm and axis distance = 48 mm
∴ Axis distance = 43 mm + φ / 2 is OK
c) As additional check, check adequacy of section to Annex B3 and Annex C. <BS EN 1992–1–2:
Using BS EN 1992–1–2 Table C.8 5.3.3(1), Annex C &
NA>
For ω = 1.0, e = 0.25b, R120, λ = 30 <BS EN 1992–1–2:
and interpolating between n = 0.3 and n = 0.5, Annex C(2)>
bmin = 350 mm, amin = 48 mm.
∴ Axis distance = 43 mm + φ / 2 is OK
∴ 4 no. H32 + 4 no. H25 with 35 mm cover to 8 mm links
(a = 55 mm min.) OK.
5.5.3 Structural design: check slenderness about z axis

Effective length, l0, about z axis
l0z = 0.5l [1 + k1 / (0.45 + k1) ]0.5 [1 + k2 / (0.45 + k2) ]0.5 <Exp. (5.15)>
where <PD 6687 2.10>
l = clear height between restraints
= 4000 – 300 / 2 = 3850 mm
k1, k2 = relative flexibilities of rotational restraints at ends 1 and 2
respectively
k1 = EIcol / lcol / [2EIbeam1 / lbeam1 + 2EIbeam2 / lbeam2] ≥ 0.1 <5.8.3.2(3)
PD 6687>
Treating beams as rectangular and cancelling E throughout:
Icol / Pcol = 3504 / (12 × 3850) = 3.25 × 105
Ibeam1 / lbeam1 = 8500 × 3003 / 12 × 6000
= 31.8 × 105

Ibeam2 / lbeam2 = 0
k1 = 3.25 / (2 × 31.8) = 0.051 ≥ 0.1
k1 = 0.1
k2 = by inspection (pinned end assumed) = ∞
∴ l0z = 0.5 × 3850 × [1 + 0.1 / (0.45 + 0.1) ]0.5 [1 + ∞ / (0.45 + ∞) ]0.5
= 0.5 × 3850 × 1.087 × 1.41
= 0.77 × 3850 = 2965 mm
Slenderness ratio, λz <5.8.3.2(1)>
λz = l0z / i
where
i = radius of gyration = h / 3.46
λz = 3.46l0z / h = 3.46 × 2965 / 350
= 29.3
Limiting slenderness ratio, λlim <5.8.3.1(1)>
λlimz = 20 ABC / n0.5 <Exp. (5.13N)
where
A = 0.7
B = 1.1
C = 1.7 – rm
where
rm = M01 / M02
say rm = 0
C = 1.7 – 0 = 1.7
n = relative normal force = NEd / Acfcd
= 1836 × 103 / (3502 × 0.85 × 30 / 1.5)
= 0.88
∴ λlimz = 20 × 0.7 × 1.1 × 1.7 / 0.880.5
= 27.9
∴ As λz > λlimz column is slender about z axis.
Figure 5.13
First order moments

5.5.4 Check slenderness on y axis
Effective length, l0, about z axis
l0y = 0.5l [1 + k1 / (0.45 + k1) ]0.5 [1 + k1 / (0.45 + k2) ]0.5 <Exp. (5.15)>
where
ly = clear height between restraints
= 4000 + 300 / 2 – 750 = 3400 mm
k1
Icol / lcol = 3504 / 12 × 3400 = 3.68 × 105
Treating beams as rectangular
Ibeam1 / lbeam1 = 350 × 7503 / [12 × (9000 – 350)]
= 14.2 × 105
Ibeam2 / lbeam2 = 350 × 7503 / [12 × (8000 – 350)]
= 16.1 × 105
k1 = 3.68 / (2 × (16.1 + 14.2) = 0.060 ≥ 0.1
k1 = 0.1
k2 = ∞ (pinned end assumed)
l0y = 0.5 × 3400 [1 + 0.1 / (0.45 + 0.1) ]0.5 [1 + ∞ / (0.45 + ∞) ]0.5 <Exp. (5.15)>
= 0.5 × 3400 × 1.087 × 1.41
= 0.77 × 3400 = 2620 mm
Slenderness ratio, λy
λy = 3.46l0y / h = 3.46 × 2620 / 350 = 25.9
Limiting slenderness ratio, λlim

λlimy = λlimz = 27.9
As λy < λlimy, column not slender in y axis.
5.5.5 Design moments: MEdz about z axis

MEdz = max[M02, M0Ed + M2, M01 + 0.5M2] <5.8.8.2>
where
M02 = Mz + eiNEd ≥ e0NEd <5.8.8.2(1)
where 6.1.4>
Mz = 146.1 kNm from analysis
eiNEd = effect of imperfections
where
ei = l0 / 400 <5.2.7>
e0 = 20 mm
∴ M02 = 146.1 + (2965 / 400) × 1836 ≥ 0.02 × 1836
= 146.1 + 13.6 > 36.7
= 159.7 kNm
M0Ed = equivalent 1st order moment at about z axis at about mid height may
be taken as M0ez where
M0ez = (0.6M02 + 0.4M01) ≥ 0.4M02
= 0.6 × 159.7 + 0.4 × 0 ≥ 0.4 × 159.7 = 95.8 kNm
M2 = nominal 2nd order moment = NEde2 <5.8.8.2(3)>
where
e2 = (1 / r) l02 / 10 <5.8.8. 3>
where
1/r = curvature = KvKϕ[fyd / (Es × 0.45d)] <Exp. (5.34)>
where
Kv = (nu – n) / (nu – nbal)
where

nu =1+ω
where
ω = Asfyd / Acfd
= 1.08 as before
nu = 2.08
n = NEd / Acfcd
= 1722.7 / 2082 = 0.83
nbal = 0.40
Kv = (2.08 – 0.83) / (2.08 – 0.40)
= 1.25 / 1.68 = 0.74
Kϕ = 1 + βϕef
where
β = 0.35 + (fck / 200) – (λ / 150)
= 0.35 + 30 / 200 – 29.3 / 150
= 0.35 + 0.15 – 0.195
= 0.305
ϕef = effective creep coefficient
*** <5.8.4(2)>
= ϕ(∞,t0) M0Eqp / M0Ed
where
ϕ(∞,t0)= final creep coefficient <3.1.4(2)>
= from Figure 3.1 for inside conditions <Fig. 3.1a>
h = 350 mm, C30/37, t0 = 15
≈ 2.4
M0Eqp = 1st order moment due to quasi permanent loads
Gk + ϕ2 Qk
≈ × Mz + eiNEd
ξγGGk + ϕ0γQQk
63.3 + 0.8 × 46.0
= × Mz + eiNEd
1.25 × 63.3 + 1.5 × 46.0
100.1
= × 146.1 + 13.6
148.1
= 112.3 kNm
M0Ed = M02 = 159.7 kNm
Kϕ = 1 + 0.305 × 2.4 × 112.3 / 159.7
= 1.51
fyd = 500 / 1.15 = 434.8 MPa
Es = 200000 MPa <3.2.7(3)>
d = effective depth
= 350 – 35 – 8 – 16 = 291 mm
1/r = 0.74 × 1.51 × 434.8 / (200000 × 0.45 × 291)
= 0.0000186
l0 = 2965 mm as before
e2 = (1 / r) l02 / 10
= 0.0000186 × 29652 / 10
= 16.3 mm
∴ M2 = 1722.7 × 103 × 16.3 = 28.1 kNm
M01 =0
∴ MEdz = max[M02z, M0Edz + M2, M01 + 0.5M2]
= max[159.7, 95.8 + 28.1, 0 + 28.1 / 2] = 159.7 kNm
***
With reference to Exp. (5.13N), ϕef may be taken as equal to 2.0. However, for the purpose of
illustration the full derivation is shown here.

5.5.6 Design moments: MEdy about y axis
MEdy = max[ M02y, M0Edy + M2, M01 + 0.5M2]
where
M02y = My + eiNEd ≥ e0NEd
†††
= 114.5 + 13.6 ≥ 36.7 kNm
= 128.1 kNm
M0Edy = (0.6M02y + 0.4 M01y) ≥ 0.4M02y
= 0.6 × 114.5 + 0.4 × 0
= 68.7 kNm
M2 0: column not slender.
∴ MEdy = 128.1 kNm
5.5.7 Design in each direction using charts

In z direction: NEd / bhfck = 1722.7 × 103 / (3502 × 30)
= 0.47
MEd / bh2fck = 159.7 × 106 / (3503 × 30)
= 0.124
Assuming 8 bar arrangement, centroid of bars in half section:
d2 ≥ 35 + 8 + 16 + (350 / 2 – 35 –8 – 16) × 1 / 4 <Concise EC2 Fig.
≥ 59 + 29 = 88 mm 15.4>
d2/h = 0.25
<Concise EC2 Fig.
From Figure 15.5e
15.5e>
As = 0.45 × 3502 × 30 / 500 = 3308 mm2
∴ 4 no. H32 + 4 no. T25 (5180 mm2) OK.
In y direction: MEd / bh2fck = 128.1 × 106 / (3503 × 30)
= 0.10
NEd / bhfck = 0.47
From Figure 15.5e
As = 0.31 × 3502 × 30 / 500 = 2279 mm2
∴ 4 no. H32 + 4 no. T25 (5180 mm2) OK.
5.5.8 Check biaxial bending

λy ≈ λz ∴ OK. <Exp. (5.38a)>
ez = MEdy / NEd
ey = MEdz / NEd
ey / heq MEdz 159.7
= = = 1.25
ez / beq MEdy 128.1
∴ need to check biaxial bending.
(MEdz/MRdz)a + (MEdy/MRdy)a ≤ 1.0 <Exp. (5.39)>
where
MRdz = MRdy = moment resistance∴
Using Concise EC2 Figure 15.5e
Asfyk / bhfck = 5180 × 500 / (3502 × 30)
= 0.70
for NEd / bhfck = 0.47
MEd / bh2fck = 0.162 <Concise EC2 Fig. 15.5e>
†††
Imperfections need to be taken into account in one direction only. <5.8.9(2)>

∴ MRd = 0.162 × 3503 × 30
= 208.4 kNm
a depends on NEd / NRd

where
NRd = Acfcd + Asfyd
= 3502 × 0.85 × 30 / 1.5 + 5180 × 500 / 1.15
= 2082.5 + 2252.2
= 4332.7 kN
NEd / NRd = 1722.7 / 4332.7 = 0.40
∴ a = 1.25 <5.8.9(4)>
(159.7 / 208.4)1.25 + (114.5 / 208.4)1.25 = 0.72 + 0.47
= 1.19
∴ No good.
∴ Try 8 no. T32 (6432 mm2).
For Asfyk / bhfck = 6432 × 500 / (3502 × 30)
= 0.88
for NEd / bhfck = 0.47
MEd / bh2fck = 0.191 <Concise EC2 Fig.
15.5e>
∴ MRd = 245.7 kNm
Check biaxial bending
(159.7 / 245.7)1.25 + (114.5 / 245.7)1.25 = 0.58 + 0.39 = 0.97 OK.
5.5.9 Check maximum area of reinforcement

As / bd = 6432 / 3502 = 5.2% > 4% <9.5.2(3)
& NA>
However, if laps can be avoided in this single lift column then the integrity of
the concrete is unlikely to be affected and 5.2% is considered OK. OK <PD 6687 2.19>
5.5.10 Design of links

