A corpus driven study of the potential for

vocabulary learning through watching movies

Stuart Webb
Victoria University of Wellington

In this corpus driven study, the scripts of 143 movies consisting of 1,267,236
running words were analyzed using the RANGE program (Heatley et al. 2002)
to determine the number of encounters with low frequency words. Low fre-
quency words were operationalized as items from Nation’s (2004) 4th to 14th
1,000-word BNC lists. The results showed that in a single movie, few words were
encountered 10 or more times indicating that only a small number of words may
be learned through watching one movie. However, as the number of movies ana-
lyzed increased, the number of words encountered 10 or more times increased.
Twenty-three percent of the word families from Nation’s (2004) 4th 1,000-word
list were encountered 10 or more times in a set of 70 movies. This indicates that
if learners watch movies regularly over a long period of time, there is the poten-
tial for significant incidental learning to occur.

Keywords: incidental vocabulary learning, movies, word frequency, vocabulary

size, repetition

1. Introduction

Extensive viewing of movies has been neglected as an approach to second lan-

guage (L2) learning. Movies may offer the same potential for vocabulary learning
as written text through repeated encounters with unknown words. Books pro-
vide L2 written input and movies provide L2 aural input. However, there does not
appear to be any research investigating incidental vocabulary learning through
watching feature length movies while there is a vast wealth of research examin-
ing the effects of reading on vocabulary knowledge. This is surprising because
English language movies are extremely popular among L2 viewers, and movies
are a valuable source of L2 aural input in most English as a foreign language (EFL)
contexts, where there may be limited opportunities for L2 listening. Research also

International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 15:4 (2010), 497–519. doi 10.1075/ijcl.15.4.03web

issn 1384–6655 / e-issn 1569–9811 © John Benjamins Publishing Company
498 Stuart Webb

indicates that L2 learners are motivated to learn language through watching mov-
ies (Chapple & Curtis 2000, Colwell & Ipince Braschi 2006, King 2002). In fact,
Gieve & Clark (2005) found that both the European and Chinese language learn-
ers surveyed in their study were more likely to try to learn independently through
watching movies than through extensive reading. Research investigating inciden-
tal vocabulary learning has shown that L2 learners can learn vocabulary through
watching television and short videos (d’Ydewalle & Pavakanun 1995, Koolstra &
Beentjes 1999, Neuman & Koskinen 1992, Pavakanun & d’Ydewalle 1992). This
suggests that movies might be a useful resource for L2 vocabulary learning.
Perhaps the reason for the lack of research on using movies for language learn-
ing is that movies are not an appropriate language learning tool for all learners. In
a study of 318 movies, Webb & Rodgers (2009a) found that a vocabulary size of the
most frequent 3,000 word families is necessary to reach 95% coverage and knowl-
edge of 6,000 word families is necessary to reach 98% coverage of movies. Coverage
refers to the percentage of known words in a text. They suggest that a minimum
vocabulary size of the most frequent 3,000 word families is needed for learners to
have adequate comprehension of L2 movies. In contrast, there are written texts that
can be used for language learning with all levels of learners. Another reason for the
lack of research may be that until recently movie transcripts were relatively difficult
to obtain and analyse in comparison to most forms of written discourse.
Research investigating the effects of learning through reading has shown that
the more unknown words are encountered in text, the more likely those words are
to be learned (Horst et al. 1998, Jenkins et al. 1984, Rott 1999, Saragi et al. 1978,
Waring & Takaki 2003, Webb 2007). This is supported by research on vocabu-
lary learning tasks which has indicated that the more target words are recycled in
tasks, the more likely they are to be learned (Folse 2006, Keating 2008). Research
indicates that from six (Rott 1999) to 20 encounters (Waring & Takaki 2003)
may be needed to learn words incidentally through reading, with the amount of
knowledge gained dependent on the contexts in which the words are encountered
(Webb 2008). Fewer encounters with unknown words may lead to minimal gains
in knowledge of meaning but may facilitate partial knowledge of different aspects
of vocabulary knowledge (Webb 2007). How often low frequency words are en-
countered in a single movie or in different numbers of movies has never been
investigated. There may be enough encounters with unknown words in a single
movie to facilitate incidental vocabulary learning. If not, teachers could adopt a
similar approach to that taken in extensive reading and have learners watch L2
movies regularly to increase the potential for vocabulary learning to occur.
The aim of the present study is to investigate the number of encounters with
low frequency words in movies in order to determine the extent to which watch-
ing L2 movies may facilitate incidental vocabulary learning. The transcripts of 143
 The potential for vocabulary learning through watching movies 499

English language movies were analysed to determine the number of encounters

with low frequency words in individual movies and in sets of 8, 13, 16, 36, and 70
movies. Knowing how often unknown words are encountered provides some indi-
cation of the potential for incidental vocabulary learning through watching movies.

2. Incidental vocabulary learning

2.1 Can viewers incidentally learn words through watching movies?

Research indicates that watching television and short movies can contribute to L1
incidental vocabulary learning (Oetting et al. 1995, Rice & Woodsmall 1988) and
L2 incidental vocabulary learning (d’Ydewalle & Pavakanun 1997, d’Ydewalle &
Van de Poel 1999, Koolstra & Beentjes 1999, Neuman & Koskinen 1992, Pavakanun
& d’Ydewalle 1992). Rice & Woodsmall (1988) found that children who encoun-
tered unknown L1 target words in the narration of a 12-minute cartoon were able to
score significantly higher on a picture recognition test than children who watched
the same cartoon but did not encounter the target words in the narration. They at-
tributed the amount of learning to the number of times that the target words were
encountered in the video. All of the target items were heard at least five times in the
video. They also found that older children scored higher on the tests than younger
children. Oetting et al. (1995) investigated incidental vocabulary learning using the
same video and target words with normally developed and specific-language-im-
paired 6-8-year-olds. They found that all of the participants made significant vocab-
ulary gains, with the size of the gains dependent on the age and proficiency of the
learner. Taken together, the two studies demonstrate that young learners are able
to learn L1 vocabulary through watching television and film. Research has con-
sistently shown that viewers can learn L2 vocabulary incidentally through watch-
ing L2 television and video. Neuman & Koskinen (1992) measured L2 incidental
vocabulary learning through reading, watching television, and watching television
with subtitles with seventh and eighth grade students. Using three tests of vocabu-
lary knowledge they found that students who watched television programs with
subtitles had significantly higher scores than those who read the transcripts of the
programs. The participants who watched television with subtitles also had higher
mean scores than those who watched television without subtitles, but not all of the
differences were significant. Neuman and Koskinen also found that the participants
who watched television without subtitles had higher scores than the reading group
on all of the tests, but the differences between the two groups were not reported.
Koolstra & Beentjes (1999) investigated the effects of watching a 15-minute
documentary on L2 vocabulary learning with primary school children. They
500 Stuart Webb

