Energies 15 06271 v3

energies
Review
Trends and Emerging Technologies for the Development of
Electric Vehicles
Tiande Mo 1,2,† , Yu Li 1 , Kin-tak Lau 2 , Chi Kin Poon 1 , Yinghong Wu 3, * and Yang Luo 4, *,†
1 Automotive Platforms and Application Systems (APAS) R&D Centre, Hong Kong Productivity
Council (HKPC), Hong Kong 999077, China
2 Faculty of Science, Engineering and Technology, Swinburne University of Technology,
Melbourne, VIC 3122, Australia
3 Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zürich,
8092 Zürich, Switzerland
4 Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, ETH Domain,
8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
* Correspondence: yinghonwu2-c@my.cityu.edu.hk (Y.W.); yang.luo@empa.ch (Y.L.)
† These authors contributed equally to this work.
Abstract: In response to severe environmental and energy crises, the world is increasingly focusing
on electric vehicles (EVs) and related emerging technologies. Emerging technologies for EVs have
great potential to accelerate the development of smart and sustainable transportation and help build
future smart cities. This paper reviews new trends and emerging EV technologies, including wireless
charging, smart power distribution, vehicle-to-home (V2H) and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) systems, con-
nected vehicles, and autonomous driving. The opportunities, challenges, and prospects for emerging
EV technologies are systematically discussed. The successful commercialization development cases
of emerging EV technologies worldwide are provided. This review serves as a reference and guide
for future technological development and commercialization of EVs and offers perspectives and
recommendations on future smart transportation.
Citation: Mo, T.; Li, Y.; Lau, K.-t.;

Keywords: emerging EV technologies; new trends; smart transportation; challenges and prospects;
Poon, C.K.; Wu, Y.; Luo, Y. Trends
commercialization development
and Emerging Technologies for the
Development of Electric Vehicles.
Energies 2022, 15, 6271. https://
doi.org/10.3390/en15176271
1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Hai Wang
In response to the dire climate and energy crisis, increased global attention has been
Received: 19 July 2022 directed toward the electrification of transportation systems to develop electric vehicles
Accepted: 25 August 2022 (EVs) [1]. Currently, there are still a large number of conventional internal combustion
Published: 28 August 2022 engine (ICE) vehicles in operation worldwide, and they consume considerable amounts
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
of fossil fuels. Therefore, the acceleration of the electrification of vehicles is imminent.
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
Pure battery EVs, plug-in hybrid EVs, and fuel cell EVs constitute the “green” EV groups.
published maps and institutional affil-
Plug-in hybrid EVs can be considered a transition model, as they still consume fossil
iations. fuels and emit pollutants [2]. Although fuel cell EVs have many advantages, such as
high energy efficiency, long cruising range, and fast hydrogen refueling, their technology
and market are still very immature [3]. Pure battery EVs are zero-emission vehicles that
operate entirely on electricity produced by batteries. With the continuous breakthrough of
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. battery technologies, the rapid construction of charging facilities, and people’s pursuit of
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. low-carbon travel in recent years, pure battery EVs currently occupy most of the EV market
This article is an open access article and are well-deserved mainstream models [4–6]. In this context, all EVs below refer to pure
distributed under the terms and battery EVs only.
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Energies 2022, 15, 6271. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15176271 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2022, 15, 6271 2 of 34
Traveler range anxiety [7,8], insufficient charging infrastructures [9,10], and chal-
lenging charging time management [11,12] are the most significant obstacles hindering
the development of EVs. Representative emerging EV technologies, including wireless
charging [13], smart power distribution [14], vehicle-to-home (V2H) and vehicle-to-grid
(V2G) [15], connected vehicles (CVs) [16], and autonomous driving [17], provide new solu-
tions to the persistent problems that plague the development and popularization of EVs
and also bring good opportunities for the rapid development of new EV markets. Wireless
charging and autonomous driving make the use of EVs more convenient and intelligent,
and can also significantly increase the range of EVs without increasing the weight of the
battery. The popularity of wireless charging, smart grid, and V2G also provides solutions to
alleviate the shortage of charging facilities and rational charging time management. Smart
power distribution and V2G can reduce the pressure on the grid during peak charging of
EVs and combine V2H to use electricity more rationally. Moreover, CVs and autonomous
driving will significantly improve the driving experience of people’s travel and bring new
impetus to the promotion of EVs in addition to environmental and energy concerns.
Despite significant advances in fundamental research on battery materials, power-
trains, and control strategies for EVs at the technical level, much remains to be accomplished
for the successful commercialization of EVs, especially in most developing countries. At
present, there have been good reviews that summarize the development and technical
status of various EV technologies, including battery technologies [18,19], motor technolo-
gies [20,21], charging technologies [22,23], powertrain systems [23,24], etc. Although
the previous analyses and summaries of EVs are very comprehensive and detailed, the
emergence and rapid development of the above-mentioned new technologies and their
successful application in EVs have set off a new revolution in the field of EVs, which calls
for a timely review. In addition, previous reviews lacked attention to the commercialization
of EVs, which is not conducive to the development of this applied discipline. The develop-
ment of emerging technologies for EVs can broaden the market and promote the adoption
of EVs. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first review paper comprehensively sum-
marizing and reviewing all of these multiple emerging EV technologies, with a particular
focus on the commercial development and market products of these new technologies.
Herein, this paper aims to reveal new trends and emerging technologies in the re-
cent development of EVs, and to discuss in detail the challenges and new opportunities
brought by wireless charging, smart power distribution, V2G and V2H systems, CVs,
and autonomous driving. The following discussion will be divided into five subsections
corresponding to these five new trends, as clearly presented in Figure 1. In each new
trend subsection, the benefits and business opportunities are summarized after a brief
introduction of the cutting-edge technologies. Subsequently, typical technological devel-
opments are highlighted, with a focus on successful business cases and representative
examples of emerging technology products in major countries. Then, a discussion of new
technology prospects follows, and the future challenges and opportunities are presented.
Finally, conclusions and outlooks for future EV development are provided. The new tech-
nologies involved in this review are of great significance for solving the existing technical
bottlenecks of EVs, improving the attractiveness of EVs to consumers, and promoting their
market development and maturity. The successful experience of EV development in some
typical countries summarized in this paper provides certain guiding experience and a
leading role for the future paths of EVs. Therefore, this article provides perspectives and
recommendations on the development of EVs in future smart cities.
Energies 2022, 15, 6271 3 of 34
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 34
Figure 1. Structure and highlights of this review.

Figure 1. 1.Structure
Figure Structureand
andhighlights
highlights of
of this
this review.
2.2.
2. Wireless
Wireless Charging
WirelessCharging
Charging
2.1.
2.1. Wireless Charging Technologies
2.1.Wireless
WirelessCharging
Charging Technologies
Technologies
IfIfIfthe
theinduction
theinduction charging
chargingsystem
induction charging system
system isisis
inina amagnetic
in amagnetic
magnetic resonance
resonance
resonance coupling
coupling
coupling state, even
state,
state, even ififtheif
even
transmitting
the
thetransmitting and
transmittingand receiving
andreceivingcoils are further
coils are
receiving coils arefurther away
furtheraway than
awaythan a few
thana afew feet
few apart,
feet
feet apart,
apart, excellent
excellent
excellent charging
charg-
charg-
efficiency
ing
ingefficiency can can
efficiency still be guaranteed
canstill
still be
be guaranteed
guaranteed [25,26].
[25,26].
[25,26]. Benefiting
Benefiting
Benefiting this
thisprinciple,
this principle,
principle, when
when
when the
thethe induction
induction
induction
charging
chargingsystem
charging systemhas
system haswell-tuned
has well-tuned hardware
well-tuned hardwaredevices
hardware devices
devicesandand
andisis positioned
ispositioned
positioned atat
at
the the
the optimal
optimal
optimal angle,
angle,
angle,
vehicles
vehicles parked
vehiclesparked in
parkedin garages
ingarages or on the
garages or on the street
the street
streetcan can
canbe be charged
becharged efficiently
chargedefficiently
efficiently at
at at large
large
large gapgap
gap distances
distances
distances
with
with3–7
with 3–7kW
3–7 kW
kWofof electricalpower,
ofelectrical
electrical power,operating
operating
operating in in
thethe
inthe MHz MHz
MHz frequency
frequency
frequency range
range range
[27,28]. [27,28].
[27,28].The
Thesche-The
sche-
schematic
matic diagram
diagram of aof a common
common stationary
stationary wireless
wireless charging
charging
matic diagram of a common stationary wireless charging is displayed in Figure 2a.is is displayed
displayed in in
Figure Figure
2a. 2a.
Figure
Figure 2. 2.(a)(a)Stationary
Stationarywireless
wireless charging
charging [29];
[29]; (b)
(b) Dynamic
Dynamicwireless
wirelesscharging
charging[29]; (c)(c)
[29]; Vision of the
Vision of the
future
future smartcity
smart citywireless
wirelesscharging
chargingsystem
system [30].
[30].
Figure 2. (a) Stationary wireless charging [29]; (b) Dynamic wireless charging [29]; (c) Vision of the
future smart city wireless charging system [30].
Energies 2022, 15, 6271 4 of 34
2.2. Benefits and Business Opportunities