Diameter min. = 32 / 4 = 8 mm <9.5.3 & NA>
Spacing max. = 0.6 × 350 = 210 mm <9.5.3(3)
9.5.3(4)>
∴ Use H8 @ 200 mm cc
Figure 5.14
Design summary: small perimeter column

Draft Version
application.
advisors.
latest version.
4 Beams
4.1 General
The calculations in this Section are presented in the following parts:
4.2 A simply supported continuous beam showing what might be deemed typical hand
calculations.
4.3 A heavily loaded L-beam.
4.4 A wide T-beam. This example is analysed and designed strictly in accordance with the
provisions of BS EN 1992–1–1.
They are intended to be illustrative of the Code and not necessarily best practice.
A general the method of designing slabs is shown below:
1. Determine design life. <BS EN 1990 & NA Table

NA.2.1>
2. Assess actions on the beam. <BS EN 1991 & NAs>
3. Assess durability requirements and determine concrete strength. <Table 4.1>
<BS 8500-1: Tables A4, A5>
4. Check cover requirements for appropriate fire resistance period. <BS EN 1992–1–2: Tables 5.8,
5.9, 5.10, 5.11>
5. Calculate minimum cover for durability, fire and bond requirements. <4.4.1>
6. Determine which combinations of actions apply. <BS EN 1990 & NA Tables
NA.A1.1 and NA.A1.2 (B)>
7. Determine loading arrangements. <5.1.3(1) & NA>
8. Analyse structure to obtain critical moments and shear forces. <5.4, 5.5, 5.6>
9. Design flexural reinforcement. <6.1>
10. Check deflection. <7.4>
11. Check shear capacity. <6.2>
12. Other design checks:
Check minimum reinforcement. <9.3.1.1(1), 9.2.1.1(1)>
Check cracking (size or spacing of bars). <7.3, Tables 7.2N, 7.3N>
Check effects of partial fixity. <9.3.1.2(2)>
Check secondary reinforcement. <9.3.1.1(2), 9.3.1.4(1)>
13. Check curtailment. <9.3.1.1(4), 9.2.1.3, Fig. 9.2>
14. Check anchorage. <9.3.1.2, 8.4.4, 9.3.1.1(4),
9.2.1.5(1), 9.2.1.5(2)>
15. Check laps. <8.7.3>
4.2 Continuous beam on pin supports

This calculation is intended to show a typical hand calculation for a continuous simply
supported beam using coefficients to determine moments and shears.
A 450 mm deep × 300 mm wide rectangular beam is required to support office loads of gk =
30.2 kN / m and qk = 11.5 kN / m over 2 no. 6 m spans. fck = 30 MPa, fyk = 500 MPa. Assume
300 mm wide supports, a 50-year design life and a requirement for a 2-hour resistance to
fire in an external but sheltered environment.
WE 4 Beams v7c 17 Sep 07.doc 17-Sep-07 Page 2 of 33

Figure 4.1
Continuous rectangular beam
Figure 4.2
Section through beam
4.2.1 Actions
kN / m
Permanent
gk = 30.2
Variable
qk = 11.5
4.2.2 Cover
Nominal cover, cnom
cnom = cmin + Δcdev <Exp. 4.1>
where
where
<4.4.1.2(3)>
cmin,b = minimum cover due to bond
= diameter of bar.
Assume 25 mm main bars
Assuming XC3 (moderate humidity or cyclic wet and <Table 4.1 BS 8500-1
dry) and secondarily XF1 (moderate water saturation Table A4, How to xxxx[20]>
without de-icing salt) using C30/37 concrete ,
cmin,dur = 25 mm
Δcdev= allowance in design for deviation. Assuming no
measurement of cover Δcdev= 10 mm <4.4.1.2(3)>
∴ cnom = 25 + 10 = 35 mm
Fire:
Check adequacy of section for 2 hours fire resistance (i.e. R = 120)
For bmin = 300 mm, minimum axis distance, a = 35 mm ∴ OK <BS EN 1992-1-2, 5.6.3(1),
Table 5.6>
cnom = 35 mm

Load combination
By inspection, BS EN 1990 Exp. (6.10b) governs <Fig. 2.5>
∴ n = 1.25 × 30.2 + 1.5 × 11.5 = 50.8 kN / m <BS EN 1990 Exp. (6.10b)>
Arrangement
Choose to use all-and-alternate-spans-loaded load cases, i.e. <5.1.3(1) & NA option b,
use coefficients. Concise EC2 Table 15.3>
The coefficients used presume 15% redistribution at <Concise EC2 Table 15.3>
supports. As the amount of redistribution is less than 20%,
there are no restrictions on reinforcement grade. The use of <5.5(4) & NA>
Table 5.6 in BS EN 1992–1–2 is restricted to where <BS EN 1992-1-2
redistribution does not exceed 15%. 5.6.3(1), Table 5.6)>
4.2.4 Analysis
Design moments
Spans
MEd = (1.25 × 30.2 × 0.090 + 1.5 × 11.5 × 0.100) × 6.02 <Concise EC2 Table 15.3>
= 122.3 + 62.1 = 184.4 kNm
Support <Concise EC2 Table 15.3>
MEd = 50.8 × 0.106 × 6.02 = 193.8 kNm
Shear force
VAB = 0.45 × 6.0 × 50.8 = 137.2 kN
VAB = 0.63 × 6.0 × 50.8 = 192.0 kN
Table 4.1
Coefficients for use with beams (See Concise EC2 Table 15.3)
Coefficient Location
Outer Near middle At 1st At middle At interior
support of end span interior of interior supports
support spans
Moment gk and qk 25% spana — 0.094 — 0.075
Moment gk — 0.090 — 0.066 —
Moment qk — 0.100 — 0.086 —
Shear 0.45 — 0.63:0.55 — 0.50:0.50b
Conditions
For beams and slabs, 3 or more spans. (They may also be used for 2 span beams but support moment coefficient =
0.106 and internal shear coefficient = 0.63 both sides.)
Key
a At outer support ‘25% span’ relates to the UK Nationally Determined Parameter for BS EN 1992-1-1 9.2.1.2(1)
for minimum percentage of span bending moment to be assumed at supports in beams in monolithic
construction. 15% may be appropriate for slabs (see BS EN 1992-1-1 Cl 9.3.1.2).
b For beams of five spans, 0.55 applies to centre span.
4.2.5 Flexural design

Effective depth
Assuming 10 mm links:
d = 450 − 35 − 10 − 25 / 2 = 392 mm
Flexure in span

K = MEd / bd2fck = 137.2 × 106 / (300 × 3922 × 30) = 0.099 <Fig. 3.5>
<Appendix A.1>
z = 0.90 × 392 = 353 mm
As = MEd / fydz = 137.2 × 106 / (434.8 × 353) = 894 mm2
Try 2 no. H25 B (982 mm2)
(ρ = 0.76%)
Check spacing
Spacing = 300 – 2 × 35 − 2 × 10 – 25 = 185 mm
Assuming 10 mm diameter link
Steel stress under quasi-permanent loading
= fyd × (As,req / As,prov) × (gk + ψ2 qk) / (γGgk + γQqk) (1 / δ)
= (500 / 1.15) × (894 / 982) × [(30.2 + 0.3 × 11.5) / 50.8] (1 / 1.03)
= 434.8 × 0.91 × 0.66 × 0.97 = 253 MPa <7.3.3(2)>
As exposure is XC3, max. crack width wmax = 0.3 mm <7.3.1(5) & NA>
∴Maximum bar size = 14 mm or max. spacing = 185 mm – say OK <Table 7.2N & NA>
∴ Use 2 H25 B (982 mm2)
Deflection
Check span: effective depth ratio
Basic span: effective depth ratio for ρ = 0.76% = 27.4 <Table 7.4N & NA>
Max. span = 27.4 × 392 = 10740 mm ∴ OK
Flexure: support
MEd = 193.8 kNm
K = MEd / bd2fck
where
d = 450 − 35 − 10 − 25 / 2 = 392 mm
K = 193.8 × 106 / (300 × 3922 × 30) = 0.142
By inspection, K ≤ K′ (0.142 × 0.168‡) ∴ no compression
reinforcement required.
z = 0.85d <Appendix A.1>
= 0.85 × 392 = 333 mm <Concise EC2 Table 15.5>
As = MEd / fydz
= 193.8 × 106 / 434.8 × 333 = 1338 mm2 .
(ρ = 1.13%)
Try 3 no. H25 T (1473 mm2)
4.2.6 Shear
Support B (critical)
Shear at central support = 192.0 kN
At face of support
VEd = 192.0 − (0.300 / 2 + 0.392) × 50.8 = 164.50 kN <6.2.1(8)>
vEd = VEd / bd
= 164.5 × 103 / (392 × 300) = 1.40 MPa
Maximum shear capacity
‡
K′ is limited to 0.208. However, if, as is usual practice in the UK, x / d is limited to 0.45, z / d is as a
consequence limited to 0.82 and K′ to 0.168.

Assuming fck = 30 MPa and cot θ = 2.5§
vRd,max** = 3.64 MPa <Concise EC2 Table 15.7>
vRd,max > vEd ∴ OK
Shear reinforcement
Assuming z = 0.9 d <6.2.3(1)>
Asw / s ≥ VEd / (0.9 d × fywd × cot θ) <6.2.3(3), Exp. (6.8)>
≥ 164.5 × 103 / (0.9 × 392 × (500 / 1.15) × 2.5) = 0.429
More accurately, <6.2.3(3), Exp. (6.8)>
Asw / s ≥ VEd / (z × fywd × cot θ)
≥ 164.5 × 103 / (333 × 1087) = 0.454
Minimum shear links, <9.2.2(5)>
Asw,min / s = 0.08bwfck0.5 / fyk
= 0.08 × 300 × 300.5 / 500 = 0.263 Not critical
Max. spacing = 0.75d = 0.75 × 392 = 294 mm <9.2.2(6)>
Use H8 @ 200 (Asw / s = 0.50)
Support A (and C)
Shear at end support = 137.2 kN
At face of support
VEd = 137.2 − (0.150 + 0.392) × 50.8 = 109.7 kN <6.2.1(8)>
By inspection,shear reinforcement required and cot θ = 2.5 <Concise EC2 Fig. 15.1a>
Asw / s ≥ VEd / (z × fywd × cot θ) <Concise EC2 15.5.3>
≥ 109.7 × 103 / [353 × (500 / 1.15) × 2.5] = 0.285
Use H8 @ 200 (Asw / s = 0.50) throughout††
Figure 4.3
Continuous rectangular beam: Summary of design
Note
It is presumed that the detailer would take this design and detail the slab to normal best practice, e.g.
to Standard method of detailing structural concrete[21]. This would usually include dimensioning and
detailing curtailment, laps, U-bars and also undertaking the other checks detailed in Section 4.2.8.