found that children who watched the video with subtitles had higher scores on
a vocabulary test than children who watched the program without subtitles, and
a control group who did not watch the program. The children who watched the
documentary without subtitles also had significantly higher scores than the con-
trol group, indicating that watching L2 video may lead to incidental vocabulary
learning. Koolstra and Beentjes also found that children who frequently watched
L2 television programs with L1 subtitles scored higher on the vocabulary test than
those who watched less, indicating that increased viewing may lead to increased
vocabulary learning. They suggest that watching L2 television with L1 subtitles
may lead to large cumulative gains in vocabulary knowledge.
D’Ydewalle, Pavakanun and colleagues completed a series of studies on inci-
dental vocabulary learning through watching television and movies. They found
that there may be considerable L2 vocabulary learning from watching a short sub-
titled movie (d’Ydewalle & Pavakanun 1997), watching television without subtitles
is likely to lead to L2 incidental vocabulary learning (d’Ydewalle & Van de Poel
1999, Pavakanun & d’Ydewalle 1992), L2 incidental vocabulary learning is higher
when watching television with subtitles than without subtitles (d’Ydewalle & Pa-
vakanun 1995, Pavakanun & d’Ydewalle 1992), and watching television with the
L1 in the soundtrack and the L2 in the subtitles may lead to greater vocabulary
learning than watching television with the target language in the soundtrack and
the L1 in the subtitles for adults (d’Ydewalle & Pavakanun 1997, 1995; Pavakanun
& d’Ydewalle 1992). However, in contrast they also found that presenting the L2
in the soundtrack may lead to larger gains than presenting it in the subtitles for
children (d’Ydewalle & Van de Poel 1999). D’Ydewalle & Pavakanun (1997) sug-
gest that in Belgium children are likely to learn English to some extent through
watching subtitled television.
Together, the research indicates that the visual and aural input present in
movies and television may facilitate L2 incidental vocabulary learning. However,
it should be noted that in most studies the conditions for vocabulary learning may
have been ideal. For example, in several studies the target words were encountered
several times (d’Ydewalle & Van de Poel 1999, Oetting et al. 1995, Pavakanun &
d’Ydewalle 1992, Rice & Woodsmall 1988) and research has clearly shown that
the more words are encountered in context, the more likely they will be learned
incidentally (Horst et al. 1998, Jenkins et al. 1984, Rott 1999, Saragi et al. 1978,
Waring & Takaki 2003, Webb 2007). Also, in several of the studies the videos were
designed for young native speakers presenting explicit and redundant detail that
may have increased the chances of vocabulary learning (d’Ydewalle & Van de Poel
1999, Koolstra & Beentjes 1999, Neuman & Koskinen 1992, Oetting et al. 1995,
Rice & Woodsmall 1988). Movies may not offer such ideal conditions for vocabu-
lary learning because their goal is typically to entertain rather than teach. The aim
 The potential for vocabulary learning through watching movies 501

of the present study is to examine the number of encounters with low frequency
words in movies. Investigating the extent to which L2 words are learned through
watching different numbers of movies experimentally through a controlled treat-
ment is not within the scope of this study. However, corpus driven studies such
as Cobb (2007), Hwang & Nation (1989), Schmitt & Carter (2000), Sutarsyah et
al. (1994) which have examined the number of encounters with words in text are
well established and provide useful data on the potential for vocabulary learning.
Determining how often unknown words are encountered in a single movie
and in different numbers of movies may provide some indication of the poten-
tial for incidental vocabulary learning through watching movies. If unknown
words are encountered only once or twice, it is unlikely that their meanings will
be learned through watching movies. Research investigating L2 reading suggests
that if unknown words are encountered six or more times, there is the potential
to learn their meanings incidentally (Rott 1999). However, it is likely that acquisi-
tion of word meaning is dependent on the contexts in which unknown words are
encountered (Webb 2008). If words are repeatedly encountered in highly informa-
tive contexts, their meanings may be learned after a small number of encounters.
However, if unknown words are encountered in less informative and/or mislead-
ing contexts, it could take as many as 20 encounters before they are learned. Inci-
dental learning theory suggests that if unknown words are repeatedly encountered
in context, their meanings will gradually be learned (Nagy et al. 1985).
Corpus-driven studies have shown that one way of increasing the number of
encounters with words is to read or view texts with related content. Hwang & Na-
tion (1989) found that in 20 sequences of four running stories and 20 sequences
of four unrelated stories with a similar number of running words, lower frequency
word families (words outside of the 2,000 most frequent word families) were en-
countered more often in the related texts than in the unrelated texts. Webb (forth-
coming) also found that there were more words outside the 3,000 most frequent
word families encountered 10 or more times in different episodes of television
programs with related content than in random television programs. Together,
these studies indicate that one way of increasing the potential for incidental vo-
cabulary learning is to read or view text with related content.

2.2 How does vocabulary coverage affect comprehension and incidental

learning?

One important detail that was not provided in any of the studies examining in-
cidental learning from video was the coverage of the text. Coverage is a valuable
measurement because it helps to determine the extent to which learners might
be able to understand a text and incidentally learn vocabulary from a text. Liu
502 Stuart Webb

& Nation (1985) suggested that 95% coverage is necessary to correctly guess L2
words in context, and Nation (2001) reported that 98% coverage is ideal for guess-
ing words in written text.
Both L1 and L2 studies investigating incidental learning through watching
video found that more proficient learners were likely to learn more words than
less proficient learners (Neuman & Koskinen 1992, Oetting et al. 1995, Rice &
Woodsmall 1988). This may be because more proficient learners were likely to
know more of the running words in the viewed programs and would have had
higher coverage of the aural input. Coverage is also an important measurement
because it may indicate whether or not learners will be able to understand a text.
Research examining reading comprehension indicates that while there are many
factors that may affect comprehension, vocabulary knowledge is the best indicator
of whether or not a text will be understood (Laufer & Sim 1985). The estimated
coverage necessary for comprehension of aural and written text has varied. Laufer
(1989) reported that 95% coverage may provide reasonable comprehension of an
L2 academic text, Hirsh & Nation (1992) suggested 98% coverage to read L2 text
for pleasure, Nation (2006) suggested that at least 98% coverage may be needed
for L2 aural comprehension, and Donkaewbua (2007) estimated that at least 99%
coverage is necessary for L2 listening comprehension.
Four studies have measured the coverage necessary for comprehension of text.
Laufer’s (1989) research indicated that 95% coverage was sufficient for compre-
hension of a general academic L2 text. Hu &Nation (2000) found that 98% cov-
erage was needed for adequate unassisted comprehension of a relatively easy L2
fiction text. Hu and Nation’s results support Carver’s (1994) L1 findings which in-
dicated that 98% to 99% coverage provides adequate comprehension of an L1 text,
with coverage being dependent on the difficulty of the text. In contrast, Bonk’s
(2000) study which investigated the effects of coverage on L2 aural comprehension
indicated that lower coverage may provide adequate listening comprehension. He
investigated comprehension of four short passages with different amounts of cov-
erage and measured comprehension with a written recall test and a dictation test.
Bonk (2000) suggested that with coping strategies, L2 learners may have adequate
L2 aural comprehension of short texts at less than 95% coverage. It is important
that learners have adequate comprehension of L2 movies because if they are un-
able to understand movies, they are unlikely to use them for language learning.
The coverage necessary for adequate comprehension and incidental vocabu-
lary learning could be lower for movies than for written or aural input. Chapple &
Curtis (2000) and Rubin (1994) suggest that the imagery in television and movies
may assist with comprehension. Two studies have shown that imagery may have
a positive effect on comprehension. Mueller (1980) found that visual input in the
form of drawings improved listening comprehension for lower level learners but
 The potential for vocabulary learning through watching movies 503