Wireless charging provides
2.2. Benefits great convenience
and Business Opportunitiesto vehicle owners and has the advantage
of more versatility, permanence, and reliability
Wireless charging provides compared to traditional
great convenience charging
to vehicle ownersmethods.
and has the ad-
It not only avoids irreparable
vantage of moredefacement and abrasion
versatility, permanence, to charging
and reliability connectors
compared causedcharging
to traditional
by harsh environments
methods.(stains, corrosion)
It not only and frequent
avoids irreparable drop-and-insert
defacement and abrasion buttoalso ensures
charging connectors
secured chargingcaused by harsh
in scenarios environments
with (stains,including
potential danger, corrosion)explosive
and frequentgas drop-and-insert
stations where but also
electrical sparks ensures secured [31,32].
are prohibited chargingDue in scenarios withofpotential
to a series supportivedanger, including explosive
government policies gas sta-
tions where
and subsidies conducive electrical
to the sparks are
construction ofprohibited
charging [31,32].
stations,Duethetocost
a series
andof supportive
obstacles to govern-
developing the new energy industry have been significantly reduced. Coupled with the the cost
ment policies and subsidies conducive to the construction of charging stations,
and obstacles to developing the new energy industry have been significantly reduced.
gradual development of power-driven technology, both supply and demand for EVs will
Coupled with the gradual development of power-driven technology, both supply and de-
increase sharply. Driven by these factors, the global market for EV wireless charging is
mand for EVs will increase sharply. Driven by these factors, the global market for EV
expected to expand at a charging
wireless compound annual to
is expected growth
expandrate
at a(CAGR)
compound of 49.38% from 2020
annual growth to
rate (CAGR) of
2025 [33]. The continued increase in fast EV chargers will become another core
49.38% from 2020 to 2025 [33]. The continued increase in fast EV chargers will becometo further
drive the market,another
with a scale
core to exceeding $7 billion
further drive in 2025.
the market, The
with a advanced dynamic
scale exceeding charging
$7 billion in 2025. The
concept aims to advanced
continuously charge EVs waiting for signals or even
dynamic charging concept aims to continuously charge EVs waitingin motion usingfor signals
electromagnetic coils preset
or even underusing
in motion the road, as shown in
electromagnetic Figure
coils 2b.under
preset The vision
the road, of as
theshown
futurein Figure
smart city with a2b. The vision of thewireless
well-established future smart city with
charging a well-established
system is described wireless
in Figure charging
2c. system is
described in Figure 2c.
2.3. Technological Developments
The representative wireless charging products that have appeared on the market will
The representative
be introduced as follows to demonstrate wireless charging products
the commercial that have appeared on the market will
progress.
be introduced as follows to demonstrate the commercial progress.
2.3.1. Plugless Power
2.3.1. Plugless Power
“Plugless Power” is a set of EVSE series products of Evatran, which consists of a
“Plugless Power” is a set of EVSE series products of Evatran, which consists of a wall-
wall-mounted control board for parameter setting, a floor-mounted parking mat with
mounted control board for parameter setting, a floor-mounted parking mat with a trans-
a transmitting coil, and a vehicle adapter with a receiving coil mounted on the vehicle
mitting coil, and a vehicle adapter with a receiving coil mounted on the vehicle chassis
chassis [34,35]. When
[34,35].anWhen
EV with a Plugless
an EV power power
with a Plugless adapter is parked
adapter on the
is parked onparking mat,mat, the
the parking
the control system will automatically detect and align the position of the transmitting and
control system will automatically detect and align the position of the transmitting and
receiving coils and perform a sustained charge, up to 7.2 kW of power, without any external
receiving coils and perform a sustained charge, up to 7.2 kW of power, without any exter-
physical connection, as shown
nal physical in Figure
connection, 3a. Evatran
as shown in Figurehas
3a. already provided
Evatran has already customized
provided customized
EVSE products toEVSEnumerous well-known
products to numerousvehicle models,vehicle
well-known such as the BMW
models, suchi3,asNissan
the BMWLeaf,
i3, Nissan
and Tesla ModelLeaf,
S. and Tesla Model S.
Figure 3. Photographs of representative wireless charging products for EVs: (a) Plugless Power [36];
(b) WiTricity [37]; (c) Qualcomm Halo™ [38]; (d) Wireless charging system developed by APAS
and HKPC.
Energies 2022, 15, 6271 5 of 34
2.3.2. WiTricity
WiTricity, an American high-tech company, has produced a wireless energy transfer
system based on alternating magnetic resonance [39]. The system (Figure 3b) has an
adjustable output power interval, with a wide range from 3.6 to 11 kW, so that it can satisfy
the charging needs of PHEVs equipped with small and short-range battery packs to EVs
equipped with large ones [40].
2.3.3. Qualcomm Halo™

Qualcomm Halo™ wireless charging products, introduced by Qualcomm, are high-
power wireless charging solutions based on magnetic resonance technology [41,42] (Figure 3c).
The system covers 3.7 kW, 7.4 kW, 11 kW, and 22 kW of wireless fast charging power using a
charging mat mounted on the ground with over 90% system efficiency [43]. Moreover, it is
also equipped with auxiliary functions such as foreign object detection (FOD) and positioning
guidance. Qualcomm sponsored the Formula Electric Championship as a founding technical
partner and integrated the 7.4 kW system into the BMW i8 medical vehicle.
2.3.4. Zonecharge
Zonecharge demonstrated its wireless charging technology based on magnetically cou-
pled resonance for the first time in 2016. The solution includes a wireless charging product for
EVs, with a power of 6.6 kW, and another for buses, with a power of 30 kW [44,45].
2.3.5. APAS and HKPC

In 2017, based on the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) standard, the Automo-
tive Platforms and Application Systems (APAS) R&D Centre and Hong Kong Productivity
Council (HKPC) developed a wireless charging device based on magnetic resonance cou-
pling that can fill up a small EV in 3 h with a power output of 7 kW, as shown in Figure 3d.
2.4. Prospects
The following will prospect the future development of wireless charging from the
perspectives of commercialization and technology. Dynamic and fast wireless charging will
become two important outlets and breakthroughs for EV wireless charging development.
2.4.1. Commercialization
The Dynamic EV Charging (DEVC) concept, which charges moving vehicles on the
road, has attracted the research attention of innovators, scientists, and engineers, as the
developing trend for the next generation of wireless charging. Qualcomm, an industry
leader and in-depth researcher in wireless charging, has taken the lead in conducting actual
track tests about DEVC [41]. This unique 100 m-long test track contains four energy supply
units, each responsible for supplying energy for 25 m of the track. A pair of test EVs
drove through the track at highway speeds of 100 km/h while achieving dynamic charging
efficiency of up to 20 kW. In addition to supporting simultaneous dynamic charging of
multiple vehicles, Qualcomm also indicated that forms of motion do not constrain charging
behavior, whether forward or reverse. Qualcomm is currently actively investigating DEVC
construction with relevant parties, including transport authorities, power companies, and
infrastructure companies, to accelerate its commercialization.
2.4.2. Fast Wireless EV Charging

Electric buses and trucks require large-capacity battery packs due to their long-distance
travel and heavy-duty feature. The increasing usage of EVs has dramatically expanded
the demand for high-power fast charging. The substantial government subsidies for the
construction of shared charging infrastructure also make it possible to promote fast wireless
charging up to 50 kW.
Energies 2022, 15, 6271 6 of 34
2.4.3. Future Challenges and Opportunities

Challenges and opportunities in the future development of wireless charging in EVs
are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Summary of challenges and opportunities of application of wireless charging in EVs [46].
Challenges Opportunities
Misalignment tolerance of the charger Application and development of new materials
Timing of high-speed power transfer Extended range and battery life in EVs
Multiple vehicles charging on each transmitter Development of autonomous driving
Charger life and durability under
Renewable energy storage
real conditions
Impact of grid Frequency control at the grid connection
High cost of infrastructure construction and
Cost reduction for EVs
large-scale deployment
Interoperability between
Cost reduction and environmental benefits
multiple manufacturers
Incentives
Fast charging
Universal standards
3. Smart Power Distribution Technologies

3.1. Power Distribution Technology
Effective power distribution can charge more EVs without major infrastructure up-
grades. Instead of installing additional physical electrical capacity, the power distribution
system can dynamically share existing power across more EV chargers to charge more
EVs [47–49]. The advantages of smart power distribution are demonstrated by a rep-
resentative system in Figure 4a. In other scenarios, private and fleet EV drivers expect
easy access to charging facilities along the route. The drivers need transparently shared
charging pile information, including real-time information on charger availability and peak
and off-peak pricing. With a comprehensive back-end charging centralized control and
management system, drivers will be provided with advanced EV charging management
solutions, including smart energy management with demand-side responsiveness [50].
Figure
Figure4.4.(a)
(a)Schematic
Schematicdiagram
diagramofofsmart
smartpower
powerdistribution
distribution[51];
[51];(b)
(b)“Charging
“ChargingPro”
Pro”developed
developedby
by
APAS and HKPC.
APAS and HKPC.
3.2. Battery Integrated Charging Solutions

The introduction of renewable energy sources and secondary batteries in the electric-
ity grid is emerging as an advanced technology of smart power distribution that facilitates
the implementation of fast EV chargers. The secondary batteries and renewable energy
Energies 2022, 15, 6271 7 of 34
3.2. Battery Integrated Charging Solutions

The introduction of renewable energy sources and secondary batteries in the electricity
grid is emerging as an advanced technology of smart power distribution that facilitates the
implementation of fast EV chargers. The secondary batteries and renewable energy sources,
such as green energy generators, can refeed surplus power generation into the electricity
grid to boost its power capacity. Secondary batteries, as energy buffers, can supply energy
in emergencies when the grid is overloaded or disconnected [52].

The development of EV power distribution technology faces abundant opportunities
with challenges. The growing number of EVs will place unprecedented demands on the
urban grid’s peak carrying capacity, as most EV charging times are highly overlapping,
typically at night [53]. Concentrated charging results in an extreme spike in electricity
demand during those hours each day, whereas power capacity is not fully utilized for most
of the rest [54]. This situation can adversely affect everyone who receives electricity service.
On the one hand, the voltage drop and instability caused by the concentration may result
in the breakdown of appliances. On the other hand, the increase in generation capacity
and the reinforcement of hardware facilities inevitably raise the electricity price. These
downsides are already seen in some developed countries. Statistics show that the UK will
invest over £2 billion to optimize at least 30% of its low-voltage network to satisfy the peak
demand for centralized EV charging. However, if smart distribution systems are widely
deployed to manage EV charging behavior, making better use of the power capacity of
the existing grid, the low-voltage network upgrade will be delayed or prevented [55]. In
addition, as an essential part of a smart city, the popularity of smart power distribution
will facilitate the development of smart buildings and the photovoltaic industry [56].
3.4. Technological Development

The representative developed charge node power distribution products on the market
are as follows.
3.4.1. EVBox
EVBox stations, manufactured by a leading producer of charging station hardware and
management software, feature workload balance, hub, satellite configuration, and “peak
clipping” [56]. The office building that provides power to all charging stations is a good
example to illustrate the role that EVBox performs as middleware. These functions make it
possible to organize charging behavior flexibly based on the existing infrastructure [57].
Workload balance dynamically allocates available power capacity to all working charging
nodes in the system, achieving overall optimal system efficiency without overloading.
A hub and satellite configuration allows up to 20 charging nodes to be cost-effectively
interconnected via a single modem and back-office software, enabling unified management
under a centralized controller. When multiple vehicles are being charged simultaneously,
the surging load makes “peak clipping” indispensable. When the power system is over-
loaded, it will promptly reduce the output power or disconnect until there is a surplus
of electricity.
3.4.2. APAS and HKPC

Proposed by APAS and HKPC, the semi-quick EV charging station “Charging Pro”
(Figure 4b), has the following functions:
• An Intelligent Load Management System explicitly regulates the output power of the
EV charging nodes to avoid the risk of overload and maximize electricity utilization;
• A Charging Facility Measurement and Management System could record and analyze
individual charging node data in real-time to minimize operating and service costs.
Energies 2022, 15, 6271 8 of 34
3.5. Prospects
3.5.1. Building Electricity Distribution Systems
The low-voltage electricity distribution system is the segment that connects one or
more electricity grid interfaces and delivers electricity to each appliance after rational distri-
bution [58]. It is the final unit of the power transmission system, facing the end consumers
and directly determining the reliability and quality of electricity consumption. Additionally,
since distributing power to the smart grid involves more complex communication and
distant control functions, the system requires additional power supplies and distribution
panels. Most property sectors cannot undertake the high cost required to install charging
stations and optimize the distribution system. Thus, the majority of buildings are not
provided with EV charging stations. Therefore, this is one of the future key development
directions of EV services.