Minimum area of reinforcement
As,min = 0.26 (fctm / fyk) btd ≥ 0.0013 btd <9.2.1.1>
§
The absolute maximum for vRd,max (and therefore the maximum value of vEd) would be 5.28 MPa when
cot θ would equal 1.0 and the variable strut angle would be at a maximum of 45°.
**
For determination of VRd,max see Section 4.3.10.
††
As maximum spacing of links is 294 mm, changing spacing of links would appear to be of limited
benefit.

where <Table 3.1>
fctm = 0.30 × fck 0.666
As,min = 0.26 × 0.30 × 300.666 × 300 × 392 / 500 = 366 mm2
Curtailment main bars
Bottom: curtail < How to: Detailing>
75% main bars 0.08l from end support
= 480 mm say 450 mm from A
70% main bars 0.30l – al = 1800 − 1.125 × 392
= 1359 mm say 1350 from A
Top: curtail
40% main bars 0.15l + al = 900 + 441
= 1341 mm say 1350 from B
65% main bars 0.30l + al = 1800 + 441
= 2241 mm say 2250 from B
At supports
25% of As to be anchored at supports <9.2.1.2.(1), 9.2.1.4(1) & NA
25% of 894 mm2 = 223 mm2 9.2.1.5(1)>
Use min. 2 no. H12 (226 mm2) at supports A, B and C
In accordance with SMDSC[21] detail MB1 lap U-bars tension lap with main steel.
Tension lap = 780 mm (in C30/37 concrete, H12, ‘poor’ bond condition) < How to: Detailing>
= say 800 mm
Figure 4.4
Continuous rectangular beam: RC details

4.3 Heavily loaded L-beam
Figure 4.5
Heavily loaded L-beam
This edge beam supports heavy loads from storage loads. The variable point load is
independent of the variable uniformly distributed load. The beam is supported on 350 mm
square columns 4000 mm long. fck = 30 MPa; fyk = 500 MPa. The underside surface is subject
to an external environment and a 2 hour fire resistance requirement. The top surface is
internal subject to a 2 hour fire resistance requirement. Assume that any partitions are
liable to be damaged by excessive deflections.
Figure 4.6
Section through L-beam
4.3.1 Actions
Permanent:
UDL from slab and cladding gk = 46.0 kN / m
Point load from storage area above = 88.7 kN

Variable
From slab qk = 63.3 kN / m
Point load from storage area above = 138.7 kN

4.3.2 Cover
Nominal cover, cnom, underside and side of beam

where
where
<4.4.1.2(3)>
= diameter of bar. Assume 32 mm main bars
and 10 mm links
Assuming primarily XC3 / XC4 exposure (moderate <Table 4.1 BS 8500-1
humidity or cyclic wet and dry); secondarily XF1 Table A4>
exposure (moderate water saturation without de-
icing salt, vertical surfaces exposed to rain and
freezing) and C30 / 37 concrete,
cmin,dur = 25 mm
∴ cnom = 32 + 10 = 42 mm to main bars

or = 25 + 10 = 35 mm to links
Use cnom = 35 mm to links
(giving cnom = 45 mm to main bars)
Fire:
Check adequacy of section for 2 hours fire resistance R120 <BS EN 1992-1-2 5.6.3>
By inspection, BS EN 1992–1–2 Table 5.6 web thickness OK <BS EN 1992-1-2, Table 5.6>
Axis distance, a, required = 35 mm OK by inspection <BS EN 1992-1-2, Table 5.6>
∴ Try 35 mm nominal cover bottom and sides to 10 mm link
Nominal cover, cnom, top

By inspection
where
where
<4.4.1.2(3)>
and 10 mm links
cmin,dur = minimum cover due to environmental
conditions. Assuming primarily XC1 and <Table 4.1 BS 8500-1
C30/37 concrete, cmin,dur = 15 mm Table A4>
measurement of cover Δcdev = 10 mm <4.4.1.2(3)>
∴ cnom = 32 + 10 = 42 mm to main bars
or = 15 + 10 = 25 mm to links
Use cnom = 35 mm to links (giving cnom = 45 mm to main bars)

4.3.3 Idealisation, load combination and arrangement
Load combination
As loads are from storage Exp. (6.10a) is critical. <Table 2.5>
<BS EN 1990 A1.2.2, NA & Exp.
(6.10a)>
Idealisation
This element is treated as a continuous beam framing into <5.3.1(3)>
columns 350 × 350‡‡ × 4000 mm long columns below
Arrangement
Choose to use all-and-alternate-spans-loaded <5.1.3(1) & NA option b>
4.3.4 Analysis
Analysis by computer, assuming simple supports and including 15% redistribution at <BS EN 1990 A1.2.2 & NA,
supports (with, in this instance, consequent redistribution in span moments). 5.3.1 (6)>
Table 4.2
Elastic and redistributed moments kNm
Span number 1 2
Elastic M 1168 745
Redistributed M 1148 684
δ 0.98 0.92
Figure 4.7
Redistributed envelope, kNm
‡‡
Note: 350 × 350 is a minimum for columns requiring a fire resistance of 120 minutes
<BS EN 13670
Table 5.2a>

Figure 4.8
Redistributed shears, kN
4.3.5 Flexural design, support A

MEd = 195 kNm in hogging
MEd,min = 1148 × 0.25 in hogging and in sagging <9.2.1.2(1), 9.2.1.4(1) & NA>
= 287 kNm
K = MEd / bd2fck
where
b = beff = beff1 + bw + beff2 <5.3.2.1, Fig. 5.3>
where
beff1 = (0.2b1 + 0.1l0) ≤ 0.2 l0 ≤ b1
where
b1 = distance between webs / 2
l0 = nominal: assume 0§§
<Fig. 5.2>
∴ beff1 = 0 mm = beff2
∴ b = bw = 350 mm
d = 750 − 35 – 10 – 32 / 2 = 689 mm
assuming 10 mm link and H32 in support
fck = 30 MPa
K = 287 × 106 / (350 × 6892 × 30)
= 0.058
Restricting x / d to 0.45 <Appendix A1>
K′ = 0.168
K ≤ K′ ∴ section under-reinforced and no compression reinforcement required
z = (d / 2) [1 + (1 − 3.53K)0.5] ≤ 0.95d <Appendix A1>
= (689 / 2) (1 + 0.89) ≤ 0.95 × 689
= 652 ≤ 654 ∴ z = 652 mm
As = MEd / fydz
where
fyd = 500 / 1.15 = 434.8 MPa
= 287 × 106 / (434.8 × 652) = 1012 mm2
Try 2 no. H32 U-bars (1608 mm2)
§§
The distance l0 is described as the distance between points of zero moment, ‘which may <5.3.2.1(2)>
be obtained from Figure 5.2’. In this case l0 = 0. (see figure 4.11) <Figure 5.2>.

Check anchorage of H32 U-bars
Bars need to be anchored distance ‘A’ into column <SMDSC 6.4.2>
Figure 4.9
Distance ‘A’
Assuming column uses 35 mm cover 10 mm links and 32 mm bars

Distance ‘A’ = 2 [350 − 2 (35 + 10) ] − 32 / 2 − 32 / 2 + 750 – [2 (35 + 10)]
− 2 × 32 / 2 – (4 − π) (3.5 + 0.5) × 32 <SMDSC, BS 8666[28]
= 488 + 628 – 110 = 1006 mm Table 2>
Anchorage length,
lbd = αlb,rqd ≥ lb,min <8.4.4, Exp. (8.4)>
where
lb,req = (ϕ / 4) (σsd / fbd) <Exp. (8.3)>
where
ϕ = 32
σsd = design stress in the bar at the ULS
= 434.8 × 1012 / 1608 = 274 MPa
fbd = ultimate bond stress <8.4.2 (2)>
= 2.25 η1 η2 fct,d
where
η1 = 1.0 for good bond conditions
η 2 = 1.0 for bar diameter ≤ 32 mm <3.1.6 (2),Tables 3.1 & 2.1, &
fct,d = αct fctk / γc NA>
= 1.0 × 2.0 / 1.5
= 1.33 MPa
fbd = 2.25 × 1.33 = 3.0 MPa
lb,rqd = (32 / 4) (274 / 3.0) = 731 mm***
lb,min =max[10ϕ; 100 mm] = 250 mm
∴ lbd = 731 mm i.e. < 1006 mm ∴ OK
Use 2 no. H32 U-bars
***
Anchorage lengths may be obtained from published tables. In this instance, a figure of 900 mm may
be obtained from Table 13 of the How to on Detailing. <How to: Detailing [12]>

4.3.6 Flexural design span AB
Span AB – Flexure
MEd = 1148 kNm
K = MEd / bd2fck
where
where
beff1 = (0.2b1 + 0.1l0) ≤ 0.2 l0 ≤ b1
where
Assuming beams at 7000 mm cc
= (7000 – 350) / 2 = 3325 mm <Fig. 5.2>
l0 = 0.85 × l1 = 0.85 × 9000 = 7650 mm†††
Figure 4.10
<Fig. 5.3>
Effective flange width beff
Figure 4.11
<Fig. 5.2>
Elevation showing definition of lo for calculation of flange width
beff1 = 0.2 × 3325 + 0.1 × 7650 ≤ 0.2 × 7650 ≤ 3325

= 1430 ≤ 1530 ≤ 3325
= 1430 mm
bw = 350 mm
beff2 = (0.2b2 + 0.1l0) ≤ 0.2 l0 ≤ b2
†††
The distance l0 is described as the distance between points of zero shear, ‘which may <5.3.2.1(2)>
be obtained from Figure 5.2’. From the analysis, l0 could have been taken as 7200 mm. <Figure 5.2>

where
b2 = 0 mm,
beff2 = 0 mm
b = 1430 + 350 + 0 = 1780 mm
d = 750 − 35 – 10 – 32 / 2 = 689 mm
assuming 10 mm link and H32 in span
fck = 30 MPa
K = 1148 × 106 / (1780 × 6892 × 30)
= 0.045
restricting x / d to 0.45 <Appendix A1>
K′ = 0.168
reinforcement required
z = (d / 2) [1 + (1 − 3.53K)0.5] ≤ 0.95d <Appendix A1>
= (689 / 2) (1 + 0.917) ≤ 0.95 × 689
= 661 ≤ 654 ∴ z = 654 mm
But z = d – 0.4x <Appendix A1>
∴ by inspection, neutral axis is in flange and as x < 1.25 hf,
design as rectangular section.
As = MEd / fydz
where
fyd = 500 / 1.15 = 434.8 MPa
= 1148 × 106 / (434.8 × 654) = 4037 mm2
Try 5 no. H32 B (4020 mm2) (say OK)
Check spacing of bars

Spacing of bars = [350 – 2 × (35 + 10) – 32] / (5 – 1)
= 57
Clear spacing = 57 – 32 mm = 25 mm between bars
Minimum clear distance between bars <8.2(2) & NA>
= max[bar diameter; aggregate size + 5 mm]
= max[32; 20 + 5]
= 32 mm i.e. > 25 mm
∴ 5 no. H32 B no good
For 4 bars in one layer, distance between bars = 44 mm so
Try 4 no. H32 B1 + 2 no. H32 B3
Figure 4.12
Span AB bottom reinforcement

d = 750 − 35 – 10 – 32 / 2 – 0.333 × 2 × 32 = 668 mm
K = 1148 × 106 / (1780 × 6682 × 30) = 0.048
K ≤ K′ ∴ section under-reinforced and no compression <Appendix A1>
z = (d / 2) [1 + (1 − 3.53K)0.5] ≤ 0.95d <Appendix A1>
= (668 / 2) (1 + 0.911) ≤ 0.95 × 668
= 639 ≤ 635 ∴ z = 635 mm
∴ by inspection, neutral axis in flange so design as <Appendix A1>
rectangular section.
As = MEd / fydz
= 1148 × 106 / (434.8 × 635) = 4158 mm2
∴ 4 no.H32 B1 + 2 no. H32 B3 (4824 mm2) OK
Span AB – Deflection
where
N = Basic l / d: check whether ρ > ρ0 and whether to use <7.4.2(2), Exp. (7.16a), Exp.
Exp. (7.16a) or Exp. (7.16b) (7.16b)>
ρ = As / Ac‡‡‡ = As,req / [bwd + (beff − bw)hf] <PD 6687>