had no effect for advanced learners. Hanley et al. (1995) and Secules et al. (1992)
found that French language learners had higher scores on a comprehension test
when they learned with video than when they learned with pictures. They suggest
that video may facilitate comprehension because it may effectively link L2 form
with L1 meaning. The combination of visual and aural input may make it easier
to incidentally learn vocabulary through watching movies than through reading.
Research has shown that illustrations may improve incidental vocabulary learning
for adult learners reading an L2 graded reader (Horst et al. 1998), and for children
listening to stories (Elley 1989).

2.3 How many words do you need to know to understand the vocabulary in
movies?

Two studies have examined the vocabulary size necessary to understand movies.
Nation (2006) analyzed the vocabulary size necessary to reach different coverage
points in the animated movie Shrek. He found that a vocabulary of the most fre-
quent 4,000 word families plus proper nouns and marginal words provided 95%
coverage, and a vocabulary of the most frequent 7,000 word families plus proper
nouns and marginal words provided 98% coverage of Shrek.
Webb & Rodgers (2009a) created a corpus from the transcripts of 318 Eng-
lish language movies. The movies consisted of 2,841,887 running words and had
a total running time of 601 hours and 33 minutes. The movies were categorized as
American or British and then classified according to the following genres: action,
animation, comedy, suspense/crime, drama, horror, romance, science-fiction, war,
western, and classic. The movies were analyzed using the RANGE software (Heat-
ley et al. 2002) and Nation’s (2004) fourteen 1,000-word British National Cor-
pus (BNC) lists to determine the 1,000 word levels (1,000–14,000) at which the
words in the movies occurred (see Section 3.1 for further details of the RANGE
software). The results showed that knowledge of the most frequent 3,000 word
families and the proper nouns and marginal words (e.g. ah, oh, huh) in the movies
provided 95.76% coverage, and knowledge of the most frequent 6,000 word fami-
lies plus the proper nouns and marginal words provided 98.15% coverage of mov-
ies. Webb and Rodgers reported that a vocabulary size of the most frequent 3,000
word families may be sufficient for adequate comprehension of movies. This is a
useful finding because it gives teachers and learners a target vocabulary size from
which point movies may become a resource for language learning. Together, the
two studies shed some light on the vocabulary size necessary for comprehension
of movies. However, neither study investigated the extent to which vocabulary
might be learned from movies.
504 Stuart Webb

2.4 Examining the potential for vocabulary learning through watching

movies

The aim of the present study is to determine the number of encounters with low
frequency words (words found in the 3,001–14,000 BNC word lists) in movies.
The transcripts of 143 English language movies were analyzed using the RANGE
program (Heatley et al. 2002) and Nation’s (2004) BNC word lists to determine
the number of encounters with low frequency words in five random movies and in
sets of 8, 13, 16, 36, and 70 movies.1 Each set of movies was from one genre such as
western, animated, and horror. This may increase the number of encounters with
low frequency words because movies from the same genre are more likely to have
related content than movies from different genres. Investigating the number of
encounters with low frequency words in different numbers of movies may indicate
the potential for incidental vocabulary learning through watching movies. Specifi-
cally, the present study examined the following research questions:
1. To what extent are low frequency words encountered in a single movie?
2. To what extent are low frequency words encountered in 8, 13, 16, 36, and 70
movies?

3. Method

The transcripts of 143 English language movies were analyzed in this study. The
movies had a total running time of 276 hours and 48 minutes and an average
running time of 116 minutes. The movies were selected from a corpus that was
created to represent movies that were well known and from a variety of genres in
order to provide an accurate representation of commonly viewed movies (Webb &
Rodgers 2009a). Sets of 8, 13, 16, 36, and 70 movies were selected from the corpus.
Each set consisted of movies from the same genre. This may provide the greatest
potential for vocabulary learning because corpus driven studies have shown that
words are more likely to reoccur in related texts than in random texts (Hwang &
Nation 1989, Rodgers & Webb under review, Schmitt & Carter 2000, Sutarsyah
et al. 1994, Webb forthcoming). The sets consisted of 8 western, 13 horror, 16
animated, 36 classic, and 70 drama. The number of movies in each set was based
on the availability of movie scripts in each genre as well as potential viewing for
English language learners within a single semester course (8, 13, 16 movies) and
over one year (36, 70 movies). A single semester course may only provide enough
time for a small number of movies to be watched, with the number of movies likely
to vary depending on the amount of classroom time available as well as out of class
 The potential for vocabulary learning through watching movies 505

viewing time. The number of movies available in a genre may reflect the number
of movies made per genre. The scripts of dramas are quite common while the
scripts of westerns and horror movies are less common. One movie was randomly
selected from each set in order to determine the number of encounters with low
frequency words in a single movie. The movies, the genres which they were classi-
fied under, and the number of running words in the movies are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Individual movies analyzed

Movie Genre Running words
Legends of the Fall Western 5,543
Saw Horror 5,690
Madagascar Animated 8,042
Mr. Smith Goes to Washington Classic 14,342
Million Dollar Baby Drama 10,325

Inaudible words such as stage commands, storyline, and speakers’ names were
removed from the transcripts. Only words that could be heard during the mov-
ies were analyzed. Contractions, connected speech, and hyphenated words were
changed to conform with spellings used in the BNC word lists. This accounted for
0.15% of the tokens in the movie corpus. For example, jokin’, an’, da, ol’, and dunno
were changed to joking, and, the, old, and don’t know, respectively. If the spellings
had not been changed the items would have been classified as being less frequent
than the most frequent 14,000 word families. There is the possibility, however, that
knowing the changed spellings does not ensure that the original spellings would
also be known. For example, learners may know joking, and don’t know but they
might not recognize jokin’ and dunno. What effect the percentage of contractions,
and connected speech may have on comprehension and incidental learning is not
clear. Webb & Rodgers (2009b) suggest the amount of connected speech may be
one of a number of factors that may influence comprehension and incidental vo-
cabulary learning. Another factor that may affect comprehension and incidental
learning is the proportion of multi-word units in movies. The greatest difficulty
that learners may have with multi-word units is likely to be when core idioms are
encountered (Grant & Bauer 2004). In a study of multi-word units, Grant and
Bauer found that there were relatively few core idioms and that the majority of
multi-word units are figuratives which are less likely to present problems for lan-
guage learners. Proper nouns that were found in the “not in the lists” (words less
frequent than the most frequent 14,000 word families) were reclassified as proper
nouns and added to the proper nouns totals.
506 Stuart Webb

3.1 Analysis

The transcripts were analyzed using the RANGE software (Heatley et al. 2002).
RANGE is a computer program that lists the words that occur in a text accord-
ing to their frequency. Nation’s (2004) fourteen 1,000-word-family lists were used
with the RANGE software to show the 1,000-word level (1,000–14,000) at which
the word families in the movies occurred, and the number of times each word
family occurred. The lists are based on the frequency and range of occurrence of
words in the BNC.2 Table 2 shows the first five headwords from several of Nation’s
BNC word lists.