Challenges and opportunities in the future development of smart power distribution
for EVs are summarized in Table 2.
Table 2. Summary of challenges and opportunities of application of smart power distribution for
EVs [59].
New market models that enable active and reactive EV
distribution service systems, such as load shifting, peak
Market framework
shaving, valley filling, voltage regulation, and reactive
power control at the distribution system level
Economic evaluations, including aspects such as benefit
Economic aspects analysis for all stakeholders and possible remuneration
strategies for service providers
Integration of battery degradation costs with changes in
Battery degradation
charging/discharging strategies
4. V2H and V2G

4.1. V2H and V2G Technologies
The V2H system allows the use of electricity already stored in the EV to power the
household, whereas the V2G system supports selling the electricity already stored in the
EVs to the grid and purchasing electricity from the grid, charging the EV [60]. The V2H
and V2G systems mainly consist of battery management software, hardware that supports
bidirectional electricity transmission, and communication modules between the vehicle
terminal and the grid operator [61]. Intelligent algorithms monitor the operating status
of the grid in real-time to determine whether a vehicle can purchase electricity from or
sell electricity to the grid at the moment and whether a vehicle is available to reach the
corresponding agreement.

As demonstrated in Figure 5, with the V2H system, owners could charge their EVs
during the day via solar energy or during non-peak times with lower electricity prices,
and then power household appliances at night or during peak hours using the stored
energy [62]. The onboard battery can also provide emergency power in case of grid
breakdown. Using the V2G system, owners could charge during non-peak hours and feed
the stored energy back to the grid to boost its electricity capacity during peak hours [63].
This charging strategy could relieve grid loading pressure during peak hours and stabilize
grid operation by reducing the range of loading fluctuations. Meanwhile, EVs can serve as
sizeable offline storage devices for renewable energy, facilitating the dispatch of electricity
across time scales.
ergy [62]. The onboard battery can also provide emergency power in case of grid break-
down. Using the V2G system, owners could charge during non-peak hours and feed the
stored energy back to the grid to boost its electricity capacity during peak hours [63]. This
charging strategy could relieve grid loading pressure during peak hours and stabilize grid
operation by reducing the range of loading fluctuations. Meanwhile, EVs can serve as
Energies 2022, 15, 6271 9 of 34
sizeable offline storage devices for renewable energy, facilitating the dispatch of electricity
across time scales.
Figure 5.
Figure 5. Concept
Concept of
of V2G
V2G and
and V2H
V2H [64].
[64].
4.3.
4.3. Technological
TechnologicalDevelopments
Developments
Denmark,
Denmark, the Netherlands,
the Netherlands,the
the U.S.,
U.S., Japan,
Japan, and
and Hong
Hong Kong
Kong are
are the
the leading
leading countries
countries
and regions developing V2G and V2H technologies. Typical V2G and V2H technologies
and regions developing V2G and V2H technologies. Typical V2G and V2H technologies
and products in these regions may provide references for the future development of other
countries and regions.
4.3.1. Denmark
Denmark has the world-leading wind power generation industry, with 42% of its
domestic energy generated by wind power up to 2015. Several research projects related to
V2G were initiated as early as 2009. Between 2009 and 2013, Denmark launched a partially
government-sponsored research project called the EDISON project on the eastern island,
Bornholm, to lay the foundation for the turbine power system, which will be completed
by 2025. Wind power will provide half of the total energy supply for the island, while the
V2G system will serve as an alternative to avoid damage to the island’s electricity grid. The
EDISON project demonstrated the full-stack solutions offered by Danish and international
companies to develop the EV integrated system, including network construction, market so-
lutions, and the optimization of the interaction between diverse energy technologies [65,66].
Moreover, the Danish electricity system creates a perfect experimental platform for testing
and optimizing such projects. After the EDISON project, the Nikola project was launched
as a Danish research and demonstrative project to establish a framework for interacting
with EVs and the electricity system in the campus laboratory environment. The project was
completed in 2016 as a collaboration among DTU, NUVVE, and Nissan. The latest Parker
project, launched in 2016, aimed to supply electrical services to the Danish electrical system
from EVs serving as the operational fleet [67]. The experimental project, carried out by the
DTU, NUVVE, and INSERO organizations in collaboration with the automotive original
Energies 2022, 15, 6271 10 of 34
equipment manufacturer called Nissan and Danish Convoy holder, has the following
innovative features:
1. Evaluating advanced smart grid services, such as V2G, by mass-produced vehicles
and charging stations;
2. Using a vehicle-assisted power system to coordinate supply and demand;
3. Verifying the incorporation of vehicles into the power system vertically from distribu-
tion to market to optimize power system operation.
4.3.2. The Netherlands

“Resourcefully”, the Amsterdam-based environmental consultancy, released the “Am-
sterdam Vehicle 2 Grid” project (Figure 6a) in 2013 to interconnect EVs, solar energy
generation, and individual customers via the smart grid and household information man-
agement system [68]. Taking advantage of the V2G system, Resourcefully presented the
following results to the public:
1. The energy self-sufficiency was significantly increased, so the zero-emission energy
autonomy of participants was improved (from 34 to 65%);
2. The frequency of energy exchanges between participants and the grid was significantly
reduced (by 45%);
3. The utilization efficiency of electrical energy storage capacity reached 93%;
4. The loss of energy due to conversion throughout the process of storing energy into
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW DC batteries and regaining power from them amounted to 80%; 11 of 34
5. The battery capacity consumption for the two-year use was negligible (6~7%).
Figure 6. Representative V2G and V2H systems in different countries: (a) “Amsterdam Vehicle 2
Figure 6. Representative V2G and V2H systems in different countries: (a) “Amsterdam Vehicle
Grid” system [69]; (b) Tesla’s Powerwall 2 [70]; (c) V2G-ready vehicle launched by Nissan [71]; (d)
2 Grid” system [69]; (b) Tesla’s Powerwall 2 [70]; (c) V2G-ready vehicle launched by Nissan [71];
Smart V2H System developed by APAS and HKPC.
(d) Smart V2H System developed by APAS and HKPC.
4.3.3.
4.3.3.The
TheU.S.
U.S.
SolarCity,
SolarCity, the
thesubsidiary
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servicesinin2016:
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the
the solar roof and
solar roof andthethePowerwall
Powerwall2 2storage
storage system
system [72,73].
[72,73]. TheThe solar
solar roofroof generates
generates elec-
electricity
tricity continuously
continuously when sunlight
when sunlight is available.
is available. The Powerwall
The Powerwall 2 storage2 system
storage(Figure
system6b)(Figure
could
6b)
store electricity from any source, including solar power devices such as the solar roofsolar
could store electricity from any source, including solar power devices such as the and
roof and generic electricity grids. Customers are allowed to use it at night or during grid
breakdowns and even sell it back to grid operators at more substantial prices. Statistics show
that the Powerwall ($6200) provides a one-time storage capacity of 14 kWh hours [74].
4.3.4. Japan
Energies 2022, 15, 6271 11 of 34
generic electricity grids. Customers are allowed to use it at night or during grid breakdowns
and even sell it back to grid operators at more substantial prices. Statistics show that the
Powerwall ($6200) provides a one-time storage capacity of 14 kWh hours [74].
4.3.4. Japan
Japan takes the lead globally in the EV industry, and the involved departments have
developed a V2H standard called the EV Power Supply System Association (EVPOSSA)
to promote the industry and standardize product specifications. In addition, numerous
companies are deeply involved in V2H technology, including Nissan, which has created
commercial products based on the technology. In 2016, Nissan and multinational Enel
launched a joint V2G pilot project in the UK, which equipped 100 V2G systems for Nissan
LEAF and e-NV200 models, enabling their owners to profit by selling electricity from their
onboard batteries to the grid [75]. Moreover, Nissan launched the Leaf model with V2G
capability (Figure 6c) in 2017.
4.3.5. Hong Kong

According to the Japanese EVPOSSA V2H standard, the Hong Kong APAS has de-
signed a multifunctional integrated product called the Smart V2H System as shown in
Figure 6d. Under the control of the EV Power System (EVPS), the electricity stored in EV
and household batteries, the power from the grid, and the renewal power source could be
converted and transmitted to some others following the EVPOSSA V2H/V2L standard.
The DC/DC converter in EVPS realizes power transmission between the household and
EV batteries. The DC/AC inverter enables the energy supply to household appliances
from household batteries and EV batteries. The Household Battery Power Storage System
obtains energy from the solar power system as well as the EV battery for powering the
household according to the need. The Solar Power System consists of panels and a DC/DC
converter that store green energy into the household battery. Specifically, the DC/DC con-
verter is assembled with a Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) capability to maximize
solar energy capture. APAS has implemented mature V2L/V2H functionality through
the Smart V2H System based on the EVPOSSA protocol. In the future, APAS plans to
develop V2G technology based on V2L/V2H projects and further adapt the system with
more comprehensive V2H/V2G standards according to market demand.
4.4. Prospects
Prospects for future V2G and V2H development were provided from a commercial
and technical perspective as follows. In general, the development of future V2G and V2H
technologies includes two main directions, namely integration with smart electricity grids
and retired EV batteries.
4.4.1. Integration with Smart Electricity Grids

Smart grids could avoid blind decisions not matching the reality via real-time moni-
toring technology, and better coordinate the service demands of grid operators, different
generation sources, and end-users, minimizing operating costs and environmental damages
while maximizing system efficiency and flexibility [76,77]. The storage of surplus energy
and demand-driven dispatch across time scales will be essential aspects of grid intelligence;
thus, the demand for battery devices capable of storing local energy or online energy will
continuously expand. Given the appreciable development prospects of EVs, onboard batter-
ies are expected to play a significant role in providing essential energy storage capabilities
for grid intelligence [78].
4.4.2. Integration with Retired EV Batteries

The inherent property of batteries is that the capacity will gradually decrease over time
and cycles. Previous research has demonstrated that when the remaining storage capacity
of onboard batteries is less than 70–80% of its designated storage capacity, it will be obsolete
Energies 2022, 15, 6271 12 of 34
for the inability to sustain the duration and mobility of EV driving [79]. However, the
usage of secondary batteries as stationary storage for smart grid will undoubtedly extend
the life cycle of onboard batteries and enhance resource utilization. Nissan, in collaboration
with Enel and Eaton, is conducting a project at its regional office in France to integrate
secondary batteries into a V2G system, consisting of 100 bidirectional chargers for V2G
following CHAdeMO protocol and an energy storage subsystem combining more than
60 “second life” batteries with solar power generation [80]. The 1 MWh of energy stored
in this system combined with the 1–2 MWh of energy stored in the EVs at nearby lots
provides an adequate energy storage capacity for the appliances. The project demonstrates
a solution for integrating the secondary battery with the V2G system and utilizing its
residual storage capacity.