= 4158 / [350 × 668 + (1780 − 350) × 300]
= 4158 / 662800
= 0.63%
ρ0 = fck0.5 / 1000 = 300.5 / 1000 = 0.55%
ρ > ρ0 ∴ use Exp. (7.16b)
N = 11 + 1.5 f ρ0 / (ρ – ρ‘) + fck0.5 (ρ’ / ρ0)0.5 / 12
ck
0.5
<Exp. (7.16b)>
= 11 + 1.5 (30 × 0.055 / (0.063 − 0) + 300.5 (0 / 0.55)1.5
0.5
= 11 + 7.2 + 0 = 18.2
K = (end span) = 1.3 <Table 7.4N & NA>
F1 = (beff / bw = 1780 / 350 = 5.1) = 0.80 <7.4.2(2), Concise EC2 10.5.2>
F2 = 7.0 / leff (span > 7.0 m) <7.4.2(2)>
where
leff = 9000 mm <5.3.2.2(1)>
F2 = 7.0 / 9.0 = 0.77
F3 = 310 / σs
where
σs in simple situations = (fyk / γs) (As,req / As,prov) (SLS loads / ULS loads)
(1 / δ). However in this case separate analysis at SLS would be
required to determine σs. Therefore as a simplification use the
conservative assumption:
310 / σs = (500 / fyk) (As,req / As,prov) <Exp. (7.17)>
= (500 / 500) × (4824 / 4158) = 1.16
∴ Permissible l / d = 18.2 × 1.3 × 0.80 × 0.77 × 1.16 = 16.9
Actual l / d = 9000 / 668 = 13.5
As permissible less than actual
∴ OK
∴ 4 no. H32 B1 + 2 no. H32 B3 (4824 mm2) OK
2.18 of PD 6687[5] suggests that ρ in T sections should be based on the area of concrete above the
‡‡‡
centroid of the tension steel.

4.3.7 Flexural design support B
Support B
At centreline of support
M = 1394 kNm
From analysis, at face of support <5.3.2.2(3)>
MEdBA = 1209 kNm
MEdBC = 1315 kNm
K = MEd / bwd2fck
where
bw = 350 mm
d = 750 − 35 – 12 – 32 / 2 = 687 mm
assuming 10 mm link and H32 in support but allowing
for H12 T in slab
fck = 30 MPa
∴K = 1315 × 106 / (350 × 6872 × 30) = 0.265
for δ = 0.85, K′ = 0.168: to restrict x / d to 0.45, K′ = 0.167 <Appendix A1>
∴ Compression steel required <Concise EC2 Table 15.4
z = (d / 2) [1 + (1 − 3.53 K′)0.5]
= (687 / 2) [1 + (1 − 3.53 × 0.167)0.5]
= (687 / 2) (1 + 0.64) < 0.95d
= 563 mm
As2 = (K – K′)fckbd2 / fsc(d − d2) <Fig. 3.5, Appendix A1,

where How to: Beams>.
d2 = 35 + 10 + 32 / 2 = 61 mm
fsc = 700(x − d2) / x < fyd
where
x = 2.5 (d – z) = 2.5 (687 – 563) = 310 mm
fsc = 700 × (310 − 61) / 310 < 500 / 1.15
= 562 MPa but limited to ≤ 434.8 MPa
∴ As2 = (0.265 – 0.167) × 30 × 350 × 6872 / [434.8(687 − 61) ] = 1784 mm2
Try 4 no. H25 B (1964 mm2)
As = M′ / fydz + As2 fsc / fyd <Appendix A1>
= K′ fckbd2 / (fydz) + As2 fsc / fyd
= 0.167 × 30 × 350 × 6872 / (434.8 × 563) + 1570 × 434.8 / 434.8
= 3380 + 1784 = 5164 mm2
Try 4 no. H32 T + 4 no. H25 T (5180 mm2)
This reinforcement should be spread over beff <9.2.1.2(2), Fig. 9.1>
beff = beff1 + bw + beff2 <5.3.2.1, Fig. 5.3>
where
beff1 = (0.2b1 + 0.1l0) ≤ 0.2 l0 ≤ b1
where
b1 = distance between webs / 2.
Assuming beams at 7000 mm cc
= (7000 – 350) / 2 = 3325 mm
<Fig. 5.2>
l0 = 0.15 × (l1 + l2)
= 0.15 × (9000 + 8000) = 2550 mm
∴beff1 = 0.2 × 3325 + 0.1 × 2550 ≤ 0.2 × 2550 ≤ 3325
= 920 ≤ 510 ≤ 3325
= 510 mm

bw = 350 mm
beff2 = (0.2b2 + 0.1l0) ≤ 0.2 l0 ≤ b2
where
b2 = 0 mm
beff2 = 0 mm
∴ beff = 510 + 350 + 0 = 860 mm
Use 4 no. H32 T + 4 no. H25 T (5180 mm2) @ approx 100 mm cc
Figure 4.13
Support B reinforcement
4.3.8 Flexural design span BC

Span BC – Flexure
MEd = 684 kNm
K = MEd / bd2fck
where
where
beff1 = (0.2b1 + 0.1l0) ≤ 0.2 l0 ≤ b1
where
Assuming beams at 7000 mm cc <Fig. 5.2>
= (7000 – 350) / 2 = 3325 mm
l0 = 0.85 × l1 = 0.85 × 8000 = 6800 mm
beff1 = 0.2 × 3325 + 0.1 × 6800 ≤ 0.2 × 6800 ≤ 3325
= 1345 ≤ 1360 ≤ 3325
= 1360 mm
bw = 350 mm
beff2 = (0.2b2 + 0.1l0) ≤ 0.2 l0 ≤ b2
where
b2 = 0 mm
beff2 = 0 mm
∴ b = 1360 + 350 + 0 = 1710 mm

d = 750 − 35 – 10 – 32 / 2 = 689 mm
fck = 30 MPa
∴K = 684 × 106/ (1710 × 6892 × 30)
= 0.028
By inspection, K ≤ K′ ∴ section under-reinforced and no <Appendix A1>
compression reinforcement required
z = (d / 2) [1 + (1 − 3.53K)0.5] ≤ 0.95d <Appendix A1>
= (689 / 2) (1 + 0.95) ≤ 0.95 × 689
= 672 > 655 ∴ z = 655 mm
By inspection, x < 1.25 hf design as rectangular section <Appendix A1>
As = MEd / fydz
= 684 × 106 / (434.8 × 655) = 2402 mm2
Try 2 no. H32 B + 2 no. H25 B (2590 mm2)
Span BC – Deflection
By inspection, compared with span AB OK
4.3.9 Flexural design, support C

By inspection, use 2 no. H25 U-bars as support A
Use 2 no. H25 U-bars
4.3.10 Design for beam shear, support A

At d from face of support
VEd = 646 − (350 / 2 + 0.689) × (1.35 × 46.0 + 1.5 × 63.3) <6.2.1(8), BS EN 1990 A1.2.2,
NA & Exp. (6.10a)>
= 646 – 0.864 × 157.1 = 510.3 kN
Check maximum shear resistance
VRd, max = αcw bw zνfcd / (cot θ + tan θ) <Exp. (6.9) & NA>
where
αcw = 1.0 <6.2.3 & NA>
bw= 350 mm as before
z = 0.9d <6.2.3(1)>
ν = 0.6 (1 − fck / 250) = 0.6 (1 − 30 / 250) = 0.528 <6.2.3(3) Note 1, Exp. (6.6N) &
= 30 / 1.5 = 20.0 MPa
fcd NA>
<2.4.2.4(1) & NA>
= 0.5 sin−1 {vEdz / [0.20 fck (1 – fck / 250) ] } ≥ cot−12.5
<Exp. (6.9), Appendix A2>
where
vEdz = VEd / bz = VEd / (b × 0.9d)
= 510.3 × 103 / (350 × 0.9 × 689) = 2.35 MPa
θ = 0.5 sin−1 {2.35 / [0.20 × 30 (1 – 30 / 250) ] } ≥ cot−12.5
= 0.5 sin−1 (0.445) ≥ cot−12.5
= 0.5 × 26.4° ≥ 21.8°
= 21.8°
∴ VRd,max= 1.0 × 350 × 0.90 × 689 × 0.528 × 20.0 / (2.5 + 0.4) = 790 kN
∴ OK

Shear reinforcement
VRd,s = (Asw / s) z fywd cot θ <Exp. (6.8)>
∴ Asw / s ≥ VEd / z fywd cot θ
where
Asw / s = area of legs of links/link spacing
z = 0.9d as before
fywd = 500 / 1.15 = 434.8 <2.4.2.4(1) & NA>
Asw / s ≥ 510.3 × 103 / (0.9 × 689 × 434.8 × 2.5) = 0.76
Minimum Asw / s = ρw,minbwsin α <9.2.2(5), Exp. (9.4)>

where
ρw,min = 0.08 × fck0.5 / fyk = 0.08 × 300.5 / 500 <Exp. (9.5N) & NA>
= 0.00088
α = angle between shear reinforcement and the
longitudinal axis. For vertical reinforcement sin α
= 1.0
∴ Minimum Asw / s = 0.00088 × 350 × 1 = 0.03
But <9.2.2(6)>
Maximum spacing of links longitudinally = 0.75d = 516 mm
∴ Try H10 @ 200 cc in 2 legs (Asw / s = 0.78)
4.3.11 Design for high beam shear, support B

As uniformly distributed load predominates consider at d from
face of support <6.2.1(8)>
VEd = 1098 − (350 / 2 + 0.689) × (1.35 × 46.0 + 1.5 × 63.3)
= 1098 – 0.864 × 157.1 = 962.3 kN
By inspection, shear reinforcement required and cot θ < 2.5.
Check VRd, max (to determine θ)
Check maximum shear resistance
As before
VRd, max = αcw bw zνfcd / (cot θ + tan θ)
where <Exp. (6.9) & NA>
αcw,bw, z, ν, fcd as before
θ = 0.5 sin−1 {vEdz / [0.20 fck (1 – fck / 250) ] } ≥ cot−12.5 <6.2.3 & NA>
where
vEdz = VEd / bz = VEd / (b0.9d) <6.2.3(1)>
= 962.3 × 103 / (350 × 0.9 × 687) = 4.45 MPa <6.2.3(3) Note 1, Exp. (6.6N) &
θ = 0.5 sin−1 {4.45 / [0.20 × 30 (1 – 30 / 250) ] } ≥ cot−12.5 NA>
= 0.5 sin−1 (0.843) ≥ cot−12.5 <2.4.2.4(1) & NA>
= 0.5 × 57.5° ≥ 21.8°
= 28.7° <Exp. (6.9), Appendix A2>
cot θ = 1.824 i.e. > 1.0 ∴OK <6.2.3(2) & NA>
tan θ = 0.548
∴ VRd,max= 1.0 × 350 × 0.90 × 687 × 0.528 × 20.0 / (1.824 + 0.548) = 963.4 kN OK
(i.e. VRdmax ≈ VEd)