Table 2. Headwords from Nation’s (2004) BNC word lists

1,000 word level 2,000 word level 3,000 word level 5,000 word level 8,000 word level
a above abbey abort abbot
able accent abroad breach abduct
about access accelerate crane abhor
absolute accident accordingly abide abreast
accept accommodate accountant abstract accentuate

Headwords at the 1,000 word level (a, able, about) are more frequent than those at
the 3,000 word level (abbey, abroad, accelerate), and those words are more frequent
than those at the 8,000 word level (abbot, abduct, abhor). The word families in the
lists were categorized as Level 6 according to Bauer & Nation’s (1993) classification
of word families. Level 6 word families include inflections and over 80 derivational
affixes. All word stems were free forms, not bound forms. Items that were not
listed in the most frequent 14,000 word families were classified as “proper nouns”,
“marginal words”, and “not in the lists” (i.e. items less frequent than the most fre-
quent 14,000 word families). A segment of a script from one of the movies in the
set of dramas is shown in the appendix, together with the words found in the scene
listed according to Nation’s BNC word lists. The following word families from Na-
tion’s 1,000 word level are for the headwords fight, manage, and work found in the
movie scene in the Appendix.
– fight, fighter, fighters, fighting, fought, fights
– manage, managing, manages, managers, manager, manageress, manageresses,
managed, management, managements, mismanage, mismanaged, mismanages,
mismanaging, mismanagement, manageable, unmanageable
– work, worked, worker, workers, working, workings, works, workman, workmen,
workable, unworkable
 The potential for vocabulary learning through watching movies 507

It is important to note that using word families as the unit of counting means that
there is the assumption that if the head word is known, all members of the word
family will also be known. There is a strong argument that this is true for recep-
tive knowledge of word families because knowing one member of a word family
is likely to facilitate recognition of other members (Bauer & Nation 1993, Schmitt
& Zimmerman 2002). For example, if the word work is known, a learner may be
able to recognize that worker, working, workable, and unworkable convey mean-
ings related to the headword. However, the same does not hold true for productive
knowledge of word families for which learners will not always be able to produce
derivations for different members of a family (Schmitt & Zimmerman 2002). For
example, if the word work is known, learners may not be able to produce all of the
members of the word family. Analysis of the corpus using word families was likely
to provide a valid assessment of the vocabulary in movies because watching mov-
ies requires receptive knowledge of the words that are encountered rather than
productive knowledge.
The coverage of the proper nouns and marginal words (e.g. ah, oh, huh) that
occurred in each movie was included in the coverage. Nation (2006) suggests that
proper nouns and marginal words have a lower learning burden and are easily
learned. Webb & Rodgers (2009b) also took that approach in their analysis of
television programs and suggest that learners who know the 3,000 most frequent
word families should be able to recognize proper nouns and marginal words. Be-
cause Webb & Rodgers (2009a) reported that a vocabulary size of the most fre-
quent 3,000 word families may be sufficient for comprehension of movies, lower
frequency word families ranging from the 3,001 to 14,000 word frequency rank
were examined in this study to determine how many times those word families
were encountered. Word families from the 4,000 word level (a word frequency
rank of 3,001–4,000) and the 5,000–14,000 word levels (a word frequency rank of
4,001–14,000) were analyzed separately because the greatest number of encoun-
ters with unknown words for viewers with a vocabulary size of 3,000 word families
is likely to occur at the 4,000 word level.

4. Results

The movies consisted of 1,267,236 tokens and the average movie had 8,862 run-
ning words. The number of running words in each set of movies reflected the
number of movies per set. The number of tokens ranged from 53,201 running
words in the set of 8 movies to 690,023 running words in the set of 70 movies. The
cumulative coverage including proper nouns and marginal words for each set, and
for a random movie from each set, is shown in Table 3.
508 Stuart Webb

The relative importance of knowing the most frequent word families is clearly
demonstrated in the first row of the table. Knowledge of the most frequent 1,000
word families plus proper nouns and marginal words represented a minimum
mean coverage of 87.27% in the sets, and 88.58% for one of the five randomly cho-
sen individual movies, with the coverage at each 1,000-word-level consistently de-
creasing as the level decreases. The vocabulary sizes needed to reach 95% coverage
ranged from 3,000 to 4,000 word families plus proper nouns and marginal words
between the sets, and from 2,000 to 4,000 word families plus proper nouns and
marginal words between the five individual movies. The vocabulary sizes needed
to reach 98% coverage ranged from 5,000 to 10,000 word families plus proper

Table 3. Cumulative coverage (%) including proper nouns and marginal words for each
set of movies and a random movie from that set
Set of 8 Set of 13 Set of 16 Set of 36 Set of 70
movies movies movies movies movies
Leg- Mr. Smith
ends Goes to Million
Word of the Mada- Washing- Dollar
list All Fall All Saw All gascar All ton All Baby
1,000 89.83 90.84 90.48 92.07 87.27 89.82 90.25 88.58 90.46 92.72
2,000 94.36 95.60* 94.56 95.92* 91.70 93.66 94.43 92.89 94.52 96.17*
3,000 96.13* 97.39 96.37* 97.24 94.24 95.80* 96.23* 94.59 96.10* 97.50
4,000 97.21 98.04** 97.66 98.38** 95.55* 96.87 97.27 96.08* 97.38 98.22**
5,000 97.87 98.67 98.17** 98.70 96.51 97.60 97.89 97.04 98.00** 98.68
6,000 98.20** 98.99 98.48 98.88 97.07 98.12** 98.36** 98.28** 98.39 98.83
7,000 98.38 99.17 98.69 99.02 97.40 98.32 98.58 98.43 98.60 99.01
8,000 98.62 99.30 98.86 99.18 97.65 98.49 98.75 98.58 98.78 99.16
9,000 98.75 99.37 99.01 99.27 97.84 98.65 98.93 98.98 98.93 99.20
10,000 98.86 99.48 99.19 99.34 98.03** 98.76 99.06 99.21 99.04 99.26
11,000 98.94 99.53 99.27 99.38 98.15 98.83 99.15 99.24 99.12 99.28
12,000 99.01 99.57 99.36 99.50 98.25 98.90 99.23 99.30 99.19 99.35
13,000 99.12 99.62 99.43 99.57 98.37 98.91 99.28 99.36 99.26 99.38
14,000 99.15 99.62 99.46 99.57 98.41 98.91 99.32 99.44 99.30 99.38
Proper
nouns 1.91 4.17 2.23 1.63 2.32 3.84 2.92 2.97 2.83 2.04
Mar-
ginal
words 0.16 0.02 0.43 0.09 1.73 0.73 0.63 0.17 0.57 0.39
Tokens 53,201 5,543 69,848 5,690 112,504 8,042 341,660 14,342 690,023 10,325
Note. *reaching 95% coverage; **reaching 98% coverage
 The potential for vocabulary learning through watching movies 509