Challenges and opportunities in the future development of V2G and V2H technologies
for EVs are summarized in Table 3.
Table 3. Summary of challenges and opportunities of V2G and V2H for EVs [81].
Integration of battery degradation costs with the change in
Battery degradation
the charging/discharging strategies
New technologies that enhance the resiliency of the V2G
Cyber attacks and V2H systems against cyber–physical attacks and new
security standards
Large bandwidth communication channels such as LAN,
Time delay
and WAN networks
Stability issues Development of robust controllers
5. Connected Vehicles
5.1. CV Technologies
Integrated with three networks: intra-vehicle network, inter-vehicle network, and
onboard mobile Internet, the CV, also known as the “Internet of Vehicles” (IoV), is intrin-
sically a large distributed communication system for V2X interaction, where X involves
other CVs, individuals, and networks [82]. As a profound scenario for the application of
the Internet of Things (IoT) in the intelligent transportation system (ITS), the CVs enable a
multifunctional network that supports intelligent transportation management, intelligent
dynamical information services, and intelligent driving control [83]. The information ex-
change process follows specific communication protocol standards such as the IEEE 802.11p
WAVE standard or cellular data protocols [84]. Typical CV systems are equipped with
interfaces to WiFi or cellular networks (GSM, HSDPA, LTE, or 5G expected to be fitted on a
large scale) and other short-range communication technologies [85]. When the vehicle is
connected to the network, it has access to numerous cloud information services, such as in-
stant emergency calls, real-time navigation, and media amusement, as exhibited in Figure 7.
As the communication gateway, the global vehicular ID (GID) terminal is undoubtedly
the technological key of the CV [86]. With integrated information sensors, the network
communication module, and global online identification (an “online vehicle plate”), it
allows the vehicle to have worldwide network connectivity and global positioning and
tracking capabilities [87].
vehicle is connected to the network, it has access to numerous cloud information services,
such as instant emergency calls, real-time navigation, and media amusement, as exhibited
in Figure 7. As the communication gateway, the global vehicular ID (GID) terminal is un-
doubtedly the technological key of the CV [86]. With integrated information sensors, the
network communication module, and global online identification (an “online vehicle
Energies 2022, 15, 6271 13 of 34
plate”), it allows the vehicle to have worldwide network connectivity and global position-
ing and tracking capabilities [87].
Figure 7. Schematic diagram of CVs in a smart city [88].

Figure 7. Schematic diagram of CVs in a smart city [88].
5.2.Benefits
5.2. Benefitsand
andBusiness
Business Opportunities
Opportunities
TheIoV
The IoVcan
canbebe applied
applied to to various
variousvehicle
vehiclemodels
models and powertrain
and powertrainsystems, but it
systems, buthas
it ahas
more significant role in the field of EVs, mainly in the aspects of charging management
a more significant role in the field of EVs, mainly in the aspects of charging management and
parking
and reservations,
parking fleet management,
reservations, predictive
fleet management, maintenance,
predictive driving behavior
maintenance, drivinganalysis,
behavior
insurance, traffic control, and infotainment.
analysis, insurance, traffic control, and infotainment.
5.2.1. Advantages in EVs
Connectivity is not a technology unique to EVs; it is beneficial to all types of power-
trains. This technology can provide vehicle owners with real-time service information, keep
the in-vehicle software system up-to-date, and facilitate real-time monitoring of vehicle
operating status and handling of traffic accidents and insurance issues, preventing costly
recalls and repair charges. Vehicle connectivity plays a greater role and has greater advan-
tages in EVs than other power systems. First, the IoV system can monitor and manage the
operating parameters of EVs in real-time through the wireless communication network,
which will be an important technical means and the most practical resource to improve the
safety of EVs, especially the safety of onboard batteries [89]. Second, the energy efficiency
of EVs will be continuously optimized by employing Big Data technology to improve
the economy of EV operation. Third, easy access to charging piles and smart charging
management can be realized through the IoV technology, thereby increasing consumer
attractiveness. Finally, unlike the traditional ICE systems, the operation of EVs is highly
dependent on software control, and it is difficult to obtain sufficient accident information
through mechanical parts after a car accident. The IoV technology provides abundant
maintenance and insurance information acquisition and processing convenience for EVs
after an accident.
5.2.2. Charging Management and Parking Reservations

IoT technology is gradually introduced for intelligent parking management to upgrade
the service mode. On the CV-side, the guidance application will display the operation
status information of nearby parking lots to drivers. Then, the multi-attribute decision
Energies 2022, 15, 6271 14 of 34
algorithm will screen the candidate parking lots and select the optimal parking spot based
on the collected personalized information of driver demands, such as power-charging
demand and expected parking duration [90]. Meanwhile, the online reservation and
guidance function will significantly save drivers’ time and alleviate parking congestion.
On the parking server-side, the parking management system will automatically process
the reservation requests from nearby drivers and report the violation status of the parked
vehicles, so that the service staff can implement predictive management and handle the
violation easily [91].
5.2.3. Fleet Management for Commercial EVs

Fleet management involves vehicle finance management, vehicle dynamic mainte-
nance, vehicle Telematics (real-time tracking and trouble-shooting), and the management
of speed, driver, fuel, and safety. The location information, health information, and fuel
storage of individual vehicles will be fed back to the cloud-based server of the central
management system in real-time for decision processing and real-time dispatching to maxi-
mize the efficiency of the logistics network operation and maintenance [92]. The vehicle
database will record the health index, violation, and insurance status of specific vehicles,
while the driver database will record the average speed, lane change frequency, operation
specification, and gear change frequency of particular drivers. Rational analysis of the Big
Data formed by the recorded parameters can optimize fleet management significantly [93].
When a malfunction or accident occurs, the real-time recorded vehicle damage status and
pre-accident maneuvering data can assist the relevant departments in quickly determining
accident liability and insurance payouts [94].
5.2.4. Predictive Maintenance

For private vehicles, the after-sales service department will notify the vehicle owners
of predictive maintenance based on information such as usage time. Once positive feed-
back is received from the owner, information about the health of the vehicle components
and diagnostics will be uploaded to the after-sales service department for a customized
maintenance strategy, allowing the owner to choose the service and order the spare parts to
be replaced [95].
5.2.5. Driving Behavior Analysis

Big Data algorithms can comprehensively analyze and evaluate vehicle condition and
driving behavior based on the vehicle and driver information tracked and recorded by
the Telematics system [96]. Further, the system will alarm drivers of bad driving behavior
and recommend targeted vehicle insurance items and active safety applications to reduce
driving risks and traffic accidents [97].
5.2.6. Insurance
As mentioned in the previous section, driving behavior data can be used to provide
targeted reference to vehicle insurance items for specific drivers. Meanwhile, some business
chances will be created for insurers, such as Usage-Based Insurance (UBI) in the form
of “Pay-As-You-Drive” (PAYD) and “Pay-How-You-Drive” (PHYD) [98,99]. Originally
designed to capture information to improve insurance security levels and billing profit, the
widespread introduction of UBI positively saves lives and protects the environment [100].
The PAYD item evaluates drivers based on the quantity of driving. Similar to the mileage
charge of taxicabs, the insurance premium for this variant depends on the amount of
driving. The PHYD item, however, evaluates drivers according to the quality of their
driving, meaning that the insurance premium is calculated based on the frequency of
aggressive behavior and irrational decisions made by the driver, as analyzed by driving
behavior data [98]. Unfortunately, when the accident or crash occurs, the damage state
and pre-accident manipulating data can also assist the insurance carriers in calculating the
proper payout.
Energies 2022, 15, 6271 15 of 34
5.2.7. Traffic Control

The in-vehicle device can present drivers with real-time traffic conditions nearby and
traffic images of major roads and automatically recommend the optimal driving plan to
improve the efficiency of traffic operation [101,102]. Meanwhile, the position and speed
of each vehicle will be uploaded to the cloud synchronously, ensuring the real-time and
accuracy of traffic information in the area. Especially for vehicles driving on highways, this
technology will significantly reduce the probability of accidents.
5.2.8. Infotainment
CVs will completely disrupt the current situation where in-vehicle entertainment is
limited to FM and Bluetooth. The spread of high-speed networks has dramatically increased
the speed of information transmission, making it possible for high-bandwidth streaming
services to take over the in-vehicle entertainment market, meaning that passengers will
have more mainstream digital service options, such as audio-visual interaction [103]. Today,
Apple and Google are competing to create a general software platform that adapts to
in-vehicle hardware in order to capture the underlying core of that market. In addition,
Android Auto allows drivers to access favorite apps, purchase rented media services, and
synchronize Google Play music.