Shear reinforcement
∴ Asw / s ≥ VEd / z fywd cot θ
Asw / s ≥ 962.3 × 103 / (0.9 × 687 × 434.8 × 1.824) = 1.96
∴ Use H10 @ 150 cc in 4 legs (Asw / s = 2.09)
4.3.12 Design for beam shear (using design chart), support Bc

At d from face of support <6.2.1(8)>
VEd = 794 – 0.864 × 157.1 = 658.3 kN
vEdz = VEd / bz = VEd / (b0.9d)
= 658.3 × 103/ (350 × 0.9 × 687) = 3.04 MPa
From chart Asw / sreqd / m width = 2.75 <Concise EC2 Fig. 15.1b>
Asw / sreqd = 2.75 × 0.35 = 0.96
∴ Use H10 in 2 legs @ 150 mm cc (Asw / s = 1.05)
4.3.13 Check shear capacity for general case

In mid span use H10 in 2 legs @ 300 mm cc (Asw / s = 0.52)
≡ Asw / sreqd / m width = 1.48 and an allowable vEdz = 1.60 MPa <Concise EC2 Fig. 15.1b>
≡ 1.60 × 350 × 0.90 × 687 = VEd = 346 kN
From analysis, VEd = 346.2 kN occurs at:
(646 − 346) / 157.1 = 1900 mm from A,
(1098 – 346 − 1.25 × 88.7 – 1.5 × 138.7) / 157.1 = 2755 mm from BA,
(794 − 346) / 157.1 = 2850 mm from BC and
(499 − 346) / 157.1 = 970 mm from C
Figure 4.14
Summary of L-beam design

Figure 4.15
Section 1 – 1
4.4 Continuous wide T-beam
Figure 4.16
Continuous wide T-beam
This central spine beam supports the ribbed slab in Example 3.4. The 300 mm deep ribbed
slab is required for an office to support a variable action of 5 KN/m2. The beam is the same
depth as the slab and is supported on 400 mm square columns, see Figure 4.17. fck = 35 MPa;
fyk = 500 MPa. 1 hour fire resistance required, internal environment. Assume that partitions
are liable to be damaged by excessive deflections.
Figure 4.17
Section through T-beam

4.4.1 Actions
Permanent: UDL§§§
From analysis of slab gk = 47.8 kN / m
Variable
From analysis of slab qk = 45.8 kN / m
4.4.2 Cover
Nominal cover, cnom

where
where
<4.4.1.2(3)>
and 8 mm links
cmin,dur = minimum cover due to environmental
conditions. Assuming XC1 and C30 / 37 <Table 4.1 BS 8500-1
concrete, cmin,dur = 15 mm Table A4>
∴ cnom = 15 + 10 = 25 mm to links
or = 25 + 10 = 35 mm to main bars
Use 10 mm diameter links to give cnom = 35 mm to main bars
and 25 mm to links (as per ribbed slab design)
Fire:
Check adequacy of section for REI 60 <BS EN 1992-1-2 5.6.3>
<BS EN 1992-1-2
Table 5.6>
Axis distance required
Minimum width bmin = 120 mm with a = 25mm <BS EN 1992-1-2
or bmin = 200 mm with a = 12 mm Table 5.6>
∴ at 2000 mm wide (min.) a < 12 mm
By inspection, not critical
Use 25 mm nominal cover to links
§§§
The actions may also have been estimated assuming an elastic reaction factor of 1.1 for the slab
viz:
Permanent: UDL kN / m
Loads from ribbed slab (7.50 + 9.0) / 2 × 4.30 × 1.1 = 39.0
Self-weight/patch load extra over solid 2.0 × 4.17 = 8.3
47.3
Variable
Imposed (7.50 + 9.0) / 2 × 5.00 × 1.1 = 45.4

4.4.3 Idealisation, load combination and arrangement
Load combination
47.8 × 1.25 + 45.8 × 1.5 = 128.5 kN / m **** <BS EN 1990 Exp. (6.10b)>
Idealisation
This element is treated as a beam on pinned supports.
The beam will be provided with links to carry shear and to
accommodate the requirements of Cl. 9.2.5 – indirect
support of the ribbed slab described in Section 3.3.8.
Arrangement
Choose to use all-and-alternate-spans-loaded. <5.1.3(1) & NA option b>
4.4.4 Analysis
Analysis by computer, assuming simple supports and including 15% redistribution <BS EN 1990 A1.2.2 &
at supports (with in this instance consequent redistribution in span moments). NA, 5.3.1 (6) >
Table 4.3
Elastic and redistributed moments, kNm
Span number 1 2 3 4
Elastic M 641.7 433.0 433.0 641.7
Redistributed M 606.4 393.2 393.2 606.4
δ 0.945 0.908 0.908 0.945
Figure 4.18
Redistributed envelope, kNm
****
cf. 126.7 kN / m from analysis of slab

Figure 4.19
Redistributed shears, kN
4.4.5 Flexural design span AB

Span AB (and DE) – Flexure
MEd = 606.4 kNm
K = MEd / bd2fck
where
where
beff1 = (0.2b1 + 0.1l0) ≤ 0.2 l0 ≤ b1
where
Referring to Figure 3.9
= (7500 – 1000 − 550) / 2 = 2975 mm
l0 = 0.85 × l1 = 0.85 × 7500 = 6375 mm <Fig. 5.2>
beff1 = 0.2 × 2975 + 0.1 × 6375 ≤ 0.2 × 6375 ≤ 2975
= 1232 ≤ 1275 ≤ 2975
= 1232 mm
bw = 2000 mm
beff2 = (0.2b2 + 0.1l0) ≤ 0.2 l0 ≤ b2
where
= (9000 – 1000 − 550) / 2 = 3725 mm
beff2 = 0.2 × 3725 + 0.1 × 6375 ≤ 0.2 × 6375 ≤ 3725
= 1382 ≤ 1275 ≤ 3725
= 1275 mm
b = 1232 + 2000 + 1275 = 4507 mm
d = 300 − 25 – 10 – 25 / 2 = 252 mm
fck = 35 MPa
K = 606.4 × 106 / (4507 × 2522 × 35)
= 0.061

K′ = 0.168
z = (d / 2) [1 + (1 − 3.53K)0.5] ≤ 0.95d <Appendix A1>
= (252 / 2) (1 + 0.886) ≤ 0.95 × 252
= 238 ≤ 239 ∴ z =238 mm
But z = d – 0.4 x <Appendix A1>
∴ x = 2.5(d – z) = 2.5( 252 − 236) = 32 mm
∴ neutral axis in flange
as x < 1.25 hf design as rectangular section
As = MEd / fydz
where
fyd = 500 / 1.15 = 434.8 MPa
= 606.4 × 106 / (434.8 × 239) =5835 mm2
Try 12 no. H25 B (5892 mm2)
Span AB – Deflection
where
N = Basic l / d: check whether ρ > ρ0 and whether to use <7.4.2(2), Exp. (7.16a), Exp.
Exp. (7.16a) or Exp. (7.16b) (7.16b)>
ρ = As / Ac†††† = As,req / [bwd + (beff − bw)hf] <PD 6687>
= 5835 / [2000 × 252 + (4507 − 2000) × 100]
= 5835 / 754700
= 0.77%
ρ0 = fck0.5 / 1000 = 350.5 / 1000 = 0.59%
ρ > ρ0 ∴ use Exp. (7.16b)
N = 11 + 1.5 f ρ0 / (ρ − ρ′) + fck0.5 (ρ′ / ρ0)0.5 / 12
ck
0.5
<Exp (7.16b)>
= 11 + 1.5 × 35 × 0.059 / (0.077 − 0) + 350.5 (0 / 0.59)1.5
0.5
= 11 + 6.8 + 0 =17.8
K = (end span) = 1.3 <Table 7.4N & NA>
F2 = 7.0 / leff (span > 7.0 m) <7.4.2(2)>
where <5.3.2.2(1)>
leff = 7100 + 2 × 300 / 2 = 7400 mm
F2 = 7.0 / 7.4 = 0.95
F3 = 310 / σs
where
= 434.8 × (5835 / 5892) [(47.8 + 0.3 × 45.8) / (1.25 ×
47.8 + 1.5 × 45.8)] × (1 / 0.945)
= 434.8 × 0.99 × 0.48 × 1.06
= 219 MPa
F3 = 310 / σs <Exp. (7.17)>
= 310 / 219 = 1.41
∴ Permissible l / d = 17.8 × 1.3 × 0.90 × 0.95 × 1.41 = 27.9
2.18 of PD 6687[5] suggests that ρ in T sections should be based on the area of concrete above
††††
the centroid of the tension steel.

Actual l / d = 7500 / 252 = 29.8 ∴ no good
Try 13 no. H25 B (6383 mm2)
F3 = 310 / σs
= 310 / 219 × 13 / 12 = 1.53‡‡‡‡ = say 1.50
∴ Permissible l / d = 17.8 × 1.3 × 0.90 × 0.95 × 1.50 = 29.7
Actual leff / d = 7400 / 252 = 29.4 Say OK
Use 13 no. H25 B (6383 mm2)
4.4.6 Flexural design support B

Support B (and D)
At centerline of support
M = 657.4 kNm
At face of support <5.3.2.2(3)>
MEd = 657.4 – 0.2 × 517.9 + 0.202 × 128.5 / 2
= 657.4 – 101.0
= 556.4 kNm
K = MEd / bwd2fck
where
bw = 2000 mm
d = 300 − 25 cover − 12 fabric − 8 link – 16 bar − 25 / 2 bar
= 226 mm
Figure 4.20 Section at solid/rib intersection
K = 556.4 × 106 / (2000 × 2262 × 35) = 0.156

By inspection, K < K′
K′ = 0.167 maximum (or for δ = 0.85, K′ = 0.168) <Appendix A1>
∴ No compression steel required <Concise EC2 Table 15.4>
z = (226 / 2)[1 + (1 − 3.53 K′)0.5]
= (226 / 2)[1 + (1 − 3.53 × 0.156)0.5]
= (226 / 2) (1 + 0.67) < 0.95d
= 189 mm
As = MEd / fydz
= 556.4 × 106 / (434.8 × 189) = 6770 mm2
Try 14 no. H25 T (6874 mm2)
To be spread over beff <9.2.1.2(2), Fig. 9.1>

beff = beff1 + bw + beff2 <5.3.2.1, Fig. 5.3>
‡‡‡‡
to 1.5 by Note 5 to Table NA.5 in the UK NA.

where
beff1 = (0.2b1 + 0.1l0) ≤ 0.2 l0 ≤ b1
where
b1 referring to Figure 3.9
= (7500 – 1000 – 550) / 2 = 2975 mm
l0 = 0.15 × (l1 + l2) = 0.15 × (7500 + 7500) = 2250 mm
beff1 = (0.2 × 2975 + 0.1 × 2250 ≤ 0.2 × 2250 ≤ 2975 <Fig. 5.2>
= 820 ≤ 450 ≤ 2975
= 450 mm
bw = 2000 mm
beff2 = 450 mm as before
∴ beff = 450 + 2000 + 450 = 2900 mm
Check cracking <7.3.3>