nouns and marginal words between the sets, and from 4,000 to 6,000 word fami-
lies plus proper nouns and marginal words between the five individual movies.
The difference in the vocabulary size necessary to reach 95% and 98% coverage
between a set of movies and the movie analyzed from that set indicates that there
may be great variation in coverage between movies. For example, the vocabulary
size needed to reach 95% coverage of a set and the movie from that set were never
equal. Moreover, the vocabulary size needed to reach 98% coverage of a set of
movies and the movie from that set were only the same in one of five cases.
Table 4 shows the number and percentage of encounters with word families
from the 5,000–14,000 word lists that occurred in each of the five movies that were
analyzed in detail. The percentage of word families encountered once or twice
ranged from 84% in Mr. Smith Goes to Washington and Million Dollar Baby to 93%
in Legends of the Fall. The number of word families encountered five or more times
ranged from 0 in Saw to 10 in Mr. Smith Goes to Washington. Moreover, in only
one of the five movies was there more than one low frequency word family en-
countered 10 or more times. These results suggest that there is likely to be at most
a small number of low frequency words learned through viewing a single movie.
The number and percentage of encounters with 4,000 level word families for
the individual movies is shown in Table 5. The table shows that the majority of
4,000 level word families were encountered only once or twice. The percentage of
word families that were encountered once or twice ranged from 81% in Madagas-
car and Million Dollar Baby to 96% in Legends of the Fall. In contrast, the percent-
age of word families encountered five or more times ranged from 0% in Legends
of the Fall to 11% in Saw. It is important to note that the 11% of word families
encountered five or more times in Saw represented only three word families. This

Table 4. Number and percentage of encounters with 5,000–14,000 level word families in
each movie
Legends of the Mr. Smith Goes Million
Fall Saw Madagascar to Washington Dollar Baby
Amount % Amount % Amount % Amount % Amount %
1 encounter 50 83% 41 80% 74 72% 123 70% 56 76%
2 encounters 6 10% 5 10% 15 15% 25 14% 6 8%
3–4 encounters 2 3% 5 10% 10 10% 17 10% 7 9%
5–7 encounters 1 2% 0 0%    3 3%    3 2% 4 5%
8–9 encounters 0 0% 0 0%    0 0%    1 1% 1 1%
10+ encounters 1 2% 0 0%    1 1%    6 3% 0 0%
Total word
families 60 51 103 175 74
510 Stuart Webb

Table 5. Number and percentage of encounters with 4,000 level word families in each
movie
Mr. Smith
Legends of the Goes to Million Dol-
Fall Saw Madagascar Washington lar Baby
Amount % Amount % Amount % Amount % Amount %
1 encounter 21 75% 18 67% 31 66% 66 69% 32 70%
2 encounters 6 21% 5 19% 7 15% 17 18% 5 11%
3–4 encounters 1 4% 1 4% 7 15% 7 7% 8 17%
5–7 encounters 0 0% 1 4% 0 0% 2 2% 1 2%
8–9 encounters 0 0% 0 0% 1 2% 1 1% 0 0%
10+ encounters 0 0% 2 7% 1 2% 3 3% 0 0%
Total word
families 28 27 47 96 46

result indicates that there is likely to be very little incidental vocabulary learning at
the 4,000 word level from watching a single movie.
Table 6 shows the number and percentage of encounters with low-frequency
words (word families from the 5,000–14,000 word family lists) which occurred
within each set of movies. Clearly, the number of times each low frequency word
family is encountered is very small with limited viewing. However, the results in-
dicate that as the number of movies increases, the number of times that low fre-
quency word families are encountered increases. Seventy-one percent of the low
frequency word families were only encountered once in the set of eight movies,
68% were encountered once in the set of 13, and 61% were encountered once in the
set of 16 movies. The number of low frequency word families encountered once
decreases to 50% in the set of 36 and 45% in the set of 70. Similarly the percentage
of low frequency word families encountered five or more times increased from 6%
in the set of eight to 19% in the set of 70. The percentage of word families encoun-
tered 10 or more times ranged from 1% in the 13 movies to 7% in the set of 70.
Table 7 shows the number and percentage of encounters with the 4,000-word
level. There is greater evidence that movies provide the opportunity for inciden-
tal vocabulary learning at this level. The percentage of word families encountered
once ranged from 60% in the set of 13 movies to 16% in the set of 70. The percent-
age of word families encountered five or more times ranged from 11% in the set of
13 movies to 49% in the set of 70, and the percentage of word families encountered
10 or more times ranged from 5% in the set of 8 to 23% in the set of 70. This sug-
gests that for learners who know most of the most-frequent 3,000 word families,
regular viewing of movies may offer the potential for large incidental vocabulary
gains at the next word level.
 The potential for vocabulary learning through watching movies 511

Table 6. Number and percentage of encounters with 5,000–14,000 level word families
within each set of movies
Set of 8 Set of 13 Set of 16 Set of 36 Set of 70
Amount % Amount % Amount % Amount % Amount %
1 encounter 389 71% 488 68% 788 61% 1,173 50% 1,665 45%
2 encounters 77 14% 126 18% 206 16%   451 19%   696 19%
3–4 encounters 52 10% 71 10% 157 12%   404 17%   631 17%
5–7 encounters 11 2% 26 4% 68 5%   176 7%   323 9%
8–9 encounters    3 1%    0 0% 24 2%    51 2%   108 3%
10+ encounters 14 3%    6 1% 49 4%   100 4%   244 7%
Total word
families 546 717 1,292 2,355 3,667
Tokens 53,201 69,848 112,504 341,660 690,023