The representative products of IoV technology in different countries and regions are
as follows.
5.3.1. eCall
The eCall is an alarm system initiated in Europe that can automatically provide assis-
tance information to the emergency service station after a traffic accident or a crash [104,105].
The in-vehicle eCall using E112 wireless communication technology can be triggered man-
ually by in-vehicle passengers pressing a button or independently after the sensor senses
a collision, and then communication between the vehicle passenger and the nearest pro-
fessional operator of the emergency service station will be established. Meanwhile, a data
package rich in information about the accident will be automatically sent to the operator,
including the time, precise location, vehicle plate, eCall triggered mode, and information
about the relevant emergency service providers. Since January 2015, the I_HeERO project
has been launched in Europe to construct the required Public Safety Answering Points
(PSAP) facilities to introduce pan-European eCalls [106]. The project is hosted by over
10 EU member states and over 100 relevant partnerships. Its primary contents include:
• Promoting investment in PSAP infrastructure and service interaction projects in EU
member states;
• Advancing the preparation process for the universalization of eCall for vehicles with a
high danger ratio, including chemical goods vehicles, long-term passenger carriers,
and Powered Two-Wheeled machines (PTWs) [106];
• Promoting the development of data management and E112 call technologies and
assessing the operational feasibility of PSAP infrastructure. In particular, Luxembourg
achieved the criteria of feasibility assessment in 2017 and became the first member
state to implement eCall.
The EU required its member states to establish the necessary PSAPs infrastructure to
handle eCalls by 1 October 2017, and all the new car and light-duty truck models in Europe
must be equipped with eCall devices from 31 March 2018 [107]. Researchers claim that the
eCall system can reduce emergency response time by 40% within cities and 50% within
rural regions.
Energies 2022, 15, 6271 16 of 34
5.3.2. OnStar
OnStar is a sub-company of General Motors (GM) that specializes in providing various
in-vehicle services based on a Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) and is also the
symbol of a series of functions equipped by GM [108,109]. These include:
• Emergency services—auto-collision response, weather forecasting, crash rescue, and
curbside assistance;
• Security services—remote ignition control, theft alerts, and stolen vehicle deceleration;
• Navigation services—regional road condition synchronization and optimal route planning;
• Connectivity services—OnStar 4G LTE, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth hands-free, and adaptability
of 3rd party apps;
• Vehicle management—vehicle condition detection, remote access, location tracking,
and intelligent driving.
When the system is triggered manually by a button or automatically by an airbag-
detection device, OnStar will collect relevant data based on the onboard diagnostics and
built-in GPS and use the CDMA for communication and database transmission [110].
The first OnStar units were deployed in a variety of Cadillacs introduced in 1997, with
expansion to other models beginning in 2002. In 2012, stand-alone units were designed
to customize individual services, which are now available in the United States, Canada,
China, Europe, etc.
5.3.3. Mainland China

In 2016, BAIC EV, a renowned vehicle company in Mainland China, launched “I-link”,
the first intelligent Internet-connected system in China to apply 4G communication technol-
ogy for interaction between in-vehicle terminals and the cloud. In addition, I-link realizes
the first onboard system to integrate voice recognition technology, infotainment technology,
and a cabin unified information board in Mainland China, allowing drivers to remotely
access query and alert services. BAIC’s breakthrough in Telematics technology has changed
the situation that traditional CVs were limited to the preliminary integration of the Internet,
broadening the scope of Internet resource interaction through various sensor technologies
to create a better user experience for vehicle passengers [111]. Meanwhile, other auto
brands in Mainland China are strengthening cooperation with information technology
companies to advance CV development further.
5.3.4. Hong Kong

In the Smart City Blueprint Consultancy Study Report published in June 2017, the
Hong Kong Government proposed the following strategic measures for smart mobility
involving CVs [112]:
• Developing “in-vehicle units” (IVUs) that enable drivers to access traffic information
in real-time and pay for their driving remotely via it instead of using toll booths;
• Installing approximately 1200 traffic detectors on all critical links by 2020 to provide
instant and accurate traffic information;
• Public participation in developing a specific Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) trial pro-
gram to be implemented in the midlands and nearby regions in 2019;
• Gradually introducing intelligent traffic signal systems with pedestrian and vehicle
detectors at intersections starting in 2021;
• Implementing the auto toll system in the new Tseung Kwan O-Lam Tin Tunnel for trial by
2021, upon approval of the supporting legislation approved by the Legislative Council;
• Taking forward the trial implementation of self-driving vehicles in the West Kowloon
Cultural District and other regions;
• Encouraging transportation service providers to adopt e-payment for transportation
and focusing on system reliability, client orientation, and operational efficiency;
• Encouraging transportation service providers to share their service data with rele-
vant authorities;
Energies 2022, 15, 6271 17 of 34
• Developing technologies to deter inappropriate use of load/unload zones and illegal

parking starting in 2018;
• Experimenting with crowd control systems to enable the detection of pedestrian and
vehicular traffic during large-scale activities;
• Publishing instant traffic information about licensed buses via mobile devices by 2018
and installing real-time traffic screens at transportation interchanges and over 1300 bus
stations by 2021;
• Establishing new types of on-street parking meters that can provide available space
information in real-time and allow for multiple forms of payment, including app-based
remote payment, from 2019 or 2021;
• Encouraging existing public parking operators to upgrade infrastructure that can pro-
vide available parking space information in real-time and enacting feasible measures
that appeal to new public parking lots to be equipped with this capability.
5.4. Prospects
The future development of CVs should mainly focus on empowering technology
development and data analytics, which are described in detail as follows.
5.4.1. Empowering Technology Development

The popularization of CVs depends on a secure and reliable network environment,
which is mainly reflected in the stringent requests for network speed and security. Regarding
network security, a reliable Telematics environment is necessary, as vehicles are involved
in the human safety of traffic participants. As soon as a vehicle accesses the Internet, it
opens up new attack chances for offenders. Its security risks are mainly centered on five
areas: CV, V2X communication, information security, smart devices, and service providers,
the first three of which are primarily concerned with vehicle-side security [113]. CV cyber
security involves the Telematics Box, the Controller Area Network bus, the Electronic
Control Unit, in-vehicle operating system, onboard diagnostic, and In-Vehicle Infotainment
system [114]. The networked vehicle may be attacked via wireless firmware upgrades,
unlawful data infusion, appliance accessibility, etc. [115]. Therefore, a qualified CV should
include safe bootloaders, secure network communications, partitions or firewalls between
vehicles-side and cloud-side, software security updates, security defense, abnormality
monitoring, intrusion prevention, data cryptography, and backup after updates fail. V2X
communication network security involves various communication methods such as Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, cellular networks, satellite communication, LTE V2X, and Dedicated Short-Range
Communication (DSRC). The diversity and variability of network communications make it
extremely difficult to detect and defend against network attacks. Therefore, a V2X system
should have a range of functions such as encryption and decryption, signature production
and certification, authentication, and data privacy checking [116]. Data security is of great
importance, as illegal tampering with traffic management data and vehicle operation data
will directly threaten the lives of drivers and other traffic participants [117]. Therefore,
vehicle manufacturers should set up stringent data standards, focus on enhancing the
privacy management level of data, and tightly control the disclosure of sensitive data.
Since traffic behavior has high real-time requests, except for the possibility of data
privacy leakage and hacking, the communication speed of Telematics is another technical
barrier to CV development. The ultimate solution for CVs will be 5G, due to its extremely
low latency, higher band frequencies, more connection capacity, and higher security [103].
The 5G network has a throughput of up to 10 GB per second and a latency rate about ten
times lower than traditional LET networks [118]. Many countries’ research departments are
currently focusing on 5G upgrades to their networks, with Mainland China leading the way
to launch 5G commercial services in October 2019. Statistics forecast that 67 million vehicles
will be available for 5G services by 2025. Based on 5G networks and more reliable security
strategies, CVs will witness a surge phase of development and create unprecedented
opportunities for participants in transportation matters:
Energies 2022, 15, 6271 18 of 34
• Vehicle information online management systems, assisted by annual inspection and

monitoring, can identify the operational status of vehicles remotely, including vehicle
and driver license validity, vehicle violation records, and illegal modification status,
which can significantly cut vehicle maintenance costs and improve traffic safety;
• Vehicles can be registered with an online ID in the form of a quasi-real name, sig-
nificantly reducing fake registration, smuggling and illegal modifications, and other
illegal operations. In addition, vehicle IDs can be readily bound to the owner’s credit
account and payment information, strengthening the coupling between the physical
and the network world to enhance the overall information security and reliability;
• New in-vehicle and mobile-side intelligent terminal software and hardware industries
will be spawned, prompting the CV to become an irreplaceable large mobile device
integrated into mobile Internet life. Intelligent terminals should have specific human–
machine interfaces and be adapted with in-vehicle display hardware to synthesize
mobile payment terminals. In addition, they should also have intelligent cloud ser-
vices based on Telematics, such as intelligent traffic, real-time localization, remote
diagnostics, and GID.
5.4.2. Data Analytics

Nowadays, vehicle manufacturers can easily collect a large amount of data through
V2X and store it on cloud storage. However, Big Data analytics are essential for extracting
information regularities and generating business value from it. A reasonable analytic model
automatically filters out irrelevant or even distracting factors while retaining the strongly
relevant ones. Big Data analytics are accurately measured using the four Vs: Volume,
Variety, Velocity, and Veracity [119]. All aspects associated with Telematics, such as position
information, electronic trading, human intercourse, business substance, sensors feedback,
and e-devices, are internal or external sources of Big Data [120]. Through the rational
extraction of valid information, vehicle manufacturers can not only adjust their products
accordingly to satisfy user needs better and optimize the operation of services, but also
discover new business opportunities to expand service models. The main benefit channels
are as follows:
• Promoting the development of intelligent transportation: vehicle information and
customer feedback will enable product managers and R&D teams to formulate a
reasonable product upgrade route;
• Improving customer stickiness: analyzing specific user preferences based on stream
data and customer information, and customizing information and service delivery
using predictive models;
• Optimizing comprehensive vehicle health management: based on vehicle data streams,
conducting model analysis to provide more accurate and timely warnings, thus giving
valuable suggestions for predictive maintenance;
• Upgrading after-sales services and local inventory: using real-time vehicle location
information to match the appropriate after-sales sites to provide customized repair
services and avoid blind inventory accumulation.