Spacing = 2900 – 2 × (25 – 10 – 25 / 2) / (14 − 1) = 216 mm
σs = (fyk / γs) (As,req / As,prov) (SLS loads/ULS loads) (1 / δ)
= 434.8 × (6770 / 6874) [ (47.8 + 0.3 × 45.8) /
(1.25 × 47.8 + 1.5 × 45.8) × (1 / 0.85)
= 434.8 × 0.98 × 0.48 × 1.18 = 241 MPa
As loading is the cause of cracking satisfy either Table 7.2N or Table 7.3N <7.3.3(2) & Note>
For wk = 0.4 and σs = 240 MPa max. spacing = 250 mm ∴ OK <Table 7.3N>
4.4.7 Flexural design span BC (and CD similar)

Flexure
MEd = 393.2 kNm
K = MEd / bd2fck
where
where
beff1 = (0.2b1 + 0.1l0) ≤ 0.2 l0 ≤ b1
where
b1 referring to Figure 3.9
= (7500 – 1000 – 550) / 2 = 2975 mm
l0 = 0.70 × l2 = 0.7 × 7500 = 5250 mm <Fig. 5.2>
beff1 = (0.2 × 2975 + 0.1 × 5250 ≤ 0.2 × 5250 ≤ 2975
= 1120 ≤ 1050 ≤ 2975
= 1050 mm
bw = 2000 mm
beff2 = (0.2b2 + 0.1l0) ≤ 0.2 l0 ≤ b2
where
= (9000 – 1000 – 550) / 2 = 3725 mm
beff2 = 0.2 × 3725 + 0.1 × 5250 ≤ 0.2 × 5250 ≤ 3725
= 1270 ≤ 1050 ≤ 3725
= 1270 mm
b = 1050 + 2000 + 1270 = 4320 mm

fck = 30
K = 393.2 × 106 / (4320 × 2522 × 35)
= 0.041
By inspection, K ≤ K′ ∴ section under-reinforced and no <Appendix A1>
compression reinforcement required
z = (d / 2) [1 + (1 − 3.53K)0.5] ≤ 0.95d <Appendix A1>
= (252 / 2) (1 + 0.924) ≤ 0.95 × 252
= 242 > 239 ∴ z = 239 mm
By inspection, x < 1.25 hf design as rectangular section <Appendix A1>
As = MEd / fydz
= 393.2 × 106 / (434.8 × 239) = 3783 mm2
Try 8 no. H25 B (3928 mm2)
Deflection
By inspection, compared to span AB OK
but for the purposes of illustration:
where
N = Basic l / d: Check whether to use Exp. (7.16a) or Exp. (7.16b) <7.4.2(2)>
ρ 0 = 0.59% (for fck = 35)
ρ = As / Ac§§§§ = As,req / [bwd + (beff − bw)hf]
where
bw = 2000 mm
ρ = 3783 / (2000 × 252 + (4320 − 2000) × 100)
= 3783 / 736000
= 0.51%
ρ < ρ0 ∴ use Exp. (7.16a)
N = 11 + 1.5 fck0.5 ρ0 / ρ + 3.2fck0.5 (ρ0 / ρ − 1)1.5 <Exp. (7.16a)>
= 11 + 1.5 × 350.5 × 0.059 / 0.051 + 3.2 × 350.5 (0.059 / 0.051 − 1)1.5
= 11 + 10.2 + 23.5
= 44.7
K = (internal span) = 1.5 <Table 7.4N & NA>
F2 = 7.0 / leff = 7.0 / 7.4 = (span > 7.0 m) = 0.95 <7.4.2(2)>
F3 = 310 / σs
where
= 434.8 × (3783 / 3828) [(47.8 + 0.3 × 45.8) /
(1.25 × 47.8 + 1.5 × 45.8)] × (1 / 0.908)
= 434.8 × 0.99 × 0.48 × 1.10
= 227 MPa
F3 = 310 / σs
= 310 / 227 = 1.37
∴ Permissible l / d = 44.7 × 1.37 × 0.88 × 0.95 × 1.37 = 70.1
Actual l / d = 7500 / 252 = 29.8 ∴ OK
Use 8 no. H25 B (3928 mm2)*****
§§§§
2.18 of PD 6687[5] suggests that r in T sections should be based on the area of concrete above
the centroid of the tension steel.

Hogging
Assuming curtailment of top reinforcement at 0.30l + al, <How to: Detailing
From analysis MEd
at 0.3l from BC (& DC) = 216.9 kNm
at 0.3l from CB (& CD) = 185.6 kNm
K = 216.9 × 106 / (2000 × 2262 × 35) = 0.061
z = (226/2)[1 + (1 − 3.53 K′)0.5]
= (226/2)[1 + (1 − 3.53 × 0.061)0.5]
= (226/2) (1 + 0.89) < 0.95d
= 214 mm < 215 mm
As = MEd / fydz
= 216.9 × 106 / (434.8 × 214) =2948 mm2
Use 12 no. H20 T (3748 mm2)
(to suit links and bottom steel)
Top steel at supports may be curtailed down to 12 no. H20 T

at 0.3l + al = 0.3 × 7500 + 1.25 × 214 = 2518 say 2600 mm <9.2.1.3(2)>
from centreline of support
4.4.8 Flexural design, support C

At centreline of support
M = 516.0 kNm
At face of support <5.3.2.2(3)>
MEd = 516.0 – 0.2 × 462.6 + 0.202 × 128.5 / 2
= 516.0 – 90.0
= 426.0 kNm
K = MEd / bwd2fck
where
bw = 2000 mm
K = 426.0 × 106/(2000 × 2262 × 35) = 0.119
z = (226 / 2) [1 + (1 − 3.53 K)0.5]
= (226 / 2) [1 + (1 − 3.53 × 0.119)0.5]
= (226 / 2) (1 + 0.76) < 0.95d
= 199 mm
As = MEd / fydz
= 426.0 × 106 / (434.8 × 199) = 4923 mm2
Try 10 no. H25 T (4910 mm2)†††††
4.4.9 Design for beam shear

Support A (and E)
At d from face of support
VEd = 394.6 − (0.400 / 2 + 0∙252) × 128.5 = 336.5 kN <6.2.1(8)>
Maximum shear resistance:
*****
12 no. H20 B (3768 mm2) used to suit final link arrangements.
†††††
12 no. H25 used to suit final arrangement of links.

By inspection, VRd,max OK and cot θ = 2.5
However, for the purpose of illustration: check shear capacity,
VRd,max = αcw bw zνfcd/ (cot θ + tan θ)
where <Exp. (6.9) & NA>
αcw = 1.0
z = 0.9d
<6.2.3(1)>
ν = 0.6 [1 − fck / 250] = 0.516
fcd = 35 / 1.5 = 23.3 MPa
By inspection, cot−1 θ << 21.8. But cot θ restricted to
<6.2.3(2) & NA>
2.5 and ∴ tan θ = 0.4.
VRd,max= 1.0 × 2000 × 0.90 × 252 × 0.516 × 23.3 / (2.5 + 0∙4) = 2089.5 kN
∴ OK
VRd,s = (Asw / s) z fywd cot θ ≥ <Exp. (6.8)>
∴ for VEd ≤ VRd,s
Asw / s ≥ VEd / z fywd cot θ
where
Asw / s = Area of legs of links/link spacing
z = 0.9d as before
fywd = 500 / 1.15 = 434.8
Asw / s ≥ 336.5 × 103 / (0.9 × 252 × 434.8 × 2.5) = 1.36
Minimum Asw / s = ρw,minbwsin α <9.2.2(5), Exp. (9.4)>
where
ρw,min = 0.08 × fck0.5 / fyk = 0.08 × 350.5 / 500 <Exp. (9.5N) & NA>
= 0.00095
= 2000 mm as before
bw
α = angle between shear reinforcement and the
longitudinal axis. For vertical reinforcement sin
α = 1.0
Minimum Asw / s = 0.00095 × 2000 × 1 = 1.90
But
Maximum spacing of links longitudinally = 0.75d = 183 mm <9.2.2(6)>
Maximum spacing of links laterally = 0.75d ≤ 600 mm = 183 mm <9.2.2(8)>
H10s required to maintain 35 mm cover to H25
∴ Use H10 @ 175 cc both ways
i.e H10 in 12‡‡‡‡‡ legs @ 175 mm cc (Asw / s = 5.38)
Support B (and C and D)

By inspection, the requirement for minimum reinforcement
and, in this instance, for H10 legs of links will outweigh design
requirements. Nonetheless check capacity of Asw / s = 5.38
= 5.38 × 0.9 × 252 × 434.8 × 2.5 = 1326.3 kN
Maximum shear at support = 517.9 kN
i.e. capacity of minimum links not exceeded.
‡‡‡‡‡
(2000 mm – 2 × 25 mm cover − 10 mm diameter) / 175 = 11 spaces, ∴ 12 legs

By inspection, the requirement for indirect support of the ribs <9.2.5, Sec. 3.4.8>
of the slab using 87 mm2 / rib within 150 mm of centreline of
ribs (at 900 mm centres) and within 50 mm of rib/solid
interface is adequately catered for and will not unduly effect
the shear capacity of the beam.
∴ Use H10 in 12 legs @ 175mm cc (Asw / s = 5.38) throughout beam
4.4.10 Check for punching shear, column B

As the beam is wide and shallow it should be checked for punching
shear.
At B, applied shear force, VEd = 569.1 + 517.9 = 1087.0 kN
Check at perimeter of 400 × 400 mm column
where
β = factor dealing with eccentricity; recommended
value 1.15 <Fig. 6.21N & NA>
ui = control perimeter under consideration. For <6.4.5(3)>
punching shear adjacent to interior columns u0 =
2(cx + cy) = 1600 mm
d = mean d = (245 + 226) / 2 = 235 mm <Exp. (6.32)>
vEd = 1.15 × 1087.0 × 10 / 1600 × 235 = 3.32 MPa
3
vRd,max = 0.5νfcd <6.4.5(3) Note>

where
ν = 0.6(1 − fck / 250) = 0.516 <Exp. (6.6) & NA>
fcd = αccλfck / γc = 1.0 × 1.0 × 35 / 1.5 = 23.3
vRd,max = 0.5 × 0.516 × 23.3 = 6.02 MPa ∴ OK <Concise EC2 Table 15.7§§§§§>
vEd = βVEd / u1d < vRdc
where
β, VEd, d as before <Fig. 6.13>
u1 = control perimeter under consideration. For
punching shear at 2d from interior columns
= 2(cx + cy) + 2π × 2d
= 1600 + 2π × 2 × 235 = 4553 mm
vEd = 1.15 × 1087.0 × 103 / 4553 × 235 = 1.17 MPa
vRdc = 0.18 / γc × k × (100 ρlfck)0.333 <Exp. (6.47) & NA>
where
γc = 1.5
k = 1 + (200/d)0.5 ≤ 2
k = 1 +(200 / 235)0.5 = 1.92
ρl = (ρlx ρly)0.5 <6.4.4.1(1)
where
ρlx = areas of bonded steel in a width of the column
§§§§§
In this case, at the perimeter of the column, it is assumed that the strut angle is 45°, i.e. that
cot θ = 1.0. In other cases, where cot θ < 1.0, vRd,max is available from Concise EC2[10] Table 15.7.