5. Discussion

In answer to the first research question, there is likely to be very little vocabu-
lary learned incidentally through watching a single movie. Research investigat-
ing the effects of repetition on learning vocabulary through reading has shown
that the more often words are encountered in context, the more likely they are
to be learned (Horst et al. 1998, Jenkins et al. 1984, Rott 1999, Saragi et al. 1978,
Waring & Takaki 2003, Webb 2007). The results of this study showed that over
80% of the 5,000–14,000-level word families were encountered only once or twice
in each of the five movies. The number of encounters with word families from
the 4,000-word level was very similar to the 5,000–14,000-level word families
with more than 80% of the word families encountered once or twice. The results
showed further that in only Mr. Smith Goes to Washington were there more than 10
word families encountered five or more times. In fact, in none of the movies were
there 10 word families from the 4,000–14,000 word levels encountered 10 or more
times. Moreover, in only one of the five movies (Mr. Smith Goes to Washington)
were there more than two word families from the 4,000–14,000-word levels en-
countered 10 or more times. Thus, if 10 or more encounters are necessary to learn
words incidentally through watching a movie then the number of word families
learned would typically be in single digits.
The results provide evidence that watching a single movie will have very little
value as an incidental vocabulary learning activity. This contrasts the many stud-
ies that have shown that incidental vocabulary learning is likely to occur through
watching television and short movies (d’Ydewalle & Pavakanun 1997, d’Ydewalle
& Van de Poel 1999, Koolstra & Beentjes 1999, Neuman & Koskinen 1992,
512 Stuart Webb

Table 7. Number and percentage of encounters with 4,000 level word families within
each set of movies
Set of 8 Set of 13 Set of 16 Set of 36 Set of 70
Amount % Amount % Amount % Amount % Amount %
1 encounter 124 59% 161 60% 190 47% 174 27% 134 16%
2 encounters 35 17% 45 17% 71 14% 126 20% 103 13%
3–4 encounters 26 12% 32 12% 75 15% 125 19% 175 21%
5–7 encounters 12 6% 10 4% 31 16% 91 14% 150 18%
8–9 encounters    3 1%    6 2%    9 2% 38 6% 65 8%
10+ encounters 10 5% 13 5% 30 6% 92 14% 192 23%
Total word
families 210 267 406 646 819
Tokens 53,201 69,848 112,504 341,660 690,023

Pavakanun & d’Ydewalle 1992). However, it is important to note that in most of

those studies the conditions for vocabulary learning were likely to be superior to
the conditions present in movies. In the earlier research, target words were en-
countered several times in a much shorter period of time (d’Ydewalle & Van de
Poel 1999, Oetting et al. 1995, Pavakanun & d’Ydewalle 1992, Rice & Woodsmall
1988) and explicit and redundant information were present in the viewed material
which may have helped facilitate vocabulary learning (d’Ydewalle & Van de Poel
1999, Koolstra & Beentjes 1999, Neuman & Koskinen 1992, Oetting et al. 1995,
Rice & Woodsmall 1988). Thus, while the previous research does indicate that
incidental vocabulary learning may occur through watching movies, it does not
indicate the extent to which it may occur. The results of the present study suggest
that due to the small number of encounters with low frequency words very few
words are likely to be learned incidentally through watching a single movie.
In answer to the second research question, the results indicate that regular
viewing of movies over a long period of time has great potential for incidental
vocabulary learning. The results showed that as the number of movies analyzed
increased, the number of times that low frequency word families were encoun-
tered also increased. For example, 71% of the word families from the 5,000 to
14,000-word levels were encountered only once in the set of 8 movies. However,
the percentage of word families encountered only once was 68% within the set
of 13 movies, 61% within the set of 16 movies, 50% within the set of 36 movies,
and 45% within the set of 70 movies. In contrast, the percentage of low frequency
word families encountered five or more times increased from 6% in the set of 8
movies to 19% in the set of 70 movies. Although five encounters with an unknown
word family may not lead to full knowledge of meaning, it may at least lead to
 The potential for vocabulary learning through watching movies 513

partial knowledge of meaning and other aspects of vocabulary knowledge such

as spoken form and grammatical functions (Webb 2007). The percentage of word
families encountered 10 or more times may give a better indication of whether or
not knowledge of meaning may potentially be acquired through watching mov-
ies. The percentage of low frequency word families encountered 10 or more times
increased from 3% in the set of 8 movies to 7% in the set of 70 movies. It should
be noted that the percentage of word families encountered 10 or more times in
the set of 13 movies (1%) was less than for the set of 8 (3%). This may indicate
that the number of encounters with low frequency vocabulary in a relatively small
number of movies (n<15) may be inconsistent. Overall, the results indicate that if
L2 movies are watched often over a long period of time, there is the potential for
incidental vocabulary learning of low frequency word families. It is particularly
important to note that the potential for learning will increase as the number of
movies viewed increases and that there is likely to be very little, if any, learning
after watching a few movies.
The results above indicate that there may be incidental learning of items from
the most frequent 5,000–14,000 word families with regular viewing. However,
perhaps the most likely words to be learned are at the next frequency level, in
this case word families from the 4,000-word level. The potential for incidental vo-
cabulary learning is clearly apparent at this level. The percentage of word families
encountered only once decreased from 59% in the set of 8 movies to 16% in the
set of 70 movies. In contrast, the percentage of word families encountered 5 or
more times increased from 11% in the set of 13 movies to 49% in the set of 70
movies. Moreover, the percentage of word families encountered 10 or more times
increased from 5% in the set of 8 movies to 23% in the set of 70. These results pro-
vide powerful evidence that if learners know the most frequent 3,000 word fami-
lies and watch movies regularly, there is great potential for incidental learning. The
findings indicate that watching movies often could be an effective way to increase
vocabulary size from the 3,000-word level to the 4,000-word level.
It should be noted that there was little difference between the results of the sets
of 8 and 13 movies. In fact, the percentage of word families encountered 5–7 times
was higher for the set of 8 than the set of 13 movies, and the percentage of word
families encountered only once was higher for the set of 13 movies than for the set
of 8. This suggests that there may be little difference between the two samples (8
and 13 movies) or the results may be less consistent if fewer movies are watched.
However, the results do clearly indicate that if the number of movies increases at
larger intervals, the percentage of word families encountered only once is likely to
decrease and the percentage of word families encountered more than five times is
likely to increase. It should be noted, however, that each set of movies was from
one genre. It is possible that low frequency word families may not be encountered
514 Stuart Webb

quite as often in a range of genres. Further research examining the number of

encounters with low frequency words in movies from different genres would be a
useful follow-up to this study.
Together, the analysis of the individual movies and the sets of movies may shed
some light on how movies might be used for vocabulary learning. First, although
incidental vocabulary learning may occur through watching an isolated movie, the
number of words learned is likely to be extremely small. Because a much larger
number of words may be learned through explicit methods in the amount of time
it takes to watch a movie, teachers and learners should not consider vocabulary
learning as the primary goal of watching a single L2 movie. This does not mean
that watching a single L2 movie has no value. It simply means that there are more
effective ways to learn vocabulary than through watching one movie. Second, the
results suggest that learners who know the most frequent 3,000 word families and
watch a large number of L2 movies are likely to learn vocabulary incidentally. It is
particularly important for both teachers and learners to be aware of the difference
in value between watching an occasional movie and watching movies regularly.
The findings in this study show that watching 70 movies may have great benefit in
terms of vocabulary learning. Over a year, this is approximately 1.3 movies a week.
This may be an achievable task for many learners because research indicates that
L2 learners are motivated to learn through watching movies (Chapple & Curtis
2000, Colwell & Ipince Braschi 2006, King 2002). It would certainly not be pos-
sible to spend such a large amount of time watching movies in most classrooms.
Perhaps the value of using movies in the classroom may be to introduce them as
a resource for language learning. Learners need to be made aware that when they
have reached the target vocabulary size (3,000 word families), they may be able to
understand and learn language through watching movies. It may be of greatest im-
portance to get learners accustomed to watching L2 movies and to help them meet
the initial challenge in L2 aural comprehension that movies may at first present.