Challenges and opportunities in the future development of CV technologies for EVs
are summarized in Table 4.
Table 4. Summary of challenges and opportunities of application of CVs in EVs [89].
CV interoperability Integration of blockchain with CVs
Reliability, resilience, safety, security, and privacy improvement
CV trustworthiness
of CVs
Efficient wireless resource allocation Application and development of artificial intelligence (AI) and
in CVs machine learning techniques in CVs
Energies 2022, 15, 6271 19 of 34
6. Autonomous Driving
6.1. Autonomous Vehicle Technologies
Autonomous driving can be divided into multiple levels according to its degree
of automation, of which the most acceptable definition is from SAE. The realization of
autonomous driving involves complex technologies in multiple disciplines, and even
perception is the key to its realization.
6.1.1. SAE Standards

According to the SAE J3016™ level standards, six levels of driving automation have
been defined, including “No Automation”, “Driver Assistance”, “Partial Automation”,
“Conditional Automation”, “High Automation”, and “Full Automation” [121–123].
6.1.2. Sensory Technology

Advanced sensory technology is one of the most critical factors in realizing au-
tonomous driving. In order to popularize autonomous driving, the vehicle itself is required
to enhance the maneuverability of a human driver. The combination of different sensors
can enable the vehicle to outperform humans in terms of visionary perception of the envi-
ronment. The installation positions, coverage and maximum range of typical sensors for
environment perception in an autonomous vehicle are displayed in Figure 8a,b.
The existing sensory technologies for automated driving can be principally divided
into six categories:
(a) Ultrasonic sensors
Sensing range: 0–2 m.
Ultrasonic sensors in vehicles play an irreplaceable role in implementing automated
parking, as they can detect obstacles within short distances, such as guardrails, pedestrians,
vehicles, etc. [124]. However, they will be useless in medium- and high-speed situations.
(b) Computer vision
Multi-cameras can approximate human vision, and stereo cameras can even obtain
depth information about the environment. The cameras can detect colors and fonts, which
makes it possible to understand the semantic information embedded in traffic signs and
stoplights, a capability that other sensors do not have [125]. They can perform as a redun-
dant system in case of failure of other sensors, thus increasing the reliability of perception
and system safety. However, the perception requirements for expected autonomous driving
can only be met when the visibility range is increased to 250 m [126]. Adverse weather,
such as rain, fog, and low light levels, can significantly limit the perception effect of such
sensors. The recognition algorithm based on such sensors has yet to be developed, with the
current pedestrian recognition success rate at 95% [127].
(c) Radio detection and ranging (radar) sensors
Radio waves emitted by radar transmitters will be reflected to the receiver when
encountering obstacles. The distance and relative speed between the sensor and the
obstacle can be calculated through the time difference. Specifically, if short- and long-
range radar sensors are installed at the periphery of an autonomous vehicle, they will
monitor the real-time position and speed of surrounding objects, including vehicles and
pedestrians [128]. However, 2D radar, which can scan only in the horizontal plane, cannot
reconstruct the height information of obstacles, so collisions may occur when the vehicle
travels on a height-limited road [129]. 3D radar sensors will be applied to solve the problem.
(d) Light detection and ranging (LIDAR) sensors
Energies 2022, 15, 6271 20 of 34
The LIDAR sensor follows the same principle as the radar sensor but uses an invisible
beam instead of radio waves as the scanning medium [130]. Combined with onboard cam-
era data, the sensor can create the 3D point cloud around the vehicle to accurately identify
obstacles, such as the presence of vehicles, pedestrians, and signage (Figure 9a). However,
LIDAR is more expensive than radar due to its complex mechanical structure, difficult
calibration, and high cost of laser scanning components [131]. The gradual development of
solid-state LIDAR is expected to sink the price to an acceptable range.
(e) Odometry
Wheel speed odometry uses a rotary encoder to record wheel rotation to estimate the
position change relative to the initial point [132]. However, wheels are not in pure rolling
motion to the ground at all times and may slide when driving on smooth roads or during
sharp changes in speed. Sliding which cannot be recorded will cause cumulative errors, so
the reliability of odometry will gradually decrease over time. Visual odometry attempts to
analyze the frame-to-frame movement of the image to estimate the position and speed of
the vehicle (Figure 9b), so it is not limited by the form of the motion to the ground [133].
(f) GPS and cloud technology
The vehicle can use GPS for accurate localization, contribute the location to the cloud in
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW real-time, and obtain the surrounding environment conditions from an electronic map [134]. 21 of 34
Multi-vehicle contributions will ensure the real-time and accuracy of data, such as broad-
casting congested road conditions or traffic faults ahead to help other vehicles plan their
path. However, this solution highly depends on the number of vehicle nodes that can
can contribute
contribute real-time
real-time information,
information, makingmaking it difficult
it difficult to “crowd
to achieve achieveintelligence”
“crowd intelligence”
in rural
inareas
ruralwith
areas with low traffic density
low traffic density [135]. [135].
Figure
Figure8.8.(a)(a)Positions
Positionsofofthe
thesensors
sensorsinstalled
installedon
onan
anautonomous
autonomous vehicle
vehicle [136];
[136]; (b)
(b) Coverage and
Coverage and
maximum range of various sensors for environment perception in autonomous vehicles
maximum range of various sensors for environment perception in autonomous vehicles [137]. [137].
Energies 2022, 15, 6271 21 of 34
Figure 8. (a) Positions of the sensors installed on an autonomous vehicle [136]; (b) Coverage and
maximum range of various sensors for environment perception in autonomous vehicles [137].
Figure
Figure9.9.(a)
(a)Generated
Generated three-dimensional
three-dimensional map forfor
map navigation [138];
navigation (b) Visual
[138]; odometry
(b) Visual in aninau-
odometry an
tonomous
autonomous carcar
(red(red
dots for for
dots map points)
map [139].
points) [139].
6.1.3. Control Technology

Intelligent control systems infer proper path planning according to road signs, obsta-
cles, and the behavior of other traffic participants, based on understanding large amounts
of sensor data. Although the technical means differ, most autonomous vehicles maintain a
local map of surroundings in real-time, then use algorithms to identify appropriate paths
and send corresponding commands to end-effectors for lateral and longitudinal vehicle
control. Hard-coded rules, obstacle avoidance algorithms, decision models, and recogni-
tion algorithms will ensure that the planned path avoids obstacles while following traffic
rules [140]. If the control system cannot calculate a uniquely determined navigation path,
no solution, or multiple solutions, partially autonomous vehicles will throw an exception
to notify the driver to take over. Autonomous vehicles can be distinguished by whether
or not they are “connected”, indicating whether they are capable of communicating with
other vehicles and intelligent traffic facilities [141].
6.1.4. Telematics Technology

Telematics is compounded by the terms “telecommunications” and “informatics”.
Generally, Telematics is every application of telecommunications that integrates information
exchange and services technology. As a technology covering everything about GPS and
navigation systems, it can send, receive, and store information related to remote items—
such as vehicles—through telecommunication devices [142]. Telematics systems help
insurance companies predict traffic dangers based on recorded human driving behavior
and readily identify valid and independent safety features [143]. Telematics technologies
used in autonomous driving include mobile networks, for example, 5G and LTE, and
global navigation satellite systems such as GPS, Galileo, and BDS [144]. As described in the
previous section, “GPS and the cloud”, the high accuracy of real-time positioning guidance
from GNSS and traffic information from the cloud will ensure that the vehicle drives to the
destination accurately and quickly, following the optimal path.
Energies 2022, 15, 6271 22 of 34

There is a general question, does autonomous driving technology have to be integrated
with EVs? The answer is “no”, or more precisely, “not yet”. Mass-produced autonomous ve-
hicles will likely be powered by conventional ICE. However, six valid reasons are given here
to indicate that integrating electric drive technology with autonomous driving technology
is the future trend.
6.2.1. Two Innovations at the Same Time

Innovations in automotive technology are often costly and tend to be applied first in
premium vehicles. Early adopters who afford high product premiums generally focus on
“technology differentiation” as the incentive to buy, meaning that they expect automakers
to integrate as many innovations as possible, such as electric drive and autonomous driving
technologies. With these products getting more affordable due to the declining cost of
the innovations, the original product demand of early adopters will be extended to the
mass market.
6.2.2. Easier Implementation of Autonomous Features on EVs

Since autonomous driving technology involves a large number of onboard sensors
with high-performance computing hardware, it places higher demands on the vehicle’s
electrical subsystem. Currently, conventional ICE engines generally use a 12 V electrical
system provided by lead-acid batteries. In contrast, EV battery packs can undoubtedly
provide an adequate power supply and more flexible voltage regulation, meaning that
EVs will provide increased freedom to deploy autonomous driving technology. It is much
easier to control the battery pack and electric motor than ICE with thousands of mechanical
parts and complex wiring. Due to these advantages, autonomous driving R&D companies,
including GM, Nissan, and Google, have used EVs as a starting platform for deploying
autonomous driving technology.
6.2.3. Seamless Integration of Wireless Charging with Autonomy

Autonomous vehicles powered by conventional ICEs have difficulties in refueling and
need the intervention of drivers, services, or intelligent robots, whereas wireless charging
accessories produced by many companies already commercially available will solve the
problem perfectly. Autonomous vehicles can drive to available parking spots and adjust
to the optimal angle to ensure the charging receiver matches the pre-set wireless charging
transmitter perfectly, maximizing wireless charging efficiency. Further, autonomous vehi-
cles will achieve “opportunistic charging”: charging between driving behaviors to maintain
a high battery level rather than awaiting a depleted battery [145].
6.2.4. Extension of Driving Range by Autonomy

The most significant challenge to the development of EVs is “range anxiety”, which is
why all EV manufacturers are keen to introduce any technology that can extend driving
range [146]. Predictions indicate that autonomous driving technology is expected to
extend the driving range by 5% to 10% without hardware upgrades due to the smoothness
of acceleration, deceleration, and steering enabled by advanced predictive models and
decision algorithms [147]. While the accurate rate has to be further quantified based on
experimental data, it does not hinder the allure of the prediction. Thus, automakers could
invest in autonomous driving technology to alleviate EV “range anxiety” (same price, more
extended range) or sink production costs (same range, smaller batteries).
6.2.5. Simultaneous Maturity

EVs and related infrastructure are not yet as broadly available. Fully autonomous
driving is far from commercial application and yet both technologies are steadily advancing.
As battery technology continues to develop, its cost per unit capacity is gradually sinking,
facilitating the expansion of the EV market [148]. The iterations of sensors and software
Energies 2022, 15, 6271 23 of 34
algorithms make it possible to optimize the autonomous driving experience at the exact
cost, and gradually approach the direction of fully autonomous driving [149]. Therefore, the
temporal synchronization of the two technologies’ evolution will prompt them to integrate
and promote each other.
6.2.6. Simultaneous Mandate by Governments

As fossil energy sources become depleted and environmental issues become increas-
ingly severe, it is foreseeable that government mandates will intervene in the production
and sale of ICE vehicles. In fact, several governments worldwide have already discussed
and initially developed timetables for when to prohibit the production and sale of ICE-
powered vehicles. Meanwhile, when autonomous driving technology is undoubtedly
proven to improve driving safety, governments may likewise mandate the technology as
a necessary feature for vehicle production, such as airbags, ABS, and electronic stability
control. The government may mandate both technologies in the future, thus creating a
significant policy impetus for integration.
6.3. Technological Developments in EVs

Countries such as the U.S., South Korea, Singapore, and China have made active
explorations in the field of autonomous driving of EVs and achieved some important
results. The following introductions can serve as a microcosm of the development of
autonomous driving for EVs, and provide guidance for the exploration and development
of other emerging markets.
6.3.1. The U.S.