plus 3d each side of column.
= 6874 / (2000 × 226) = 0.0152
ρly = 741 / (900 × 245) = 0.0036
ρl = (0.0152 × 0.0036)0.5 = 0.0074
fck = 35
vRdc = 0.18 / 1.5 × 1.92 × (100 × 0.0074 × 35)0.333 = 0.68 MPa <Concise EC2 Table 15.6******>
Shear reinforcement (assuming rectangular arrangement of links)
At the basic control perimeter, u1, 2d from the column:
Asw ≥ (vEd – 0.75vRd,c) sr u1 / 1.5fywd,ef) <Exp. (6.52)>
where
sr = 175 mm <9.4.3(1)>
fywd,ef = effective design strength of reinforcement
= (250 + 0.25d) < fyd = 309 MPa <6.4.5(1)>
For perimeter u1
Asw = (1.17 – 0.75 × 0.68) × 175 × 4553 / (1.5 × 309) = 1135 mm2 per perimeter
Try 15 no. H10 (1177 mm2) OK by inspection
Figure 4.21
Shear links and punching shear perimeter u1
Perimeter at which no punching shear links are required:

uout = VEd × β / (d × vRd,c) =
uout = 1087 × 1.15 × 103 / (235 × 0.68) = 7826 mm
Length of column faces = 4 × 400 = 1600 mm
Radius to uout = (7823 – 1600) / 2π = 990 mm
from face of column i.e. in ribs, therefore beam shear governs
******
vRd,c for various values of d and ρl is available from Concise EC2[10] Table 15.6

Figure 4.22
Summary of design
Figure 4.23
Section X–X

Symbols and abbreviations used in this publication
Symbol Definition Symbol Definition
IxI Absolute value of x Asw Area of punching shear
1/r Curvature at a particular reinforcement in one
section perimeter around the column
A Cross-sectional area; Asw,min Minimum cross-sectional area
Accidental action of shear reinforcement
A Site altitude, m (snow) Asw,min Minimum area of punching
A Altitude of the site in metres shear reinforcement in one
above mean sea level (wind) perimeter around the column
A, B, C Variables used in the a Distance, allowance at
determination of λlim supports
Ac Cross-sectional area of a Axis distance from the
concrete concrete surface to the centre
Act Area of concrete in that part of the bar (fire)
of the section that is a An exponent (in considering
calculated to be in tension biaxial bending of columns)
just before the formation of a Projection of the footing from
the first crack the face of the column or wall
Ad Design value of an accidental ab Half the centre-to-centre
action spacing of bars (perpendicular
AEd Design value of a seismic to the plane of the bend)
action al Distance by which the location
Ak Area enclosed by the centre where a bar is no longer
lines of connecting walls required for bending moment
including the inner hollow is displaced to allow for the
area (torsion) forces from the truss model
Ap Area of prestressing steel for shear. (‘Shift’ distance for
Aref Reference area of the curtailment)
structure or structural am Average axis distance (fire)
element (wind) asd Axis distance (in fire) from the
As Cross-sectional area of lateral surface of a member to
reinforcement the centre of the bar
As,min Minimum cross-sectional area av Distance between bearings or
of reinforcement face of support and face of
As,prov Area of steel provided load
As,req Area of steel required a1, b1 Dimensions of the control
As1 Area of reinforcing steel in perimeter around an
layer 1 elongated support (punching
As2 Area of compression steel (in shear)
layer 2) b Overall width of a cross-
Asl Area of the tensile section, or flange width in a T
reinforcement extending at or L beam
least lbd + d beyond the b Breadth of building (wind)
section considered be Effective width of a flat slab
AsM (AsN) Total area of reinforcement (adjacent to perimeter
required in symmetrical, column)
rectangular columns to resist beff Effective width of a flange
moment (axial load) using beq (heq) Equivalent width (height) of
simplified calculation method column = b (h) for rectangular
Ast Cross-sectional area of sections
transverse steel (at laps) bmin Minimum width of web on T, I
Asw Cross-sectional area of shear or L beams
reinforcement
WE 0 Contents v7 13 Sep 07 for web .doc 17-Sep-07 Page 2 of

8
bt Mean width of the tension Ec, Ec(28) Tangent modulus of elasticity
zone. For a T beam with the of normal weight concrete at a
flange in compression, only stress of σc = 0 and at 28 days
the width of the web is taken Ec,eff Effective modulus of elasticity
into account of concrete
bw Width of the web on T, I or L Ecd Design value of modulus of
beams. Minimum width elasticity of concrete
between tension and Ecm Secant modulus of elasticity of
compression chords concrete
by, bz Dimensions of the control Ed Design value of the effect of
perimeter (punching shear) actions
Ce Exposure coefficient (snow) EI Bending stiffness
Ct Thermal coefficient (snow) Es Design value of modulus of
c1, c2 Dimensions of a rectangular elasticity of reinforcing steel
column. For edge columns, c1 Exp. Expression
is measured perpendicular to EQU Static equilibrium
the free edge (punching shear) e Eccentricity
calt Altitude factor (wind) e2 Deflection (used in assessing
cd Dynamic factor (wind) M2 in slender columns)
cdir Directional factor (wind) ei Eccentricity due to
ce,flat Exposure factor (wind) imperfections
cf Force coefficient (wind) epar Eccentricity parallel to the
cmin Minimum cover, (due to the slab edge resulting from a
requirements for bond, cmin,b moment about an axis
or durability cmin,dur) perpendicular to the slab edge
cnom Nominal cover. Nominal cover (punching shear)
should satisfy the minimum ey, ez Eccentricity, MEd/VEd along y
requirements of bond, and z axes respectively
durability and fire (punching shear)
cpe (External) pressure coefficient F1 Factor to account for flanged
(wind) sections (deflection)
cpe,10 (External) pressure coefficient F2 Factor to account for brittle
for areas > 1 m2 (wind) partitions in association with
cpi Internal pressure coefficient long spans (deflection)
(wind) F3 Factor to account for service
cprob Probability factor (wind) stress in tensile reinforcement
cseason Season factor (wind) (deflection)
cscd Structural factor (wind) F Action
cs Size factor (wind) Fbt Tensile force in the bar at the
cy, cx Column dimensions in plan start of the bend caused by
D Diameter of a circular column; ultimate loads
Diameter Fc (Fs) Force in concrete (steel)
d Effective depth to tension Fcd Design value of the concrete
steel compression force in the
d2 Effective depth to direction of the longitudinal
compression steel member axis
dc Effective depth of concrete in Fd Design value of an action
compression FE Tensile force in reinforcement
deff Effective depth of the slab to be anchored
taken as the average of the FEd Compressive force, design
effective depths in two value of support reaction
orthogonal directions Fk Characteristic value of an
(punching shear) action
dl A short length of a perimeter Frep Representative action (= ψFk
(punching shear) where ψ = factor to convert
E Effect of action; Integrity (in characteristic to
fire); Elastic modulus representative action)

8
FRs Resisting tensile force in steel fyk Characteristic yield strength
Fs Tensile force in the bar of reinforcement
Ftd Design value of the tensile fywd Design yield strength of the
force in longitudinal shear reinforcement
reinforcement fywd,ef Effective design strength of
Ftie,col Horizontal tie force, column to punching shear reinforcement
floor or roof (kN) fywk Characteristic yield strength
Ftie,fac Horizontal tie force, wall to of shear reinforcement
floor or roof (kN/m) Gk Characteristic value of a
Ftie,int Internal tie tensile force permanent action
Ftie,per Peripheral tie tensile force Gk,sup Upper characteristic value of a
Fwd Design shear strength of weld, permanent action
design value of the force in Gk,inf Lower characteristic value of a
stirrups in corbels permanent action
fbd Ultimate bond stress gk Characteristic value of a
fc Compressive strength of permanent action per unit
concrete length or area
fcd Design value of concrete Hi Horizontal action applied at a
compressive strength level
fcd,pl Design compressive strength of H Height of building (wind)
plain concrete h Overall depth of a cross-
fck Characteristic compressive section; Height
cylinder strength of concrete have Obstruction height (wind)
at 28 days hdis Displacement height (wind)
fck, cube Characteristic compressive hf Depth of footing; Thickness of
cube strength of concrete at flange
28 days hH Vertical height of a drop or
fcm Mean value of concrete column head below soffit of a
cylinder compressive strength slab (punching shear)
fct,d Design tensile strength of h0 Notional size of cross-section
concrete (αctfct,k/γc) hs Depth of slab
fct,eff Mean tensile strength of I Second moment of area of
concrete effective at the time concrete section
cracks may be first expected I Insulation (in fire)
to occur. i Radius of gyration
fct,eff = fctm at the appropriate K MEd/bd2fck. A measure of the
age relative compressive stress in
fct,k Characteristic axial tensile a member in flexure
strength of concrete K Factor to account for
fctm Mean value of axial tensile structural system (deflection)
strength of concrete K′ Value of K above which
fct,0.05 5% fractile value of axial compression reinforcement is
tensile strength of concrete required
fct,0.95 95% fractile value of axial Kr Correction factor for curvature
tensile strength of concrete depending on axial load
fcvd Concrete design strength in Kϕ Factor for taking account of
shear and compression (plain creep
concrete) k Coefficient or factor
fsc Compressive stress in kc Coefficient allowing for the
compression reinforcement at nature of the stress
ULS distribution within the section
ft Tensile strength of immediately prior to cracking
reinforcement and for the change of the
ft,k Characteristic tensile strength lever arm as a result of
of reinforcement cracking (minimum areas)
fyd Design yield strength of l Clear height of column
longitudinal reinforcement, Asl between end restraints

8
l Height of the structure in N0Ed,fi Axial load under fire
metres conditions
l (or L) Length; Span NA National Annex
l0 Effective length (of columns) Na, Nb Longitudinal forces
l0 Distance between points of contributing to Hi
zero moment NEd Design value of the applied
l0 Design lap length axial force (tension or
l0,fi Effective length under fire compression) at ULS
conditions NDP Nationally Determined
lb Basic anchorage length Parameter(s) as published in a
lbd Design anchorage length country’s National Annex
lb,eq Equivalent anchorage length n Load level at normal
lb,min Minimum anchorage length temperatures. Conservatively
lb,rqd Basic anchorage length n = 0.7 (fire)
leff Effective span n Axial stress at ULS
lH Horizontal distance from n Ultimate action (load) per unit
column face to edge of a drop length (or area)
or column head below soffit of n0 Number of storeys
a slab (punching shear) nb Number of bars in the bundle
ln Clear distance between the Qk Characteristic value of a
faces of supports variable action
ls Floor to ceiling height Qk1 (Qki) Characteristic value of a
lx, ly Spans of a two-way slab in the leading variable action
x and y directions (Characteristic value of an
M Bending moment. Moment accompanying variable action)
from first order analysis qk Characteristic value of a
M′ Moment capacity of a singly variable action per unit length
reinforced section (above or area
which compression qb Basic wind pressure
reinforcement is required) qp Peak wind pressure
M0,Eqp First order bending moment in qp(ze) Peak velocity pressure at
quasi permanent load reference height ze, (wind)
combination (SLS) R Resistance; Mechanical
M01, M02 First order end moments at resistance (in fire)
ULS including allowances for R/A′ Vertical bearing resistance per
imperfections unit area (foundations)
M0Ed Equivalent first order moment RA Reaction at support A
including the effect of RB Reaction at support B
imperfections (at about mid Rd Design value of the resistance
height) to an action
M0Ed,fi First order moment under fire RH Relative humidity
conditions r Radius
M2 Nominal second order moment rcont The distance from the
in slender columns centroid of a column to the
Med Design value of the applied control section outside the
internal bending moment column head
MEdy, MEdz Design moment in the rm Ratio of first order end
respective direction moments in columns at ULS
MRdy, MRdz Moment resistance in the S, N, R Cement types
respective direction SLS Serviceability limit state(s) –
m Number of vertical members corresponding to conditions
contributing to an effect beyond which specified service
m Mass requirements are no longer
N Axial force met
N Basic span-to-effective-depth s Spacing
ratio, l/d, for K = 1.0 s Snow load on a roof