6. Conclusion

Taken as a whole, the results indicate that there is the potential for incidental vo-
cabulary learning through watching movies for learners who know the most fre-
quent 3,000 word families. The results showed that if learners watched a small
number of movies there would be very few words learned. However, learners who
watch movies often are likely to encounter low frequency word families enough to
make significant gains in vocabulary knowledge. Teachers and learners need to be
aware that movies have potential for language learning and could be used exten-
sively together with graded readers for extensive L2 learning. Learners may gain
 The potential for vocabulary learning through watching movies 515

knowledge of the written form of words through reading and gain knowledge of
the spoken form of words through watching movies. Together reading and watch-
ing movies may provide deeper vocabulary knowledge and greater potential for
language learning.
The results of the present study suggest that movies may be a valuable re-
source for language learning. However, further research investigating the effects of
watching movies on L2 learning is needed. The analysis of the movie transcripts in
this study suggests that there is potential for incidental learning to occur through
watching movies. While this is a useful finding, it needs to be examined experi-
mentally through a controlled treatment with L2 learners to provide a more ac-
curate assessment of the extent of learning. It may also be useful to examine which
words are learned through watching movies because the psychological saliency
of words and the individuality of vocabulary learning may also have an effect on
incidental vocabulary learning. Further research focused on determining which
items are learned through watching movies may help to clarify which factors are
involved in vocabulary learning besides frequency.

Notes

1. The use of the movie scripts was strictly for non-profit educational purposes.

2. Nation (2004) examined the range of occurrence of word families within ten 10,000,000-
word sections of the BNC.

References

Bauer, L. & Nation, I. S. P. 1993. “Word families”. International Journal of Lexicography, 6 (4),
253–279.
Bonk, W. 2000. “Second language lexical knowledge and listening comprehension”. International
Journal of Listening, 14 (1), 14–31.
Carver, R. P. 1994. “Percentage of unknown vocabulary words in text as a function of the rela-
tive difficulty of the text: Implications for instruction”. Journal of Reading Behavior, 26 (4),
413–437.
Chapple, L. & Curtis, A. 2000. “Content-based instruction in Hong Kong: Student responses to
film”. System, 28 (3), 419–433.
Cobb, T. 2007. “Computing the vocabulary demands of L2 reading”. Language Learning and
Technology, 11 (3), 38–63.
Colwell, H. & Ipince Braschi, M. 2006. “Using films with mixed level ESL classes”. Available
at: http://www.englishaustralia.com.au/index.cgi?E=hcatfuncs&PT=sl&X=getdoc&Lev1=
pub_c07_07&Lev2=c06_colwe (accessed May 2008).
516 Stuart Webb

Donkaewbua, S. 2007. The Effects of Previous Partial Word Knowledge on Vocabulary Learning
through Listening. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Victoria University of Wellington,
New Zealand.
d’Ydewalle, G. & Pavakanun, U. 1995. “Acquisition of a second/foreign language by viewing a
television program”. In P. Winterhoff-Spurk (Ed.), Psychology of Media in Europe: The State
of the Art — Perspectives for the Future. Opladen, Germany: Westdeutscher Verlag, 51–64.
d’Ydewalle, G. & Pavakanun, U. 1997. “Could enjoying a movie lead to language acquisition?”.
In P. Winterhoff-Spurk & T. Van der Voort (Eds.), New Horizons in Media Psychology. Op-
laden, Germany: Westdeutscher Verlag, 145–155.
d’Ydewalle, G. & Van de Poel, M. 1999. “Incidental foreign-language acquisition by children
watching subtitled television programs”. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 28 (3), 227–
244.
Elley, W. B. 1989. “Vocabulary acquisition from listening to stories”. Reading Research Quarterly,
24 (2), 174–187.
Folse, K. 2006. “The effect of type of written exercise on L2 vocabulary retention”. TESOL Quar-
terly, 40 (2), 273–293.
Gieve, S. & Clark, R. 2005. “ ‘The Chinese approach to learning’: Cultural trait or situated re-
sponse? The case of a self-directed learning programme”. System, 33 (2), 261–276.
Grant, L. & Bauer, L. 2004. “Criteria for re-defining idioms: Are we barking up the wrong tree?”.
Applied Linguistics, 25 (1), 38–61.
Hanley, J., Herron, C. & Cole, S. 1995. “Using video as advance organizer to a written passage in
the FLES classroom”. The Modern Language Journal, 79 (1), 57–66.
Heatley, A., Nation, P. & Coxhead, A. 2002. RANGE [Computer software]. Available at: http://
www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/staff/paul-nation/nation.aspx
Hirsh, D. & Nation, P. 1992. “What vocabulary size is needed to read unsimplified texts for plea-
sure?”. Reading in a Foreign Language, 8 (2), 689–696.
Horst, M., Cobb, T. & Meara, P. 1998. “Beyond A Clockwork Orange: Acquiring second language
vocabulary through reading”. Reading in a Foreign Language, 11 (2), 207–223.
Hu, M. & Nation, I. S. P. 2000. “Vocabulary density and reading comprehension”. Reading in a
Foreign Language, 13 (1), 403–430.
Hwang, K. & Nation, I. S. P. 1989. “Reducing the vocabulary load and encouraging vocabulary
learning through reading newspapers”. Reading in a Foreign Language, 6 (1), 323–335.
Jenkins, J. R., Stein, M. L. & Wysocki, K. 1984. “Learning vocabulary through reading”. Ameri-
can Educational Research Journal, 21 (4), 767–787.
Keating, G. 2008. “Task effectiveness and word learning in a second language: The involvement
load hypothesis on trial”. Language Teaching Research, 12 (3), 365–386.
King, J. 2002. “Using DVD feature films in the EFL classroom”. Computer Assisted Language
Learning, 15 (5), 509–523.
Koolstra, C. & Beentjes, J. 1999. “Children’s vocabulary acquisition in a foreign language
through watching subtitled television programs at home”. Educational Technology Research
and Development, 47 (1), 51–60.
Laufer, B. 1989. “What percentage of text lexis is essential for comprehension?”. In C. Lauren
& M. Nordman (Eds.), Special Language: From Humans Thinking to Thinking Machines.
Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 316–323.
 The potential for vocabulary learning through watching movies 517