In 2009, Google began its involvement in autonomous driving and launched a related
R&D project. In 2016, the project was expanded into a subsidiary called Waymo, which
developed into the Alphabet autonomous driving department later [150]. In 2019, reg-
ulators in California approved Waymo’s proposal to carry passengers in its developed
vehicles (Figure 10a). In 2016, Uber reached an agreement with Volvo to purchase 24,000
of its autonomous vehicles over three years starting in 2019 after testing prototypes of
autonomous vehicles supplied by the company [151]. In June 2019, Uber launched its third-
generation autonomous driving vehicles and planned to begin piloting the new vehicles on
public roads in 2020. In January 2020, institutions in the U.S. jointly announced “Ensuring
American Leadership in Automated Vehicle Technologies: Automated Vehicles 4.0”, which
is based on AV 3.0 and aims to strategically lead the future of the transportation industry,
and extended the scope to 38 U.S. government departments with direct or indirect interests
in safety development and AV technology integration.
6.3.2. South Korea

South Korea has invested heavily in a 3.45 million square foot test city called “K-City”
in Hwaseong, Gyeonggi Province, covered with 5G network communications and equipped
with rich urban scenarios such as four-lane highways and automated parking lots (Figure 10b).
The launch of K-City, especially the highway, could provide the infrastructure to underpin
the plan to commercialize Level Three autonomous vehicles. South Korea’s Ministry of
Land, Infrastructure, and Transport announced security standards for operating Level
Three autonomous vehicles in 2019. The government plans to achieve fully autonomous
driving by 2030. It should construct and maintain the necessary communication and
transportation infrastructure soon and bring both Level Three and Level Four autonomous
vehicles into actual commercial use by 2027 at the latest. Related auxiliary systems, such as
insurance agencies and performance assessments, will be available by 2024, together with
telecommunications, traffic control, high precision maps, and other infrastructure to greet
the era of fully autonomous vehicles. An open and shared autonomous driving industry
backed by over 60 trillion won will be created, of which two-thirds of the funds will be
provided by the Hyundai Motor Group.
mous vehicles supplied by the company [151]. In June 2019, Uber launched its third-gen-
eration autonomous driving vehicles and planned to begin piloting the new vehicles on
public roads in 2020. In January 2020, institutions in the U.S. jointly announced “Ensuring
American Leadership in Automated Vehicle Technologies: Automated Vehicles 4.0”,
which is based on AV 3.0 and aims to strategically lead the future of the transportation
Energies 2022, 15, 6271 24 of 34
industry, and extended the scope to 38 U.S. government departments with direct or indi-
rect interests in safety development and AV technology integration.
Figure 10. Representative autonomous vehicles around the world: (a) Waymo autonomous vehicle
Figure 10. Representative autonomous vehicles around the world: (a) Waymo autonomous ve-
[152]; (b) Hyundai autonomous vehicle tested in “K-City” [153]; (c) Autonomous shuttle at Nanyang
hicle [152]; (b) Hyundai autonomous vehicle tested in “K-City” [153]; (c) Autonomous shuttle at
Technological University [154]; (d) Baidu autonomous vehicle [155]; (e) UISEE autonomous vehicle
Nanyang Technological University [154]; (d) Baidu autonomous vehicle [155]; (e) UISEE autonomous
[156]; (f) Autonomous shuttle developed by APAS and HKPC.
vehicle [156]; (f) Autonomous shuttle developed by APAS and HKPC.
6.3.2.
6.3.3. South Korea
Singapore
South Korea hasgovernment
The Singapore invested heavily
hopesintoa achieve
3.45 million squareglobal
a leading foot test city called
technology for“K-
au-
City” in Hwaseong, Gyeonggi Province, covered with 5G network
tonomous vehicles in the country. In 2017, the Ministry of Transport issued an array communications andof
equipped
regulations with rich urban scenarios
on self-driving vehicles, such
known as as
four-lane highways and
the AV Regulations, to automated parking
support innovative
lots (Figure 10b).
experiments The launch driving.
in autonomous of K-City, especially
Singapore thebecome
has highway,the could provideworldwide
first country the infra-
structure to underpin the plan to commercialize Level Three autonomous
to implement autonomous driving on a large scale, with the amendment to the Traffic vehicles. South
Korea’s Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport announced security
Roads Act that makes it unnecessary to have a driver in a motor vehicle. The Ministry standards for
operating Level Three autonomous vehicles in 2019. The government
of Transport has established a regulatory environment for self-driving vehicles that is plans to achieve
fully autonomous
effective until 2022.driving
However,by 2030.
it willItcontinue
should construct andregulatory
to extend the maintain the necessary
sandbox com-
or develop
munication and transportation
related permanent legislation to infrastructure soon and bring
support autonomous bothToLevel
driving. Three and
contribute Level
further to
Four autonomous
the growth of the vehicles into vehicle
self-driving actual commercial
industry, the use by 2027
Centre of at the latest.for
Excellence Related
Testingauxil-
and
iary systems,
Research such as insurance
of Autonomous agencies
Vehicles and performance
was established assessments,
to simulate will beconditions,
natural traffic available
by 2024, together with telecommunications, traffic control, high precision
equipped with buildings, bus stops, signals, rain-making machines, etc. (Figure 10c). maps, and otherIn
infrastructure to greet the
addition, for non-peak eraand
travel of fully autonomous
as-needed commutes,vehicles. Antoopen
it plans andlive
conduct shared
roadautono-
tests of
mous drivingbuses
autonomous industry
andbacked
shuttlesbyinover
some 60regions,
trillion won
such will be created,
as Tengah, of which
Punggol, and two-thirds
the Jurong
of the fundsDistrict,
Innovation will be provided
starting inby the The
2022. Hyundai
Land Motor Group.
Transport Authority has decided to expand
its scope of testing to satisfy companies’ needs for technological testing in more diverse
transportation scenarios. It is foreseeable that all of western Singapore, containing over
1000 km of public roads, will be incorporated into the testing platform for autonomous
vehicles, making it possible for corporations to test AVs in street blocks. The rich test set
will comprehensively assess the robustness of current autonomous driving technologies
and facilitate their upgrade to reach the security thresholds for long-distance inter-town
travel, further laying the facilities and technology foundation for the development plan of
autonomous vehicles in the early 2020s.
6.3.4. Mainland China

Chinese Internet leader Baidu announced in 2017 that it was collaborating with several
companies in the autonomous driving field. As a pioneer in the autonomous driving
industry in Mainland China, Baidu is jointly developing autonomous driving technol-
ogy with automaker BMW and has set up test points in many regions, such as Shanghai
and some cities in Anhui and Zhejiang. In the same year, Baidu launched a program,
”Apollo”, to provide new partners in the autonomous driving field with an open and secure
Energies 2022, 15, 6271 25 of 34
software framework to assist them in integrating vehicle and hardware systems to build
customized autonomous driving systems rapidly [157]. Figure 10d shows an autonomous
test vehicle from Baidu. Baidu has also created an autonomous vehicle consortium and
declared its intention to put autonomous vehicles on the road. In 2019, as expected, Baidu
provided a commercial autonomous driving project in Hunan province, with an initial
scale of 45 vehicles to conduct autonomous cab services on a 50 km-long public road.
The Chinese government is eager to complete the economic transformation from a heavy
and low-end manufacturing-driven economy to a high-tech and consumer-sector-driven
economy. Therefore, recognizing the huge commercial potential of autonomous driving,
it has developed several policies to support Mainland Chinese companies’ participation
in the global competition for autonomous driving technologies. UISEE is another leader
in commercializing autonomous driving in Mainland China, with its fully autonomous
vehicle demonstrated at the Consumer Electronics Show 2017, and installing many sen-
sors, such as stereo cameras, millimeter-wave radars, laser radar, and ultrasound sensors
(Figure 10e). Intelligent algorithms integrated with deep learning could integrate data
from each sensor into planning and decision models and combine with expert systems
with self-learning and predictive functions to bring passengers a comfortable and secure
driving experience. UISEE has developed prototype autonomous driving products for
short commutes in relatively closed environments, including shuttles and sightseeing buses,
and has already gotten practical testing at Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport. In
2019, UISEE put autonomous logistics vehicles into service for baggage transportation at
Hong Kong International Airport.
Responding to the government’s guidance, the “Intelligent Networked Vehicle Road
Test Management Specification (Trial)” was released to provide legal-level support for
organizations to conduct autonomous vehicle road tests. Subsequently, 16 test points
were established in Beijing, Shanghai, Chongqing, Wuxi, etc. In 2019, in order to build a
healthy partnership, 16 test points signed a joint initiative regarding improving the security
of intelligent networked vehicles, promoting vehicle–road cooperation, improving the
efficiency of testing and evaluation, and enabling data sharing.
6.3.5. Hong Kong

Autonomous driving in Hong Kong is in its infancy. The Smart City Blueprint Consul-
tancy Study Report released in 2017 proposed to “facilitate trials of autonomous vehicles in
the West Kowloon Cultural District and other areas as appropriate”. Researchers in Hong
Kong installed an autonomous driving system on a golf cart with the ability to sense its
surroundings, making it the first autonomous vehicle in Hong Kong. Hong Kong does not
yet have specific and appropriate regulatory legislation for autonomous driving functions.
With Tesla, for example, the lane-changing and assisted steering functions are only allowed
on particular roadways with medians and limits above 70 km/h, while the “summon”,
which remotely navigates the vehicle into and out of parking spaces, is strictly prohibited.
Meanwhile, its autopilot function is forbidden in most urban areas, and drivers are only
authorized to enable it on high-speed roads and tunnels. In 2017, the Hong Kong Science
and Technology Parks Corporation gathered technology startups and automotive com-
panies Scania and Inchcape to create an intelligent mobility ecosystem to incubate smart
transportation technologies. However, to carry out a trial project involving autonomous
vehicles in the Science Park, one must first apply to the Ministry of Transport with details
such as time and location to get the vehicle movement permit before conducting it on-site.
APAS and HKPC are enhancing the development of autonomous driving technology
to facilitate local enterprises in Hong Kong to seize emerging business opportunities created
by intelligent transportation. In 2018, with the support of the Innovation and Technology
Commission, an independent R&D platform was created for autonomous vehicles to
provide hardware support for future technology development and application (Figure 10f).
In 2019, the Technical Advisory Committee on the Application of Autonomous Vehicle
Technologies was established, composed of experts from relevant research institutions
Energies 2022, 15, 6271 26 of 34
and industries, to promote its further development in Hong Kong. The committee will
discuss how to develop a regulatory framework for autonomous driving with complete
legal support, considering the experience of local pilot projects. However, the Hong Kong
government has continued to severely restrict road testing of specific autonomous vehicles
in the territory through the case-by-case application policy.
6.4. Prospects
Fully autonomous planning and execution of all driving behaviors without intervention
mean that autonomous vehicles must be equipped with extremely robust and safe technologies.
Before that, several significant and inter-coupled challenges must be addressed.
6.4.1. Immature Technology and Business Models