8
sk Characteristic ground snow VRd,max Shear resistance of a member
load limited by the crushing of
sr Radial spacing of perimeters compression struts
of shear reinforcement
st Tangential spacing shear VRd,cmin Minimum shear resistance of
reinforcement along member considering concrete
perimeters of shear alone
reinforcement VRd,s Shear resistance of a member
T Torsional moment governed by the yielding of
Ted Design value of the applied shear reinforcement
torsional moment vb Basic wind velocity
TRd Design torsional resistance vb,0 The fundamental basic wind
moment velocity being the
TRd,max Maximum design torsional characteristic 10 minute wind
resistance moment capacity velocity at 10 m above ground
t Thickness; Time being level in open country
considered; Breadth of support vb,map Fundamental basic wind
t0 The age of concrete at the velocity from Figure NA.1 m/s
time of loading vEd Punching shear stress
tef,i Effective wall thickness vEd Shear stress for sections
(torsion) without shear reinforcement
ULS Ultimate limit state(s) – (= VEd/bwd)
associated with collapse or vEd,z Shear stress for sections with
other forms of structural shear reinforcement (=
failure VEd/bwz = VEd/bw0.9d)
u Perimeter of concrete cross- vRd,c Design shear resistance of
section, having area Ac concrete without shear
u Perimeter of that part which is reinforcement expressed as a
exposed to drying stress
u Circumference of outer edge vRd,cs Design punching shear
of effective cross-section resistance of concrete with
(torsion) shear reinforcement expressed
u0 Perimeter adjacent to columns as a stress (punching shear)
(punching shear) vRd,max Capacity of concrete struts
u1 Basic control perimeter (at 2d expressed as a stress
from face of load) (punching W1 Factor corresponding to a
shear) distribution of shear (punching
u1* Reduced control perimeter at shear)
perimeter columns (at 2d from We Peak external wind load
face of load (punching shear) Wk Characteristic value of wind
ui Length of the control action (NB not in the
perimeter under consideration Eurocodes and should be
(punching shear) regarded as a form of Qk,
uk Perimeter of the area Ak characteristic value of a
(torsion) variable action)
uout Perimeter at which shear wk Crack width
reinforcement is no longer wmax Limiting calculated crack
required width
V Shear force X0, XA, XC, Concrete exposure classes
VEd Design value of the applied XD, XF, XS
shear force x Neutral axis depth
VEd,red Applied shear force reduced x Distance between buildings
by the force due to soil (wind)
pressure less self weight of x Distance of the section being
base (punching shear, considered from the centre
foundations) line of the support
VRd,c Shear resistance of a member x, y, z Co-ordinates; Planes under
without shear reinforcement consideration

8
xu Depth of the neutral axis at δ Ratio of the redistributed
the ultimate limit state after moment to the elastic bending
redistribution moment. Redistribution ratio
Z Zone number obtained (1 – % redistribution)
from map (snow) Δc Allowance for deviation made
z Lever arm of internal forces in design, e.g. to allow for
z Reference height (wind) workmanship (BS EN 13760)
ze Reference height for windward Δcdev Allowance made in design for
walls of rectangular buildings deviation
(wind) Δεp Change in strain in
α Angle; Angle of shear links to prestressing steel
the longitudinal axis; Ratio ΔFtd Additional tensile force in
αA A coefficient for use with a longitudinal reinforcement
representative variable action due to the truss shear model
taking into account area εc Compressive strain in concrete
supported εc2 Compressive strain limit in
α1, α2, α3, Factors dealing with concrete for concrete in pure
α4, α5, α6 anchorage and laps of bars axial compression or strain in
αcc (αct) A coefficient taking into concrete at reaching maximum
account long term effects of strength assuming use of the
compressive (tensile) load and parabolic–rectangular stress–
the way load is applied strain relationship
αn A coefficient for use with a εc3 Compressive strain limit in
representative variable action concrete for concrete in pure
taking into account number of axial compression or strain in
storeys supported concrete at reaching maximum
β Angle; Ratio; Coefficient strength assuming use of the
β Factor dealing with bilinear stress–strain
eccentricity (punching shear) relationship
γ Partial factor εcu Ultimate compressive strain in
γA Partial factor for accidental the concrete
actions, A εcu2 Ultimate compressive strain
γG Partial factor for permanent limit in concrete which is not
actions, G fully in pure axial compression
γGk,sup Partial factor to be applie3d assuming use of the parabolic–
to Gk,inf rectangular stress–strain
relationship (numerically
γGk,inf Partial factor to be applied to
Gk,sup εcu2 = εcu3)
εcu3 Ultimate compressive strain
γM Partial factor for a material
limit in concrete which is not
property, taking account of
fully in pure axial compression
uncertainties in the material
assuming use of the bilinear
property itself, in geometric
stress–strain relationship
deviation and in the design
model used εp(0) Initial strain in prestressing
γQ Partial factor for variable steel
actions, Q εs Strain in reinforcing steel
γC Partial factor for concrete εu Strain of reinforcement or
prestressing steel at maximum
γF Partial factor for actions, F
load
γf Partial factor for actions
εud Design limit for strain for
without taking account of
reinforcing steel in tension
model uncertainties
= 0.9 εuk
γg Partial factor for permanent
εuk Characteristic strain of
actions without taking account
reinforcement (or prestressing
of model uncertainties
steel) at maximum load
γS Partial factor for reinforcing
εy Reinforcement yield strain
steel
η Factor defining effective
strength (= 1 for ≤ C50/60)

8
η1 Coefficient for bond conditions ϕef Effective creep factor
η2 Coefficient for bar diameter ϕ(t,t0) Creep coefficient, defining
θ Angle; Angle of compression creep between times t and t0,
struts (shear) related to elastic deformation
θI Inclination used to represent at 28 days
imperfections φ Bar diameter
λ Slenderness ratio φn Equivalent diameter of a
λ Factor defining the height of bundle of reinforcing bars
the compression zone (= 0.8 φm Mandrel diameter
for ≤ C50/60) ψ Factors defining
λfi Slenderness in fire representative values of
λlim Limiting slenderness ratio (of variable actions
columns) ψ0 Combination value of a
μI Snow load shape factor variable action (e.g. used
μfi Ratio of the design axial load when considering ULS)
under fire conditions to the ψ1 Frequent value of a variable
design resistance of the action (e.g. used when
column at normal temperature considering whether section
but with an eccentricity will have cracked or not)
applicable to fire conditions ψ2 Quasi-permanent value of a
ν Strength reduction factor for variable action (e.g. used
concrete cracked in shear when considering
ξ Reduction factor/distribution deformation)
coefficient. Factor applied to ω Mechanical reinforcement
Gk in BS EN 1990 Exp. (6.10b) ratio = As fyd/Ac fcd ≤ 1
ρ Required tension
reinforcement ratio
ρ Density of air (wind)
ρ′ Reinforcement ratio for
required compression
reinforcement, As2/bd
ρ1 Percentage of reinforcement
lapped within 0.65l0 from the
centre line of the lap being
considered
ρl Reinforcement ratio for
longitudinal reinforcement
ρ0 Reference reinforcement ratio
fck0.5 × 10–3
σgd Design value of the ground
pressure
σs Stress in reinforcement at SLS
σs Absolute value of the
maximum stress permitted in
the reinforcement
immediately after the
formation of the crack
σsc(σst) Stress in compression (and
tension) reinforcement
σsd Design stress in the bar at the
ultimate limit state
σsu Estimate of stress in
reinforcement at SLS
(deflection)
τ Torsional shear stress
ϕ(∞,t0) Final value of creep
coefficient

8

Eurocode 2 GUIDE (How To Design With EC2 - 2007)

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Eurocode 2 GUIDE (How To Design With EC2 - 2007)

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How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

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Combination Permanent actions Variable actions Example of use in Eurocode 2

Combination Permanent actions Variable action

Reference Title Publication date

Eurocode 2 BS EN 1991–1–6 Actions during

is expected to be provided in a textbook or similar publication.

8. Eurocode 2 is applicable for ribbed reinforcement with characteristic

are considered in addition to lateral loads.

10. Minimum concrete cover is related to bond strength, durability Eurocode 7

Glossary of Eurocode terminology

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The design process

The process of designing elements will not be revolutionised as a result

In the long-term it is anticipated that Eurocode 2 will lead to more

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Load set 2. All or alternate spans loaded

Load set 3. Simplified arrangements for slabs

Category Example use qk (kN/m2) Qk (kN)

Symbol Description Properties

XF2 Moderate water saturation with de-icing agent � durability

Standard Minimum dimensions (mm)

Car park decks, XF4

CEM I, IIA, ___ ___ ___ See C35/45, C32/40,

Stability and imperfections Crack control

Effect on bracing system: Hi = y i (Nb – Na)

In most cases, an allowance for imperfections is made in the partial

Steel wmax = 0.4 mm wmax = 0.3 mm

160 40 300 32 300

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Step Task Further guidance

Flexure Concrete class No Outside scope of this

K z/d K z/d fck fctm Minimum percentage (0.26 fctm / fyka)

Eurocode 2 gives recommendations for the design of concrete up to

y = 0.5 sin -1 T vEd

Determine basic l/d and K from Figure 7 300

Unmodified steel stress, ssu

Determine Factor 2 (F2) 220

l0 = 0.85 l1 l0 = 0.15 (l1 + l2 ) l0 = 0.7 l2 l0 = 0.15 l2 + l3

Determine l0 (see Figure 9) and beff from:

Calculate depth to neutral axis x from: beff1 bw beff2

Yes Longitudinal bar

ma^bgm^k_Z\^h_ma^_eZg`^Zg]p^[\Zg[^k^lblm^][rma^mkZglo^kl^ Minimum area of shear reinforcement

Longitudinal shear Calculate the longitudinal shear stress

Ma^ehg`bmn]bgZela^Zk\ZiZ\bmrbl[Zl^]hgma^oZkbZ[e^lmknmbg\ebgZmbhg Yes (cot y f = 2.0) Yes (cot y f

Rules for spacing and s fyd cot y f

quantity of reinforcement Table 8

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Chapter 1, originally published as Introduction to Eurocodes3, highlighted the

Rather than giving a minimum cover, the tabular method is based on

Step Task Further guidance

Standard fire Minimum dimensions (mm)

REI 60 hs = 80 80 80 b min = 100 120 ≥200

Carry out analysis of slab to determine design moments (M)

Obtain lever arm z from Table 5 or

Eurocode 2 offers various methods for determining the stress-strain Deflection

Determine basic l/d from Figure 5

Determine Factor 1 (F1)

Determine Factor 2 (F2)

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CEM I, IIA, _ _ ___ See C35/45, C32/40,

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a Minimum 8 bars 2 See note 4 of Table 2.

Walls l Clear height of compression member between