Laufer, B. & Sim, D. D. 1985. “An attempt to measure the threshold of competence for reading
comprehension”. Foreign Language Annals, 18 (5), 405–411.
Liu N. & Nation, I. S. P. 1985. “Factors affecting guessing vocabulary in context”. RELC Journal,
16 (1), 33–42.
Mueller, G. 1980. “Visual contextual cues and listening comprehension: An experiment”. Mod-
ern Language Journal, 64 (3), 335–340.
Nagy, W. E., Herman, P. & Anderson, R. C. 1985. “Learning words from context”. Reading Re-
search Quarterly, 20 (2), 233–253.
Nation, I. S. P. 2001. Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press.
Nation, I. S. P. 2004. “A study of the most frequent word families in the British National Corpus”.
In P. Bogaards & B. Laufer (Eds.), Vocabulary in a Second Language: Selection, Acquisition,
and Testing. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 3–13.
Nation, I. S. P. 2006. “How large a vocabulary is needed for reading and listening?”. The Cana-
dian Modern Language Review, 63 (1), 59–82.
Neuman, B. & Koskinen, P. 1992. “Captioned television as comprehensible input: Effects of
incidental word learning from context for language minority students”. Reading Research
Quarterly, 27 (1), 95–106.
Oetting, J. B., Rice, M. L. & Swank, L. K. 1995. “Quick incidental learning (QUIL) of words by
school-age children with and without SLI”. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 38 (2),
434–445.
Pavakanun, U. & d’Ydewalle, G. 1992. “Watching foreign television programs and language
learning”. In F. L. Engel, D. G. Bouwhuis, T. Bösser & G. d’Ydewalle (Eds.), Cognitive Mod-
elling and Interactive Environments in Language Learning. Berlin: Springer, 193–198.
Rice, M. L. & Woodsmall, L. 1988. “Lessons from television: Children’s word learning when
viewing”. Child Development, 59 (2), 420–429.
Rodgers, M. P. H. & Webb, S. Under review. “Narrow viewing: The vocabulary in related televi-
sion programs”.
Rott, S. 1999. “The effect of exposure frequency on intermediate language learners’ incidental
vocabulary acquisition through reading”. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21 (1),
589–619.
Rubin, J. 1994. “A review of second language listening comprehension research”. The Modern
Language Journal, 78 (2), 199–221.
Saragi, T., Nation, I. S. P. & Meister, G. F. 1978. “Vocabulary learning and reading”. System, 6 (2),
72–78.
Schmitt, N. & Carter, R. 2000. “The lexical advantages of narrow reading for second language
learners”. TESOL Journal, 9 (1), 4–9.
Schmitt, N. & Zimmerman, C. B. 2002. “Derivative word forms: What do learners know?”. TE-
SOL Quarterly, 36 (2), 145–171.
Sutarsyah, C., Nation, I. S. P. & Kennedy, G. 1994. “How useful is EAP vocabulary for ESP? A
corpus based case study”. RELC Journal, 25 (2), 34–50.
Secules, T., Herron, C. & Tomasello, M. 1992. “The effect of video context on foreign language
learning”. Modern Language Journal, 76 (4), 480–490.
Waring, R. & Takaki, M. 2003. “At what rate do learners learn and retain new vocabulary from
reading a graded reader?”. Reading in a Foreign Language, 15 (2), 130–163.
518 Stuart Webb

Webb, S. 2007. “The effects of repetition on vocabulary knowledge”. Applied Linguistics, 28 (1),
46–65.
Webb, S. 2008. “The effects of context on incidental vocabulary learning”. Reading in a Foreign
Language, 20 (2), 232–245.
Webb, S. Forthcoming. “Investigating the vocabulary in television programs from the same
genre”. International Journal of English Studies.
Webb, S. & Rodgers, M. P. H. 2009a. “The lexical coverage of movies”. Applied Linguistics, 30 (3),
407–427.
Webb, S. & Rodgers, M. P. H. 2009b. “The vocabulary demands of television programs”. Lan-
guage Learning, 59 (2), 335–366.

Appendix

Segment of a movie script and words listed according to Nation’s BNC 1,000 word lists

I’ve only ever met one man I wouldn’t want to fight. When I met him he was already the best cut
man in the business. Started training and managing in the sixties, never lost his gift.
I need to look at him.
He’s fine, he’s fine.
Even if you don’t stop this bleeding, I give you one more round.
Seconds up, let’s go.
What do we do? Tell me what to do.
Let him hit you.
Sometimes there’s just nothing you can do.
Cuts too high, too close to the bone, maybe you got a severed vein, or you just can’t get the
coagulant deep enough. They’re all kinds of combinations you come up against down in the dif-
ferent layers of meat and Frankie knew how to work every one.
People love violence, they’ll slow down at a car wreck to check for bodies, same people claim
to love boxing. They got no idea what it is. Boxing is about respect, getting it for yourself, and
taking it away from the other guy.

BNC-1,000: 94 word families, 169 tokens

a, a, about, against, all, already, and, and, and, are, are, at, at, away, best, bleeding, bodies, busi-
ness, can, can, car, check, claim, close, come, cut, cuts, deep, different, do, do, do, do, do, down,
down, enough, even, ever, every, fight, fine, fine, for, for, from, get, getting, give, go, got, got, guy,
have, he, he, he, high, him, him, him, his, hit, how, I, I, I, I, I, idea, if, in, in, in, is, is, is, is, is, it,
it, it, just, just, kinds, knew, let, let, look, lost, love, love, man, man, managing, maybe, me, met,
met, more, need, never, no, not, not, not, nothing, of, of, one, one, one, only, or, other, people,
people, respect, round, same, sixties, slow, sometimes, started, stop, taking, tell, the, the, the, the,
the, the, the, there, they, they, they, this, to, to, to, to, to, to, to, too, too, training, up, up, us, want,
was, we, what, what, what, when, will, work, would, you, you, you, you, you, you, you, yourself
BNC-2,000: 6 families, 6 tokens
bone, combinations, gift, meat, seconds, violence
BNC-3,000: 3 families, 4, tokens
 The potential for vocabulary learning through watching movies 519

boxing, boxing, layers, wreck

BNC-4,000: 1 family, 1 token
severed
BNC-5,000: 1 family, 1 token
vein
BNC-6,000–14,000: 0 families, 0 tokens
Marginal words: 0 tokens
Proper nouns: 1 token
Frankie
Not in the lists: 1 token
coagulant

Author’s address
Stuart Webb
School of Linguistics and Applied Language Studies
Victoria University of Wellington
PO Box 600
Wellington, New Zealand
stuart.webb@vuw.ac.nz