While technicians are ramping up to develop commercially available autonomous
vehicles, there are few perspectives on the organization in which these vehicles will be
utilized in the future. What role will autonomous vehicles assume in future transportation
operations? Will users pay for the delivery service or vehicle ownership? If mobility-
sharing companies could “service” vehicles to eliminate their individual characteristics,
the entire business model of the industry would be subverted. Passengers will no longer
focus on the type of vehicle they travel in but only on whether they move from place A to
place B.
6.4.2. Regulation and Legislative Framework

A robust regulatory and legal framework plays an essential role in the continuous
evolution of autonomous driving technology. An effective regulatory framework enables
companies to evaluate the legal challenges brought by their solutions and avoid invest-
ing in dangerous ideas. Meanwhile, strict regulatory and legal constraints can enhance
the public’s confidence in the security of autonomous driving. A practical test is un-
doubtedly the key to leading the reform in establishing and improving the regulatory and
legislative framework.
6.4.3. Changes to Insurance

Autonomous vehicles will create complex challenges and reforms for the insurance
industry, and insurers must redesign appropriate products for autonomous vehicle owners,
passengers, and operators. Insurers cannot wholly and reasonably evaluate the risks
associated with autonomous vehicles. With the expansion of autonomous vehicle services,
people originally unqualified to drive will form a new customer base, and how to evaluate
these risks will undoubtedly be another significant challenge for the insurance industry.
6.4.4. Investment in Infrastructure

The popularity of fully autonomous vehicles is directly associated with infrastructure.
Firstly, the dynamic inspection of road infrastructure ensures that autonomous vehicles
read road information accurately to drive correctly. Secondly, full coverage of data services
within the road network is essential to prevent “offline”. Therefore, the investment in
infrastructure development needs to be significantly increased.

Challenges and opportunities in the future development of autonomous driving in
EVs are summarized in Table 5.
Energies 2022, 15, 6271 27 of 34
Table 5. Summary of challenges and opportunities of application of autonomous driving in EVs [158].
Limited physics-based models Data-based models and hybrid models
Fully applicable methods for numerical control
design that can accommodate uncertainties and
Lack of controllers for arbitrary situations
discover approximately optimal or even feasible
solutions under real-time operation constraints
Decision-making algorithms in
autonomous vehicles, from powertrain Development of large V2X systems and
control-loops to autonomous learning-based components (e.g., neural networks)
driving functionality
Improved resilience against sensor and actuator
Ensuring high reliability and low cost
failures, communication dropouts, and
and complexity
cyber attacks
A lot of uncertainty regarding the
deployment of autonomous vehicles in Construction of new physical and
terms of what levels of automation will be cyber infrastructure
introduced to public roads and when
7. Conclusions and Outlooks

In order to cope with the severe climate and energy crisis, the development of EVs has
attracted more and more attention from countries around the world. Among various EV
models, pure battery EVs have become the mainstream of the market due to their mature
technology and easy-to-intelligence features. In this study, several typical and most impor-
tant emerging technologies in EVs, including wireless charging, smart power distribution,
V2G and V2H systems, connected vehicles, and autonomous driving, were discussed.
The opportunities, challenges, and prospects for emerging EV technologies were
systematically discussed. Wireless charging offers the ultimate convenience for consumers
and enables safe charging in potentially hazardous environments where electrical sparks
could cause an explosion. The growing number of fast EV chargers will be a key driver
for the wireless EV charging market. The emerging concept of dynamic charging involves
charging coils installed under a road, which can continuously charge EVs when waiting at
a traffic light or even while driving. The growth in the number of EVs may significantly
impact the peak demand of the electricity distribution network of a city. The large-scale
deployment of smart power distribution is essential to supporting the adoption of solar PVs,
EV chargers, and smart buildings, all of which are vital components of the development
of a smart city. In addition to being a travel device, EVs can also act as very large energy
storage devices. V2G and V2H systems could provide enormous capacity for renewable
energy storage and help stabilize the power grid power supply. Given their projected
penetration into the market, EVs have the potential to provide, via their batteries, the most
important component in the evolution of the smart grid: energy storage. Integrating a V2G
system with retired EV batteries could provide more stable energy storage capacity for
the grid and simultaneously extend the life cycle of vehicle batteries, creating less overall
environmental impact. The IoV will play a significant role in EVs, mainly in the aspects of
charging management and parking reservations, fleet management, predictive maintenance,
driving behavior analysis, insurance, traffic control, and infotainment. CVs depend on
reliable and secure networks for their operation, but two main technical issues need to
be tackled: network speed and capacity and cyber security. Operating and conducting
all dynamic driving tasks without the input of human drivers means that autonomous
vehicles must be absolutely dependent on reliable and secure technology. Sensory, control,
and telematics technologies are the keys to reliable autonomous driving. The integration
and complementarity of EVs and autonomous driving will be an important opportunity for
future smart transportation and smart cities. Moreover, the successful commercialization
Energies 2022, 15, 6271 28 of 34
development cases of these emerging EV technologies were provided to demonstrate their

marketization progress and breakthroughs in addition to basic research.
Policymakers could offer specific financial support and testing facilities for the re-
search side (universities, R&D institutions), the service provision side (power, charging
service, telecommunication service, data), and the consumer side (EV user groups). These
target-oriented measures will help the various sides involved in the industry to jointly pro-
ceed towards the goal and create a strategic roadmap for the development of the emerging
EV industry. Outdated entries in existing regulations that are not conducive to the develop-
ment of the industry should also be repealed through market feedback, and a suitable legal
framework for the development of EV technology should be explored. Policymakers could
provide financial subsidies and attract private investment for emerging EV technologies
to promote their commercialization sooner. Policymakers could support the deployment
of 5G network infrastructure to create a unified data-sharing platform for R&D personnel,
producers, and other industry interests, which will significantly contribute to the develop-
ment of V2X and the autonomous driving industry. However, the promotion and practical
application of these emerging technologies still face some urgent problems, including:
1. High investment in basic hardware facilities;
2. Insufficient market to participate in the testing of emerging EV technologies;
3. Lack of open data for smart power distribution, V2G, V2H, and CVs;
4. Mismatched 5G networks for necessary high-speed data transfer;
5. Insufficient Big Data analysis ability.
6. Lack of policy and legal support in many markets to develop these emerging tech-
nologies, especially autonomous driving;
7. Lack of platforms to communicate, share, and display test results of new technologies.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.L. (Yang Luo); methodology, T.M. and Y.L. (Yang Luo);
validation, Y.L. (Yu Li), Y.W. and Y.L. (Yang Luo); formal analysis, Y.W.; investigation, Y.W. and Y.L.
(Yang Luo); resources, T.M.; data curation, T.M., Y.L. (Yu Li) and Y.L. (Yang Luo); writing—original
draft preparation, T.M. and Y.L. (Yang Luo); writing—review and editing, Y.W. and Y.L. (Yang Luo);
visualization, T.M. and Y.L. (Yang Luo); supervision, K.-t.L. and C.K.P.; project administration, T.M.,
K.-t.L. and C.K.P.; funding acquisition, T.M., Y.L. (Yu Li) and Y.L. (Yang Luo). All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The work was funded by the Innovation and Technology Fund (ITF) of the Government of
Hong Kong SAR (No. PRP/067/19AI).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available upon request from the
corresponding authors.
Acknowledgments: The authors thank Artur Braun and Thomas Graulefor at Empa (Swiss Federal
Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology) for their cooperation and support.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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energies

Citation: Mo, T.; Li, Y.; Lau, K.-t.;

Energies 2022, 15, 6271. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15176271 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 34

Figure 1. Structure and highlights of this review.

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 34

2.2. Benefits and Business Opportunities

2.3.3. Qualcomm Halo™

2.3.5. APAS and HKPC

2.4.2. Fast Wireless EV Charging

2.4.3. Future Challenges and Opportunities

3. Smart Power Distribution Technologies

3.2. Battery Integrated Charging Solutions

3.2. Battery Integrated Charging Solutions

3.3. Benefits and Business Opportunities

3.4. Technological Development

3.4.2. APAS and HKPC

3.5.2. Future Challenges and Opportunities

4. V2H and V2G

4.2. Benefits and Business Opportunities

4.3.2. The Netherlands

4.3.5. Hong Kong

4.4.1. Integration with Smart Electricity Grids

4.4.2. Integration with Retired EV Batteries

4.4.3. Future Challenges and Opportunities

Figure 7. Schematic diagram of CVs in a smart city [88].

5.2.2. Charging Management and Parking Reservations

5.2.3. Fleet Management for Commercial EVs

5.2.4. Predictive Maintenance

5.2.5. Driving Behavior Analysis

5.2.7. Traffic Control

5.3. Technological Developments

5.3.3. Mainland China

5.3.4. Hong Kong

• Developing technologies to deter inappropriate use of load/unload zones and illegal

5.4.1. Empowering Technology Development

• Vehicle information online management systems, assisted by annual inspection and

5.4.2. Data Analytics

5.4.3. Future Challenges and Opportunities

6.1.1. SAE Standards

6.1.2. Sensory Technology

6.1.3. Control Technology

6.1.4. Telematics Technology

6.2. Benefits and Business Opportunities

6.2.1. Two Innovations at the Same Time

6.2.2. Easier Implementation of Autonomous Features on EVs

6.2.3. Seamless Integration of Wireless Charging with Autonomy

6.2.4. Extension of Driving Range by Autonomy

6.2.5. Simultaneous Maturity

6.2.6. Simultaneous Mandate by Governments

6.3. Technological Developments in EVs

6.3.1. The U.S.

6.3.2. South Korea

6.3.4. Mainland China

6.3.5. Hong Kong

6.4.1. Immature Technology and Business Models

6.4.2. Regulation and Legislative Framework

6.4.3. Changes to Insurance

6.4.4. Investment in Infrastructure

6.4.5. Future Challenges and Opportunities

7. Conclusions and Outlooks

development cases of these emerging EV technologies were provided to demonstrate their

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